The implementation of climate sensitive urban design features in contemporary Australian apa by audrc

The implementation of climate sensitive urban design features in contemporary Australian apartment buildings

©Australian Urban Design Research Centre

Julian Bolleter, Alex Kleeman, Paula Hooper, Nicolas Edwards, Sarah Foster

Acknowledgements

The Australian Urban Design Research Centre is funded by the Western Australian Planning Commission, the Department of Planning Lands and Heritage, Development WA and the Department of Communities. The High Life Study is funded by an Australian Research Council, Discovery Early Career Researcher Award DECRA (DE160100140) and the Western Australian (WA) Health Promotion Foundation (Healthway; #31986). Dr Sarah Foster is supported by an ARC Future Fellowship (FT210100899). Study collaborators providing in-kind support include the Department of Planning, Lands, and Heritage (WA), Office of the Government Architect (WA), Planning Institute of Australia (PIA), Development WA, and the Heart Foundation. The assistance of apartment residents, resident associations, architects, developers and local government in the study is gratefully acknowledged.

Figures

Figure 1. Exhausted heat generated by apartment air-conditioning contributes to UHI effects. ... 7

Figure 2. North-facing apartments. Building orientation (toward the north) and reducing the glazing area for windows facing east or west result in lower heat gain in the summer .................... 8

Figure 3. This narrow 10 metre wide apartment building comprises dual-aspect apartments. Such dual-aspect apartments allow for effective natural ventilation. ......................................................... 8

Figure 4. Reflective hi-albedo roofs limit heat gain into the building. .................................................. 9

Figure 5. Extensive green roofs comprise a thin soil layer supporting short flowering plants (e.g. sedums) adapted to harsh, hot and dry conditions. Green roofs provide insulation for the underlying building facet......................................................................................................................... 10

Figure 6. Podium level COS with a swimming pool. Pools can provide some evaporative cooling for residents in the pool's vicinity and reduce the body temperature of swimmers through heat conduction. ............................................................................................................................................... 11

Figure 7. Single aspect apartments in a double-loaded apartment building are difficult to crossventilate. Generally, adequate airflow reduces as the building depth increases. ......................... 20

Figure 8. The imperatives of liveability and walkability demand continuous street frontage even when this leads to poor solar orientation – in this case, some single-aspect apartments facing south and west. ......................................................................................................................................... 20

Figure 9. Northern-oriented apartments are most easily provided in lots that are oriented eastwest, with the greatest frequency of roads running in a north-south direction. ............................... 21

Figure 10. A lack of vegetation and artificial turf reduces climate comfort in COS. ....................... 22 Tables

The implementation of climate-sensitive urban design features in contemporary Australian apartment buildings

The IPCC affirms that climate change adaptation is now ‘essential and urgent.’ However, there is a lack of studies assessing the degree to which apartment buildings in Australia maximise climate responsiveness to hot conditions. In response, this paper explores climate-sensitive urban design features designed to mitigate temperature extremes and examines whether these features are present in apartment buildings in three cities (Perth, Melbourne, and Sydney). Results show that most apartment building typologies are poorly designed for hot conditions and provide scant access to a cooling refuge in communal open space.

Keywords: Climate Sensitive Urban Design, Climate Change Adaptation, Heatwaves, Compact Cities, Apartments; Communal Open Space

1. Introduction

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) affirm that urban climate change adaptation is now essential and urgent (IPCC, 2022). Despite policymakers’ comparative inaction in mitigating climate change impacts, Australia has much to lose from a changing climate. The IPCC warns that ‘the region faces an extremely challenging future that will be highly disruptive for many human and natural systems’ (IPCC, 2022, p. 98). Indeed, the worst-case (Shared Socioeconomic Pathway 5-8.5) projections of future climate change impacts in southern regions of Australia (e.g., Perth and Melbourne) include annual temperature increases between 2.7 and 4.2°C and in eastern regions (e.g., Sydney), annual temperature increases between 2.8 and 5.0°C (Australian Academy of Science, 2021).

At the same time climate change is becoming a reality, Australia is experiencing an upswing in apartment living (Bolleter et al., 2024; Bolleter et al., 2020). In 2021, the Australian Census of Population and Housing found that an unprecedented 2,620,903 people (10.3% of all Australians) lived in apartments (The Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2022). Concomitantly, the proportion of apartment housing stock continues to surge, comprising one-third of the rise in privately owned dwellings since 2016 (The Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2022). Nonetheless, apartment housing in Australia tends to comprise high-rise apartments in central areas of high land value ((Renouf et al., 2020), with commentators recognising that many Australian cities have a ‘missing middle’ of medium-density multi-unit or clustered housing types within otherwise suburban areas (Opticos, 2018).

