Identifying Local Constructs of Resilience Determined and Empowered Adolscent Girls and Young women

IDENTIFYING LOCAL CONSTRUCTS OF RESILIENCE, DETERMINED AND EMPOWERED ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND YOUNG WOMEN STUDY REPORT

This publication is made possible by the generous support of the American people through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). The contents are the responsibility of Sustainable Comprehensive Responses for Vulnerable Children and their Families (SCORE) project and do not necessarily reect the views of USAID or the United States Government.

TABLE OF CONTENT Acronyms and Term...................................................................................................................... 1 Abstract.................................................................................................................................. 1 I. Background......................................................................................................................... 2 a. Project target population and scope of the study..................................................... 2 II. Study Objectives.............................................................................................................. 3 III. Study Methodology........................................................................................................ 3 IV. Study process..................................................................................................................3 Phase I: Planning, review of literature ant ethical approval.....................................4 Phase II: Data collection, editing and analysis...............................................................6 Phase III: Data Management, Processing and analysis...............................................8 a. Data Analysis......................................................................................................................8 Limitation of the study............................................................................................................9 V. Study Outcomes..............................................................................................................9 Objective 1: To generate data that will be used to contextualize definitions of a “determined”, “resilient” and “empowered” (DRE) adolescent girls and young women............................................................................................................................................9 (i) Local Definition Determinations of Determined, Resilient ad Empowered adoloscent girls and Young Women.................................................................................9 (ii)Economin factors that define a Determined, Resilient and Empowered adoloscent girls and young women..................................................................................11 (iii) Personal factors that define a Determined, Resilient and Empowered adoloscents and young women..........................................................................................12 (iv) Social factors......................................................................................................................13 (v) Opinion leaders, Community Cultural, Religoius and Local leaders contextualized definition of determined, resilient and empowered adolescent girls and young women...................................................................................14 (vi) Risk Factors: Contextualized definitions for non-Determined, Resilient and Empowered Adolescent girls and Young Women.............................................16 Objective 2: Generate data using DRE Score card evaluate progess.........................19 Conclusion..............................................................................................................................21 References..............................................................................................................................22 Annex I: Definition................................................................................................................23 Annex II: Data collection tools..........................................................................................24

Acronyms and Terms AIDS - Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome AGYW - adolescent girl and young woman AVSI - a member of the AVSI Foundation: a global network with humanitarian and development programs in over 30 countries DRE - Determined, Resilient and Empowered HIV - Human Immuno-deficiency Virus KII - Key Informant Interviews PEPFAR - The U.S. President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief UNAIDS - The Joint Unite Nations Program on HIV and AIDS UNICEF - UNITED Nations Children’s Fund WHO - World Health Organization

ABSTRACT Young women 15–24 years old in sub-Saharan Africa are twice as likely as young men to be living with HIV. If young women and adolescent girls had the means to protect themselves, the picture of the epidemic in the region would look different. PEPFAR’s DREAMS Initiative in Uganda supports AVSI and other agencies to provide a core package of services to address the structural drivers that increase adolescent girls and young women’s HIV risk, including poverty, gender inequality, sexual violence, and a lack of education.

In October 2016 the AfriChild Center partnered with AVSI to better understand the day-to-day realities of adolescent girls and young women (AGYW). The research team employed free listing and key informant interviews to identify local constructs of determined, resilient and empowered (DRE) AGYW in Naama and Mpunge sub-counties, Mukono District.

Results suggest that a DRE AGYW seeks to acquire the knowledge and skills to become successful; can support herself and others by her own revenue; is ‘useful’ to society; and hence is valued and seen as successful. Local respondents stressed that a young woman should not be economically self-sufficient purely for her own personal gain, but is expected to support and invest in her family and those around her. Hence, DRE is conceived of as being for the collective versus the individual, and an empowered woman is integrated in society.

Disempowered AGYW were characterized as failing to stay in school or finding and holding a job. Respondents stressed that these shortcomings lead to dependency on men; a condition commonly used to describe a disempowered young woman. Obstacles to empowerment are seen as largely matters of personal character and behavior and negative influences of the “wrong” social group, rather than as the result of economic injustice or social inequality.

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I. BACKGROUND The face of HIV/AIDS today is young and female. Both girls and boys confront a number of gender-specific risk factors – many of which are embedded in the social relations and economic realities of their societies. Adolescent girls and young women’s (AGYW) vulnerability, however, is more severe and translates into significantly higher infection rates. In Eastern and Southern Africa, HIV prevalence among females aged 15 to 24 years is 4.8 percent, which is two and a half times higher than among males of the same age, and girls and young women now account for 71 percent of new HIV infections among adolescents in sub-Saharan Africa (UNICEF, 2015).

HIV prevalence in Uganda is also estimated to be almost twice as high for young females (4.2%) as for young males (2.4%) (WHO, 2013). Cultural values and gender norms contribute significantly to girls and young women’s vulnerability to HIV infection and to the spread of the disease (UN Aids, 2014). Gender discrimination means that AGYW must submit to an overall lower social status than men. For many AGYW, this reduces their power to act independently, become educated, avoid poverty, and/or escape reliance upon abusive men (UNICEF, 2016).

Increasingly, bilateral donors and foundations are supporting empowerment initiatives as an entry point for improving the situation for AGYW in low income countries. There is, however, considerable debate in international development literature about the extent to which female empowerment programs can ever be truly empowering (Eyben, Naila, & Andrea, 2008) ( Lutrell &, Sitna, 2009) (Pereznieto & Georgia, 2014). There are two main strands to this debate. First, there are concerns with what the term ‘empowerment’ means to different people and in different contexts: a universal prototype of an “empowered” girl or woman does not exist. Secondly, and relatedly, can ‘empowerment’ be achieved through top-down development programs and, if so, how is it most effectively targeted and over what duration of time?

