http://place.asburyseminary.edu/firstfruitsheritagematerial/5/ First Fruits Press is a digital imprint of the Asbury Theological Seminary, B.L. Fisher Library. Asbury Theological Seminary is the legal owner of the material previously published by the Pentecostal Publishing Co. and reserves the right to release new editions of this material as well as new material produced by Asbury Theological Seminary. Its publications are available for noncommercial and educational uses, such as research, teaching and private study. First Fruits Press has licensed the digital version of this work under the Creative Commons
Attribution Noncommercial 3.0 United States License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/us/.
2. Gender Inequality in Indian Churches, P.E., A.S.
3. Re-entry from Commercial Sex Trafcking in Uganda. Caroline Reel
4. Displaced Believers from Muslim Countries. Mark L. Burrows
5. Redeeming Filipino Rice Planting Rituals. Danyal Qal
6. Unrequited Love in the Philippines. Ezra Santos
7. Infertility Ceremony in Ghana, Ernest Perbi-Asare
8. Diwali Festival in Delhi, G.P., D.M., K.
9. University Student Acclimation in Indonesia, Jong Ang
10. Black Magic in India, F.N., G., H.
11. Discipling Polygamous Christian Converts in Nigeria. Kehinde Seyi Ojelade
12. Wearing Yantra in India, L.S., M.C., H.H., M.V.
13. Karwa Chauth Ritual in India, P.R.
14. Malevolent Spirits and Illness in India, K.R.
15. Child Marriage issues in Hyderabad, R.J.
16. Dalangang Filipina & Sexual Struggles in Philippines, Maria Angelica B. de Vera
17. Mangalasutra in India, S.P., M.R.
18. Short-term Missions, A Ritual for Growth in Walking with Jesus. Yin Le
19. Next Steps. Darrell Whiteman
Chapter 1
Drumming Ban in Ghana
By Akali Nya
“He who knows one culture actually knows none.” (Cli!ord Geertz)1
How do you disciple someone in the complexities of their culture? Most of us don’t even fully understand our own customs, let alone others. Yet, intercultural discipleship demands this level of understanding and engagement.
Cultural di!erences can make discipleship challenging, but they also o!er opportunities for growth. When I ask people about discipling others in their culture, I o en receive blank stares. ey respond with:
“I don’t even understand the funeral rituals in my own culture; how can I disciple someone to maintain their faith in Jesus amidst those various symbols and activities?”
“I am not sure why we do certain rituals in my culture or even what the symbols mean; it is just part of our culture!”
“Our proverbs and music are just for fun; what value do they have for Christian discipleship?”
is reveals the paradox that anthropologist E.T. Hall described, “Culture hides more than it reveals, and most strangely enough, it hides it from those in the culture.” e church is not immune to this paradox. How then can disciples reveal the crucial issues for discipleship in their cultures (that are o en hidden or not discussed) so that disciples can be transformed?
While the topic of intercultural discipleship may seem overwhelming at $rst, I have observed the transformation of disciples and their churches as they dig into their own culture and engage these $ndings with Scripture. If the Scripture and Culture are two sides of the same coin, we are o en trained to focus on Scripture – and for good reason! People need to understand the Bible in order to apply this wisely for transformation. At the same time, though, people are o en much less aware of their culture. Just as Scripture needs to be studied, understood and applied wisely, culture also needs the same attention. Stated another way, when you exegete Scripture, spend the same energy to exegete culture so that the Scriptures can speak afresh to the cultural issues we encounter in ministry.
Intercultural discipleship is de$ned as the process of worldview transformation whereby Jesus followers center their lives on the kingdom of God (Matt. 6:33) and obey Christ’s commands in culture (Matt. 28:19–20), utilizing culturally available genres. is requires learning both the issues that need to be addressed in culture as well as the culturally available genre to address them, such as symbols, rituals, proverbs, music, dance, drama, etc. It starts with the posture of being a learner.
Learning a culture can be hard – and fun! It is hard since it takes time, patience, and humility to learn things that should be obvious but are o en more obscure than we would like to admit. It is also fun since you are likely to learn underlying truths, fears and hopes of those in that culture. Eventually, you can look back at your own culture and see what you missed all along. As the Apollo 11 astronauts said when they $rst landed on the moon, “We came to the moon to discover the moon, but we really discovered the earth.” Looking back at the blue planet called earth amidst the vastness of black outer space, they understood for the $rst time
the uniqueness of the earth where they were born and lived their entire lives, up to that point.
Discipleship Approach
For several years, I had the privilege to participate with students in a course entitled “Intercultural Discipleship.” At the end of the course, students were asked to present to the group a particular discipleship approach for a particular group in a speci$c context to address ‘excluded middle’ issues (intimate issues that need spiritual power and guidance to address). ese projects followed the same basic framework, though not always in a linear fashion, as follows, following Paul Hiebert’s framework for critical contextualization:2
1. Select a group/person you will focus on for discipleship. is should be 1-2 people or a small group that you know well and have enough social capital that you can speak into their life.
2. Phenomenological Study: Identify ‘excluded middle’ issues that person or group is wrestling with in culture. ‘Excluded Middle’ issues are de$ned as intimate issues that need spiritual power and guidance to address concerns in this world. O en, these are not discussed in typical church services, books/programs on discipleship; therefore, they are o en excluded from serious consideration. ey are o en issues that are somewhat particular to that culture. Anthropologist Paul Hiebert3 identi$ed these issues in the majority world o en center around topics like:
2 Hiebert, Paul G. 1987. “Critical Contextualization.” International Bulletin of Missionary Research 11 (3): 104–11.
3 Hiebert, Paul; Dan Shaw, and Tite Tiénou. Understanding Folk Religion: A Christian Response to Popular Beliefs and Practices. Grand Rapids: Baker. 1999b, page 74.
a. Why did someone die/live (e.g., following a sickness or accident)?
b. What is the cause for well-being or misfortune (e.g., wealth, barrenness, crop failure)?
c. How do I obtain guidance for an uncertain future (e.g., traveling, marriage, business decisions)?
d. Where do I $nd justice/protection amid evil (e.g., protection from the evil eye)?
If these issues are not addressed, then disciples will likely go to another source apart from the church to get direction and answers, thereby stunting or redirecting their growth in discipleship.
Ontological Critique: Uncover the root issues that underly the ‘excluded middle’ issue. e root issues are o en just below the surface and not obvious immediately.
Critical Evaluation: Once these root issues are identi$ed, identify relevant themes, stories, and passages from Scripture to engage each root concern within a hermeneutical community. is community likely starts with people in your church but then extends to people that are from di!erent cultures and backgrounds.
Missiological Transformation: Identify symbols, rituals or other genres to use for discipleship related to this particular excluded middle issue for this person(s) in this context. Describe or demonstrate the discipleship approach, including paying attention to the:
a. Worldview assumptions
b. Sacred stories
c. Ritual specialist
d. Properties of symbols
e. ree stages of ritual process
f. Areas for future research/exploring
Case Study Overview is book is $lled with case studies. Most will follow the format above:
Introduction
Phenomenological Study
Ontological Critique
Critical Evaluation
Missiological Transformation
Conclusions
Each case study identi$es and addresses various excluded middle issues that o en arise as the gospel is engaged in a particular culture. As a result of this engagement, the church is o en perplexed or at odds concerning how to respond. Drawing from case studies, the accumulated experience of the church provides a rich and creative tapestry of historical responses to these gospel and culture issues.
To demonstrate the critical contextualization process, let us turn to a scene in the Builsa area of Ghana, West Africa where the church was confronted with a new excluded middle issue.
Introduction4
!e worshipful atmosphere in the room was shattered as a young man burst into the church, his voice commanding, “Stop the drumming immediately! !e teng nyono sent me to deliver the message that there is a ban on all drumming in the area; therefore, the church must cease drumming immediately and not resume again until he li s the ban.”
!e church was stunned! How should they respond?
!ere were two instant knee-jerk reactions by this church of 80 people. David represented the rst (and largest) group, “We need to worship Naawen. How can we do that without drumming and dancing? We should reject the teng nyono’s ban and continue drumming. A er all, we want to please Naawen more than men, don’t we?”
Ko represented the other instant reaction, which was the exact opposite, “Wait - the drumming ban is a cultural matter. !is is not addressed in Naawen Wani so we should just abide by the cultural rules until this thing blows over. !en we can get back to church as usual. Besides, the teng nyono has a lot of power in the community, and we do not want to upset him.”
!is polarization of responses between rejection and acceptance is not new or unusual. Most of the time the discussion centers around, “which view is right - rejection or acceptance?” Outright rejection o en leads to split-level Christianity while uncritical acceptance o en leads to syncretism. Is there a way forward to help us deal with issues concerning Scripture and culture?
4 is case study was drawn from: Moon, W. Jay. African Proverbs Reveal Christianity in Culture: A Narrative Portrayal of Builsa Proverbs Contextualizing Christianity in Ghana. American Society of Missiology Monograph Series, Vol. 5. Eugene, OR: Pickwick (2009). Chapter 6.
Immanuel blurted out, “I think that we should call all of the church leaders together in the area tonight to discuss the issues and pray. As a church family, we need the counsel and support of one another.”
Immanuel’s suggestion was well received. !at a ernoon, they visited the local church leaders and invited them to attend a meeting. !e outcome of this situation would a ect all of their churches and their input was needed. Twelve church leaders gathered to discuss this case.
Pastor David started o , “If you read Psalms 150, Naawen says that we should worship him with di erent instruments and dancing. !at is what we want to do. I say that we should ignore the teng nyono, and obey Naawen.
“I know these people,” replied one church leader who grew up in the village. “If we give them our little nger today, then they will take our whole arm tomorrow!” Another jumped in, “Let us stand together and ignore him. If he attacks one of the churches, then we will all stand together and ght back.” !ose who took the position to reject the teng nyono were very vocal and emotional.
Some others were less vocal and felt that we should not be so combative. “We should heed the teng nyono’s words for this short period of time,” responded Pastor Ko , “ !e drum ban will not last forever. We will just wait it out.” Another pastor agreed, “ !ere is nothing in Naawen Wani that says we HAVE to beat the drums. We can still worship Naawen without the drum during this time.” !is position of acceptance seemed like backsliding to the ones who advocated rejecting the teng nyono.
!e more the discussion continued, the more it seemed that each of the two parties became more entrenched in their positions. !ey each became more justi ed using their own portions of Naawen Wani to strengthen their resolve. Since no consensus could be reached that night, they agreed to fast and pray during Monday
16 Akali Nya to Friday and meet again on Friday night. During the week, they would ask Naawen to inform them how to respond. !ey would also discuss the issue with other Christian leaders to seek their guidance. !is would allow time for the Holy Spirit to move them gently away from the polarized extremes. !en, they would all report the ndings on Friday, when they would make a decision.
As the church leaders leave the initial meeting, let us step back and analyze what transpired. is was an “excluded middle” issue that the Builsa church had never addressed before. Note how the two typical responses occur again: either total acceptance or total rejection. is does not allow for Scripture to critically engage the issues. Both groups are composed of sincere Christians who honestly want to follow the will of God. How can they have such opposite opinions? To make it worse, the more they discuss it, the more entrenched they each become in their own positions. To move forward, let us return to the Church leaders and see how they work this out using the critical contextualization approach. e $rst step is to learn more about the issues and concerns by studying the context and people involved.
Phenomenological Study
When discussing the drum ban case with the leadership of a missionary organization in Accra, they informed Joe that problems had arisen in Southern Ghana over the traditional practice of banning drumming for a month during the Homowo festival. When a church ignored the ban and continued drumming in May, 1999, the church was attacked by young people who vandalized and hurt several worshippers. !e church went to court over the issue and the court sided with the traditional authorities, thereby bringing shame on the church. !e end result was that it brought a lot of negative publicity to the church. !eologian Kwami Bediako criticized the church leaders for not entering into dialogue to engage Scripture with culture. He stated, “We may well nd that people are resisting us, not the gospel. !ey are challenging us, the church, not
the gospel, because they do not see Jesus in us.”5 !is information was most helpful as a warning about what can happen when the church rigidly maintains the Rejection position. It also hinted at one possible root to this situation. !e elders want to receive respect and not just be ignored.
!is was con rmed when Immanuel and Joe went to visit another pastor in a neighboring people group. He informed them that their church previously dealt with this issue. His advice was to show respect for the authorities, “ !e teng nyono is the one who oversees the earth shrine for the area. It is his responsibility to make the necessary sacri ces to ensure a good harvest from the land. He will intervene when there is not enough rain, too much rain, too much wind, etc. When the millet is close to harvest time, a wind storm could destroy the millet. !e ban on drums is in place so that the noise will not disturb the ancestors; otherwise, it is believed that they will bring wind on the land and destroy the crop.”
!is was news to the church leaders.
“It looks like we are getting to another root here,” observed Immanuel. “ !e teng nyono has a responsibility to do what he can to see blessing on the land. If he is lax in carrying out these taboos, then he could be held responsible.”
Ontological Critique
A er learning all they could about the context of the excluded middle issue, the next step is to discern what are the real issues at stake that need to be addressed. e church leaders realized that the church needed to dialogue with the teng nyono to show him honor and respect. is is particularly important since the church will one day need the teng nyono’s assistance when dealing with land issues. e teng nyono can deny land to
5 Kwame Bediako, “Gospel and Culture: Some Insights for Our Time from the Experience of the Earliest Church,” Journal of African Christian !ought 2, no. 2 (1999): 14.
anyone he wants, and the pastor knew a church that was unable to acquire land to construct a church building since they did not show respect to the teng nyono.
Joe remembered the proverb, “Zula ka Ngandiinta” (Honor is food), and he also knew how important food was in a farming community like this. To give honor to someone then, is like presenting a nice gi of food to them.
Joe spoke to Immanuel, “Perhaps, the teng nyono is looking for some respect from the church. A er all, the church is near his house and many of his children are attending the church now. If we do not show him respect, then he may make things di%cult for us. On the other hand, he can be helpful to us, if we respect and honor him.”
Immanuel agreed, “He can be a help to us someday, just like the pastor mentioned about the church acquiring land. !e elders have said, “Fi ma dan bo kuub yeri, a ngobi ka kamsa tuila” (If your mother is in the funeral house, you will eat hot bean cakes).”
Joe’s puzzled look made Immanuel explain, “If your mother is at the funeral house, then she will be helping to cook food to receive the visitors who arrive. Since she is your own mother, she will get some of the best bean cakes and give them to you when you arrive. So, honor and respect your parents, for they will be able to help you in the future.”
!is proverb revealed and a%rmed an important cultural value that may be a root to this particular situation - authorities should be honored when possible since they can help you. !is smacked against Joe’s sense of equality and egalitarianism. Shouldn’t all people be treated alike? A er all, aren’t they all equally created by God? While it is true that they were all created equally, Joe was also reminded that authorities are given by God and should be respected (Hebrews 13, which was not o en preached in his home
church). !is relationship with the teng nyono can be helpful to us later if we treat him properly.
Immanuel asked, “ !e teng nyono had not called this ban before; why was he doing this now? Many of the children in his house were coming to the church now; was he trying to indirectly stop them from attending by “arranging” an argument to discredit the church? !ere must be more that we do not yet know that we need to nd out. Perhaps, the teng nyono is trying to get our attention for some reason, and we need to nd out from him what it is.”
Only by entering into dialogue with the teng nyono was it later discovered that this was actually the case. Immanuel was astute to consider this. He was digging deep and asking the right questions to nd the roots.
Joe agreed, “ !e elders have said, “Jakpak kan chali kapiokapo kinla” ( e old man does not run in the valley for no reason). !ere must be an underlying meaning behind unusual or strange events.”
“If we take this issue too lightly, then this small problem can blow up into big problems later,” he continued. Gbeera, gbeera tintain alaa cheeri zuk” ( e stone children use to play with cuts the head). !e church in Southern Ghana realized this too late. !eir experience was a warning to humbly and patiently move forward with caution and not just respond with a knee-jerk reaction.
Joe and Immanuel were taking the time to dig to uncover some of the possible roots. By re%ecting on the culture, key cultural themes and issues were revealed. is was an important step in critical contextualization – identify the real root issues that need to be addressed. e next step is then to allow Scripture to evaluate each of these roots. Are there areas that Scripture either a&rms, modi$es, or rejects?
Joe and Immanuel also consulted with a pastor in another neighboring people group. He informed them that they also had the same issue some time ago. !eir solution was to talk with the teng noyno and use Scripture to explain about God and his control of the wind. “We cited Psalms 135:7 (also described in Jeremiah 51:16 and 10:13)”, explained the pastor, “where God “brings out the wind from his storehouses.” We told the teng nyono that the church would meet and pray to the God who controls the wind so that God will keep it in the storehouses during this period of time. A spiritual issue needs a spiritual response - use God’s power and Word to respond.”