Those responsible for both new and existing apartment developments – of all types –should carefully consider worst-case projections and undertake a program of adaptation involving deliberate and proactive planning for future climates (Australian Academy of Science, 2021; IPCC, 2022). Indeed, residents of poorly designed apartment complexes are particularly vulnerable. Compact modern apartments tend to fare worse in hot weather than detached housing (Diamond, 2020). In denser urban areas, urban heat island (UHI) effects are most pronounced, and adaptation to climate change – due to strata laws and building limitations –cannot occur on an ad hoc and individual basis. Moreover, apartment buildings in Australia are generally designed to withstand a 40-60-year service life; therefore, many existing buildings will

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The implementation of climate-sensitive urban design features in contemporary Australian apartment buildings

remain occupied well beyond the mid-century (Matthew, 2018). As such, they must be designed and built to withstand projected future climate impacts.

Given the emerging reality of the climate crisis and the surge in apartment living, this paper systematically analyses how the design of Australia’s dominant apartment building typologies (e.g., apartment towers or perimeter blocks) incorporate Climate Sensitive Urban Design (CSUD) features to ensure adaptation to hot conditions. The paper also examines the barriers to CSUD implementation and the necessary urban design settings for delivering climate-responsive apartment buildings.

2. Background

Australia is underprepared for present-day heat waves, with heat stress amidst summer heatwaves triggering more than 1000 ‘extra’ deaths annually (Sharifi et al., 2016). Hot conditions disrupt human thermoregulation, which can have severe consequences (Lenzholzer, 2015). People can have difficulty sleeping on hot nights, taking longer to fall asleep and experiencing worse sleep quality (Lenzholzer, 2015). Moreover, there are serious economic consequences for society, as extreme heat is correlated with a decline in productivity of over 10 per cent (Lenzholzer, 2015, p. 23). Hot conditions can also alter the frequency and patterns of outdoor activities, reducing the level of exercise undertaken (Sharifi et al., 2016). The interlinked effects of heat stress, retreat to mechanically cooled interior environments, and boosted car use lead to heightened energy consumption (Shooshtarian et al., 2020), damaging public health impacts, and declining urban liveability.

2.1. Urban heat island effects

Increasing temperatures in cities are compounded by the UHI effect, which describes a dome of stagnant warm air suspended above heavily built-up urban areas (Rohinton, 2005). Heat island effects result primarily from solar energy trapped by buildings, paving, and roads and the intensity of the anthropogenic heat release via increased cooling energy demand in air-conditioned buildings (Sharifi et al., 2016) (Error! Reference source not found.). This exhaust heat released by air-conditioning units is problematic because it amplifies outdoor temperatures and compounds heat islands (Sharifi et al., 2016).

2.2. Urban density and urban heat island effects

Concerningly, UHIs are generally exacerbated by increasing urban density – a trend that the overarching planning documents of all Australian cities strive to achieve in order to conform with the compact city model now enshrined in most nations' urban planning policies (Angel, 2012). While the compact city model is beneficial in addressing urban sprawl and reducing transportation emissions (Matsumoto et al., 2012), new apartment buildings often increase energy consumption and radiate trapped heat from hard surfaces, thereby exacerbating the UHI effect (Bhoge et al., 2020). Additionally, increasing urban density can remove vegetation cover (Croeser et al., 2020), one of the primary factors mitigating UHIs (Rohinton, 2005). However, solutions may lie in design processes that recognise and mitigate risks, including Climate-Sensitive Urban Design.

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The implementation of climate-sensitive urban design features in contemporary Australian apartment buildings

1. Exhausted heat generated by apartment air-conditioning contributes to UHI effects.

3. Climate-Sensitive Urban Design

The principles of CSUD advocate that neighbourhoods should be designed to improve the microclimate of buildings and open spaces and protect people and infrastructure from extreme weather events by factoring in present-day and prospective climate variability and extremes (Oke et al., 2017). Using CSUD principles to inform urban form, layout, and design can significantly enhance human well-being standards in cities by mitigating heat stress and reducing energy consumption (Nouri & Matzarakis, 2019). Indeed, incorporating these principles in apartment building design could yield numerous benefits for residents and mitigate climate impacts. Some key strategies are outlined below.

3.1. Building orientation

Climate sensitive urban design strategies to adapt apartment developments to hot conditions include attention to building orientation. In hot climates where heat gain (temperature rise within a space due to heat from the sun) is an issue, the bulk of solar radiation is intercepted by the east and west walls and roof of a building; as such, an east-west oriented rectangular-shaped building (with the majority of apartments facing north) will minimise direct solar radiation (Oke et al., 2017) (Figure 2).

3.2. Natural ventilation

Other built-form strategies for mitigating extreme temperatures in apartments include using natural cross-ventilation within buildings for passive cooling. Indeed, air passage through a building is often desirable for its cooling effects; hence, walls should have multiple wide-opening windows (Diamond, 2020), opaque envelopes (e.g., ventilated facades) (Bhoge et al., 2020), and few internal obstructions to maximise cross-ventilation (Oke et al., 2017). As such, the most

Figure

Figure 2. North-facing apartments. Building orientation (toward the north) and reducing the glazing area for windows facing east or west result in lower heat gain in the summer effective ventilation is generally achieved by dual-aspect (or corner) apartment designs, as internal corridors associated with single-aspect layouts provide a barrier to air circulation (Diamond, 2020) (Figure 3). Dual-aspect apartments also allow residents to move to the sunny or shaded sides of the building in response to temperature changes within the dwelling (Lo et al., 2022).