Economic advancement is often seen as the linchpin to wider social and political empowerment of women as individuals and as a collective marginalized group (Sharma, 2008) (Pereznieto & Georgia, 2014). These programs argue that without economic resources, women’s ideas, aims, and aspirations cannot be realized. At the same time, research has found that money and material resources alone are insufficient; women also need awareness that they want to change their lives, and less tangible resources such as education, training, and mentoring from other women are important as well (UNAIDS, 2014). Unless empowerment interventions are able to foster women’s voice and agency, and redress the structural inequalities they face, then any advancement a woman makes may not result in a structural change in her life (Golla, Anju, Priya, & Rekha, 2001). a. Project target population and scope of the study For the past two years, AVSI has been working in the communities of Mukono supporting adolescent girls and young women to become determined, resilient and empowered in order to contribute to the reduction in the incidences of HIV and AIDS among adolescent girls. AVSI has been supporting adolescent girls and young women in the age bracket of 10 to 24 years in Ntenjeru, Naama and Mpunge sub-counties of Mukono district, empowering them to become “determined”, “resilient” and “empowered” so that they can be able to put up a spirited fight against HIV in their community. There is need to understand the local context definition of a “determined,” “resilient” and “empowered” (DRE) adolescent girl and young woman to create relevant impact for sustained epidemic control and to inform programming.

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II. STUDY OBJECTIVES PEPFAR supports AVSI and other organizations in Uganda to reduce HIV infections among adolescent girls and young women through its Determined, Resilient, Empowered, AIDSfree, Mentored, and Safe (DREAMS) women initiative. DREAMS seeks to provide a core package of services to address structural drivers that directly and indirectly increase AGYW’s HIV risk, including poverty, gender inequality, sexual violence, and a lack of education.

AVSI and the AfriChild Center for the Study of the African Child (AfriChild) partnered on a study to improve understanding of local constructs that define “determined, resilient and empowered” (DRE) adolescent girls and young women (AGYW).

The purpose of the study is to improve understanding of what DRE means within the day-to-day realities of AGYW in two of the sub counties where AVSI programs are implemented. The first objective was to clarify what “DRE” means in these Luganda (local language) speaking communities. The second objective was to use these local definitions to engage female adolescents, young women and parents of adolescent girls in identifying criteria that characterizes DRE AGYW in these local contexts. The final objective was to translate these findings into a contextualized DRE “scorecard” to gauge the progress of AGYW as they move through different components of AVSI’s program.

This paper reports on the first two objectives.

III. STUDY METHODOLOGY Data gathering methods used include key informant interviews with community, cultural and religious leaders and systematic data collection for adolescent and young women and male and female caregivers of adolescents and young women using the free listing methodology.

The free-listing methodology using a brief semi-structured interview was used to assess how local communities define a determined, resilient and empowered adolescent and young woman.

The free-listing methodology involving using a brief semi-structured interview, framed around a series of questions, to systematically collect information on the primary research question at hand. The questions were be brief, non-leading and stated in the simplest way possible: • What does it mean to be a determined girl?

• What does it mean to be a resilient girl?

• What does it mean to be an empowered young woman?

IV. STUDY PROCESS Sample and Recruitment The study was undertaken in the following two sub-counties of Mukono District, where AVSI programs exist: • Naama sub-county is a peri-urban area with a relatively young population whose economic activities include motor-cycle/bicycle riding (boda-boda), subsistence farming, petty trade, stone quarrying, poultry, gambling, sports betting, housekeeping and bricklaying.

• Mpunge sub-county is a predominantly rural area, characterized by subsistence agriculture, petty trade, fishing and fish mongering activities. Large family size has resulted in the division of farm land and low productivity per unit acre. Three fishing communities exist in Nakisunga parish.

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Two villages in each sub-district were selected based on the desire to include study sites with differing histories and varied socio-economic circumstances. Final community selection was done in consultation with AVSI colleagues.

Purposive sampling was used to select interviewees within these communities. This approach selects “the most productive sample to answer the research question” and also seeks to optimize data quality through careful consideration of the contextual specificities of each study site (Marshall, 1996). The research team in each study site consulted with community leaders to identify participants suitable for participation in the study. Eligible female adolescent respondents were between 13-17 years old, and eligible young women respondents were between 18-24 years old. Adolescent and young women respondents were selected from separate households. All AGYW respondents were beneficiaries of AVSI’s programs and male and female adults over 24 years of age who were raising female adolescents. Key informants were comprised of opinion, cultural, local council and religious leaders. AVSI Program mentors and local council leaders in each community were responsible for guiding the research team to the three sets of respondents.

Free listing method, was used for preliminary exploration of the “domain” (a list of words or concepts in a culture which belong together). A systematic data collection method where respondents were asked to list all the different characteristics of a determined, resilient and empowered adolescent and young woman was used to delineate relevant domains and generate understanding of community definitions of a determined, resilient and empowered adolescent and young woman. Respondents were then requested to choose one most important characteristic which the research assistants wrote down.

Respondents were requested by Research Assistants to think of a real female, someone that they know, rather than respond about a ‘generalized female’, based on their experience with many people. The assumption was that “real” examples tend to be more specific and reflect actual behaviors or attributes rather than what someone “should” act like. Asking the interviewee to think of someone other than themselves also avoids problem of self-disclosure.

Phase I: Planning, review of literature and ethical approval I. The first phase of the assignment involved desk review of the working documents

namely; project document, progressive reports and annual reports that was generated prior and during the project implementation.

II. During this phase, meetings were held with AVSI staff, who provided a general overview

on the related project activities, activity implementation, outlining the achievements, challenges and lessons in relation to the set targets in the project document. The purpose of the meeting was to enable the consultant to get a deeper understanding of the assignment, secure all relevant documents and to review in details the ToR, the objectives of the assignment and the key outputs expected.

III. The Africhild Centre study team reviewed the project documents to generate

background information on the project, the implementation framework and the progress made towards achieving the targets. The information generated from the review also guided the process of preparing the data collection instruments.

IV.Training of Research Assistants

Prior to undertaking the interviews, the research team had to undergo a refresher course on the free listing methodology. Two-day field pre-testing of data collection tools was carried out in Ntenjeru subcounty to ensure that the interviewers sufficiently understand the methods, approach and its directions.

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GENERATING DEFINITIONS Definitions of “DRE ” as they apply to AGYW differ between cultures and languages (Golla, et al., 2011). The first task, therefore, was to understand what DRE means for AGYW and other members of Luganda speaking communities. Definitional clarification began with discussions among members of the Luganda speaking research team on various ideas and connotations around the three terms: determined, resilient and empowered. They concluded that “determined and resilient” are commonly used among Luganda speaking people; however, “empowerment” as a term does not exist in the Luganda language.