Immanuel and Joe were beginning to realize that Scripture had a lot to say about the roots of this case. Joe was pondering other Scripture passages that he knew.
Joe explained, “It is interesting to read other passages that discuss Naawen’s control and use of wind. Naawen made the wind pass over the Earth during the &ood of Noah’s time in order for the water to withdraw (Genesis 8). Naawen also brought the east wind all day and night in order to bring the locusts to plague Egypt (Exodus 10).”
Immanuel added in, “Yes. Naawen also sent the eastern wind to divide the Red Sea so that the Israelites could escape from the Egyptians, and then Naawen sent the wind again to cover the Egyptians in the Red Sea (Exodus 14-15). Do you remember how Naawen also sent wind to bring manna and quail to the Israelites in the wilderness (Numbers 11)?”
Joe was getting excited as well. He had never discussed God’s use and control of the wind in seminary, but now it was the most pressing, relevant, and interesting topic for this case. When Joe and Immanuel returned home that day, they looked in a concordance to see other Scripture portions that dealt with Naawen’s use of wind.
“Job discusses how Naawen quiets the earth by the south wind and controls the clouds (Job 37:14-17),” Joe observed. “Naawen also causes the east wind to blow in heaven and Naawen’s power brings in the south wind (Psalm 78:26). Naawen even walks upon the wings of the wind (Psalm 104:3), speaks and raises up the wind (Psalm 147:18, 107:25), and has gathered up the wind in his sts (Proverbs 30:4).”
Immanuel joined in, “Look here. Naawen created the wind (Amos 4:13). Naawen uses the wind to bring judgment (Jonah 1:4, 4:8; Hosea 13:15; Ezekiel 13:13). Naawen speaks to the wind to restore the dry bones (Ezekiel 37). Yezu even demonstrates his command over the wind as he speaks to it and it obeys (Matthew 14:32), and when Yezu gets in the boat, the wind ceases (Mark 6:51). Lastly, the book of Revelations describes the angels as holding back the wind from the earth for a period of time (7:1).”
Joe concluded, “Naawen Wani gives a picture of Naawen’s authority and control of the wind that I never considered before. It certainly was not a part of the systematic theology that I learned in seminary!” !rough the engagement of the Scripture with this cultural issue, a new understanding and appreciation of God was realized. Perhaps this would be news that is both good and new to the teng nyono.
Immanuel and Joe also discussed the story in Luke 19:37-44. In this passage, the disciples were worshiping Yezu as he arrived in Jerusalem but the Pharisees requested that Yezu tell them to stop. Yezu replied that, even if he tells them to stop, the rocks will cry out to praise Naawen. !ey discussed this passage and its relevance to their present context.
Immanuel noted, “Naawen will receive praise from creation. Even if Naawen’s people do not cry out, the rocks will cry out and praise him. Perhaps, we should tell the teng nyono that we will let
22 Akali Nya the rocks cry out and worship Naawen while we let the drum rest for this period of time.”
!at was a radical suggestion. !ey would have never come to that point unless they had taken the e ort to dig to the root issues and then engage them with Scripture. !ey were now ready to meet with the others on Friday night and discuss some of these root issues.
Before the Friday meeting, let us re%ect on what has been happening. Note how this case falls into the “excluded middle.” Joe had never discussed God’s use of and control of wind in any of his seminary training. He never learned about the teng nyono either. As a result, he did not know how Scripture could address the case. It was not until they started to dig to the roots that they realized how Scripture does speak powerfully to the case. Once the roots are discovered, then a spiritual response can be given. Note how the pastor stated, “Spiritual issues need spiritual responses.” at is certainly true in this case, as well as in many other “excluded middle” cases.
By digging to the roots of the case, they identi$ed issues of honor/respect, God’s use of wind, blessing on the land, and other underlying issues that need to still be discovered. Discussions at this level can get to the heart of the matter leading to a wellinformed response.
Notice how the Buli Scripture is the “interpreter of culture and tradition”6 since it provides the clearest revelation of God in culture. e role of the mother tongue Scripture is key to forming a Christian response. Also, note how the emic (insiders) perspectives on Scripture are helpful. ey used their indigenous proverbs to reason through the case and help them understand the root issues.
6 Kwame Bediako, “Gospel and Culture: Guest Editorial,” Journal of African Christian !ought 2, no. 2 (1999): P. 1.
e etic (outsiders) perspectives on culture were also helpful. Joe’s knowledge of the church in Southern Ghana provided helpful insight for the Builsa context. Also, since the pastors in neighboring people groups already dealt with this situation before, their input was also helpful. It was through this interaction that they $rst learned that an underlying issue was the wind and protection of the crops. is also enlarged their understanding about the role of the teng nyono and how he can exert control in a community.
When this etic perspective was coupled with the emic perspective, both Joe and Immanuel were able to gain insight that was far beyond what they anticipated. is would be very helpful for the pastors’ meeting on Friday night. Let us proceed to that meeting and see what happened.
Missiological Transformation
When Friday came, they all met to discuss what they learned and how Naawen had spoken to them. !rough the process of engaging the Scripture with culture, the Holy Spirit began to reveal an understanding and appreciation of both the Scripture and culture in areas they had not considered before. !e attitude of the meeting exhibited much greater unity than the previous Sunday. Everyone shared what they had learned that week. A er Immanuel and Joe shared, there was a long pause . . .
David broke the silence, “I did not realize that one of the issues was the wind and that the teng nyono was trying to do what he could to help the crops be bountiful. I was too critical of the culture at rst, and I did not allow Naawen Wani to speak to the core issues. I had never considered Naawen’s use of the wind to do his purposes, and I doubt that the teng nyono knows this either. In addition, Naawen Wani speaks a lot about blessing the land, and
24 Akali Nya
the church can play a big role in prayer to seek God’s blessing on the crops.”
David was moving away from his former position of rejection. He was taking the culture more seriously and understanding the core issues. He also was open to learning new aspects of Scripture that he overlooked before.
Ko , who represented the other position of acceptance, was also moving more towards the middle, “I understand more now. !e teng nyono is looking to the ancestors to provide blessing on the land. !is will likely involve sacri cing animals. We should not accept that since Yezu is the sacri ce that Naawen provided for us. We should be more critical of the culture and show the teng nyono from Naawen Wani how Yezu is the mediator between the Builsa and Naawen.” Ko was taking Naawen Wani more seriously and also critiquing culture more.
A er lengthy discussion, it was agreed they all go together and visit the teng nyono on Saturday morning. !ey would approach him and ask him to explain why this ban was occurring since they did not understand how the ban originated, why it originated, etc. !ey hoped that the dialogue would reveal what was behind the drum ban. !en, they could engage the mother tongue Scripture to facilitate dialogue and understanding.
As they gathered the next morning, the mood was tense. Would the teng nyono accept them? Was he planning a surprise for them? Questions like this raced through their heads. Immanuel spoke up, “We do not know how we will be received. !e Holy Spirit has been speaking to us this week. Let us pray for him to go before us and guide us in our dialogue.” !is suggestion was well received.
When they arrived at the teng nyono’s house, he received them and freely discussed why the ban was in e ect. He explained, “ !is is a kisuk (taboo) from our ancestors. I did not originate it and I do not know who started it. I am only there to obey it. Our
ancestors started this kisuk in order to help get a good crop so that we can have health.”
Pastor David asked, “Our churches have met for several years now and we have never heard of this. Why are we rst hearing of it now?”
!e teng nyono hesitated for a moment. He then con ded, “A teng nyono from another area came to me and asked why I am not enforcing the ban in my area. He pointed out that the church is close by my house and I have said nothing. If I can not do what I am supposed to do in my area, how can they do so in their area?”
!is revealed a hidden but important insight into the teng nyono’s conscience - he had to save face in the sight of his spiritual colleagues. If the church leaders did not obey the ban, then the teng nyono would be obligated to act against them - not because of anger against them necessarily, but in order to save face. If they would agree to his ban (even for a short time), then he would save face. !is was an important consideration. !e church leaders had to show humility and respect his authority in some way so that he could save face.
Another important point in speaking to the conscience of the teng nyono was that he was responsible for the success of the crop. It was important for him to do what he could to ensure a blessing on the crop. If he did not do what he could, then he could be held responsible for negligence. !is was another important consideration concerning his conscience.
“We can help ask for Naawen’s blessing on the land,” o ered Ko . We too are concerned about the harvest and we know where Naawen keeps the wind.”
!e Teng nyono leaned forward and listened intently.
Ko explained how Naawen kept the wind in his storehouse, and how he would open the storehouse to do what he wanted. !is
Akali Nya
was all new information to the teng nyono. He was shocked that Naawen Wani was in his language and that it spoke about the concerns that were extremely relevant to him. Gradually, he came to see that we could help him do his job since we too were concerned about the harvest in the community. We could help him in ensuring a blessing on the land by calling on the church to pray for Naawen, the one who kept the wind in his storehouse, to intervene. !e teng nyono was hearing good news.
He was about to hear more.
Immanuel shared, “When I followed Yezu, he changed my life and lled me with his blessing. !at is why I go to church and drum. I want to worship Naawen, thank Naawen, and ask his blessing on the Builsa area. !e elders have said, “Vanchoa kan kum vanchoa a yaali nin nyiam a kpieri” (A friend will always nd tears to cry at a friend’s funeral). When you hear of a friend’s death, you are touched so deeply that you spontaneously cry at his funeral (you do not have to force yourself to bring tears to show your sorrow). It is the same way with Yezu. He has touched my life so deeply that I spontaneously want to praise and worship Naawen.”
!e teng nyono was speechless. He knew Immanuel and he could see the changes in his life. !e teng nyono knew that some of the people that attended church were not like him, but he could not deny what he saw in Immanuel.
Joe then opened the Buli Bible and read the passage in Luke 19 about people praising Yezu and being told to stop, whereupon Yezu replied how the rocks will cry out in praise to Naawen.
!e teng nyono was speechless. !at sounded very similar to his situation. How could this book in his own language talk about his very own pressing issues –asking the church members to not make noise and stopping the worship? Even though several of his children were in the church, he still had not understood why
they were there and what relevance it had for their lives. He was beginning to understand for the rst time.
!e dialogue went back and forth, until nally David concluded, “It is our intention to bless the land and not curse it. !at is why we do the drumming. Instead of looking to the ancestors to help, we will pray in the churches for Naawen, the one who controls the wind, to keep it in his storehouse during this time. Out of respect for you, Baba, we will stop drumming and let the rocks sing praise to Naawen.”
Teng Nyono’s Response
!e teng nyono smiled widely and the atmosphere was free and light-hearted. !e teng nyono then explained, “I did not know these things before. I did not know why you drummed in church and I did not know why you did not like the drum ban. I thought that you were just being stubborn and disrespectful of the elders.”
Now it was the church leaders turn to be silent, as well as surprised.
!e teng nyono said in closing, “We are very appreciative of your coming. May Naawen bless you all. We too will send a message back to the other teng nyonos that you are also helping the land and not destroying it. !ank you once again.”
“Would you like us to pray to Naawen for you and our crops now?” asked Ko .
He agreed and Immanuel prayed.
As we rose to leave, Joe said to the teng nyono jokingly, “When you come to understand who Yezu is one day, then you will also want to drum and dance to give Him praise!”
With a smile on his face, the tenh nyone replied, “I may come to church one day.”
!ey all departed on good terms. When the church leaders le the teng nyono, they gathered in the church to pray and also gathered again on Monday night to pray. !at Sunday, all of the churches let the drums rest. !e church leaders explained to the churches the reason for not drumming, and they worshipped Naawen in song and dance the best that we could. !e churches also prayed for the harvest, which turned out ne that year. they still did not know how long the ban would be in place so they continued to pray.
!ree days a er meeting with the teng nyono, he sent a message to the church leaders that the ban was now rescinded. !ey could drum again! !at was in time for the Wednesday service and for a wedding on Friday. !e wedding had plenty of dancing, singing and drumming. In addition, the teng nyono saved face among his peers and had a clear conscience that the churches were all doing their best to see Naawen’s blessing on the harvest. !e church and the teng nyono were pleased with the outcome.
Best of all, the drumming ban had opened a wide pathway for future dialogue, witness, and understanding between the church and the teng nyono that was not open before. On top of that, the church had learned a process to use in dealing with issues of culture and Scripture.
Rest of the story
A few months a er the drum ban was over, the teng nyono came to visit the Immanuel’s house and said, “I remembered our conversation about how the church wanted to bring Naawen’s blessing on the land. I have seen how the church helps communities to dig and line wells for clean drinking water. We have a problem with water also. Can the church help us with a well in my area?”
Immanuel was shocked and also elated. !e teng nyono, one of the most powerful men in the community, was coming to the church with his problems. Since the church humbly sought his help
previously, he humbled himself as well to ask help from the church to solve this community problem.
Immanuel explained, “We will help you, Baba, to help our people.”
!e dialogue between the church and the teng nyono created by the drum ban was still ongoing. While the teng nyono did not come to church right away, he gained a much better understanding of why the church is there and how it can bless his people and land. Now that is something to drum about!
A year or so later, the teng nyono fell sick. Guess who he came to for help? He asked the church to come to his house and pray for him so that Naawen would make him healthy again.
!e church agreed and gathered at his house to pray for him. He later became well.
A few weeks later, the teng nyono was preparing to take a trip down South. He was nervous about the trip and he called on Immanuel to come and pray for his safe journey and return.
Missiological Re!ection
Consider the issues that are being dealt with – health, blessing on the crop, safety on a journey. ese are all “excluded middle” issues. Previously, the teng nyono would not look to the church for help for these spiritual issues. Now, he turns to them. e church responds in a way that is culturally relevant and Scripturally faithful, and God responds. How did we get to this point?
ere are no easy answers or quick formulas for dealing with issues like the banning of drums in Ghana. e common default responses of rejection or acceptance limit the discussion and creative energy that could be released by the Holy Spirit. When discussing historical mission practices in Africa on issues such as
Akali Nya
polygamy, bride wealth, circumcision, etc., Hastings points out that, rather than being an obstacle, in the long run, these issues have been an instrument to focus on what being African and Christian means. He concludes, “Christianity has o en thrived upon internal argument.”7 In other words, authentic expressions of African Christianity thrive upon the arguments (dialogue) created when Scripture and culture are critically engaged.
In analyzing the narrative, several key elements emerge. First of all, note how the process was facilitated by the catalysts, Joe and Immanuel. ey were the ones who called the leaders together. If not, the church leaders would have likely remained in their initial positions of acceptance or rejection. e catalysts also facilitated the process by consulting with others outside the group. ey were able to provide the etic (outside) perspective through this interaction with church leaders from other people groups who were removed from the original context. In this case, the two catalysts, Joe and Immanuel were ideal since Immanuel could o!er the emic (inside) perspective while Joe added the etic perspective. At any rate, these two catalysts were crucial to the entire process.
is narrative also shows the importance of involving a group in the process of contextualization. is hermeneutical community will listen to various voices. Most of these voices will be local, but others may be regional or international (consider the role that the mission played, as well as church leaders in the region). Critical contextualization is not the work of a few in the academic world; rather, it can be conducted by grassroots church leaders as they gather in a hermeneutical community. It is in this community that the Holy Spirit o en speaks.
7 Adrian Hastings, !e Church in Africa: 1450-1950, ed. Henry and Owen Chadwick, Oxford History of the Christian Church Series (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1994), 322.
e role of the Holy Spirit can not be under emphasized. Contextualization does not depend on the creativity or scholarship of people; rather, contextualization is a work of the Holy Spirit as he operates in the lives of Christians. Schreiter states, “ e Holy Spirit, working in and through the believing community, gives shape and expression to Christian experience.”8 Acknowledging this promotes a humility that God is at work in other Christian’s lives, regardless of their education levels, positions, experience, etc.
By facilitating the critical engagement of both the Scripture and culture, contextualization occurs that produces “contextualized expressions of the gospel so that the gospel itself will be understood in ways the universal church has neither experienced nor understood before.”9 e drum ban then is no longer regarded as a thorny cultural issue to be ignored; rather, it is a growth opportunity for the universal church.
Conclusion is case study revealed several necessary ingredients to promote contextualization. By way of summary, these include:
1. ere must be a deep conviction that the mother tongue Scripture is the word of God that is the ultimate “interpreter of culture and tradition”10 since it provides the clearest revelation of God in culture.
2. Space and time are needed for the Holy Spirit to speak to the issues of Scripture and culture, realizing that the Holy Spirit
8 Robert J. Schreiter, Constructing Local !eologies (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1985; reprint, Ninth), 16.