Figure 3. This narrow 10 metre wide apartment building comprises dual-aspect apartments. Such dualaspect apartments allow for effective natural ventilation.

3.2. Cool roof

Light-coloured, high-albedo materials are designed to reflect heat away from a building, absorbing less solar energy, reducing heat storage in hard materials, and lowering the building's temperature (Kusumastuty et al., 2018). Advocates for increased urban thermal reflectivity (Garbesi et al., 1989) suggest significant amounts of urban cooling will be possible with substantial increases in albedo instituted across urban environments (Rohinton, 2005).

Because the roof is the most lightweight and least insulated building surface, it is a significant source of building heat gain (and loss) (Oke et al., 2017) and generally, top-level apartments experience high thermal impacts due to heat influx through the roof (Lo et al., 2022). Moreover, where urban density is high, the collective roof area is substantial, and this facet offers significant potential for moderating heat exchange (Oke et al., 2017). As such, high albedo surfaces are essential for building roofs to minimise building heat gain (Figure 4) (Lo et al., 2022).

3.3. Green roofs

Green roofs can cool buildings by providing shade and insulation for the underlying building facet (Lo et al., 2022). Their ability to yield cooling benefits depends on the vegetative cover provided. There are two primary types of green roofs: extensive and intensive (Oke et al., 2017). Extensive green roofs comprise a thin soil layer supporting short flowering plants (e.g. sedums) adapted to

Figure 4. Reflective hi-albedo roofs limit heat gain into the building.

harsh, hot and dry conditions, and intensive green roofs allow for deep-rooted vegetation (such as trees) and require a substantial soil layer (Figure 5) (Oke et al., 2017).

3.4. Communal open spaces

In conjunction with built-form strategies, green and blue infrastructure can be deployed in apartment complex communal open space (COS) to reduce temperatures and provide cool refuges outside residents’ apartments. Such spaces are particularly important to vulnerable groups, such as elderly and low-income residents, who often avoid using air conditioning due to the costs (Lo et al., 2022).

Numerous studies have demonstrated the cooling effect of vegetation (and particularly trees) on their surroundings (Lenzholzer, 2015). This cooling effect occurs through shade provided by trees. Indeed, vegetation can intercept most of the sun’s energy, both reflecting heat and absorbing energy for photosynthesis, reducing the amount of heat absorbed (Lenzholzer, 2015). Evaporation from vegetation is also a crucial factor in lowering the air temperature. The transition from liquid to gas uses heat and lowers the air temperature (Cooperative Research Centre for Water Sensitive Cities, 2020).

3.5. Water features

Water features in apartment COS, such as ponds, fountains or paddling pools (Lo et al., 2022), can produce evaporative cooling (Lenzholzer, 2015). Ponds and fountains can be used in small plazas and courtyards to minimise the volume of air affected, thereby amplifying the cooling impact of the water feature (Oke et al., 2017). Pools in apartment COS can yield some evaporative cooling for residents in the pool's proximity and reduce the body temperature of swimmers due to heat conduction (Lo et al., 2022) (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Podium level COS with a swimming pool. Pools can provide some evaporative cooling for residents in the pool's vicinity and reduce the body temperature of swimmers through heat conduction.

3.6. The Research Gap

Numerous CSUD strategies could be employed in the design of southern Australian apartment buildings to maximise climate responsiveness to hot conditions in apartments and COS. However, the extent to which they are being implemented into building design and construction is unclear. As such, the research question guiding this study is:

To what degree do recent Australian apartment building types in Perth, Melbourne, and Sydney adhere to CSUD principles, in built form and COS, to maximise climate adaptation in hot conditions?

4. Materials and methods

This paper uses data from The High Life Study that measured the design features of apartment complexes (n=113) in Perth (n=51), Melbourne (n=32), and Sydney (n=30) from building plans (Foster et al., 2019). The selected apartment complexes consisted of 40 or more apartments, were a minimum of three stories tall, were built between 2006 and 2016, and possessed approved development or architectural plans (Foster et al., 2019). The apartment complexes were chosen to ensure a range of distances from their respective city centres: <5 km, 5-10 km, 10-20 km, 20-30 km, and >30 km.

According to the definitions used by the National Construction Codes (based on Bureau of Meteorology climatic data), Perth and Sydney are located within Climate Zone 5 – Warm Temperate and Melbourne is within Climate Zone 6 – Mild Temperate (CSIRO, 2024). Perth is the hottest of the case study cities and experiences a mean maximum and minimum temperature in February of 31.7 and 18.4°C, respectively. Sydney experiences a mean maximum and minimum temperature in February of 25.8 and 18.9°C. Melbourne experiences a mean maximum and minimum temperature in February of 25.9 and 14.6°C.