Moreover, they saw the inclusion of rights language in the Oxford Dictionary English definition of empowerment as potentially divisive and recommended it be excluded from the study.

The following definitions and descriptions resulted from this exercise: TABLE ONE

English

Luganda

Luganda to English

Determined

Having made a firm decision and being resolved to not change it

Okubeera omuvumu era omumalirivu mu kuwangula ebizibu

Being persistent and focused on your life

Able to withstand or recover quickly from difficult circumstances

Okubeera n’endowooza ey’okugenda mu maaso n’ekyo ky’oyagala

Able to overcome life’s challenges without letting go. Firm and steadfast.

Resilient

okukola era nga tewali muntu n’omu ayinza kulemesa oba ekintu kyonna ekiyinza okukulemesa okutuuka ku ky’oyagala

Empowered

Alina obusobozi Process of becoming stronger and more nobumanyi okusobola confident, especially okweyimirizaaawo mu mbeera eza bulijjo. in control one’s life and claiming one’s rights.

Having the resources, skills and knowledge to ensure social and economic wellbeing

Table 1: Generated definitions of DRE The research team suggested combining “determined and resilient” into a single question and using “empowered” as a distinct second question. During pilot phases, however, distinctions between determined, resilient and empowered became less clear. Young women generally indicated in their responses that an adolescent girl could not become an empowered woman unless she was determined and resilient. Adolescent girls also found it confusing to separate the three terms during the free listing exercises and provided redundant responses. Piloting resulted in a decision to combine all three terms and their definitions into a single DRE question.

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Ethical Considerations The research was approved by an accredited Uganda Institutional Review Board, MildMay Uganda Research Ethics Committee (MUREC) and subsequently by Uganda National Council for Science and Technology (UNSCT). Informed consent and child assent, were sought from the respondents prior to engaging them in an interview; as well as Mukono district leadership prior to commencement of the study. Respondents’ participation in the study was voluntary and only those who gave informed verbal consent were interviewed or involved in the discussions. The objectives and benefits of the study were clearly explained to the participants before seeking their consent. The respondents were assured of confidentiality. Study participants were informed that participation in the study was voluntary; and should not therefore expect other benefits for participating in the study.

Study related information was collected on a voluntary basis and no compensation or inducement was given to the study participants. Confidentiality of information given by the study respondents was enforced by not referencing their names without their consent.

Phase II: Data collection, editing and analysis This phase involved actual field visits to Mukono, Naama and Mpunge sub-counties to collect data. Qualitative data presented in this report was collected from the following sub-counties in Mukono district.

A team of Research Assistants, fluent in the local language and a team leader conducted data collection in each sub-county. The Ugandan research team participated in an indepth three-day training workshop focused on interviewing techniques and methods to record responses verbatim, skills for quality data collection, including human subjects’ research ethics and note-taking skills. These trainings were followed by field-testing opportunities to ensure that the questions were understood by people in the way that the exercises intended. A refresher workshop was held the day before commencing the research.

Study team setting off for fieldwork

Research assistant adolescent girl

interviewing

an

Free Listing Interviews The research team employed free-listing interviews to identify local constructs of DRE AGYW. Free-listing is a brief ethnographic interview technique, which has been used for rapid and systematic gathering of local perspectives on a specific topic; the methodology has been previously utilized in a range of low-income settings globally (Boothby et 6 | Page

al., 2006), including Haiti (Bolton, Surkan, Gray, & Desmousseaux, 2012), (Betancourt, Speelman, Onyango, & Bolton, 2009), Tanzania (Dorsey et al., 2015), Uganda (CPC Learning Network, 2010), Northern Iraq (Bolton, Michalopoulos, Ahmed, Murray, & Bass, 2013), Georgia (Murray et al., 2012) and amongst refugees from Burma living in Thailand (Meyer, Murray, Puffer, Larsen, & Bolton, 2013). The technique involved a brief semistructured interview, framed around a question, to systematically collect information on what it means to be a DRE female adolescent or young woman. The following questions were asked:

“

Think of an adolescent girl whom you know: someone who is determined, resilient and empowered. By this we mean someone who is persistent; able to overcome life’s challenges without losing site of her goals; someone who has the skills, knowledge and resources to ensure social and economic wellbeing.

Don’t tell me who this person is or her name. It does not have to be the most determined or resilient or empowered girl you know: just someone who has these qualities. I am going to ask some questions about what this adolescent girl is like, and what sort of things she does. Remember it must be someone you know—but do not tell me her name. In what ways is this adolescent girl determined or resilient or empowered?

This question was then repeated asking AGYW to focus on females they know who are not seen as DRE. Respondents were asked to list up to five characteristics for each category. The respondents were then asked to choose the most important quality and explain why this characteristic ranked the highest.

All free-listing instruments were pilot tested with a minimum of five respondents. After each piloting session, researchers and data collectors would discuss the findings and refine the instruments. Considerations informing instrument refinements included the length of interview and respondents’ comprehension of questions. The interviews were conducted in Luganda and translated into English.

Key Informant Interviews A small number of key informant interviews were conducted to explore more generally what it means to be a DRE AGYW. Included were opinion, cultural, local council and religious leaders. The same research teams conducted free listing and key informant interviews. Key informant data collection techniques were covered in the three-day indepth workshops described above.

The table below provides a summary of free listing interviews and key informant interviews in the two study sub-counties: Table 2: Summary of FREE LISTENING INTERVIEWS and KIIs SUB-COUNTRY

Adoloscent girls [14-17]

Young Parents of Parents of Key Informants women[18-24] adolescent girls Young women

Naama

8

55

8

5

11

87

Mpuge

29

40

13

N/A

7

89

Sub Total

37

95

21

5

18

176

There were 158 Free Listing interviews and 18 KIIs done 7 | Page

TOT

Phase III: Data Management, Processing and analysis To ensure quality of data, data collection tools approved by MUREC were pre-tested and the data collection team was trained prior to commencement of field work. Data processing and analysis was carried out with the aim of reducing raw data into manageable proportions and summarizing it in a form that brought out salient features. The key questions for the study were qualitatively investigated thus the results are presented in narrative form. a.Data Analysis The process of analyzing qualitative data followed transcription of information audio recorded during free listing and key informant interviews; considering the words of the participants, the context of the words, consistency and the frequency of comments in response to the question paused by the interviewer. The notes were read thoroughly and coded manually to classify them into meaningful categories so as to bring out their essential patterns and main themes for the evaluation. Hand-written notes from free listing and key informant interviews were typed into a word processing program, Microsoft Word, taking special consideration of the words of participants, the context of the words, consistency, and frequency of comments, the extensiveness of comments and the specificity of comments.