9 Darrell L. Whiteman, “Contextualization: e eory, the Gap, the Challenge,” International Bulletin of Missionary Research 21, no. 1 (1997): 4.
10 Bediako, "Gospel and Culture: Guest Editorial," 1.
is more interested in this process than we are since it ultimately reveals the glory of God.
3. Humility must be paramount in order to accept our limited understanding of both Scripture and culture. is motivates one to be open to learning about areas of Scripture that have been overlooked. In addition, it persuades one to learn from the culture via the people, proverbs, and powers such as the teng nyono, etc.
4. Contextualization is best done in a hermeneutical community. is includes listening to the local, regional, and global church, as well as those within the culture who are the repositories of sacred wisdom or authority. Both the etic and emic perspectives provide valuable insight for contextualization.
5. Cases like the drumming ban become part of the local church history that can be drawn upon for future understanding. ese need to be recorded to help guide the church family of tomorrow.
6. Catalysts are helpful to initiate and sustain the contextualization process. ey are instrumental in drawing together the stakeholders, going outside the group for wider perspectives, and patiently guiding the group to informed consensus instead of reacting with the knee-jerk responses of total acceptance or total rejection.
Chapters Ahead
e chapters that follow provide case studies of intercultural discipleship. Students identify an excluded middle issue and then provide an initial approach to address them using the process of critical contextualization. Note that some of the names of the students are pseudonyms to maintain privacy. It is hoped that these chapters will provide both insight and inspiration for disciple makers. Please read these chapters in the spirit they were
written – they are not complete; rather, these are initial attempts to identify and address particular discipleship needs.
ose that read these chapters may be reminded of discipleship needs in their own cultures. If that occurs, then the writing of this book will be a success. If you take the next steps to engage excluded middle issues in your own culture, then we would like to hear from you. I hope these case studies spark a missional imagination for your own further steps in intercultural discipleship.
Chapter 2
Gender Inequality in Indian Churches
By: Ajay and Pratyasha
Introduction
Gender discrimination in Indian churches is a complicated phenomenon shaped by colonial legacy, traditional patriarchal structures, and shi ing societal norms. Despite being regarded as pillars of morality and equality, these institutions demonstrate gender inequality in leadership, gendered rituals, and traditional gender roles. is issue undermines the principles of equality and social inequalities within Christian communities. Understanding this issue necessitates an examination of historical context, current practices, and the systems of oppression of caste, class, and ethnicity. is study aims to contribute to a better understanding of gender inequality and to enhance dialogue about greater equality, fairness and justice.
Focus on Indian churches and their signi cance in society
Indian churches, representing various Christian denominations, hold signi$cant religious and cultural power, in%uencing societal norms and values, including attitudes toward gender roles. Understanding gender dynamics in these institutions helps to challenge patriarchal norms. Churches also serve as socialization centres, reinforcing gender norms from an early age. Despite increased female participation, men continue to hold the majority of leadership positions in Indian churches. Women’s voices are frequently marginalized, and gender inequality within Indian churches intersects with other forms of marginalization, resulting in a clearer idea of marginalized groups.
Ajay and Pratyasha
Purpose of the paper and outline of key points
• Raise Awareness: Increase awareness and understanding of the prevalence and impact of gender inequality in Indian churches, both among members of these religious communities and in the general public.
• Investigate Manifestations: Look into the various manifestations of gender inequality in Indian churches, such as imbalances in leadership positions, gendered rituals, and restrictive gender roles.
• Highlight Impacts: Emphasize the social, psychological, and spiritual consequences of gender inequality for individuals in Indian churches, as well as the broader implications for societal attitudes toward gender.
• Advocate for Change: Propose strategies and recommendations to challenge patriarchal structures and promote gender equality in Indian churches.
• Analyse Root Causes: Identify and examine the underlying causes of gender inequality in Indian churches, such as historical legacies, theological interpretations, and cultural expectations.
Phenomenological Study
Gender Inequality in Leadership Positions
a. Analysis of leadership roles within Indian churches
Indian churches have di!erent leadership roles as clergy, elders and committee members. It is observable that the main
Gender Inequality in Indian Churches | 37 leadership roles are male-dominated such as bishops and senior pastors.1
Clergy members within Indian churches serve as spiritual guides, pastoral caregivers, administrative leaders, and community advocates, playing integral roles in the religious and social life of their congregations and communities.
Clergy members serve as spiritual leaders within their congregations, providing guidance, teaching, and inspiration to their followers. ey are responsible for interpreting religious scriptures and doctrines, o!ering theological insights, and facilitating religious education programs. Clergy members o en deliver sermons or homilies during worship services, addressing moral, ethical, and spiritual issues relevant to the congregation. 2
One of the primary responsibilities of clergy members is pastoral care, which involves providing emotional support, counselling, and spiritual guidance to individuals and families within the congregation. ey o!er pastoral counselling to individuals facing personal challenges, crises, or grief, providing a listening ear and o!ering words of comfort and encouragement. Clergy members may also perform pastoral visits to hospitals, nursing homes, and homes of congregation members, o!ering prayers, sacraments and pastoral support to those in need.
Clergy members oversee the administration of sacraments and rituals within the church, including baptism, communion, marriage ceremonies, and funerals. ey conduct religious ceremonies and rituals according to the traditions and practices of their denomination, ensuring adherence to established liturgical norms and theological principles. Clergy members play a central role in celebrating religious festivals and observances,
1 Asongla Pongen, Challenges and Issues of Gender-Based Violence: A Christian Education Perspective (Delhi: Christian World Imprints, 2020). 2 Pongen.
38 Ajay and Pratyasha leading congregational worship and facilitating spiritual growth and renewal.
Clergy members o en hold leadership positions within the governance structures of the church, such as pastor, priest, or bishop. ey participate in decision-making processes related to church administration, $nance, and strategic planning, collaborating with lay leaders and congregational committees. Clergy members provide pastoral oversight and supervision to other sta! members, volunteers, and ministry leaders within the church community.
Clergy members engage with the broader community beyond the church walls, participating in interfaith dialogue, social justice initiatives, and community outreach programs. ey advocate for social justice, human rights, and equality, addressing issues of poverty, discrimination, and injustice within society. Clergy members may collaborate with local organizations, government agencies, and other religious institutions to address community needs and promote the common good.
Role as an elder- Elders within Indian churches play vital roles in providing spiritual leadership, governance, pastoral care, discipleship, and con%ict resolution within the congregation. rough their faithful service and dedication, elders contribute to the health, unity, and growth of the church community.
Elders are tasked with providing spiritual guidance and oversight to the congregation, ensuring adherence to biblical principles and the church’s doctrinal beliefs. Elders participate in prayer, the study of scripture and discernment processes to seek God’s will for the church’s direction and ministry focus. Elders o!er pastoral support and encouragement to both clergy members and congregation members, fostering spiritual growth and maturity within the church community.
Elders serve as members of the church’s governing body, o en referred to as the elder board, session, or council. ey collaborate with clergy members and other church leaders in making decisions related to church administration, $nance, strategic planning, and policy development. Elders provide oversight of the church’s mission and vision, ensuring alignment with its core values and objectives.
Elders are called to serve as shepherds or spiritual leaders within the congregation, modelling Christ-like humility, integrity, and compassion. ey cultivate a culture of care and accountability within the church, overseeing pastoral care ministries and ensuring that the needs of the congregation are met. Elders o!er pastoral counselling, support, and guidance to individuals and families facing spiritual, emotional, or relational challenges.
Elders are responsible for promoting spiritual growth and discipleship among the congregation, providing opportunities for learning, growth, and service. ey oversee the development and implementation of discipleship programs, small groups, and educational initiatives to help members deepen their faith and knowledge of scripture. Elders equip and empower congregation members to use their spiritual gi s and talents for the edi$cation of the body of Christ and the advancement of God’s kingdom.
Elders exercise pastoral authority and oversight in matters of church discipline and con%ict resolution. ey uphold the church’s standards of conduct and address issues of sin, misconduct, or relational con%ict within the congregation. Elders seek to promote reconciliation, restoration, and healing among members, guided by principles of biblical justice, grace, and mercy.
Role as a committee member - Committee members within Indian churches play crucial roles in supporting the operational,
40 Ajay and Pratyasha
administrative, and ministry functions of the church, contributing to its e!ectiveness, vitality, and impact within the congregation and the wider community.
Committee members contribute to the planning and execution of worship services, including music selection, order of worship, and coordination of liturgical elements. ey work closely with clergy members and worship leaders to ensure that worship services are conducted by the church’s traditions, beliefs, and values. Committee members may assist in recruiting and training volunteers for worship ministries, such as music teams, ushers, greeters, and audio-visual technicians.
Committee members play a role in communicating church news, events, and announcements to the congregation and the broader community. ey may oversee the church’s communication channels, such as newsletters, bulletin boards, social media, and website updates, ensuring timely and accurate information dissemination. Committee members may also be involved in outreach e!orts to engage with newcomers, visitors, and community partners, promoting the church’s mission and inviting others to participate in its ministries and activities.
Committee members participate in governance processes, serving as representatives of the congregation and providing input on important decisions a!ecting the church’s direction and priorities. ey attend committee meetings, contribute to discussions, and vote on matters such as policy changes, strategic planning, and leadership appointments. Committee members collaborate with clergy members, elders, and other leaders to ensure transparency, accountability, and integrity in decisionmaking processes.
Women in the church o en face several barriers when attempting to access leadership positions. ese barriers can be rooted in cultural, historical, theological, and organizational factors. Here are some common barriers faced by women in accessing leadership positions in the church:
1. Traditional Gender Roles: Many churches adhere to traditional interpretations of scripture that assign speci$c gender roles, with men o en perceived as the primary leaders and decision-makers. is traditional view may limit opportunities for women to serve in leadership roles, as they may be seen as un$t or unauthorized to hold positions of authority.
2. Patriarchal Structures: Some churches operate within patriarchal structures that prioritize male leadership and authority. ese structures may perpetuate gender bias and discrimination, making it challenging for women to break into leadership positions or be taken seriously as leaders.
3. eological Misinterpretations: Certain theological interpretations may be used to justify the exclusion of women from leadership positions. Misinterpretations of biblical passages or theological doctrines may reinforce gender stereotypes and restrict women’s roles within the church hierarchy.
4. Implicit Bias: Unconscious bias against women may exist within the church culture, in%uencing perceptions of women’s capabilities and suitability for leadership roles. is bias may manifest in hiring practices, promotion decisions, and opportunities for leadership development.
5. Lack of Representation: When women are underrepresented in leadership positions within the church, it can create a self-perpetuating cycle of exclusion. Without visible role models and mentors, women may struggle to envision themselves in leadership roles and may face scepticism or resistance when seeking to advance.
6. Limited Access to Education and Training: In some contexts, women may have limited access to theological education and leadership training opportunities. is lack of access to resources and support can hinder women’s ability to develop the skills and quali$cations necessary for leadership positions within the church.
7. Cultural and Societal Expectations: Cultural norms and societal expectations regarding women’s roles and responsibilities may intersect with church teachings, creating additional barriers to women’s leadership. Women may face pressure to prioritize family and caregiving duties over pursuing leadership roles within the church.
8. Institutional Policies and Practices: Institutional policies and practices within the church may inadvertently or intentionally exclude women from leadership positions. ese policies may include requirements for ordination, eligibility criteria for leadership roles, or limitations on women’s participation in decision-making bodies.
Addressing these barriers requires intentional e!orts to challenge gender stereotypes, promote inclusive theology, address structural inequalities, provide equitable opportunities for leadership development, and empower women to fully participate in the life and ministry of the church.
In the heart of Uttar Pradesh, amidst the bustling streets and the tranquil villages, there lived a woman named Jyoti. Her spirit burned bright with devotion, and her calling led her to the pulpit. Reverend Jyoti, as she came to be known, was a beacon of faith in her community.
From a young age, Jyoti felt a stirring within her soul, a calling to serve a higher purpose. Despite facing opposition from her conservative family, she pursued her education with determination, studying theology and scripture with fervor. Her faith was unshakeable, and her passion for spreading the teachings of love and compassion was unwavering.
As she grew older, Jyoti felt the tug of leadership within her heart. She longed to guide her congregation, to o er them solace in times of hardship and hope in times of despair. But in a society steeped in tradition, the idea of a woman leading a church was met with resistance.
Undeterred, Jyoti persisted. She attended seminary, honing her skills and deepening her understanding of theology. She immersed herself in the scriptures, nding strength and inspiration in the stories of women who had de ed societal norms to answer their calling.
When the opportunity arose for Jyoti to take on a leadership role in her local church, she faced erce opposition. Some questioned her authority, citing centuries-old traditions that relegated women to subordinate roles within the church. Others doubted her capabilities, unable to fathom a woman guiding them in matters of faith.
But Jyoti refused to be silenced. With grace and determination, she confronted her detractors, challenging their preconceived notions and proving herself worthy of the mantle of leadership. She preached
44 Ajay and Pratyasha with conviction, her words resonating with the congregation as she spoke of love, acceptance, and the transformative power of faith.
Slowly but surely, hearts began to so en, minds began to open. !rough her compassion and unwavering dedication, Jyoti earned the respect and admiration of her community. She became a source of inspiration, not only for women but for all who dared to defy the constraints of tradition and embrace a vision of a more inclusive and compassionate world.
Years passed, and Reverend Jyoti’s in&uence continued to grow. She became a trailblazer, paving the way for other women to follow in her footsteps. Her legacy extended far beyond the walls of her church, touching the lives of countless individuals who had been upli ed by her message of hope and redemption.
And though she faced opposition at every turn, Reverend Jyoti stood rm in her faith, a shining example of the power of perseverance and the triumph of the human spirit. In the end, her light could not be dimmed, for she was Rev. Jyoti, a beacon of faith, guiding her community towards a brighter, more inclusive future.
Despite the challenges she faced, Reverend Jyoti remained steadfast in her commitment to her calling. She engaged in dialogue with those who opposed her, patiently explaining her vision for the church and the importance of inclusive leadership. She sought support from allies within the congregation, rallying them behind her cause and enlisting their help in breaking down barriers.
As Jyoti’s reputation grew, so too did the number of her supporters. Women and men alike were inspired by her courage and determination, and they stood by her side as she faced down those who sought to undermine her. Together, they formed a united front, determined to see Jyoti’s vision realized and her leadership recognized.
But even as the tide began to turn in her favor, Jyoti never lost sight of the bigger picture. She knew that her struggle was not just about her own ambitions or aspirations—it was about challenging the status quo and reshaping the very fabric of society. And so, she continued to ght, not just for herself, but for all those who had been marginalized and silenced by tradition.
In the end, Jyoti’s perseverance paid o . Slowly but surely, the walls of resistance began to crumble, and she found herself welcomed with open arms into the leadership fold of her church. It was a moment of triumph, not just for Jyoti, but for all those who had supported her along the way.
Today, Reverend Jyoti stands as a shining example of what can be achieved when one refuses to be bound by the limitations imposed by society. She continues to lead her congregation with grace and compassion, inspiring others to follow in her footsteps and challenging them to dare to dream of a world where all are equal and all are welcome.
Ontological Critique
e issue of gender discrimination is real for Rev. Jyoti. is problem is general and severe in Indian Churches.
Leadership Representation in Denominational Bodies:
a. Leadership Positions in the Catholic Church: In the Catholic Church, women are generally excluded from ordained leadership roles such as priests and bishops. While women may serve in various lay leadership positions within Catholic parishes, they are o en underrepresented in decision-making bodies and higher leadership positions within the church hierarchy. Despite the signi$cant contributions of women to the church’s ministries and activities, the top leadership positions, including the priesthood and episcopacy, remain reserved exclusively for
46 Ajay and Pratyasha men. is gender disparity re%ects traditional interpretations of Catholic theology and canon law regarding the male-only priesthood.
b. Representation in Protestant Denominations: Within Protestant denominations in India, gender disparities in leadership positions vary widely depending on theological and cultural contexts. In more conservative denominations, women may face signi$cant barriers to accessing leadership roles due to traditional interpretations of scripture and gender roles. For example, in some evangelical churches, women may be limited to serving in supportive roles such as women’s ministry leaders or children’s ministry coordinators, while men occupy positions of authority such as senior pastors and elders.
In contrast, some progressive Protestant denominations actively promote gender equality and inclusive leadership practices, allowing women to serve in a wide range of leadership roles, including clergy positions.
c. Leadership Opportunities in Indigenous Churches: In Indigenous Christian communities in India, gender disparities in leadership positions may re%ect cultural norms and traditional practices. While women may play signi$cant roles in spiritual practices and community life, their participation in formal leadership positions may be limited.