4.1. Assessing the climate responsiveness of apartment buildings

The CSUD-related building measures assessed in this study were identified from the academic literature regarding climate-responsive and solar passive building design (Barnett & Bouw, 2022; Bhoge et al., 2020; Cooperative Research Centre for Water Sensitive Cities, 2020; Dabaieh et al., 2024; Diamond, 2020; Hollo, 2008; Kusumastuty et al., 2018; Lenzholzer, 2015; Lo et al., 2022; Marriage, 2022; Morrissey et al., 2011; Oke et al., 2017; Rohinton, 2005; Tapias & Schmitt, 2014).

CSUD-related building measures were extracted from the pool of High-Life building/apartment design measures (Hooper et al., 2022). These measures included whether apartments were oriented north or west, dual aspect (to allow ventilation and access to sun or shade), naturally cross-ventilated, whether COS was provided, the COS site area proportion, the degree to which COS included significant trees and vegetation cover, and the presence or absence of a pool. Measures were assessed for each apartment complex from scaled drawings of the approved architectural or development plans and checked against measurements taken in Nearmap highresolution aerial photography (Nearmap, 2022). In general, measures were summarised as the percentage of apartments per building with the characteristic (e.g., north-facing) or the presence or absence of a characteristic (Error! Reference source not found.). Further CSUD-related building measures were assessed using high-resolution aerial photography (Nearmap, 2022). These included the presence of green roofs, ‘cool roofs’ or rooftop solar panels.

Design

Apartment s per Building

Apartments facing north (%)

Architectural Plans

Apartments facing west (%)

Architectural Plans

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Aspect direction was measured from the perpendicular angle of the main living area window using a 32-point compass.

Northerly aspect = N, NbE, NbW, NE, NEbE, NEbN, NNE, NNW, NW, NWbN, NWbW

Aspect direction was measured from the perpendicular angle of the main living area window using a 32-point compass.

Westerly aspect = W, WbN, WbS, WNW, WSS or WSW

The implementation of climate-sensitive urban design features in contemporary Australian apartment buildings

Table 1. Apartment building and COS CSUD measures

Building measures

Apartments that are dual aspect (%)

Apartments that are naturally cross-ventilated (%)

Architectural Plans

Apartments were assessed for the number of different aspects

Aspect #1 = main living area; Aspect #2 = another habitable room on a different face of the building with a window or balcony.

Architectural Plans

Apartments inspected for the presence of window openings on two sides (different aspects) of the apartment for airflow in/through/out:

Apartments buildings with a high albedo ‘cool roof’ (%)

Nearmap aerial photography

Communal Open Space (Complex measures)

Apartment buildings with green roofs (%)

Nearmap aerial photography

'Cool roofs’ with light-coloured materials were assessed by analysing aerial photos to measure the ‘L’ luminosity value (the L value for white colours is 100 and for black colours 0). Any values above 80 (light grey) were coded as a ‘cool roof.’

Apartment buildings were inspected using aerial photos for the presence of green roofs.

Apartment buildings with rooftop solar panels (%)

Apartments complexes with access to COS in complex (%)

Nearmap aerial photography

Apartment buildings were inspected via aerial photos for the presence of rooftop solar panels.

Architectural plans

Architectural plans were assessed to identify the presence of an open/outdoor communal space within the complex.

Proportion of apartment complex site area that is COS (%)

Proportion of COS that is softscape (%)

Architectural plans The entire area of the outdoor communal space as displayed on the architectural plans was measured. The area of the site, identifying the designated land cadastral parcel (s) of the building, was measured. Using the above figures, the % of COS was computed.

Architectural plans

Architectural plans were analysed to measure the entire area of the softlandscaped communal space.

Average number of significant trees in COS

Nearmap aerial photography

Apartment complexes containing an outdoor pool (%)

Architectural plans

Aerial photos were used to inspect the COS for significant trees, defined as established trees with a full canopy capable of providing sufficient shade and shelter for people.

Architectural plans were analysed to determine the presence of a pool in the COS.

4.2. The building typology

The assessment results of apartment buildings’ climate responsiveness are examined based on apartment building morphologies (Forty, 2000). A typological approach has been adopted to the analysis of apartment buildings, as both designers and developers tend to think ‘in types’ (Bolleter et al., 2024; Pfeifer & Brauneck, 2007, 2010); this ensures the findings are meaningful to those planning, designing and developing apartments. The apartment building types were drawn from the New South Wales (NSW) Apartment Design Guide (a detailed companion document to State Environment Planning Policy 65) (NSW Department of Planning and Environment, 2015). Building types included Narrow Infill apartments, Row apartments, Shop-Top apartments, Courtyard apartments, Perimeter Block apartments, Tower apartments and Hybrid developments and represent the main types of apartment buildings regularly delivered in Australia (Bolleter et al., 2024; NSW Department of Planning and Environment, 2015) (Error! Reference source not found.).

In this paper, drone photos have been used to illustrate these building types. However, these are

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The implementation of climate-sensitive urban design features in contemporary Australian apartment buildings

indicative examples only as the ethics approval prevents the release of data identifying the study buildings.