Individual responses were recorded in Luganda and translated into English by members of the national research team. Two Columbia University graduate students conducted data analysis, following the steps of Inductive Thematic Analysis (Guest, 2011). After reading through 10% of transcripts, a codebook was developed, tested, compared and refined through an iterative process. All transcripts were coded in NVivo-10 and classified into the following broad categories: action, personal, and social. A conceptual framework was developed to understand how community members describe DRE and non DRE AGYW. Table 3: Transcripts Analyzed Category of respondents

Number of respondents

Adolescent girl

35

Young Women

84

Opinion, cultural, local council and religious leaders

17

Total

136

As outlined in Table 3, a total of 136 transcripts were analyzed from interviews with adolescent girls, young women, and key informants. Adolescent girls and young women interviews were similar in that the interviewer asked for five key characteristics of an adolescent girl or a young woman whom the respondent knew to exhibit DRE and then to identify or rank which characteristic was most important. A total of 711 DRE criteria responses were recoded through free listing exercises [on AGYW]. Key informants, in turn, were asked more generally about their community views on DRE and non DRE AGYW. All transcripts were coded using the same codebook. Code frequencies across all transcripts were noted. Queries for “most important� characteristics were run on adolescent girl and young women transcripts both together and separately for comparative purposes.

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Limitations of the study a. Language barrier among adolescents and young women, especially in the fishing community, that either spoke Luganda or English. To overcome this, some respondents were interviewed in the languages that they spoke, if such language could be spoken by any of the interviewers, such as Atesot. b. Some of the respondents had expectations from the project which included handouts and material support, which were not being provided by AVSI. This influenced their responses. However, during the consent seeking process, respondents were informed that no tangible benefits were to be provided.

VI. STUDY OUTCOMES As a result of the analysis, literature review, discussions, interviews, with various stakeholders AfriChild Centre study team summarizes the findings under each objective.

Objective 1: To generate data that will be used to contextualize definitions of a “determined,” “resilient” and “empowered” (DRE) adolescent girls and young women. (i) Local Definition Determinations of Determined, Resilient and Empowered adolescent girls and Young Women Respondents conceptualized the definition of a determined, resilient and empowered adolescent girl and young woman. Codes were generated from the definitions.

Table 3 outlines the codes that were used to conceptualize the definition of DRE AGYW with the number of times they were used across all transcripts.

Table 4: DRE Characteristic Frequencies # times coded

Code

Description

Motivated

Goal oriented and motivated to seek out skills 238

Economic Provider

Economic provider for family

164

Entrepreneur

Entrepreneurship

161

Self-reliance

Displays self-relience from men

139

Promotes Community Provides others with advice and help, such as small 131 loans and encourages people to succeed Able to overcome challanges and find solutions to problems

116

Well-behaved

Well-behaved and patient

114

Morality

Morals drive decisions and actions

72

Obedient

Obedient to parents or husband

61

Good mother

Is a caring mother, prioritize her children’s helath and wellbeing

58

Educated

Stays in school and values education

57

Digs

Does anything to make money when necessary, such as 51 taking up agricultural work

Listens

Seeks out advice

Overcome Adversity

49

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Code

Description

# times coded

Religious

Religious, god-fearing

35

Self-efficacy

Self-efficacy, believes in her ability to meet goals 84

Spending

Save money and spends money wisley

17

Good priorities

Prioritizes appropriately and does not fuss over small things Has the courage to stand up to others and to take smart business risks

136

Courage Appearance

Study responses were also ranked according to what the respondents identified as the characteristics of a determined, resilient and empowered adolescent girls and young women. From the table below; the adolescent girls who is determined, resilient and empowered is characterized by being obedient, an entrepreneur, motivated, well – behaved; while the young women is characterized by being an economic provider, motivated, entrepreneur. Overall, in Mukono, a determined, resilient and empowered adolescent was defined as one who is an economic provider, motivated, an entrepreneur, one who promotes the community, self-reliant and able to overcome adversity.

Table 5: Outlines the highest ranked characteristics for an adolescent girl, young woman, and overall aggregate AG R a n k e d F ro m M o s t YW Ranked From Most Cited to Least Cited to Least 1. Obedient 1. Economic Provider

Overall Ranked From Most Cited to Least 1. Economic Provider

2. Entrepreneur 2. Motivated 3. Well-behaved

2. Motivated 3. Entrepreneur 4.

Promotes Community

2. Motivated 3. Entrepreneur 4.

Promotes Community

3. Economic Provider 3. Self-reliant 3. Educated 3. Religious 4. Listens 4. Spending 4. Overcome Adversity 4. Promotes Community 5. Good mother 5. Self-efficacy 5. Courage 5. Morality 6. Good Priorities

5. Good mother 6. Well-behaved

5. Self-reliant 6. Overcome Adversity 7. Religious 8. Obedient 9. Morality 10. Spending 11. Self-efficacy 11. Listens 12. Well-behaved 12. Educated 13. Courage 13. Good priorities 14. Good mother 14. Digs 14. Publically Active

6. Self-reliant 7. Overcome adversity 8. Morality 9. Self-efficacy 9. Spending 10. Listens 10. Religious 11. Educated 12. Courage 12. Digs 12. Good Priorities 12. Obedient 12. Publically Active

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(ii) Economic factors that define a Determined, Resilient and Empowered adolescent girls and young women Entrepreneurship as a protective factor A drive to develop useful skills, an entrepreneurial spirit, and the ability to provide for one’s family economically were the main descriptors for a DRE AGYW. A DRE adolescent girl earns money to offset the cost of their education or to more generally to contribute household income; young women who sought out business opportunities or were innovative in finding ways to make money were also seen as DRE. DRE AGYW are willing to take any opportunity (including “digging”- engaging in subsistence agricultural) to make money except for opportunities deemed immoral or indecent. In this sense, providing economically is a component of empowerment if the work itself was deemed to be socially acceptable.