For example, in tribal churches, men may dominate leadership roles such as pastors, elders, and church council members, while women may be relegated to supportive roles or excluded from formal leadership structures altogether.
E!orts to promote gender equality and women’s leadership within Indigenous churches o en involve challenging cultural norms, providing theological education and leadership training for women, and advocating for inclusive governance structures.
ese case studies illustrate the complex dynamics of gender disparities in leadership within Indian churches, in%uenced by theological interpretations, cultural traditions, and institutional structures. Addressing these disparities requires intentional e!orts to challenge patriarchal norms, promote inclusive theology, and create opportunities for women to fully participate and lead within the church community.
Discrimination is visible in the Leadership Representation in Denominational Bodies:
In many denominational bodies in India, men dominate leadership positions such as bishops, moderators, and general secretaries, while women are signi$cantly underrepresented in these roles. For example, in the Church of South India (CSI), one of the largest Protestant denominations in India, women have historically been excluded from holding the position of bishop, despite constituting a signi$cant portion of the clergy and laity.
A. Limited Women’s Ordination:
In certain denominations within Indian Christianity, women’s ordination to the priesthood or pastorate may be restricted or controversial. For instance, in some conservative denominations, theological interpretations that prioritize male leadership and authority have led to resistance against ordaining women as pastors or priests, resulting in limited opportunities for women to serve in formal leadership roles within the church.
B. Gendered Leadership Expectations:
Within Indian churches, there may be gendered expectations regarding the types of leadership roles deemed suitable for men and women. For example, women may be encouraged to serve in supportive or auxiliary roles, such as women’s ministry leaders or Sunday school teachers, while men are more o en promoted
48 Ajay and Pratyasha to positions of authority and decision-making, such as elders or church board members.
C. Disparities in Pastoral Compensation and Recognition:
Studies have shown disparities in pastoral compensation and recognition based on gender within Indian churches. Male clergy members may receive higher salaries, better bene$ts, and greater recognition for their leadership contributions compared to their female counterparts, re%ecting broader societal norms and biases regarding gender and work.
D. Underrepresentation in Decision-Making Bodies:
Women are o en underrepresented in decision-making bodies within Indian churches, such as elder boards, church councils, and synod assemblies. is underrepresentation can result in a lack of diversity in perspectives and experiences, as well as limited opportunities for women to in%uence policies, practices, and priorities within the church.
ese examples highlight the gender disparities that exist in leadership within Indian churches and underscore the need for intentional e!orts to address systemic barriers, challenge gender stereotypes, and promote gender equity and inclusion in all levels of church leadership.
Gendered Practices and Beliefs
Impact of theological beliefs on gender roles
eological beliefs have a profound impact on gender roles within religious communities, including Indian churches. Here are some ways in which theological beliefs in%uence gender roles:
a. Interpretation of Sacred Texts:
e interpretation of religious texts, such as the Bible, plays a signi$cant role in shaping gender roles within religious communities. Di!erent theological interpretations may emphasize certain passages or teachings that reinforce traditional gender norms, such as the submission of women to men or the male headship of the household.
Some interpretations of biblical passages depict women as inherently inferior to men, emphasizing themes of submission, obedience, and subservience.3 ese interpretations o en draw on verses such as Ephesians 5:22-24, which instruct wives to submit to their husbands, and 1 Timothy 2:12, which prohibits women from teaching or having authority over men. Such interpretations reinforce patriarchal attitudes and norms, portraying women as subordinate and dependent on male authority.4
e cultural and historical context in which biblical texts were written is o en overlooked or ignored in interpretations that promote gender discrimination. Certain passages may re%ect the patriarchal norms and social structures of ancient Near Eastern societies, rather than prescribing timeless truths about gender relations.5
Ignoring the cultural context of biblical texts can lead to the perpetuation of harmful stereotypes and discriminatory practices that are inconsistent with the
3 Smith, John. Interpretations of Gender in Biblical Texts (New York: Academic Press, 2019), 45-46.
4 Ibid, 57.
5 Brown, Sarah. Cultural Context and Gender in Biblical Interpretation (Oxford: University Press, 2017), 115.
Ajay and Pratyasha
broader message of love, justice, and inclusion found throughout the Bible.6
b. Divine Intent and Design:
eological beliefs about the divine intent and design for humanity o en inform attitudes towards gender roles. Some theological perspectives assert that God created men and women with distinct roles and responsibilities based on their inherent di!erences, with men typically assigned roles of leadership and authority, and women assigned roles of nurturing and support.7
c. Doctrine of Complementarity:
e doctrine of complementarity, prevalent in many religious traditions, teaches that men and women are complementary beings, each possessing unique qualities and strengths that are intended to complement and support one another. is theological framework may justify gender di!erentiation in roles and responsibilities within the family, church, and society.8
d. e Fall and Sin:
eological beliefs about the Fall of humanity and the origins of sin may in%uence perceptions of gender roles and relationships. Some theological interpretations attribute the subordination of women to men as a consequence of the Fall, while others view gender hierarchy as part of God’s original design that was distorted by sin.9
6 Ibid., 122.
7 Johnson, Mary. !eological Perspectives on Gender Roles in Religious !ought (Cambridge: Cambriadge University Press, 2019), 45-46.
8 Smith, John. !eological Foundations of Gender Roles (New York: Oxford University Press, 2020), 78-79.
9 Brown, “Sarah. eological Perspectives on Gender and the Fall.” Journal of Religious Studies 45, no. 2 (2018): 215-230.
e.
Ecclesiological Views:
eological beliefs about the nature and structure of the church (ecclesiology) can impact gender roles within religious institutions. Some theological traditions uphold hierarchical models of church leadership, with men predominantly occupying positions of authority such as clergy, elders, and bishops, while women may be limited to supportive or auxiliary roles.10
f. Cultural Context and Interpretation:
It’s important to note that theological beliefs are o en interpreted and applied within speci$c cultural contexts, which may in%uence how gender roles are understood and practiced within religious communities. Cultural norms and practices may interact with theological teachings to shape attitudes towards gender, leading to diverse interpretations and expressions of gender roles.11
eological beliefs play a central role in shaping attitudes towards gender roles within religious communities, in%uencing how individuals understand their identities, relationships, and responsibilities as men and women. Understanding the impact of theological beliefs on gender roles is essential for promoting inclusive and equitable practices within religious institutions and fostering dialogue and re%ection on issues of gender justice and equality.
10 Johnson, Mary. “Ecclesiology and Gender Roles: A Comparative Analysis.” !eological Studies Quarterly 68, no. 3 (2019): 345-362.
11 Smith, John. “Cultural Dynamics in eological Interpretation of Gender.” Journal of Religion and Culture 22, no. 1 (2020): 45-62.
52 Ajay and Pratyasha
b. Limited access to eological Education
Jyoti’s passion for serving her community led her to dream of becoming a leader in her local church. But as a young woman in Indian Christianity, she faced a formidable barrier: limited access to theological education.
Undeterred, Jyoti embarked on a quest to pursue her calling. She scoured libraries for theological books, attended informal study groups, and sought out mentors who could o!er guidance. Yet, the absence of formal education le her feeling isolated and overlooked within her church community.
As Jyoti witnessed male counterparts ascending to leadership positions with ease, she grappled with frustration and disillusionment. She longed for a level playing $eld where her gender wouldn’t serve as a barrier to her ambitions.
Despite the challenges, Jyoti refused to surrender her aspirations. With determination and resilience, she became a vocal advocate for gender equality. rough her e!orts, she inspired conversations within her church, pushing for greater inclusivity and opportunities for women.
c. Resistance and Advocacy
a. E!orts to challenge gender inequality within Indian churches
Resistance and advocacy e!orts to challenge gender inequality within Indian churches have emerged from various individuals, groups, and organizations committed to promoting gender justice and equality. Here are some examples of such e!orts:
i. Women’s Empowerment Initiatives:
Women’s Groups: Women’s groups within Indian churches have played a crucial role in advocating for gender equality and empowering women to take on leadership roles and participate more fully in church life. ese groups may organize seminars, workshops, and retreats focusing on women’s issues, leadership development, and theological re%ection from a feminist perspective.
Women’s Conferences: Women’s conferences and conventions provide platforms for women to share their experiences, insights, and challenges related to gender inequality within Indian churches. ese gatherings o en feature speakers, panel discussions, and interactive sessions addressing topics such as women in ministry, gender-based violence, and intersectional feminism.
ii. eological Education and Training:
Gender-Sensitive Curriculum: eological institutions and seminaries in India are increasingly integrating gendersensitive curriculum and training programs into their theological education. ese initiatives aim to equip clergy, lay leaders, and students with the knowledge, skills, and theological perspectives needed to challenge patriarchal interpretations of scripture and promote gender equality within the church.
Gender Justice Workshops: Gender justice workshops and seminars provide opportunities for clergy and church leaders to engage in dialogue, re%ection, and advocacy around issues of gender inequality and discrimination. ese workshops may explore theological themes, biblical perspectives, and practical strategies for promoting gender justice within congregations and communities.
Ajay and Pratyasha
Role
Feminist theology and activism play signi$cant roles in challenging gender inequality within Indian churches and advocating for gender justice and equality. Here are some key aspects of their roles: Feminist theology o!ers a critical analysis of traditional theological interpretations and practices that perpetuate gender inequality within Indian churches. It challenges patriarchal readings of scripture and theological doctrines that prioritize male dominance and female subordination.
Feminist theologians reinterpret sacred texts, theological concepts, and religious traditions from a gender-inclusive perspective, highlighting the voices and experiences of women in the Bible and reclaiming the divine image and agency of women in religious narratives.
Rev. Jyoti took advantage of the biblical interpretations that interpret the text and show that man and woman are equal in the eyes of God. She took the help of local Bible study groups and personal Bible readings.
Critical Evaluation
Engagement with Local Bible Study Groups:
Jyoti actively participates in local Bible study groups, where she engages in discussions about various theological concepts, including gender roles and equality.
rough these group discussions, facilitated by knowledgeable leaders and attended by members of diverse backgrounds and perspectives, Jyoti gains exposure to alternative interpretations of biblical passages related to gender.
Self-Directed Bible Study:
Inspired by her interactions with the local Bible study groups, Jyoti embarks on a journey of self-directed Bible study. Armed with her Bible, commentaries, and study materials, she sets aside dedicated time each day to explore key passages and themes related to gender and equality.
Drawing upon her growing familiarity with biblical scholarship and her re%ections, Jyoti approaches the scriptures with an open mind and a critical eye, seeking to uncover deeper meanings and insights.
Discoveries and Insights:
As Jyoti delves deeper into the scriptures, she discovers numerous passages that challenge traditional gender norms and a&rm the inherent dignity, worth, and equality of men and women in the eyes of God.
She $nds verses such as Galatians 3:28, which declares, “ ere is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free, there is no male and female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus,” particularly resonant in challenging the prevailing notions of gender hierarchy and exclusion.
While interpretations of biblical passages regarding gender equality can vary, many scholars and believers point to several passages that a&rm the equal worth and dignity of women. Here are some Bible references o en cited in discussions of gender equality:
Galatians 3:28 (NIV):
“ !ere is neither Jew nor Gentile, neither slave nor free, nor is there male and female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus.”
is verse emphasizes the equality of all believers in Christ, regardless of gender, ethnicity, or social status.
56 Ajay and Pratyasha
Genesis 1:27 (NIV):
“So God created mankind in his own image, in the image of God he created them; male and female he created them.”
is verse underscores that both men and women are created in the image of God, signifying their equal value and dignity.
Corinthians 11:11-12 (NIV):
“Nevertheless, in the Lord woman is not independent of man nor is man independent of woman. For as woman came from man so also man is born of woman. But everything comes from God.”
is passage highlights the interdependence of men and women and a&rms their mutual signi$cance in the sight of God.
ough her journey was burdened with obstacles, Jyoti’s unwavering faith and stubbornness illuminated a path of hope for future generations of women in Indian Christianity. She became a beacon (insipre) of empowerment demonstrating that with courage and perseverance, even the most formidable barriers could be overcome.
Acts 18:24-26 (NIV):
e account of Priscilla and Aquila teaching Apollos demonstrates women’s active involvement in teaching and ministry within the early Christian community.
ese are just a few examples and there are many other passages and stories throughout the Bible that a&rm the equal worth, dignity and capabilities of men and women. Interpreting these passages in their historical and cultural contexts, as well as in light of the broader biblical narrative of redemption and
justice is essential for understanding their implications for gender equality.
(We are CREATED EQUALY, REDEEMED EQUALLY, and GIFTED EQUALLY, Gen 1:27)
Missiological Transformation
For Jyoti, who faced gender discrimination in Indian churches, the missiological transformation would involve a multifaceted process of personal growth, theological re%ection and community engagement aimed at challenging and transforming existing norms and structures within the church. Here are some key aspects of missiological transformation for Jyoti:
A. Empowerment through Education: Jyoti could focus on pursuing theological education and leadership training through alternative means, such as online courses, mentorship programs or self-study to enhance her knowledge and skills for ministry. By equipping herself with theological understanding and practical tools, she can assert her rightful place in church leadership.
B. Advocacy and Activism: Jyoti can engage in advocacy and activism within her church and broader community to raise awareness about gender discrimination and promote gender equality. is may involve organizing discussions, workshops or awareness campaigns on gender issues, as well as advocating for policy changes within the church to ensure equal opportunities for women in leadership.
i. Building Support Networks: Jyoti can seek out support networks of like-minded individuals both within and outside her church, who share her commitment to gender equality and can provide encouragement,
58 Ajay and Pratyasha
mentorship and solidarity. ese networks can o!er emotional support, practical advice and opportunities for collaboration and collective action.
ii. Cultivating Inclusive Leadership: Jyoti can strive to cultivate inclusive leadership practices within her sphere of in%uence whether it be within her church, community or ministry contexts. is may involve actively promoting the participation and leadership of women in decision-making processes, mentoring and empowering other women and challenging patriarchal attitudes and behaviours.
iii. eological Reimagination: Jyoti can engage in theological re%ection and reimagine theological frameworks that a&rm the equal worth and dignity of women. is may involve exploring alternative interpretations of scripture, reclaiming overlooked or marginalized voices in theological tradition, and developing theological resources that re%ect women’s experiences and perspectives.
iv. Community Engagement: Jyoti can actively engage with her church community to further dialogue, understanding and transformation around issues of gender discrimination. is may involve facilitating discussions, leading workshops or organizing community events that encourage re%ection, dialogue and action towards greater gender equality within the church.
Overall, missiological transformation for Jyoti involves a holistic process of personal, theological and communal growth aimed at challenging and transforming gender discrimination within Indian churches and advancing the cause of gender equality in ministry and leadership. rough her e!orts, Jyoti can become
a catalyst for change, inspiring others to join her in the journey towards a more inclusive and equitable church community. Jyoti’s journey of self-discovery and theological exploration leads to a profound transformation in her understanding of herself and her place within her religious community.
She realizes that God has created men and women equally and that they are both redeemed and gi ed equally by God’s grace. is realization $lls her with a sense of empowerment and purpose, motivating her to advocate for gender equality within her church and beyond.
Impact and Advocacy
Empowered by her newfound insights and convictions, Jyoti becomes an advocate for gender equality within her local church and community.
She shares her discoveries with others, leading discussions and study groups focused on promoting gender equality, challenging entrenched patriarchal norms, and fostering inclusive practices within the church.
Jyoti’s advocacy e!orts inspire dialogue, re%ection, and action within her religious community, contributing to a growing awareness of the importance of gender equality and the need for transformative change.
rough her engagement with local Bible study groups and self-directed study, Jyoti undergoes a journey of personal growth, spiritual enlightenment, and advocacy for gender equality within her religious community. Her story serves as a testament to the transformative power of education, re%ection, and collective action in challenging injustice and promoting inclusive practices within religious institutions.
Successes in advocating for gender equality
Advocates for gender equality within Indian churches have achieved signi$cant successes in challenging gender norms, promoting women’s leadership, and fostering greater inclusivity. However, they also encounter various challenges in their e!orts to advance gender justice. Here are some successes and challenges faced by advocates for gender equality:
Successes:
i) Increased Awareness and Dialogue:
Advocates have succeeded in raising awareness about gender inequality within Indian churches, sparking dialogue and re%ection on issues such as women’s representation in leadership, gender-based violence, and discriminatory practices.
Increased awareness has led to greater visibility of gender justice issues within religious communities and a growing recognition of the importance of addressing gender inequality in church settings.
ii) Policy Reforms and Institutional Changes:
Advocacy e!orts have led to the adoption of gender policies, guidelines, and statements by some denominations and church organizations in India, a&rming their commitment to gender equality and women’s empowerment.