Table 2. Apartment building typologies as identified and described in Sydney’s Apartment Design Guide

Apartment building typology

Narrow Infill

Row

Shop-Top

Courtyard

Description

Narrow Infill apartment buildings are typically two to three-storey walk-up apartments (stairs only) or buildings with three to five levels and a lift. Typically located in middle or inner suburbs, they are a response to the dimensions of traditional single residential lots in suburban areas (approximately 1,000 m² in area), which are typically narrow and deep (typically 20 x 50m) and often surrounded by a combination of detached houses and flat buildings from previous eras.

Row apartment buildings are generally found in both urban and suburban contexts. Row apartment buildings generally occur on single blocks (approximately 750-1,000m2 in area). They are characterised by a limited number of units arranged around an access core and can be single buildings or a series of building modules.

Shop-Top apartment buildings are mixed-use residential buildings often located in established urban centres, along main streets or close to public transport hubs. Shop-top apartment buildings typically occur on single and amalgamated lots (between 1,000 and 2,000m2). Shop-Top apartments typically range between two and six storeys.

Courtyard apartment buildings provide a centralised open space area, generally ranging between three and six storeys in height and are suitable in both urban and suburban settings. Courtyard apartment buildings typically require lot amalgamation or larger lots (greater than 2,000 m² in area) to accommodate a central courtyard. Their configuration depends on the context and site orientation. Courtyard apartments are a highly adaptable building type and

Number of storeys

2-5 storeys

2-3 storeys

2-6 storeys

3-6 storeys

Perimeter Block

generally occur in major centres and urban renewal areas.

Perimeter-block apartment buildings are suited to urban areas and are often integrated into street blocks. They require larger, amalgamated lots (greater than 2,000m2 in area). This building type is a critical component of most European cities, and its compact form achieves comparably high urban densities. Typically, perimeter block apartments have elongated plans arranged along a corridor with single or multiple cores depending on the building's length. They range from four to nine storeys and are generally located in major centres and urban renewal areas.

4-9 storeys

Tower Towers apartment buildings are suited to central business districts, major centres and urban renewal areas. This building type can be freestanding or combined with block developments (podiums). Given their scale, they typically require larger lots (above 3,000m2). Tower apartments typically have more than nine storeys.

Hybrid

5. Results

Hybrid developments combine different uses or building types within a single development. As a result, lot sizes and locations vary considerably. They can incorporate community facilities and larger commercial or retail components, such as offices or supermarkets. Hybrid developments are particularly relevant for larger sites that must respond to a change in building form and scale within the adjacent context.

9+ storeys

Table 3 presents the mean summary statistics of the apartment complex sample (n=113)

Table 3. Overview of apartment complex characteristics

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The implementation of climate-sensitive urban design features in contemporary Australian apartment buildings

Varies

aMean and standard deviation (SD) for continuous variables. bPercent (n) of complexes with COS. Note: This is a modified version of a table previously published elsewhere (Kleeman et al., 2021).

The dominant building types in the sample (n=172 buildings within n=113 complexes) were the Perimeter Block, Hybrid, Courtyard, and Row types. The least frequent were the Narrow Infill and Shop-Top types (Table 4).

Table 4. Frequency of building types within apartment complexes

Building type

Narrow Infill

5.2 (9)

% (n)

Row 15.1 (26)

Shop-Top 5.8 (10)

Courtyard

Perimeter Block

Tower

Hybrid

(28)

(47)

(22)

(30)

Table 5 presents the CSUD features of the apartment buildings by typology. On average, buildings had 25% of apartments oriented to the north, leading to lower heat loads, whereas about 16% faced west and theoretically received significant heat loads. On average, only 38% of apartments in a building were dual-aspect, allowing residents access to both sun and shade and facilitating natural cross-ventilation. Indeed, only 47% of the apartments sampled were naturally crossventilated (with window openings on two sides with different aspects). Two-thirds of the buildings had reflective hi-albedo roofs (67%). Despite the prevalence of green roofs in CSUD literature, they were completely absent in the sample. Moreover, rooftop solar panels were found only in 20% of buildings.

The lower-level Shop-top, Courtyard, Narrow Infill, and Row building types had the highest percentage of northern-oriented apartments, while the Tower building type had the least. The Row building type had the highest percentage of dual-aspect apartments, while the Courtyard type had the least. Again, the Row building type had the highest percentage of cross-ventilated apartments, while Shop-Tops had the least. While relatively few buildings had rooftop solar panels, the Tower type had the most.

A substantial 81% of apartment complexes had a COS, and the average area of the apartment complex site area that was COS was 10%. However, this COS was typically hardscape with only a limited planting area (21%) and a small number of significant trees (an average of 1.0 overall). Water features were generally absent; however, swimming pools were available in 24% of the apartment complexes sampled.