Sometimes I ask her how she handles everything, going to dig then later go to work because she sometimes cooks food by the roadside. Then she tells me that she likes what she is doing because she wants to get money so that she can go to the aunt’s home but she doesn’t want to get the money through the wrong channels.

She wants to work hard and get money to go to the aunt’s home because she is tired of where she is staying. So she is working as hard as possible so that she goes to the aunt’s place (YW 58) The concept of “digging” frequently emerged as a descriptor, and was a sub-code under “motivated.” When no other opportunity for moneymaking is available, an AGYW is deemed to be DRE if she goes and ‘digs,’ meaning carries out agricultural work, in the absence of more lucrative income generation activities. A key informant described how a DRE adolescent girl is not too proud for any job: Being able to work and not looking down on jobs. If she can do any job, she can manage any situation. In fact is a girl I see, she is not in a good situation but she is vigilant to seek out any opportunity (KII 02) One respondent recalled a DRE young woman whom she knew as a 19 year old mother who is the sole economic provider for her family. She works on a farm and also in a restaurant and was described as positive and grateful for the opportunities she has: You can see her working so hard and if you ask her why she is not resting she says that she doesn’t get tired because she loves what she is doing. Because she is working hard so that she can get money to leave the village. But even if you ask her why she is over working she tells you that it’s because she loves what she is doing and that she doesn’t get tired (YW, 58) Adolescent girls and young women classified DRE adolescent girls and young women as those who met the Economic abilities of : • Thinking beyond immediate daily survival need; possess the skills and knowledge to exercise greater control over both financial resources and life choices.

• Generates income • Identify economic opportunities • Set up and run new business • Protect assets from harm

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(iii) Personal factors that define a Determined, Resilient and Empowered adolescents and young women a. Self –reliance Self-reliance was an often cited personal characteristic of DRE AGYW. If a young woman can take care of herself and is not economically dependent on a man, she was deemed DRE: She doesn’t wait for the man to provide for her a cream/Vaseline. She does everything possible to get the cream for herself (YW 78) Self-reliance was often associated with overcoming adversity. Many of the free listing narratives involved personal histories of abuse, neglect and poverty. Having the courage and determination to reach personal goals despite adversities are seen as core DRE characteristics: She tested positive for HIV and she made sure she began taking her drugs early enough so she stays longer. She hasn’t been reluctant as some people are likely to give up. She dedicated herself to work so that she sustains herself and carry on where others cannot (YW 50) Problematic and abusive relationships were often cited by AGYW respondents as real life adversities faced by young women. DRE criteria are ambiguous in such cases. Young women were described as DRE when they left an abusive relationship if they were able to financially support their children on their own. Yet young women were also described A young girl saying that she will never go back at home and she doesn’t go back, she then gets a job and her own capital that shows that she is resilient and she has a bright mind yet she is still young (YW 53) R: Yes. She left home when the situation was so bad. The people at home started looking for her.

I: Where did she go when she left home?

R: Mukono.

I: What was she doing in Mukono?

R: Madam don’t you know that situation when you are being chased away from home? You just go anywhere. That is how she went to Mukono.

I: Does that show that she is determined?

R: She moved away and they looked for her. A person who lacks determination will fear to remove her bag from the house. (YW 90) Some girls get married young and as community people it is easy for us to know that the person man that married her is not an easy one (‘he is jumpy jumpy’ – amalala manji). Despite our expectation that she will not stay long in that marriage, as it turns out, she stays much longer because she believes in the man as her husband and companion. You can find another girl; even when she is abused by the man, she will choose to stay because the man has a piece of land where she can grow some food for sale so that she gets capital to start her own business. Such a girl is determined; she can stay with a ‘difficult’ man and chose to focus on her goals (KK I5)

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Study respondents classified DRE adolescent girls and young women as those who met the personality characteristics of : • Set and work towards goals • Acquire new skills • Exert control over sexual and reproductive health issues • Challenging harmful and discriminatory practices (iv) Social factors Morality, sometimes described in terms of God-fearing and religious dedication, also characterized how DRE AGYW overcome adversity; it was important that AGYW work their way out of poverty through prayer and “honest” labor rather than through transactional sex, stealing, or begging Family level For adolescents, the willingness to seek the advice of their parents in reaching good decisions about life choices was cited as a DRE characteristic, while advice seeking for young women was usually not associated with self-reliance or empowerment.

A DRE AGYW cares greatly for her family, friends, community and church. For mothers, providing their children with adequate food, medical care and schooling was deemed to be more important than income generation per se. In addition to financially supporting her immediate family, a DRE young woman was described as one who provides friends and community members with advice, loans and other assistance when needed: She cares a lot about other people. If you tell her that you have a problem she can help you as much as she might be having little money, she explains to you and will ask, “Will this help you?” Then you say it will help me then you go and use it to solve your problem (YW 61) In summary, a DRE AGYW is someone who continually seeks to acquire the knowledge and skills to become successful; can support herself and others by her own revenue; is ‘useful’ to society; and hence is valued and seen as successful. Most AGYW respondents stressed that a young woman should not be economically self-sufficient purely for her own personal gain, but is expected to support and invest in her family and those around her. Hence, DRE is conceived of as being for the collective versus the individual, and an empowered woman is integrated in society. Some, but not all, AGYW respondents also stressed the importance of a young woman conforming to society’s expectations of being polite, respectful and submissive. From the social perspective, DRE adolescent and girls were defined as those who have: • • • • • •

Strong health social networks, Are aware of services in the community, Have close friends Participate in social groups, community causes and activities Exercise leadership Exercise control over relationships

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(v) Opinion leaders, Community Cultural, Religious and Local leaders contextualized definition of determined, resilient and empowered adolescent girls and young women.