Some churches have implemented institutional changes, such as promoting women to leadership positions, revising discriminatory practices, and providing support for women’s ministries and initiatives.
iii) Women’s Leadership Development:
Advocates have supported initiatives to develop women’s leadership within Indian churches, providing training,
mentorship, and networking opportunities for women clergy, lay leaders, and emerging leaders.
Increased investment in women’s leadership development has resulted in greater representation of women in leadership roles within churches and broader recognition of their contributions to ministry and community service.
iv) Grassroots Mobilization and Community Empowerment:
Grassroots movements and community-based initiatives have mobilized individuals and groups to challenge gender inequality within Indian churches from the bottom up. ese e!orts have empowered women and marginalized communities to advocate for their rights, access resources, and demand accountability from religious leaders and institutions.
Conclusion
Finally, Rev. Jyoti’s story from Uttar Pradesh, India demonstrates how determination and persistence can bring about signi$cant change, even in di&cult circumstances. Despite numerous challenges, Rev. Jyoti never abandoned her dream of leading a church. Rev. Jyoti de$ed stereotypes by working hard and demonstrating her abilities, proving that women can also be great church leaders. Her success inspired other women to pursue their goals and take on leadership positions. Rev. Jyoti’s journey teaches us that gender should not prevent anyone from doing what they are called to do. Her story encourages us to be more inclusive and fair in our churches, giving everyone the opportunity to lead and make a di!erence.
Pongen, Asongla. Challenges and Issues of Gender-Based Violence: A Christian Education Perspective. Delhi: Christian World Imprints, 2020.
Smith, John. “Interpretations of Gender in Biblical Texts.” New York: Academic Press, 2019.
Brown, Sarah. “Cultural Context and Gender in Biblical Interpretation.” Oxford: University Press, 2017.
Johnson, Mary. “ eological Perspectives on Gender Roles in Religious ought.” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019.
Smith, John. “ eological Foundations of Gender Roles.” New York: Oxford University Press, 2020.
Brown, Sarah. “ eological Perspectives on Gender and the Fall.” Journal of Religious Studies 45, no. 2 (2018): 215-230.
Johnson, Mary. “Ecclesiology and Gender Roles: A Comparative Analysis.” eological Studies Quarterly 68, no. 3 (2019): 345-362.
Smith, John. “Cultural Dynamics in eological Interpretation of Gender.” Journal of Religion and Culture 22, no. 1 (2020): 45-62.
Chapter 3
Re-entry from Commercial Sex Tra cking in Uganda
By Caroline Reel
Introduction
A group of women sprawled around a wicker table, variously disheveled in a comfortable familiarity. !ey listened attentively to a story from Zephaniah 3, in which God speaks to Israel like his own daughter, and promises that a er the consequences of her sin, he will purify and restore her. As the women processed the story in light of their own mental trauma and faith journey, we reached the verse, “!e Lord your God is with you, the Mighty Warrior who saves. He will take great delight in you; in his love he will no longer rebuke you, but he will rejoice over you with singing” (New International Version Study Bible, 2002, Zeph. 3:17). “Did you know that because God has forgiven you, you make him so happy he sings about you?,” we asked.
“Wait, read that part again!,” they said, pulling out Bibles in various languages to check for themselves; “You must have read it wrong.”!eir staring incredulity communicated more clearly than their words ever could. !ey simply could not believe a perfect God could ever be delighted in them, especially a er what they had done, especially with who they are.
ese women are the purpose behind this project, and those who minister to them or those like them are its audience. Fresh out of sex work, a group of 5-6 women like the group above walk through a hybrid discipleship and skills training program called White Stone every year in Kampala, Uganda. Many of the women who eventually graduate from the program become believers just
64 Caroline Reel before or during the early days of the program. ey are discipled throughout the program and then reintegrate into ‘normal’ life in hopes that they can $nancially support themselves and have developed a strong enough faith and community to sustain their walk with God. But when a recent graduate came with tears in her eyes and a stomach undeniably rounded with pregnancy to confess a sexual relationship with a man she wanted to marry, it became clear that the discipleship program could improve to better address ongoing issues the White Stone ladies deal with. By the end of their discipleship program, these women o en neither feel nor understand the dignity they carry as bearers of God’s image, and they are not su&ciently bonded with a supportive faith community to provide both the accountability and support they need to continue walking with God and away from addictions and temptations. is paper proposes two rituals to meet those discipleship needs—the $rst for induction into the White Stone discipleship program to mark the break with their old life and address the crisis experienced during the transition, and the second to pair with their graduation and encourage a deeper mutual bond with their church. To fully explain these rituals I will $rst give their context then explain their design, and $nish by describing the speci$cs of the ritual %ow and concluding with application points.
Context
Before diving into the proposed rituals, however, a little context can better illuminate the discipleship gap that needs $lling. I will follow this account of the physical socio-cultural context with an explanation of the root problems, the biblical context, and $nally the existing ritual context—all of which set the stage for the following discussions on the design of the ritual and the ritual itself. To begin then, the White Stone ladies themselves are typically a cohort of 5-6 women with di!erent
cultural, linguistic, ethnic, and religious backgrounds. ey vary from nominal Christians to folk Muslims, and generally all practice some form of their respective religions syncretized with local animistic practices. While they all live and have worked in Kampala, Uganda, most are not from the majority tribes in the area. e women are o en from marginalized Ugandan tribes or are refugees or internally displaced people (IDPs), and nearly all of them landed in sex work out of desperation and then saw no way out. Many experience heart change and begin faithfully following Jesus, attending church, and even evangelizing in their old red light district during the span of the discipleship and skills training program.
e White Stone program itself was started by an expatriate in Kampala, but now most of its daily teachings and operations are led by local believing women who are part of the church the White Stone ladies are welcomed into as they start the program. e students in the program begin almost immediately a er leaving their street work, and they are ‘employed’ in the White Stone program for six months to a year. ey attend classes every weekday during this period to learn marketable skills and basic business and savings practices, and they walk through an evangelism and discipleship program that includes among other things a Bible story-based trauma healing curriculum
Phenomenological Study & Ontological Critique
While many of these women truly decide to follow Jesus with their lives and deeply engage White Stone’s discipleship opportunities a er they leave prostitution, many of them practice what Moon calls a split-level Christianity—a byproduct of a discipleship gap that neglects intimate life issues in arenas where the physical world and spiritual realities overlap and interact. Split-level Christianity responds to this discipleship de$cit with a faith that seeks guidance from the church for weighty worldview
Caroline Reel questions and seeks guidance from pagan or secular healers and authorities for personal, practical, or intimate questions (Moon, 2017, pp. 27–31, 33–35). ese two sources of authority bifurcate a believer’s life and never mix, leaving the disciple with a fractured and inconsistent worldview rather than a holistic, biblical one. In the case of these women’s lives, their sexuality and desires to build biblical relational intimacy with a husband and a family are not addressed in enough detail in their current discipleship model. As a result, they do not know how to biblically address their mental and physical traumas, addictions, and the intimately vulnerable shattered dignity they bring with them from their pasts. None of the graduated women have turned back to prostitution so far, but the exclusion of these discipleship issues drives them to seek answers outside of the church community.
In his dissertation research, Imago Dei Interrupted, Timothy Robbins studied a similar phenomenon in an American context. He researched what obstacles women who had been commercially sexually exploited faced that kept them from %ourishing a er their graduation from rehabilitation programs grounded in Christian discipleship and reintegration into society (Robbins, 2022, p. 9). He $rst noted from a faith perspective the importance of discipleship in a rehabilitation program because freedom from something, such as sexual exploitation in the case of both his research and the current research, must entail freedom to something else; for women in these situations to truly %ourish they must experience the transformation inherent in evangelism and discipleship (pp. 6–7). He later con$rmed the validity of that faith-based assumption with his research (pp. 96-97, 223-226, 238-243), but also determined other factors that contribute to women’s successful reentry and thriving.
Among other $ndings, Robbins noted the necessity for women leaving sexual exploitation to $nd or build community in order to %ourish, because the life they le had a strong
community of its own that saw and accepted the worst in the women and will continue to manipulate and draw women back in if not replaced (2022, pp. 101–103). He noted in many cases that the healthy community women were able to successfully replace their old community with was either Christian friends or a church community, and that such community brought stability, unconditional love, and was not entangled with the oppressive structures of their previous communities (pp. 101-103, 230237). Robbins also noted that self-sabotage or return to poor decisions was a frequently occurring counterproductive factor to %ourishing in this context, and connected those behaviors to learned or acquired helplessness reinforced by years of habit (pp. 172, 176). He noted the women experienced a great deal of shame, regret, and self-loathing that motivated these poor decisions during their transition away from sex work and into a di!erent lifestyle: “If a woman holds little respect for herself, though, the impulse to punish herself for contaminating her own life and inhibiting future happiness may obliquely possess a rational basis” (Robbins, 2022, pp. 177–178). is lack of selfrespect was an important hurdle to %ourishing the women faced as they tried to reintegrate into society, and the women who did reintegrate well noted its counterpoint in a transformed life and identity, and the value they found in their relationship with God (pp 238-243).
e White Stone women clearly also face this lack of a healthy community that embraces them fully and low reserves of self-respect to hold them to the grueling course of change and lifestyle improvement. ese might even be considered the root problems which, unaddressed by their current discipleship, grew into the more visible sins and faltering steps in their walk with God a er graduation. Some still see themselves as so helpless and of so little value to their church, community, culture, and loved ones that they may submit to cultural pressures to ‘prove their fertility’ to a potential husband and become pregnant in an e!ort
to secure a spouse. And many still seek the comfort of deeply accepting community, alongside $nancial and domestic security, through emotionally or sexually intimate relationships with men.
Spiritually speaking, these concerns about fertility, security, a future spouse, and sexual ethics stem from the same roots of insu&cient community and disabling low self-respect. In biblical terms, the women neither understand nor feel their value and dignity as bearers of God’s image. Because of this they succumb to pressures to prove their worth in a myriad of relationships through sexual misconduct. And second, the women do not feel su&ciently bonded to supportive biblical community. is leaves a de$cit that gives them no explicitly o!ered, secure and trusted relationships to turn to for answers about sexual ethics or strength to withstand temptation. ese root issues have been le insu&ciently addressed by the women’s discipleship. is is the gap biblically inspired, culturally relevant rituals could $ll to better serve and prepare these women for reintegration into society. By physically embodying the women’s worth as daughters of the King, a ritual can elevate their dignity as precious bearers of the image of God. And ritually bonding them internally as a group and then to the church who receives them can embody and encourage the growth of the community they so desperately need.
Critical Evaluation
Scripture presents many ‘answers’ to these discipleship problems, but to de$ne them as ‘answers’ pigeonholes them into something more reductive than the expansive, integrated worldview of Scripture these women’s discipleship should be ever pulling them into alignment with. If this situational splitlevel Christianity separates the all-encompassing community and restored dignity these women need from their experiences at church an in the White Stone program, then the remedy is to
reunite into a whole what has been separated. And to do that, we must look at biblical symbols and themes that weave through the whole of Scripture and address community and dignity. If myths are the larger-than-life stories that give the narrative context to ground people in the cosmic spiritual truths they believe (Moon, 2017, pp. 77–78), then the biblical myths that address these issues make up the foundations these rituals must be built upon.
e Bible is full of repeated thematic story motifs and symbols that speak into this context and the women’s perceived loss of dignity and worth and the insu&cient supportive healing community. New, clean clothing is a symbol to one’s community of favor and restoration o en in the Bible. Jacob gives Joseph an ornate robe to show his favor in Genesis 37. Tamar wears another ornate robe in 2 Samuel 13 to show her honored position as a princess, and then tears the robe in distress to show that honor has been violated. In Zechariah’s vision of Joshua in God’s throne room, the Savior to come makes it possible for Joshua’s $lthy clothes to be taken away, for Satan’s accusations to be banished, and for Joshua to be dressed in new, clean clothes (Zechariah 3). Paul revisits this symbolism in Colossians 3, Galatians 3, and Ephesians 4 when he talks about taking o! the old self and its sin and desires and putting on a new life and the virtues of Jesus (or even Jesus himself in Galatians) like clothes. e negative of this image is the shame of nakedness that Adam and Eve feel in the garden, and that Jesus experienced on the cross. is symbolic clothing also carries a shade of meaning of the transformation believers can experience because of Jesus. Another biblical symbol with this meaning is the white stone with a new name given to believers who overcome in Revelation 2:17. In fact, the ministry to these women is named White Stone a er this passage. Many of the women carry names they are called in the brothels, and this symbol of a new life and a new name suggested the name of the ministry. Consistent with this passage,
70 Caroline Reel
other stones in biblical narratives o en serve as reminders of an encounter with God that le a person changed, or a promise the person made to God, o en a er such an encounter (Joshua 4, Genesis 31:44-53, or Genesis 28:10-22, to name a few).
ere are also ritual or dramatic narratives from the Bible that function as myths to guide a holistic understanding of the process of repentance, relational and communal restoration, and the dignity God’s care confers on a person and which he restores to them whole and new when he forgives their sin. e narrative in Ezekiel 16 of the abandoned baby that God chose to care for and love, but who deserted him for prostitution is a powerful one. It walks through the story of God’s intended favor and blessing, how sin separates people from that life, and how God will again restore those who return to him, all while using heavily laden symbolic imagery. e story from Hosea 1-3 mirrors a similar redemption narrative and shows God’s overwhelming love for his people—no matter what they have done—and his willingness to accept them back when they come to him repentant.
Another Biblical image or symbol pertinent to this context has already shown itself to resonate well with the women. In Zephaniah 3 the prophet sings to Jerusalem and Daughter Zion. He recognizes her sin, but also recognizes those who have abused and oppressed her. He promises God’s restoration and shalom and paints a beautiful word picture of Daughter Zion rejoicing once again in 3:14-17. ese verses about God as a protective warrior who delights in his daughter and rejoices over her with singing are a sweet balm to the soul of these women who feel deeply worthless before God and the church.
So many images, symbols, and myths from Scripture could serve as the corrective in this context. Jesus honors the women who anoint his feet before their community for their devotion, and he speaks for them to counter their shame and digni$es their repentance with his forgiveness. e woman caught in adultery
from John 8 has a similar experience, and so many other stories speak to these issues. But though not all of these stories, symbols, and themes can be explicitly used in the planned rituals for White Stone, let them serve as the fertile ground that grows and nourishes these new roots of discipleship to grow in the gap. Let them be the trellises along which the new sprouts grow, and the solid rock of Scripture they cling to and form themselves around. Su&ce it to say, Scripture provides ample con$rmation that discipleship should include both messages of restored dignity and of community built on the shared experience of God’s humbling and undeserved forgiveness and love.
Current Ritual Context
at rich biblical context provides a solid foundation for a ritual for White Stone. Before proceeding to the ritual design, the current ritual context and landscape must be examined. Even though they are a small group of women, the White Stone ladies come from vastly di!erent cultural contexts, with varying home countries, mother tongues, and cultural traditions. Because of this, no extant ritual communicates clearly across their cultural backgrounds, so biblical symbols and rituals may best touch all of them at once. In light of this choice, the best way forward toward designing a discipleship ritual was to create a new one heavily reliant on Scripture, and then contextualize it to a form closely adjacent to the di!erent cultures represented.
ough no exact shared ritual analog exists to serve this discipleship purpose, universal ritual forms and categories are still mutually intelligible to the women across their cultural backgrounds. Out of the genres or categories of rituals that exist across cultures, a crisis ritual seemed to best $t the situation for the $rst ritual to be developed. e White Stone women face a crisis as they enter the program and leave their livelihood, communities, habits, homes, and more. Unlike a situation a traditional rite
72 Caroline Reel of passage ritual might speak into, the transition these women experience is neither planned nor predicted at a certain phase of life. Instead, they need some organizing mythic narrative to spiritually guide them through the uncertainty of the crisis and give them some sense of direction or purpose. e biblical process of salvation applied to this context does just that. In Turner’s writing on social drama, he explains how rituals address crises. A er a crisis or break in the social norm, he outlines a predictable social drama in four stages, the goal of which is to resolve the community’s issue so it may return to cultural and social norms. Turner explains that these norms may shi in the process of the social drama before the issue’s resolution, but the desired end is a predictable social pattern the group may settle into (Turner, 1982, p. 246). at is exactly the need this ritual must serve to minister to and disciple the White Stone women.