Narrow Infill building types tended not to have COS (only 33%), while the Courtyard (93%), Tower (84%), Perimeter Block (83%), and Hybrid (83%) types were most likely to have COS. Towers tended to have the highest percentage of site bound up in COS (18%), while Narrow Infill had the least (3%). Again, the Row building types had the highest average number of trees (2.7), while Towers and Narrow Infill contained none (0.0). A high 58% of Tower complexes had access to a communal swimming pool, while only 6% of Row complexes had a swimming pool.

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The implementation of climate-sensitive urban design features in contemporary Australian apartment buildings

Table 5. Apartment and building climate-sensitive design features by building type

Building measures

COS measures (complex measures)

Cells have been colour-coded to show the level of CSUD implementation relative to the other typologies. The highest relative implementation of CSUD features is represented by green, and the lowest relative implementation is represented by red.

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The implementation of climate-sensitive urban design features in contemporary Australian apartment buildings

aMean and standard deviation (SD) for continuous variables.

6. Discussion

This paper presents a novel assessment of the potential climate responsiveness of Australian apartment developments to hot conditions. Across the building sample in this study, significant numbers of apartments are oriented towards the afternoon summer sun, are single-aspect, inadequately ventilated, and lack rooftop solar panels or green roofs (nonetheless, many did have high albedo cool roofs). Moreover, many apartment complexes in the sample provide scant access to COS greenery, particularly mature trees, which can provide a cool refuge for residents in hot conditions, and pools within COS were only available to a minority of apartment residents.

6.1. Issues in the application of climate-sensitive urban design built form strategies

The results suggest that most apartment building typologies are poorly designed to adapt to more extreme heat conditions, although Row and, to a lesser extent, Shop-Top apartment buildings rated first and second (respectively) in terms of reasonable apartment orientation, cross ventilation and having multiple aspects. Otherwise, there were no clear winners or losers in relation to the application of CSUD-built form features. For instance, Towers, due to the high number of corner apartments, rate well for ventilation but poorly for orientation. Conversely, Narrow Infill building types rate well for the percentage of apartments facing north but comparatively poorly for ventilation, primarily because they have fewer corner or dual-aspect apartments.

The lack of dual-aspect apartments can be partly explained by the narrower floorplates, which tend not to be commercially feasible, hence the scarcity of such dwellings, particularly in dense urban areas. The result is double-loaded apartment buildings generally lacking well-oriented and ventilated apartments (NSW Department of Planning and Environment, 2015). Indeed, doubleloaded apartment buildings, with single-aspect apartments arranged on both sides of a central corridor, are generally hard to naturally ventilate because air movements must pass through two apartments and across a central corridor (Diamond, 2020) (Figure 7).

Figure 7. Single aspect apartments in a double-loaded apartment building are difficult to cross-ventilate. Generally, adequate airflow reduces as the building depth increases.

The absence of CSUD built-form features in the building sample likely reflects the significant challenges that inhibit the delivery of such design principles. In all cases, the optimum siting of an apartment building involves multiple trade-offs, and the relatively poor implementation of CSUD strategies is only partly reflective of the building’s overall performance (Foster, Hooper, Duckworth, et al., 2022). For example, a western orientation may help to activate and provide passive surveillance to a street but maximise heat gain on building facades in summer. Conversely, a northern orientation may minimise heat gain on building facades in summer but force a building to turn its back to the street. Meanwhile, New Urbanism’s imperatives of liveability and walkability require continuous street frontage (Hooi & Pojani, 2020). Indeed, most apartment development occurs within the bounds of pre-existing street layouts, which tends to dictate building orientation (Bhoge et al., 2020). Hence, designers must decide which factor is prioritised on a case-by-case basis, which can result in less-than-ideal apartment orientation results (Figure 8).

These complexities underscore the importance of urban areas being planned with future preferred building orientations in mind. Northern-oriented apartments are most easily provided in lots that are oriented east-west, with the greatest frequency of roads running in a north-south direction. Such correctly orientated lots should have appropriate building setbacks from the northern property boundary to enable good winter sun access to suitably located and sized windows (Figure 9).

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The implementation of climate-sensitive urban design features in contemporary Australian apartment buildings

Figure 9. Northern-oriented apartments are most easily provided in lots that are oriented east-west, with the greatest frequency of roads running in a north-south direction.

In existing urban areas, fragmented land ownership, which often determines building orientation, can (to some degree) be overcome by incentivising lot amalgamation through split zoning that enables higher densities for lots that have been amalgamated. The resulting larger, amalgamated lots provide more space for designers to correctly orient buildings and select appropriate building types for the location (Bolleter et al., 2020). Where the above urban design strategies are not feasible, poor apartment orientation can be managed – to some degree – through the use of shading elements integrated within building facades, the reduction of window areas and the introduction of window overhangs and hoods can all limit heat gain in a building (Bhoge et al., 2020).