The opinion leaders, cultural and religious leaders as well as local council leaders’ views were also sought on the contextual definition of who a determined, resilient and empowered adolescent girl and young woman is. a. Economic factors that define a DRE from the community leadership perspective: The local leaders identified determination and commitment to a goal as key characteristics of an empowered AGYW: Just like I have told you; those that are still in school, they are committed to studying and equally those that are working are engaged in income generating activities or are working in companies/factories even when the working conditions are not good (working at night, walks long distance to work ) and works in a place predominantly for men. There is no other show of determination other than that. Even those that are married are committed to their marriages (KII 11) Conversely, the lack of interest in developing skills that would provide for economic opportunity and a self-reliant lifestyle is evidence that an AGYW is not determined or empowered: She is a girl you refer to a program to learn skills but does not go back after the first day. They do not want to learn. If she is going to school, she goes without interest; as if she has been forced to go there. Those are the girls you find with other clothes in their school bag. They are truant and usually get problems. While the parent knows that she has gone to school, she takes another route and goes her other ways, either to a disco where she could get an accident. Such girls do not listen to their parents (KII 12) The community local, cultural and religious leaders acknowledged poverty as the central challenge in the lives of AGYW. Nonetheless, AGYW who are not able to navigate economic adversities in socially and morally acceptable ways were seen as lacking determination and as being disempowered. “Careless behavior� and transactional sex were uniformly described as significant problems in their communities. A majority of key informants linked these problems to a failure to heed parental advice and to persevere in school: She does not listen to anyone; she does what she pleases without thinking about the dangers and risks involved in her actions and surroundings (KII 17) She cannot discern the risks involved in her actions and the situations she finds herself in e.g. if I do not do well at school, I will miss out on something. If I move at night I expose myself to certain risks; if I engage in relationships with men, I could get infections or get pregnant. She does not understand such things and she does not care (KII 17) She goes with anybody who needs company. They are like hyenas. You see, a hyena failed to steal meat because it was confused by many roads. While at the junction, it smelt meat from every direction and therefore failed to choose which direction to go to get to the fattiest meat until the day broke. There are girls with that character; they do not decide and thus are not empowered and cannot be selfreliant (KII 15) 14 | Page

In many respects, the responses of the key informants reflect the responses of the young women and adolescent girls. Conversations with local community cultural and religious leaders were unique, in that they emphasized lack of opportunity to develop meaningful skills as contributing to AGYW’s disempowerment, whereas adolescent girls and young women respondents attributed disempowerment to individual character. Like AGYW respondents, the local community cultural and religious leaders also expected AGYW to navigate difficult economic terrain in socially acceptable ways. b. Social factors from the leaders’ perspective that define DRE Community and opinion leaders emphasized linkages between “good behavior,” social cohesion and economic benefits. Well-behaved girls have strong social networks that guide them through difficult times. Well-behaved girls were also perceived as better entrepreneurs and business managers: An empowered girl should have discipline, should be likeable .When she has a business; people will want to buy from her because she respects people and has discipline. Even in marriage if she has no discipline and respect it will fail.

So character is very important. Secondly, the way she handles situations and people is very important. Because, if she is the “I don’t care” type, she will not manage. For instance, if in marriage, how she handles news that her husband has got another woman; if in business, the knowledge that someone has started the same business idea as hers – skills to handle difficult situations as those are very important. So girls who cope negatively with for instance another person starting the same business idea as hers spend their money and time in witchcraft and in the end fail their businesses instead of seeking to improve their products and services (KII 15) The definitions suggest that a DRE young woman is able to support herself and others by her own revenue, is ‘useful’ to society and hence is valued and seen by community members as successful. An empowered young woman should not be economically selfsufficient purely for her own personal gain, but is expected to support and invest in her family and those around her. Hence, economic empowerment as a construct has both individual and collective components. A third of the responses also linked DRE criteria to societal expectations of young women’s behavior (being polite, respectful and submissive).

A DRE adolescent girl is in school; prioritizes her studies over “having fun;” and works in order to pay her school fees or contribute more generally to the household’s income.

Adolescent girls overcome adversities through their own efforts--by finishing their studies, earning and saving money—as well as by listening to their parents and heeding their advice. They have a strong character, are well behaved, and possess attributes such as discipline, determination, courage, faith, and being ‘serious’. A DRE adolescent girl is not involved with males, actively avoids pregnancy before marriage, and protects her reputation. The obstacles to becoming empowered are seen as largely matters of personal character and behavior and the bad influences of her social group, rather than social or economic challenges in her wider environment.

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(vi) Risk Factors: Contextualized definitions for non- Determined, Resilient and Empowered Adolescent girls and Young Women Conversely, the community contextualized the definition of non- Determined, Resilient and Empowered adolescent girls and young women to include those who are lazy, irresponsible, unmotivated, socially inept among others. Table 5 below outlines the codes that were used to organize respondents’ characterizations of AGYW they knew did not exhibit signs of being DRE; and the number of times they were used across all transcripts.

Table 6: Non DRE Frequencies Code

Description

# times coded

Lazy

Too lazy to go to work or school

188

Irresponsible

Goes to the disco, stays out late, drinks and chooses to have fun over working or school Not motivated to develop skills that will make her more marketable

137

Socially inept

Impolite and rude

94

Men

Involves herself with men

93

Doesn’t listen

Does not seek out advice or doesn’t listen to the advice she is given Generates income through prostitution, begging, or stealing

80

Disobedient

Morals drive decisions and actions

68

Dependent

Dependent financially on parents or husband

66

Temperament

Hot-tempered

55

Bad mother

Bad mother, not wanting children, or had an abortion

53

No taking action

Not taking action to fix a bad situation

43

Failed

Failed to hold a job or did not succeed in school

42

Fear

Is fearful of getting a job or finding solutions

34

Appearance

Dresses indecently or doesn’t wash

27

Money-minded

Only cares about money

20

Gossip

Spreads gossip about people

17

Not religious

Not religious

13

Unmotivated

Dishonest Income

131

73

Among the adolescent girls, non-determined, resilient and empowered adolescents were those who were irresponsible, Lazy, unmotivated, dishonest with income among others, while among the young women, non -determined, resilient and empowered young women were defined as those who were Lazy, irresponsible, unmotivated, bad mother and dishonest with income. Overall most of the respondents defined the non-determined adolescent girls and young women as those who were lazy, irresponsible, unmotivated, dishonest with income, disobedient and those who do not listen. Table 6 outlines the highest ranked characteristics of non-DRE by adolescent girls, young women, and overall.