Moon explains the necessary steps to contextualize an existing ritual for the purpose of discipleship in his book on intercultural discipleship (Moon, 2017, pp. 121–123). ough not all apply in this case of creating a new ritual, they provided a helpful sca!olding to guide this ritual design, and they highlight the ritual elements that cross cultures and provide the general backdrop necessary to establish the ritual context in this setting. He $rst recommends a phenomenological study in consultation with other disciplers and an ontological critique to identify the cultural and spiritual need a given ritual meets for a community, how and why it does so, and discipleship opportunity the ritual presents for believers within the community. You have read the fruits of such a study up to this point, focusing rather on a discipleship need le vacant in the case of no existing ritual. Moon then suggests evaluating whether Scripture would a&rm, modify, or reject the ritual and its various elements (p. 123), which in this case of a specially designed ritual were all shaped and planned from Scripture itself and so present no con%ict. Moon then asks disciplers to consider who might be a!ected by the ritual or by
its absence, and what their discipleship journeys might stand to lose or gain in each case (p. 123). In the case of White Stone, the women themselves would stand to bene$t from a well-planned ritual to address their discipleship gaps, and its absence would lead to the split level Christianity and discipleship blind-spots already discussed. But the women’s disciplers themselves, their church family, and previous White Stone graduates could also be corollary bene$ciaries from a well-designed ritual if they are able to be involved and included in the bonding. is observation led to their inclusion in the ritual design as you will read below.
Finally, Moon asks disciplers to consider what elements or symbols of the original ritual could or should be substituted out in a redeemed version of the ritual (Moon, 2017, p. 123). ough no original ritual existed to be adapted in this case, the idea of a functional substitute led to the basis for this newly constructed ritual. In his explanation of how to harness rituals for the discipleship process, Zahniser details a case study involving an original ritual that led participants through a ritual journey parallel to the Buddha’s. Zahniser describes how he chose four counterpoint moments in Jesus’ maturation before he began public ministry as a functional substitute around which to restructure the ritual for discipleship purposes (Zahniser, 1991, p. 13). e proposed White Stone rituals did not need a functional substitute to serve as a mirrored counterpoint to an existing ritual, but Zahniser’s use of Jesus’ life as a functional substitute for the journey of salvation and discipleship suggested by analogy using another biblical story in this case as a functional substitute for the spiritual reality of transformation and restored dignity.
Since the White Stone ladies have not all made decisions to believe by the time they enter the program, their ritual needed a functional substitute that both presented the option of conversion and marked the change of status these women experience as they leave prostitution and enter a new community in which they will
74 Caroline Reel
have further opportunity to choose to follow Jesus. As such, I decided to use Zechariah’s vision of the high priest Joshua in heaven before God as the basis for the $rst ritual. e story itself presents the concepts of repentance, forgiveness, shame, restoration, dignity, and the choice each of these women must make before God to either pursue the transformation his forgiveness can give them or not. is story involves many memorable symbols that provide an opportunity for memorable and lasting discipleship. e story is also so sensually arresting that it has the potential to connect deeply with the women as oral learners, through sights, smells, sensations, and sounds. e functional substitute chosen for the second ritual comes from Zephaniah 3, and rather than the drama of the $rst story, involves more singing and dancing. It will serve as the functional substitute to demonstrate the spiritual reality of God’s wholehearted welcome and celebration over new believers who turn to follow him and more speci$cally, his daughters whom he has forgiven and restored to wholeness and community. e communal involvement of this ritual and the riotous welcome full of joyful song and dance will likewise engage oral learners and provide lasting memories that will contribute to the women’s discipleship long into the future.
Missiological Transformation
With the discipleship goals and mythical stories chosen for the base of these rituals, details of the ritual design can %ow from them. e $rst component of ritual design I will present here is the three-part ritual structure that serves as the framework upon which to build the rituals. en I will move to a discussion of the other important elements and artistic design that $ll out the ritual. First, rituals are generally expressed in a three-part structure. As Zahniser describes it, a person’s initial status is interrupted by the beginning of the ritual, which separates them from social norms and plunges them into a liminal phase. A er
this liminal phase levels the ritual participants’ status through a period of unpredictable structure, a reintegration part of the ritual introduces them back into the society they le , but at a di!erent status (1991, pp. 4–8). e chaos of this liminal phase, according to Zahniser, strips so much structure and identity from ritual participants that they experience a new birth in some sense that becomes the symbolic genesis of their new identity. As with an actual birth, this ritual process also nurtures conditions ripe for participants to form unique bonds among themselves, but also with their new identity and the community they more fully join through the ritual process (Zahniser, 1991, pp. 7–8).
Zahniser’s diagram below depicts this process visually. In his own description of ritual structure, Moon calls that unique ritual bond produced by the liminal stage communitas: a heightened bond between the participants as they endure discomfort and uncertainty together (2017, pp. 59–60).
In the case of the White Stone women, they enter a period of extended liminality when they leave their homes and work in the brothel and take up new daily routines in the ministry program. e ministry program is a period of liminality in which the women experience a ‘status leveling’ and all begin in the same posture as humble learners. ey experience disorientation and lack of structure as they learn the new routine of the classes, are discipled in the way of Jesus, and slowly learn about themselves and their gi s as they proceed through the skills training and those who choose join the church community. A er this liminal period of transition the women graduate into a new ‘status,’ equipped and ready to support themselves through their own business as they incorporate back into a more normal and structured social %ow.
Figure 1: (Zahniser, 1991, p. 4)
e White Stone program itself, then, already closely mirrors the ritual process with two notable exclusions: a separation rite and an incorporation rite. No formal ceremonies have so far marked these transitions for the women aside from a typical graduation ceremony, and very few symbols concretize this transition for these oral-culture women. Robbins remarked in his research on a need for not only more research into, but also more development of the somewhat sparse “post-liminal, reintegration phases” of sexually exploited women’s lives a er rehabilitation and discipleship programs (Robbins, 2022, p. 10).
At the ‘peaks’ of Zahniser’s diagram, then, two rituals rich with symbols and mythical narratives have been developed to insert into the process. e aim of these two rituals is to help the women better mark and remember this transition, and to $ll discipleship gaps by addressing their needs for biblical community and a deeper experience and understanding of their dignity as God’s image bearers.
ough the two rituals $ts into a larger scale ritual experience that runs the duration of the White Stone program,
each also have their own internal three phases. e $rst ritual taken from Zechariah 3 will be a crisis ritual, as noted above. It would share the ‘prior state’ stage with the general transition ritual that encompasses the whole ministry program: the women $rst lived and worked in the brothels and were not a part of the local church community or even believers in many cases. As they leave their previous homes and work in the brothels they experience a very marked separation before they enter a liminal transition stage that, in the case of this ritual, marks the crisis. e women are disoriented with the changed structure of their entire lives and fear many unknowns in their future. is crisis ritual intends to mark the sharp break from the women’s past and bond them to each other as sisters during this liminal period. It also intends to ease them through some of the uncertainties they face at the time and in the future and demonstrate for them that God can and wants to forgive their past and walk with them into a new life. e $nal stage of reintegration in this ritual should lead these women into their new status as White Stone women, a group bonded and supportive of each other as they learn and change and leave their past farther and farther behind them.
e second ritual comes from Zephaniah 3 and Revelation 2:12-17. It serves in the overall ritual trajectory as the reincorporation or reintegration rite and would take place at the end of the ministry program, during the graduation ceremony held for the women at the church. It would be considered an intensi$cation ritual, to encourage the women to continue in this new way of life and to walk deeper into their faith. It will celebrate what they have overcome and le behind and remind them of the community of support they have in the church. is ritual will give the ladies a physical reminder and a memorable experience to sustain them through the di&culties and temptations they will face as they reintegrate into society, and it will express a promise or covenant that church members will relationally and spiritually support them as long as they commit to continue
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humbly following the Lord. is ritual speaks to the excluded middle root issues these women face by a&rming their dignity as God’s image-bearers and their status as valuable and welcomed members of their local church body.
e women’s prior state before this ritual will be as White Stone students. e separation phase of this ritual will be the naturally occurring preparation for the graduation ceremony: the women will meet together early before the ceremony to braid each other’s hair, share makeup, and don matching graduation robes. Some of the liminal phase will overlap with the liminal phase of the whole transition these women experience through the ministry program, in which they meet together every weekday to learn skills and grow in self-su&ciency and discipleship but still have no permanent jobs or homes. e residual disorientation and lack of permanent structure from this stage supplies some of the liminality for this ritual. More liminality and anti-structure will come from the solemnity of God’s judgment referenced in the Zephaniah passage, and its discordant heaviness during a celebratory graduation event. As the women move toward graduation and reintegration this ritual marks an intensi$cation of their commitment to live a changed life. e $nal stage of the ritual reintegrates the women into society and fully integrates them into the church as they move into their new status as White Stone graduates.
Ritual Elements and Artistic Design
Aside from this triptych structure, both rituals were also intentionally designed with communitas and cultural artistic expressions in mind. In the case of these rituals, the unique communitas produced serves the purpose of bonding the White Stone women with each other as initiates, but also with their disciplers and their church. Writing from an anthropological perspective, Turner describes the communitas produced by
the liminal state of ritual pilgrimage: “Communitas is a direct, immediate confrontation or encounter between free, equal, levelled, and total human beings, no longer segmented into structurally de$ned roles…” (Turner, 1974, p. 307). is stripping and rebuilding of the identi$ers the White Stone women carry is exactly what they need to shake o! the shame and other baggage they carry so they can build relationships on honest and equal footing both with each other and with those in their faith community. e $rst ritual involves intimate personal confession meant to heighten this experience of communitas among the smaller group of the women and their disciplers.
Drama also factors heavily in the design of the rituals. To summarize some of Turner’s works, he held that ritual drama is not just a response to, but an intentional portrayal of the upheaval a ritual seeks to right; the relief the ritual brings comes by reenacting the problem and redirecting the energy behind the angst toward rebuilding or reinforcing community (Segal, 1983, p. 332). Drama in these White Stone rituals is intended to express and heal some of the shame and low self-worth the women carry. In some of his other writings on ritual, Turner explains that drama is a society’s way of “plural re%exivity;” a performance that communicates a culture’s self-re%ection to itself. He says the languages, or “codes,” used for this communication “include gestures, music, dancing, graphic representation, painting, sculpture, and the fashioning of symbolic objects. ey are dramatic, that is literally “doing” codes” (Turner, 1979, p. 465). In other words, drama and artistry within these rituals can help the women and their faith communities re%ect together as a bonded community, and the artistic forms incarnate and express those re%ections in ways that will deeply connect to these oral learners. Moon agrees that when cultural art forms such as drama, dance, and song are harnessed for discipleship, it embraces the redeemed and redeemable cultural aspects and legitimizes and celebrates conversion and gospel transformation within the disciple’s original cultural identity
80 Caroline Reel (2017, p. 184). Using these musical, dramatic, poetic, and textile art forms in the rituals is another layer of dignifying the women’s own creativity and cultural expression.
And this leads to a discussion of symbols, the $nal design elements for the White Stone rituals. Moon encourages believers who harness rituals for discipleship to use preexisting cultural elements that already point to God (2017, p. 117). As mentioned before, using cultural art forms legitimizes and celebrates the ritual participants’ faith as expressed through the form of their culture. ese White Stone rituals therefore use symbols present in the biblical narratives that form their basis, expressed through the form of cultural context the women share. For example, in the $rst ritual the stick pulled from a $re God references in Zephaniah 3:2 takes the form in this ritual of a local stick pulled from a charcoal cook$re such as the women use daily. Parallel to the unspeci$ed, new, $ne clothes Joshua is dressed in, the women will receive clothes made with local cloth sewn by local seamstresses according to local fashion.
e second ritual derived from Zephaniah 3 and Revelation 2 has fewer symbols involved, but the white stone in the origin text given to each woman will take the form of a local quartz stone. is localization of the symbols serves to contextualize the rituals’ biblical myths and ground them in local culture so the women are likely to encounter the symbols again outside of the ritual. ese contextualized symbols make the women’s discipleship experience more memorable, and give it touch points in daily life to jog their memories and spur them on to deeper discipleship. Within anthropological theory, this is called the polarization property of a symbol. When well used in a ritual, this property powerfully connects two polar ends of people’s lives, such as their theoretical ideals and perceived experiences (Moon, 2017, pp. 70–71). For example, in this case, the women know they should to avoid temptations that pull them back to their old lives
in the brothels (their spiritual ideal), but instead they may want to go meet a friend and drink at the brothel bar (their perceived experience). A sensory trigger from a symbol, such as seeing the white stone they were given in their ritual, or better yet, tripping over it on their way out the door, can remind them of their ritual commitment to overcome trials and the faith community who committed to support them in this commitment. In this way, the symbol of the white stone connects the two poles of the women’s felt experience and the moral norm they hope to uphold, and may hopefully even spur them on to act in faith instead of %eshly desires.
But two other properties of symbols may also enrich the ritual’s meaning. Many of the women begin the program with very few clothes to their name, and what they do have are o en torn, stained, and revealing. is ritual will meet the need they have of new clothes, bond them as they all emerge wearing the same thing, and a&rm their dignity as they receive something beautiful chosen speci$cally for them. If possible, the previous graduated class of women will sew and present the clothes to the new class of women. ese clothes will be a symbol that uni$es many meanings: they will signify the women’s new life, a need felt and met, their bond and unity, their fresh start, the community that has gone before them and prepared for them, and the forgiveness and cleansing of sin that Jesus o!ers them. is is a symbol’s condensation property, by which the single symbol in question—the matching out$ts here—signi$es and connects people’s thoughts to many meanings at once (Moon, 2017, p. 73).
e $nal property of symbols used to enrich this ritual is uni$cation. rough this property, many separate symbols layer together to communicate the same meaning (Moon, 2017, p. 74).
Continuing with the symbols in the $rst ritual from Zechariah 3, then, fully white clothes may most match the symbolism in Scripture. But this may be impractical given the amount of work
the women will do in the clothes, and the potential stains may eventually so en or mute the meaning of the symbol for the ladies with time. Rather, the clothes will be chosen in a vibrant local kitenge cloth pattern (which contains white) that culturally signi$es celebration, and the women will be given a coordinating pure white head cloth that should retain its color with time. e new replacement clothes themselves, the pattern of their cloth, and the colors chosen signify the restoration these women can experience through God’s merciful forgiveness; these many symbolic images combine to give the women a multivalent understanding of God’s restoration to enhance and clarify the meaning better than one symbol could on its own. ese symbols alone communicate the celebration, purity, fresh start, and unity that are part and parcel of the restoration God’s forgiveness o!ers. Other symbols from the ritual—such as the stick saved from the $re, the removal of the old clothes, and the disciplers arrayed as witnesses in front of the women like those in the throne room from Zechariah’s vision—provide further shades of meaning to this idea of restoration: the salvation or redemption that brings it about, the purity and fresh start it gives, and its attendant holy community, respectively.
ese are just a few examples of the symbols and their meanings in the planned White Stone rituals. Many others were planned into the rituals but would take too much space to enumerate here, so you may read them for yourself in the ritual %ows below. But one last design element remains of the ritual: its stakeholders. e White Stone women themselves hold the most stake in these rituals. And as such, the above research as well as careful prayer and thought for their bene$t have shaped the rituals. But their church family and the sta! and disciplers who work with them daily also have a vested interest in theses rituals and the women’s discipleship. Because of this, they are involved in the design of the rituals to give them the opportunity to physically demonstrate their support, and the ritual specialist who
Sex Traffcking in Uganda | 83 conducts the rituals will come from their ranks. To contextualize a ritual well, a hermeneutical community must give constructive criticism based on Scripture, decisions must be led by the Holy Spirit, and people from both inside and outside the culture must consider the ritual from their various perspectives (Moon, 2017, p. 117). Because of this, the only full-time White Stone teacher and discipler, and an expatriate missionary closely involved with White Stone were consulted together early on in the design of these rituals. eir superior knowledge of the women’s situations and backgrounds, and their helpful Spirit-led critiques and suggestions leveraged their own vested interest in the women’s discipleship to re$ne these two rituals to their current form.
Ritual Flows
e above context and resulting careful ritual design produced the following two rituals to meet a discipleship need for the White Stone women. By physically embodying the women’s worth and value as daughters of the King, these rituals aim to enable the women to cling to their dignity as precious bearers of the image of God when they face pressure, temptation, and abuse. By ritually bonding them as a class, these rituals aim to provide the women with a sisterhood of believers to share with and mutually support through intimate struggles. And by ritually expressing a covenant between the women and their receiving church, these rituals aim to enact the deep and vulnerable welcome into the faith community these women need and in so doing polarize the relationship from an ideal to a reality.