The sample's lack of CSUD built-form features undoubtedly stems from a presumed reliance on mechanical cooling to mitigate heat impacts. For the last half-century, a mechanical approach to cooling has generally supplanted passive design. Indeed, the primary expectation (which flows from the early to mid-twentieth century Modernist period) is that buildings are covered in glass (Wolfe, 1981), with limited operable windows or cross-ventilation and a heavy reliance on air conditioning (Bhoge et al., 2020). Many residents consider air-conditioning necessary, particularly on hot days (Bhoge et al., 2020). Indeed, given increased acclimatisation to mechanically cooled environments, many do not view passive design as providing appropriate thermal comfort, even on moderate days. Such views cannot be easily countered (Bhoge et al., 2020). However, we note that air-conditioning usage can vary by age (with older populations more susceptible to heat impacts) and individuals' ability to afford the resulting electricity costs (Banwell et al., 2012).

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The implementation of climate-sensitive urban design features in contemporary Australian apartment buildings

6.2. Issues in the application of Climate Sensitive Urban Design COS strategies

Many apartment complexes in the sample provided scant access to COS greenery, particularly mature trees. Nonetheless, there was variation between the building types. The small-lot Narrow Infill building type provided the least COS (as a proportion of the complex site area), minimal softscape greenery, and, on average, no significant trees. Conversely, Towers provide the highest percentage of COS due to their larger lot sizes, but much of the hardscape is due to their location on podiums, which restricts the provision of deep soil zones. Courtyard, Row and, to a lesser extent, Perimeter Block types – despite not having the largest communal spaces – nevertheless had the highest proportions of greenspace within COS, respectively, with Row buildings also having more trees than other types, reflecting the availability of on-ground deep soil zones. Swimming pools were most frequent in Tower complexes. This situation likely stems from larger apartment complexes having more apartments and, therefore, more resources for providing communal amenities.

Many factors may contribute to the lack of vegetation in COS in the sample of buildings (Jim, 2019). Some developers resist the creation of ground-level COS, which could support significant trees in deep-soil zones, due to concerns about reduced commercial floor space or car parking (Bolleter et al., 2024; Frecker, 2019). The latter reinforces the need for Transit-Oriented Development to allow for a reduction in car parking bays due to proximity to mass transit (Bolleter et al., 2022). Again, fragmented land ownership often leads to smaller sites (Bolleter et al., 2020), which prohibit the generous, ground-level deep soil zones that are required to sustain significant trees in COS. Further, to accommodate significant trees on built structures, developers need to provide tree pits with deep soil, reinforce building structures, install waterproofing membranes, irrigation systems, and drainage, and perform extensive maintenance for significant trees on builtform structure (Figure 10) (Bolleter et al., 2024). Indeed, soil degradation in restricted tree pits can lead to stunted trees, necessitating the replacement of the tree and soil (Jim, 2019). Such constraints can lead to green landscapes (and significant trees) being overlooked during project negotiations (Bhoge et al., 2020), resulting in COS that is often hardscaped, hot and less climateadaptive.

Figure 10. A lack of vegetation and artificial turf reduces climate comfort in COS.

6.3.1. The perceived risks of climate-sensitive urban design

The lack of CSUD built-form and COS features across the sample may reflect a conservative approach taken by developers, certifiers, and contractors in their projects. This conservative approach could stem from uncertain demand for apartment living (Sharam et al., 2015), difficulties in obtaining finance (Burke, 1991; Sharam et al., 2015), high construction and labour costs, uncertainties of service infrastructure delivery (Farris, 2001; Rowley & Phibbs, 2012) and a shortage of economic incentives (Urban Development Institute of Australia, 2011), all of which may dissuade developers from taking further perceived risks with CSUD (Bhoge et al., 2020). The result could be that CSUD is viewed as an optional environmental add-on rather than a necessary, cost-effective solution (Bhoge et al., 2020), along with presumed reliance on mechanical cooling. Nonetheless, while climate-responsive apartment buildings can often have considerable up-front costs, they tend to be more cost-effective over time due to lower energy expenses (Gosling & Walker, 1992).

6.3. Implications for policy

The apartment complexes sampled in the study were built between 2006 and 2016. This timeframe limits the apartment complexes in Sydney to those built under the State Environmental Planning Policy 65 Apartment Design Guide (effective 2002) (NSW Department of Planning and Environment, 2015). In Melbourne and Perth, the complexes were constructed before the introduction of detailed apartment design policies – in Melbourne, the Better Apartments Design Standards (effective 2017) (Vic Department of Environment Land Water & Planning, 2021) and in Perth, State Planning Policy 7.3 (effective 2019) (WA Department of Planning Lands and Heritage, 2016), respectively.

Many CSUD strategies to adapt apartment buildings to hot conditions feature in these policies. Indeed, Australian apartment design policies generally advocate that climate-responsive design can significantly reduce energy consumption by reducing solar gain in summer (Vic Department of Environment Land Water & Planning, 2021; WA Department of Planning Lands and Heritage, 2016). This can be achieved through building orientation (to the north) and reducing the glazing area for windows facing east or west (Vic Department of Environment Land Water & Planning, 2021)

There is also a consensus among policies that natural cross ventilation, which relies on dwellings having openings with two different orientations so that breeze can drift through the apartment, can flush out hot or stale air and reduce mechanical ventilation and air conditioning requirements (NSW Department of Planning and Environment, 2015; Vic Department of Environment Land Water & Planning, 2021).