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Table 6: Non DRE Rakings

Table 6: Non DRE Rankings AG Ranked From Most YW Cited to Least 1. Irresponsible 2. Lazy 3. Unmotivated 4. Dishonest Income 4. Doesn’t Listen 4. Disobedient 5. Fear 5. Men 6. Failed 7. Not religious 7. Temperament 7. Dependence 7. Socially inept 8. Money-minded

Ranked From Most Cited to Least 1. Lazy 2. Irresponsible 2. Unmotivated 3. Bad Mother 3. Dishonest Income 4. Disobedient 4. Doesn’t Listen 5. Doesn’t take action 5. Socially Inept 6. Failed 6. Fear 6. Men 7. Money Minded 7. Temperament 8. Poor Appearance

Overall Ranked From Most Cited to Least 1. Lazy 2. Irresponsible 3. Unmotivated 4. Dishonest Income 5. Disobedient 5. Doesn’t listen 6. Bad Mother 7. Socially Inept 8. Fear 8. Men 9. Not taking action 9. Failed 9. Dependence 10. Temperament 11. Money Minded 12. Not religious 13. Appearance

The description of ‘lazy’ was overwhelmingly used to characterize non-DRE AGYW. Laziness was primarily described as lethargy (not leaving home) and apathy (towards people and work).

The first one is that she is lazy, she can’t do anything and she wants everything to be done for her. When all colleagues get hoes and go to dig, she stays in bed sleeping. (YW 57) The lack of motivation or inability to set personal goals or develop skills was associated with “laziness” and these two descriptors were usually coded side by side. Respondents rarely included social or psychological explanations of an unmotivated AGYW. None of the respondents cited an abusive family, for example, or depression as factors affecting motivation or behavior. Rather the adolescent girl or young woman was described as too lazy to develop skills or make goals or take advantage of opportunities: She comes late for training and this shows that she lacks interest in what she is doing. It also shows that she is forced to come for learning. She comes at any time she wishes to come (AG 21) She has no plan (AG 21) Girls who cannot decide about what they want in life is a sign that they are not empowered. One should have a dream because among other things, they can prioritize actions to achieve their dreams. However, there are many girls who do not have goals so they go with the flow (KII 15) Being “irresponsible” was cited as another defining characteristic on non DRE AGYW. Going to the disco, being in the company of boys or men, and spending money on nonessential items were described as inappropriate and irresponsible activities: First of all she doesn’t save and when she gets a problem she comes to us who have saved asking to be lent money and when you give her she will not be able to pay it back, life becomes hard for such a person. Everyone knows that she doesn’t save; when she gets her money she goes clubbing and consumes all the money.

When you are involved with the wrong people then you can’t even save for anything, even when you start a business you just think of the booze or where you will go for clubbing and playing card and therefore ignoring the business hence the business collapses. (AG 3) 17 | Page

Involvement with boys and men was often associated with transactional sex. However, in other instances, simply being seen with men or liking men was sufficient to define AGYW as irresponsible: She is 19 years old. She falls in love relationships with any man with the intention of getting money. She does not mind about the health status of men as long as she gets money. (YW 64) They tell her to do chores or to do some digging, she doesn’t want to; she spends much of her time with boys (AG 36) She loves money and she can do anything to get it. She doesn’t do any work but she gets it from men (YW 56) Non-DRE adolescent were described as failing at school and unable or unwilling to find and hold a job. Respondents stressed that these shortcomings lead to dependency on men; and, male dependency was commonly associated with a disempowered young woman: Her husband is a casual laborer in the forest but he leaves her with the child in a rented house. The husband goes to look for money and at times things don’t work out well but when there is no soap, salt at home this woman will wait for the husband to provide everything. She does not even attend vocational skills trainings. But if she was determined she would have gone to find out what is being taught there so that she can come back and do some work to get money to buy salt and soap without waiting for the husband. That does not show that someone is determined (YW 71) A number of personality characteristics were identified as non DRE characteristics. These include a “hot temper,” fear of taking risks for personal development, and not heeding the advice of parents or elders. One respondent provided an example of a “hot tempered” young woman who was verbally abusive while refusing to help a neighborhood: This person is abusive. Does not help, does not respect people. This person when you approach her for anything like requesting for financial assistance will just shout at you or will just throw insults at you. She will ask you if you kept the money with her. (YW 14) Adolescent girls who lack social graces and do not exhibit respect for other community members were described as disempowered—interestingly because they do not have the social capital to help them overcome adversity. One respondent described a disempowered adolescent girl as one who refused to help her community members: R: She is bad mannered.

I: How? R: If one asks her to help with anything she refuses and tells you that “buli omu amaanyi ga nyina” (everyone has got strength from their mothers).

I: Does that mean she has refused?

R: Yes, the moment she says that you just know that she will not help you. (AG 2) Finally, the inability to properly take care of her children placed young women on the non DRE side of the ledger. Moreover, women who did not want children or chose to have abortion were seen as disempowered: So she decided to carry out an abortion because she did not know the biological father of the baby. The friends had deserted her and people at home did not like her anymore. Following an abortion she went on with love relationships with boys and going to disco halls. She did not think about the mistakes she made in the past and became pregnant, she did not think of going back to school or apologizing to the parents and look for any other job but she went on with her loose behaviors.

Did not bother looking for a job because she knew so and so would provide for her.

(YW 77) 18 | Page

In contrast, becoming pregnant out of wedlock or without the support of the father and then having the baby was seen as overcoming adversity and often as a sign of a DRE AGYW.

Objective II: Generate data using DRE Score card to evaluate progress From the DRE scores, adolescent girls and young women tend to get categorized into one of two binary positions: as ‘good girls’ or ‘bad girls’. According to predominant social norms, DRE AYGW are polite, respectful, ‘serious’ and submissive to family and community members. They dress appropriately (conservatively) and spend their time productively, being ‘useful’, in study, working (‘decent’ work) and praying. DRE adolescent girls heed their parents’ advice, refrain from spending time with peers who might be a “bad influence,” do not see boys, and do not engage in pre-marital sex. Later, ‘good girls’ are expected to marry well, be good wives and mothers, and also support their families economically and contribute to their communities.

DRE SCORE CARD FOR CONTEXTUALIZDED DEFINITIONS OF DETERMINED, RESILIENT AND EMPOWERED ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND YOUNG WOMEN Table 7: Non DRE Rakings AG Ranked From Most YW R a n k e d F ro m M o s t Cited to Least Cited to Least 1. Obedient 1. Economic Provider 2. Entrepreneur 2. Motivated 3. Well-behaved 3. Economic Provider 3. Self-reliant 3. Educated 3. Religious 4. Listens 4. Spending 4.