Separation Ritual
e mythic story from Scripture that this ritual reenacts will come from Zechariah 3. It will take place in the White Stone center. A cultural insider ritual specialist—most likely the
84 Caroline Reel
full-time White Stone sta! minister—will brie%y explain in the women’s trade language some version of the context of the story and the content of Zechariah 3:8-10: “At a time when God’s people were exiled away from their homes, they su!ered because they disobeyed God, and they waited for the Savior God promised to send. God sent a message to a prophet who saw this vision of heaven. God told him “ is is a symbol of things that will happen in the future, when I send the Savior. He will remove the sin of the whole land in a single day, so people can live in peace.” Today we know that Savior is Jesus, and he came to take away our sin so we can have peace with God. He can take away your sin too and clean your spirit so that God welcomes you.”
A er saying this, the ritual specialist will dramatically narrate (not read) the content of Zechariah 3:1-7, pausing at certain points to direct the women. When Satan accuses Joshua in the story, the women will be invited to voice what they think Satan would say about them so God would condemn them. A er each confession, the ritual specialist and the other disciplers present will respond in unison, “God rejects this accusation because he wants to save you like a stick pulled out of a $re.” en the disciplers will remove a stick from the charcoal cook $re with its end on $re and stomp out the coals—one stick for each woman in turn—and lay it in front of her a er it is extinguished. e story narration will proceed a er each woman has a chance to speak, and at the corresponding story point the previous White Stone graduates present will present the new initiates with matching kitenge out$ts they have sewn for them. e ritual specialist will send the women to change out of their old clothes together and put on the new ones. When they return, the story narration continues, and the disciplers will tie a white head wrap on each woman at the appropriate point in the story. e ritual $nishes with the specialist speaking a version of verse 3:7 directly to the women, “ is is what the Lord says: if you will obey him, and
follow him as you walk through life, he will give you a place in heaven with him and with those standing here who also follow him.” en the ritual specialist will communicate the end of the story and pray, and all present will share a meal together. During the meal conversation will be led about the experience, and the disciplers will be sure to share that the forgiveness and new life demonstrated in the ritual comes only from God, not from any special or holy power in the clothes or objects. e items themselves are only to serve as a reminder to the women to mark this change in their lives.
Reintegration Ritual
e mythic story from Scripture that this ritual reenacts will come from Zephaniah 3, and the symbol and charge will come from Revelation 2:12-17. It will take place in the women’s receiving church. A ritual specialist—most likely the pastor’s wife who is both a discipler and teacher for White Stone and an important representative of the church—will introduce the context and content of Zephaniah 3, which this ritual is structured around. In the women’s trade language she will explain something like this: “God’s people disobeyed him and walked farther and farther away from following him, so God sent a prophet to warn them. is prophet warned the people that if they continued to sin and walk away from God, their disobedience would bring terrible consequences. But God spoke to his people like his daughter. is is part of the song to sing to his daughter that God gave the prophet. I will tell it to you now:
God sang that one day he will clean his people’s sin away so they can choose to follow and serve him. When you worship him he will not make you ashamed for the sin from your past. You will have peace, and no one will make you afraid. He will deal with anyone who abused you. Before, you lived in shame, but now he will honor
you. Sing, my daughter! Shout with joy! God is taking away your punishment and protecting you from anyone who would hurt you. God the King is with you, so you never have to fear anyone who might hurt you. On that day God will say to his daughter, “Do not be afraid! !e Lord your God is with you! He is a mighty warrior and he will save you. Like a daughter with her father, you ll God with joy. He will calm you with his love when you are afraid. You make him so joyful that he bursts into songs about you.”(adapted by the author from Zephaniah 3:9-11a, 13b, 19, 14-17)
When the ritual specialist reaches the italicized portion of the suggested narration above, she will stop and invite the church members present to stand and encircle the White Stone women. She will ask them to repeat the words a er her to the ladies. ey will echo the content of the italicized portion phrase by phrase to the ladies, and then burst into a locally composed song together as a church body to rejoice over the women. e lyrics of the song will be about God’s love for the women or how they bring God joy. e women will remain seated and the church members present will dance around and past them, singing the simple song. ey will lay hands on the women or clasp hands as they go by, even bringing an o!ering if they are moved to support the women, and drop it in an o!ering basket as they dance past.
A er the song and dance, the pastor or another church leader will very brie%y give the women a charge from Revelation 2:12-17. He will not read or preach on the passage—only say that another prophet wrote an encouragement from God to a group of believers waiting for heaven: “I will tell you like he told to them: ‘I know you live in a neighborhood where Satan is at work. But so far you have honored God with your faith and not turned away from him. Some of your people are tempted to sacri$ce to evil spirits or to sexual sin. But you have to repent and turn away
from that! Listen! If you overcome and defeat those temptations, God will give you a white stone to go into heaven with. And it will have a new name written on just for you.” e ritual specialist will then present each woman with a $st-sized or larger white stone to take home and tell them to put it somewhere special and visible: “Every time you see it, remember that you can overcome the things that pull you back to your old life if you ask God for strength. Remember we are here to help you when you struggle. Remember how joyful you make God. And think about the new name he will give you to match your new life: daughter, loved, unashamed, cleansed—whatever God could call you to mark this change in your life.”
A er this ritual concludes, the pastor should pray for the women as they begin their new lives a er graduation. en the group will complete the celebration with an informal meal together. During the meal time, the disciplers will communicate that the power they need comes only from God to keep their commitment and overcome the pressures to return to their old life. e stone itself is only a local stone and has no special powers to help them; it is a reminder of this experience and something for the ladies to see and touch so they can remember that better things wait for them if they persevere. is ritual will only be a part of the larger graduation ceremony, but if possible it should take place at the end so that participants leave with the symbols fresh and poignant in their minds.
Conclusion
By God’s grace, these two rituals can meet a discipleship need for the White Stone women as they leave their lives in the red light district. eir discipleship program had few memorable crystallized moments these oral learners could look back on as embodied experiences or an encapsulation of their walk with
88 Caroline Reel
God. A er graduation many still struggled with an incomplete understanding of their dignity as God’s image bearers, which led them to feel the need to prove their value within relationships in unbiblical ways. ey also seemed not to have su&cient community with which they felt comfortable baring their soul for accountability and encouragement. ese two rituals aim to meet those needs, and to provide ritual markers for their transitions out of the sex work life and back into society with self-supporting occupations.
When I $rst met with the two women who will lead in implementing these rituals to share ideas with them and ask for their input, they were excited about the potential impact in their ministry. ey noted with excitement and passion how well the rituals would value and connect to the women’s cultures. ey pointed out an unintentional cultural parallel that God in his providence worked into the ritual design without my help; women in these cultures are given gi s such as the dresses in the $rst ritual to mark their transition to married life. e cultural insider even remarked, visibly moved, that to receive a dress in this way means that “You are no longer a girl. You belong to someone.” What a sweet token of the ownership our God so proudly claims over these women. ese two were touched by the intimate love and care the ladies would feel through these rituals, and looked forward to the special experience it would be for them.
Neither ritual has been performed yet, as the current White Stone cohort is partway through their program. But the two women were excited enough about the $rst ritual they did not want this group of women to miss it. ey plan to implement both rituals in the future at the beginning and end of the White Stone program, but for the current cohort they proposed to hold the $rst ritual around Easter, “to remind them of the new life Jesus o!ers them through his death and resurrection.” We
hope and pray that this ceremony would help bond the women to each other, to the teachers who disciple them, and give them a stronger sense of unity. We hope also that this experience will remind them of the dignity and value they have because God loves them, even knowing the depths of their sin. I look forward to hearing secondhand how these rituals are received, and the further research and workshopping that can re$ne these rituals or others to better serve the White Stone women along their journey as disciples.
Moon, W. Jay. (2017). Intercultural discipleship: Learning from global approaches to spiritual formation. Baker Academic.
Robbins, T. P. (2022). Imago Dei Interrupted: Christocentric Measures to Reintegrate American Women into New Communities A er Having Survived Commercial Sexual Exploitation [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Asbury eological Seminary.
Segal, R. A. (1983). “Victor Turner’s theory of ritual.” Zygon, 18(3), 327–335.
Turner, V. Witter. (1979). “Frame, %ow and re%ection: ritual and drama as public liminality.” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 6(4), 465–499.
Turner, V. Witter. (1982). “Images of anti-temporality: an essay in the anthropology of experience.” Harvard !eological Review, 75(2), 243–265.
Turner, V. Witter. (1974). “Pilgrimage and communitas.” Studia Missionalia, 23, 305–327.
Zahniser, A. H. M. (1991). “Ritual process and Christian discipling: contextualizing a Buddhist rite of passage.” Missiology, 19(1), 3–19.
Chapter 4
Displaced Believers From Muslim Countries
By Mark L. Burrows
Introduction
e following case study details how I analyzed discipleship needs and prepared a discipleship ritual for a close personal friend. I have speci$cally framed the project to help those who serve displaced Christians understand more clearly the value ritual holds for our teaching and discipleship. I have changed speci$c details for security purposes, but the stories included are real.
My friend Mohammed is a new believer from a Muslimmajority country. Recently, the police summoned Mohammed for questioning regarding his engagement with the local Christian church. By the grace of God, Mohammed was visiting Europe when the summons came, so he was safe from immediate danger. However, this has le him displaced in Germany as an asylum seeker.
Mohammed’s newfound situation is very distressing. As he currently walks through his state of extreme liminality, his experience reveals clear discipleship needs. O en, we do not address excluded middle issues (Hiebert, 1982) in our discipleship strategies, like those Mohammed is experiencing right now. He knew from the beginning that following Jesus would not be easy. Still, this new reality of being an asylum seeker has raised many questions about his provision, purpose, and general safety. I must admit that much of my discipleship focus with Mohammed has addressed matters of high religion and the unseen dimension (Hiebert, 1982). Although such issues are not unimportant, they do not directly aid Mohammed in addressing his most pressing needs. He faces challenges that cannot
92 Mark L. Burrows be categorized as earthly or spiritual – they are from the excluded middle.
Mohammed has communicated three essential excluded middle issues I want to address: protection, provision, and purpose. All three of these issues are related to one primary discipleship need: trust. In response to this identi$ed need, I developed a discipleship plan, which includes the use of rituals and symbols as discipleship tools. Additionally, I have designed the plan to include foundational truths that will allow him to overcome similar challenges in the future. In what follows, I will explore the three excluded middle issues and the primary discipleship need of trust. In turn, I will explain the design of the discipleship strategy, including the ritual and symbols used in response to the discipleship need. Finally, we will explore the potential signi$cance of the discipleship strategy for both Mohammed and myself and considerations for future research and action. By describing the process followed in this case study, I hope to provide a model for discipleship that addresses the needs of displaced believers in other contexts.
Phenomenological Study
To understand Mohammed’s situation and discipleship needs more fully, we will begin by exploring the larger background of his story. Mohammed was born in a Muslim-majority country to a family very committed to the Islamic faith. Although the government, as well as many individuals in Mohammed’s country, are very strict in their religious practices and beliefs, this does not provide an accurate picture of the lives of the majority of his people group. For Mohammed, he grew up trying his best to obey the teachings of Islam, but the religion ultimately le him feeling empty. When he grew up, he moved to a new country in the Middle East that was less restrictive for him. Although he came
for employment reasons, he was also looking for freedom and the opportunity to explore more thoroughly what he should believe.
At $rst, this pursuit led him to the Bahai religion. He met several Bahais who began to share their books and religious teachings with him. However, a er a few years of being discipled by his new friends, he still felt an emptiness and believed there was something greater for him to discover. So, Mohammed kept searching. One day, a Christian woman from Mohammed’s country came into the store where he worked and asked him openly if he was a Christian. “No,” he responded, “but I would love to learn about Christianity if you have someone who can teach me!” is brief encounter eventually led to the woman introducing Mohammed to me. Our friendship has continued since that initial introduction, and we have met weekly for years. Mohammed had many questions, and it took quite a long time before he was ready to follow Jesus. A er his baptism a few months ago, he became very excited about sharing his faith. Mohammed had many friends with whom he began to share – he even brought some of his family to visit the church! However, Mohammed felt he needed a way of sharing with more than just a few people at a time, so he made a website explaining some basic elements of the Gospel.
A er some time, Mohammed was feeling the need for a break, so he planned a holiday trip Europe where he could explore and also visited some of his extended family. While he was away from the country where he lived, the local government became aware of the evangelistic website and its owner. e police came to open and search Mohammed’s house and to bring him into custody. Simultaneously, the government where Mohammed lived informed o&cials in his home country, leading o&cers to arrive at his family’s house asking his parents about his location. It was only by the grace of God that Mohammed was in a place where he was able to remain safe from these searches. However,
94 Mark L. Burrows because of the cases raised against him, he has now been le displaced in Europe, where he must remain for now as an asylum seeker in Germany.
Ontological Critique
Now that we understand Mohammed’s story more fully, we must identify the excluded middle issues that he is currently facing as a displaced believer. I have spent hours conversing with Mohammed, and a handful of di!erent excluded middle issues would be helpful to address. However, I believe three primary issues are most pressing: protection from violence, provision for daily needs, and purpose for living.
Protection
In the Islamic faith, many believe that anyone who converts to another religion other than Islam has committed the crime (and they do mean crime, not sin) of apostasy (Schirrmacher, 2020). e death penalty is the traditional form of punishment for apostasy. Although this o en is not carried out in modern times, it remains a very real possibility for any Muslim who has le the religion of Islam. ere are thousands of apostates in the world today who live their lives with the constant fear of violence (Schirrmacher, 2020). is group includes many from Mohammed’s own country who have bravely decided to follow Jesus.
Early in our discipleship discussions, Mohammed began to bring this issue to my attention. One day, a few months before we baptized him, we discussed what it would mean to follow Jesus. “It would mean my father will try to kill me,” Mohammed told me. Even though I have been aware of the apostasy issue for some time, Mohammed’s blunt response still took me by surprise.
I think he sensed what I was feeling, so he explained further. “All it will take is news of my baptism getting to one of my father’s friends. Once they know, my father will feel he has to kill me to restore the family’s honor.” Mohammed’s father is particularly strict in his Islamic faith, so I do not believe Mohammed is mistaken about his father’s capabilities.
Now that Mohammed has had to seek asylum in Germany, his concern for protection from violence is not limited to the risk from his family. e asylum camp where he is staying is $lled with other Muslims, several of whom are also from his native country. Even in Europe, acts of violence against perceived apostates still occur (Rehman, 2010). is means Mohammed is living with constant fear: maybe someone will see him going to church, reading the Bible, or talking about Jesus over the phone with me or his other Christian friends. If the Muslims in his camp $nd out he is a Christian, what will they do? Will they kill him in his sleep? Attack him in the street? Poison his food? ese are all genuine concerns Mohammed is facing. is issue of protection from violence is an excluded middle issue – topics of high spirituality will not equip him with what he needs to face this challenge.
Provision e second excluded middle issue that Mohammed is facing is related to provision. Mohammed conducted trading activities for more than ten years in his home country and the Middle Eastern country he had moved to. However, when the COVID-19 pandemic began to wreak economic havoc around the globe, he entered into a season of $nancial di&culty as he attempted to keep his various business interests a%oat. When I met Mohammed, he had begun working as a partner in a grocery store with a group of men who came from his home country. It was clear to me from the beginning that this particular work arrangement was not healthy for him. He was having to work long
96 Mark L. Burrows hours for little pay, the other partners were borrowing loans from him and then not repaying, and there were constant arguments between the other men in the shop.
Eventually, Mohammed had had enough and decided to leave the grocery store and start his own import and export business. He planned to focus on sugar-free products produced in his home country that are popular in the Middle Eastern and South Asian markets. Mohammed gathered much of his savings and put almost everything he had into starting the company. Early on, it looked like the business would be a success when a huge order came through in the $rst few weeks. Mohammed was ecstatic and arranged for the products to be delivered a er he had received the checks as payment. Unfortunately, when he went to cash the checks, the bank declined them due to insu&cient funds from the customer. When Mohammed attempted to contact the customer, he discovered the man had taken the products and %ed the country.
is the case put Mohammed in a very di&cult $nancial situation. But even though the customer had stolen almost everything he had, Mohammed persisted in following Jesus and trusting God for his provision. Later, when Mohammed traveled to Europe, the court case over the bad checks was still ongoing. A local sponsor had signed the checks for the businessman who %ed, so Mohammed had hoped he might get back some of what was stolen. However, now that he is living as an asylum seeker in Germany, he will likely have to forfeit any personal assets and belongings that he has le behind in the Middle East. Regarding his capability to provide for himself, he only has the clothes and items he traveled to Europe with.
Mohammed is an extremely hard-working man, but because of his asylum status, there is no real opportunity to work in Germany. e daily provision that he needs—food, shelter, and clothing—must now all come from sources that are outside of
his control. is sense of helplessness is a genuine struggle for Mohammed. is excluded-middle issue of provision has le him questioning what will happen in the future and how God will make a way for his physical and material needs to be met.