The Victorian apartment design policy notes the importance of providing light-coloured roof finishes to reflect solar radiation and minimise heat exchange in apartment buildings (Vic Department of Environment Land Water & Planning, 2021). The potential of green roofs to shade and cool apartment buildings is featured in most apartment design guides (NSW Department of Planning and Environment, 2015; WA Department of Planning Lands and Heritage, 2016). Moreover, the policies affirm that appropriately greened COS can enhance micro-climates (NSW Department of Planning and Environment, 2015; WA Department of Planning Lands and Heritage, 2016). Finally, the related apartment design policies affirm that closed-system water features can

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The implementation of climate-sensitive urban design features in contemporary Australian apartment buildings

provide cooling through evaporation (NSW Department of Planning and Environment, 2015; WA Department of Planning Lands and Heritage, 2016).

Despite recognition of the importance of CSUD principles in these policies, the inconsistent application of these strategies in the building sample may relate to the policies being performance-based (Bolleter et al., 2024) in that developers are not obliged to meet all standards if they apply alternative approaches that meet the 'qualitative intent' of the policies (Karotkin, 2014).

While there are some benefits to a performance-based approach in enabling innovation in design (Bolleter et al., 2024), it can also hinder the implementation of costly – yet necessary – design principles that have long-term benefits. Establishing mandatory compliance with all design principles may not be feasible and would likely be met with reticence from building industry sectors (Morrissey et al., 2011), but perhaps there is scope for some CSUD standards to be made mandatory (e.g., deep soil zones for tree planting) to ensure greater uptake (Bolleter et al., 2024; Morrissey et al., 2011).

Indeed, the policies could be re-evaluated to rectify key policy gaps. For instance, only the Victorian apartment design policy notes the importance of providing light-coloured roof finishes to reflect solar radiation and minimise heat exchange in the apartment building (Vic Department of Environment Land Water & Planning, 2021). While this inclusion is laudable and should be replicated elsewhere, previous research has highlighted the relative weakness of the Victorian design policy, compared to Sydney (i.e., State Environmental Planning Policy 65) and Perth (i.e., State Planning Policy 7.3), in terms of its inclusion of other design requirements that would promote residents health and well-being (Foster, Hooper, Duckworth, et al., 2022; Foster et al., 2020).

6.4. Limitations

This study focused on contemporary apartment buildings. As a result, the findings may not be generalisable to older buildings, which often house disadvantaged populations. Indeed, previous analysis with the High Life sample suggests there is some socioeconomic patterning in the implementation of design requirements in Perth, where the proportion of dual aspect and northfacing apartments was lower in relatively disadvantaged areas, and in Melbourne, where fewer buildings in disadvantaged areas implemented policy-derived COS requirements (Foster et al., 2024).

Future research could benefit from expanding the scope of apartment analysis to include cities in different climate zones or even regional areas, as heat adaptation needs may vary significantly across these regions. For instance, comparing thermal comfort in apartments in Northern Australia (e.g., Darwin), which experience high Wet-Bulb Temperatures, with that in southern cities could reveal significant differences (Bolleter et al., 2021). More broadly, researchers could apply our climate responsiveness assessment to apartment complexes and buildings in other countries, particularly those identified by the IPCC as particularly vulnerable to rising temperatures and heat stress (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2023).

Future research, in Australia or elsewhere, could also examine associations between apartment and building-level design measures (e.g., dual-aspect apartments) with resident perceptions of summer thermal comfort and natural ventilation, which are significant predictors of mental well-

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The implementation of climate-sensitive urban design features in contemporary Australian apartment buildings

being in apartment residents ((Foster, Hooper, Turrell, et al., 2022), as well as objective temperature or humidity measurements.

Finally, the analysis does not detail the specific architectural features exacerbating heat retention. A more thorough examination of detailed building elements – such as facade design, window placement, insulation quality, material usage, and even internal blinds and curtains (Dabaieh et al., 2024) – presents opportunities for future research.

7. Conclusion

According to the IPCC, Australia’s current reactive climate ‘adaptation’ is insufficient, too late, too little, and too costly (IPCC, 2022). Indeed, the worst projected climate change scenarios leave many of Australia’s human and natural systems at ‘very high risk and beyond adaptation limits’(IPCC, 2022). Despite the emerging policies, Australia is still ‘flying almost blind’ regarding adaptation, and many planning decisions proceed on a business-as-usual basis (Flannery, 2016).

Planners and designers must prepare apartment communities for a future climate. Unfortunately, many actors involved in the planning and design process can be more preoccupied with the immediate issues they face, and planning for long-term climate change can be ‘too hard; thus, we go on with business as usual’ (Seamer, 2019). The study provides evidence to support the notion that a ‘business as usual’ approach persists within the Australian apartment development sector, with this situation unlikely to change without detailed, aspirational, and (where appropriate) enforceable policies that lay the foundations for increased implementation of CSUD strategies in the apartment sector.

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