Overcome Adversity 4.

Promotes Community 5. Good mother 5. Self-efficacy 5. Courage 5. Morality 6. Good Priorities

2. Motivated 3. Entrepreneur 4. Promotes Community 5. Good mother 6. Well-behaved

Overall Ranked From Most Cited to Least 1. Economic Provider

6. Self-reliant 7. Overcome adversity 8. Morality 9. Self-efficacy

2. Motivated 3. Entrepreneur 4. Promotes Community 5. Self-reliant 6. Overcome Adversity 7. Religious 8. Obedient 9. Morality 10. Spending 11. Self-efficacy

9. Spending

11. Listens

10. Listens 10. Religious 11. Educated 12. Courage 12. Digs 12. Good Priorities 12. Obedient 12. Publically Active

12. Well-behaved 12. Educated 13. Courage 13. Good priorities 14. Good mother 14. Digs 14. Publically Active

If an adolescent girl fails to live up to these expectations, she can very quickly get a reputation as a ‘bad girl’. This might simply be because she dresses in tight clothes, is seen with a boy or speaks her mind. ‘Bad girls’ are frequently categorized as impolite, disrespectful and promiscuous. It is assumed – whether true or not – that a “bad” girl is having sexual relationships with several men, is using this to earn money, that she spends her time unproductively, and is ‘useless’. If a girl then has a child or is known to have had an abortion her reputation as a ‘bad girl’ is cemented and she suffers stigma and exclusion from a number of social groups.

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SCORE CARD FOR NON-DETERMINED, RESILIENT AND EMPOWERED ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND YOUNG WOMEN. Code

Description

# times coded

Lazy

Too lazy to go to work or school

188

Irresponsible

Goes to the disco, stays out late, drinks and chooses to have fun over working or school Not motivated to develop skills that will make her more marketable

137

Socially inept

Impolite and rude

94

Men

Involves herself with men

93

Doesn’t listen

Does not seek out advice or doesn’t listen to the advice she is given Generates income through prostitution, begging, or stealing

80

Disobedient

Morals drive decisions and actions

68

Dependent

Dependent financially on parents or husband

66

Temperament

Hot-tempered

55

Bad mother

Bad mother, not wanting children, or had an abortion

53

No taking action

Not taking action to fix a bad situation

43

Failed

Failed to hold a job or did not succeed in school

42

Fear

Is fearful of getting a job or finding solutions

34

Appearance

Dresses indecently or doesn’t wash

27

Money-minded

Only cares about money

20

Gossip

Spreads gossip about people

17

Not religious

Not religious

13

Unmotivated

Dishonest Income

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131

73

From the table, adolescent girls cited irresponsibility as the definition for a non-DRE, followed by laziness; while among the young women, laziness was the most cited definition for a none-DRE as indicated in the table below: Table 9: Non DRE Rankings AG Ranked From Most YW Cited to Least 1. Irresponsible 2. Lazy 3. Unmotivated 4. Dishonest Income 4. Doesn’t Listen 4. Disobedient 5. Fear 5. Men 6. Failed 7. Not religious 7. Temperament 7. Dependence 7. Socially inept 8. Money-minded

Ranked From Most Overall Cited to Least 1. Lazy 2. Irresponsible 2. Unmotivated 3. Bad Mother 3. Dishonest Income 4. Disobedient 4. Doesn’t Listen 5. Doesn’t take action 5. Socially Inept 6. Failed 6. Fear 6. Men 7. Money Minded 7. Temperament 8. Poor Appearance

Ranked From Most Cited to Least 1. Lazy 2. Irresponsible 3. Unmotivated 4. Dishonest Income 5. Disobedient 5. Doesn’t listen 6. Bad Mother 7. Socially Inept 8. Fear 8. Men 9. Not taking action 9. Failed 9. Dependence 10. Temperament 11. Money Minded 12. Not religious 13. Appearance

CONCLUSION Unless empowerment interventions are able to foster an AGYW’s voice and agency, and redress the structural inequalities they face simultaneously, then any advancement an AGYW makes (e.g. increased knowledge, income or assets) may not result in a structural change in her life. She may not be able to control the use of knowledge gained, income generated or assets built. Empowerment may therefore only be possible and sustainable if there is change at multiple levels: within the individual AGYW (capability, knowledge, self-esteem); in families, communities and institutions (social norms and behavior); in available resources (education and skills training) and economic opportunities (formal and informal employment); and in the wider political and legal environment (policies and laws and their enforcement). Indeed, free listing and key informant findings demonstrate the inter-relationship, and often the inter-dependence, of different forms of empowerment

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Bolton, P., Surkan, P. J., Gray, A. E., and Desmousseaux, M. (2012). The mental health and psychosocial effects of organized violence: a qualitative study in northern Haiti.

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Annex 1: Definitions DEFINITIONS: Determined and Resilient Being persistent and focused on your life and being able to overcome challenges of life goals without letting go. (firm and steadfast) “Okubeera omuvumu era omumalirivu mu kuwangula ebizibu” “okubeera n’endowooza ey’okugenda mu maaso n’ekyo ky’oyagala okukola era nga tewali muntu n’omu ayinza kulemesa oba ekintu kyonna ekiyinza okukulemesa okutuuka ku ky’oyagala”. Ekigambo ‘obuvumu’ kinnyonnyolwa ng’omuntu “asobola okubeera omugumu, omulamu nate omuwanguzi oluvannyuma lw’okuyita mu mbeera enzibu ddala”, Oba “okukomawo ku lugudo n’obuwanguzi okuva mu bizibu”.

Not Determined and Not Resilient Is not persistent and focused on attaining her life goals and gives up easily in case of any challenge.

“Si muvuma era si mumalirivu mu mbeera ze eza bulijjo.”

Empowered Having the resources ,skills and knowledge to ensure social and economic wellbeing “Alina obusobozi nobumanyi okusobola okweyimirizaaawo mu mbeera eza bulijjo.”

Not empowered Lacks resources, skills and knowledge to ensure social and economic well being “Talina Busobozi na bumanyi okusobola okweyimiriza mu mbeera eza bulijjo.”

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Annex II. Data collection tools

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