Purpose
e last excluded middle issue that Mohammed faces is regarding his life’s purpose and direction. Mohammed is a new young believer, and he is $lled with a great desire to continue growing in the word of God. Before becoming displaced, this was an easier issue for him to address as he was connected to a good church, had a network of Christian friends, and could join regular Bible study and discipleship in group settings. Now that he is living in Germany, he has much fewer resources to draw from to continue growing in his knowledge of the Lord.
In addition to his desire to grow in understanding, Mohammed also greatly desires to share his story of becoming a Christian with others. In the Middle East, it was di&cult for him to share openly about his faith due to security reasons, but he had many long-time friends he felt he could trust when sharing. I remember that within a few weeks of being baptized, Mohammed was already bringing close friends to our public church gatherings. It was exciting for me to see him discipling others the way I had discipled him. Now that he is in Germany, Mohammed feels it is more di&cult for him to share the Gospel and good news about Jesus with others. is is mostly due to his lack of trusted connections where he is now living, but it still feels like he has been shut o! from the purpose in life he has been given to do. It is unclear to Mohammed how to best carry out the good works he feels God has put on his heart.
Another issue of purpose and life direction that is very important for Mohammed is regarding the $ancé he has le in
98 Mark L. Burrows the Middle East. Mohammed and Fatima had been engaged for more than six months and were planning their wedding when he traveled to Europe and became displaced. e two of them are now separated, which has caused great relational con%ict. It has caused Mohammed to question what his future holds, seeing as it is doubtful Fatima will be able to travel and join him in Europe. In addition to this challenge, Fatima is not yet a believer, so the two of them cannot stand in faith together about Mohammed’s current situation. is has le him with many questions about the future, what he should be doing, how God might use him, and ultimately what the purpose of his life is.
Critical Evaluation
Based on my discussions with Mohammed and identifying the three primary excluded-middle issues he is facing, I believe the primary discipleship need for Mohammed is trust. e three excluded middle issues noted above all stem from the root of trusting God. As believers, many of us begin our journey with Jesus in relatively safe and secure situations. We certainly will have needs, but we likely have been operating with a certain level of perceived independence. Now, for Mohammed, that self-su&ciency is being challenged, and he has to grapple daily with whether or not he trusts in what Jesus has said. Luckily for Mohammed and all those who call themselves Christians, Jesus taught extensively on the issue of trust. We $nd three particular themes in what Jesus teaches about trust that align well with Mohammed’s excluded-middle issues of protection, provision, and purpose. We will look at them here in turn.
Protection – Jesus Has Overcome the World
First, Jesus makes it very clear in his teaching that a life following him does not guarantee that everything will be easy for
us. It seems he promises us the opposite will be true – that we will face trouble! John 16:33 (English Standard Version Bible, 2001) says, “I have said these things to you, that in me you may have peace. In the world you will have tribulation. But take heart; I have overcome the world.” From early on in Mohammed’s journey as a disciple, I have done my best to remind him of this promise – that a life following Jesus will not be a rosy path. As a Muslim background believer, Mohammed had to be made aware that his life in Christ moving forward would include trials and challenges in this life. But praise be to God, Jesus’ promise does not focus on the trouble we will have – it focuses on the peace we can have through trust in his overcoming power and work.
As believers, we have access to a peace that allows us to weather any storm we face. We do not have to be afraid when we go through times of di&culty. At the end of the story, we know that Jesus’s death on the cross has silenced the power of sin and grave (English Standard Version Bible, 2001, Revelation 20:14). Jesus’ promise in John 16 is that he has overcome the world. As followers of Jesus, we have the same power as the resurrected Christ living inside us (English Standard Version Bible, 2001, Galatians 2:20). Whatever evil can befall us in this world, whatever harm or violence, it has all ultimately been overcome. Yes, we may have to endure fearful actions perpetrated towards us, and millions of believers have had to even give their lives for the sake of following Christ (Johnson, 2012), but there is a peace that comes from trusting Jesus that allows us to walk in strength through these present su!erings. Death in this life only acts as a gateway to eternal life for those who are in Christ (English Standard Version Bible, 2001, John 11:25-26).
For Mohammed, his most urgent excluded-middle issue is protection from violence. is teaching of Jesus, to trust in His power to overcome this world, is one of the essential teachings that Mohammed needs to be reminded of through
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the discipleship strategy. ere is a call for him to trust that our safety and protection ultimately lie in Jesus’ control. We cannot manufacture protection for ourselves, even though many of us can trick ourselves into thinking we have self-su&cient security. Further on in this paper, as I describe the disciple strategy that has been designed, we will look more closely at how this important lesson is addressed through ritual and symbol.
Provision – e Father Provides our Daily Bread
e next theme from the teaching of Jesus on trust is that our heavenly Father knows what we need and will give us our daily provision. In Luke 12:22-31 (English Standard Version Bible, 2001), we read,
And he said to his disciples, “ erefore I tell you, do not be anxious about your life, what you will eat, nor about your body, what you will put on. For life is more than food, and the body more than clothing. Consider the ravens: they neither sow nor reap, they have neither storehouse nor barn and yet God feeds them. Of how much more value are you than the birds! And which of you by being anxious can add a single hour to his span of life? If then you are not able to do as small a thing as that, why are you anxious about the rest? Consider the lilies, how they grow: they neither toil nor spin, yet I tell you, even Solomon in all his glory was not arrayed like one of these. But if God so clothes the grass, which is alive in the $eld today, and tomorrow is thrown into the oven, how much more will he clothe you, O you of little faith! And do not seek what you are to eat and what you are to drink, nor be worried. For all the nations of the world seek a er these things, and your Father knows that you need them. Instead, seek his kingdom, and these things will be added to you.
Mohammed’s second excluded-middle issue is provision. When I shared this passage with him, it made a big impact and was very encouraging for him. If we trust and follow Jesus as a
disciple, we must know plainly that the heavenly Father sees and understands our present earthly needs for provision.
Jesus’ teaching here is clear – follow me and seek the Kingdom of God $rst, and the Father will give you what you need. is is not a promise of a luxurious life $lled with opulence and $nancial abundance. It is, however, a clear promise that our God will give us what we need to continue following him and living a life of obedience. Our $rst concern should not be provision – our $rst concern should be obedience to the Kingdom work laid out before us. But for us to walk in this way, we need to be reminded regularly of our need and reasoning to trust the promises of God.
is call to trust that our basic human needs will be met even if we do not see where our provision will come from is exempli$ed well by the life and teaching of the Apostle Paul. In Philippians 4:11b-13 (English Standard Version Bible, 2001), Paul wrote,
I have learned in whatever situation I am to be content. I know how to be brought low, and I know how to abound. In any and every circumstance, I have learned the secret of facing plenty and hunger, abundance and need. I can do all things through him who strengthens me.
e calling to trust in Christ is not based on a promise that we will have everything necessary for an easy and abundant life— it is based on the truth that we can do all things through Christ who strengthens us. e discipleship strategy will also address this important lesson of trusting God for provision.
Purpose – To Take Up the Cross and Follow Christ
e $nal theme on trust is that our ultimate purpose in life is obedience and discipleship to Jesus. In Matthew 16:24-27 (English Standard Version Bible, 2001) Jesus says,
en Jesus told his disciples, “If anyone would come a er me, let him deny himself and take up his cross and follow me. For whoever would save his life will lose it, but whoever loses his life for my sake will $nd it. For what will it pro$t a man if he gains the whole world and forfeits his soul? Or what shall a man give in return for his soul? For the Son of Man is going to come with his angels in the glory of his Father, and then he will repay each person according to what he has done.”
is teaching from Jesus is a radical call to discipleship. Jesus is not asking for a part of his disciples’ lives, He is not asking them to follow some rules, He is not asking for allegiance to Him in addition to other priorities in life – He is calling his followers to imitate Him in giving their whole life in obedience to God and His kingdom. Although many of us believers are aware of this radical teaching, we are not actively required to think about its practical implications for our lives. However, Mohammed must genuinely consider this teaching of absolute trust in order to $nd the answer to his question of purpose.
is teaching to pick up our crosses and follow Jesus is a call to trust that Christ’s way is greater than any other path in life. Jesus described this radical faith and decision in the following way, “ e kingdom of heaven is like treasure hidden in a $eld, which a man found and covered up. en in his joy he goes and sells all that he has and buys that $eld” (English Standard Version Bible, 2001, Matthew 13:44). Mohammed had many plans that have now gone out the window as a displaced believer. In particular, the question of his relationship with his $ancé presses heavily on his mind. He is also weighing heavily the question of what God might do with his passion for studying the scriptures and sharing the good news about Jesus with others. Amid these questions, there is a call to follow Jesus, obey Him, and trust God’s perfect purpose for our lives. Like the two previous themes, we also will address this lesson of trusting God for our purpose through the following discipleship strategy.
We have now thoroughly explored the background of Mohammed’s primary discipleship need and the three excludedmiddle issues of protection, provision, and purpose that stem from that root. Now, we turn to the description of a discipleship strategy designed speci$cally to address the identi$ed need. I advocate e!ectively for the use of ritual as a powerful discipleship tool. With this in mind, the discipleship strategy that has been prepared for Mohammed hinged on the design of a unique ritual that both he and I can partake in on an ongoing basis. Before we can jump right to the ritual that has been designed, we must $rst explore what dominant symbols have been identi$ed as being meaningful for Mohammed, as well as the myth that has been used to anchor him in the theme of trust which is essential for addressing his primary discipleship need.
Symbols and Myth as Ritual Components
Symbols are signi$cant in discipleship, especially as we work to address excluded-middle issues. is is because symbols help us connect our known physical reality and the unseen spiritual realities at work in the world around us (Turner, 1977). However, symbols remain disconnected on their own and need to be included in a larger framework accessible to those we are trying to disciple. is is where myth, powerful stories of how God has acted in history (Moon, 2017), emerges as a powerful anchoring medium for symbols to work within. According to Moon, when we engage disciples through ritual, we draw them into a reenactment of the myth of God’s action in history (Moon, 2017). Moon writes, “When the ritual is performed in contemporary times, God acts again today to transform people, similar to the way God acted before” (2017, p. 81).
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In my search for e&cacious symbols and myths, I drew from my early conversations with Mohammed during the $rst few days of his displacement. Since he entered the asylum camp, we have regularly communicated with each other. In the early days of his time there, he was in a very di&cult emotional state. ere was constant fear and worry, and he was having di&culty sleeping. A er a few days, I received a message from Mohammed saying, “Today I saw a miracle happen right in front of my eyes!” I was very excited to hear more about what had happened. When we $nally talked, this is what he shared.
A few days ago, I was eating alone in the asylum camp. Food was being distributed to the camp members, and I was reminded of the story where Jesus fed $ve thousand people with just $ve loaves of bread and two $sh. As I was thinking of this story, I looked up, and there He was! I was seeing Jesus with my own eyes! He was standing in the camp and serving food to the people around me. I was so amazed because I knew it was Jesus, and all I wanted to do was go over and touch him. But I couldn’t, because I was too overwhelmed by what I was seeing and I was crying so hard! When I $nally could see straight again, Jesus was gone. But I know that He is walking with me in this di&cult time. is miraculous vision Mohammed witnessed has had a profound impact on him. For Mohammed, this divine encounter is now intimately connected and intertwined with the story of Jesus feeding the $ve thousand. e story has come alive for him in a new and profound way. As Moon says, God comes to Mohammed and acts once again in history right before Mohammed’s eyes whenever he recounts and relives the story. is particular myth provides a fruitful basis for the ritual I have designed to address Mohammed’s discipleship need. Combined with this myth, we must also draw out what symbols can be used in the ritual to allow Mohammed to remember and relive his encounter with God through the story of Jesus feeding the $ve thousand.
Within the myth, food symbols play a signi$cant role (i.e., the bread and the $sh). Based on my conversations with Mohammed, I have seen how the strongest symbolic connection for him is with bread. is is likely to be due to bread’s repeated symbolic use in both Mohammed’s native culture and the stories of the New Testament. Bread is doubly signi$cant as a symbol in our ritual process because it also ties neatly into the three excluded-middle issues that the discipleship strategy addresses (protection, provision, and purpose). Bread reminds us of Jesus’ broken body through which He has overcome the world (therefore giving him power and authority to protect us). Bread reminds us God provides for our daily needs as He lovingly gives us our daily bread. Finally, bread reminds us that our ultimate purpose is to lay down our lives, follow Jesus in obedience, and allow our bodies to be broken like bread, just as He was.
Bread of Trust – A Ritual of Food Distribution
e ritual designed to disciple Mohammed and address his primary discipleship need revolves around food distribution. Even though Mohammed and I can no longer meet in person, we still meet regularly for discipleship using video chat. My plan is for Mohammed and I to participate in the “bread of trust” ritual every month. Because of the particular baggage that many people from Mohammed’s country carry from their old religious culture, it was not conducive to contextualize an existing ritual for use in discipleship. Most new Christians who I work with from Mohammed’s people group push hard to remove themselves from old traditions. If we were to reintroduce a ritual resembling their former religious requirements, it would cause more harm than good. Because of this, a new ritual was designed to implement the discipleship strategy.
e ritual begins by gathering together in a video chat, and each participant brings a food item or package (or multiple)
106 Mark L. Burrows
that they plan to distribute. e food can be given to whoever the participant feels the Spirit is leading them to give the food to. However, there is typically an emphasis on distributing food to the poor and needy. e food distribution mimics the myth of Jesus feeding the $ve thousand and helps to orient the participants’ worldview around Jesus’ power to supply our protection, provision, and purpose in life. e gathering and giving of food also speak to the issue of trusting God, which the ritual was designed to address.
When we gather, we start by reading the story of Jesus feeding the $ve thousand (Matthew 14:13-21). Once we have read the story, we ask one question: what can this story teach us about trusting God? A er a short discussion, I lead us in a prayer very similar to this:
Dear Jesus, we thank you for overcoming the world. We have no reason to fear even when we face violence and danger because you have the power to protect and preserve us. We know this doesn’t mean life will always be easy or even safe, but we know that our ultimate security lies in you. !ank you for holding us safely in the hands of the Father. We choose to trust you for our protection.
We thank you for giving us our daily bread. Forgive us for the times we try to take matters into our own hands to provide what we need. We know that you know our every daily need—you know our needs better than we ever could! !ank you that you satisfy our every need—we choose to trust you for our provision.
We thank you for obeying the will of the Father and taking up your cross. We want to obey, too, and follow you by picking up our crosses. We know this means laying down our earthly lives and ambitions, and we thank you that in losing
our lives, we nd them. !ank you for having good plans for us in this life. We choose to trust you for our purposes.
A er praying over the food and blessing it, we ask that Jesus make himself known as the trustworthy giver of protection, provision, and purpose for those we will share the food with. en, we go o! to $nd a person or people to share the food with. If people ask us why we are bringing the food, we can share the story of Jesus feeding the $ve thousand. is provides an opportunity to share the Gospel message and an easy opening to proclaim our trust that is still working miracles in our world today. e ritual should lead to opportunities to pray for people and share the Gospel, but ultimately, our focus is to serve our earthly neighbors just like Jesus did in the story when he saw the crowds and had compassion for them.
Once all participants have $nished their food distribution, we reconvene and re%ect on what happened. All involved can share their experience from going out and giving away the food and any particular moments that stood out from our interactions with food recipients. Once everyone has shared their stories, we re%ect on what God has taught us or spoken to us through the ritual. I typically ask the following questions: What is God teaching you about our need to trust Him through this activity? How does Jesus teach us about trusting God for our protection, provision, and purpose? How can we obey the teachings of Jesus and follow His way? Once we have $nished the time of re%ection, the ritual is ended, and participants part ways. is ritual was designed purposefully to include the three characteristics of an e!ective ritual: separation, liminality, and reintegration (Van Gennep & Kertzer, 2019). Separation occurs when we enter the meeting space, bringing our selected food items for distribution. e opening meeting, storytime, teaching, and prayer allow participants to separate themselves from the normal rhythm and space of daily life. Liminality takes place when
108 Mark L. Burrows
participants go their separate ways to begin the food distribution. is period leaves each person with a sense of not knowing what exactly will take place as the Spirit leads them into encounters with many needy individuals. Finally, reintegration occurs when all participants gather again and re%ect on the process and experience of food that took place. As everyone re%ects on what has happened and what God has taught, each individual can grow in their journey as a disciple and follower of Jesus. is leaves all participants changed and elevated from where they were when they began the bread of trust ritual.
Conclusion
In this case study, I have described the story of Mohammed and the impact that displacement has had on his life in recent months. My aim through this process has been to provide a convincing example of how Christian leaders working among displaced believers can develop discipleship strategies that meet the unique needs of individuals and communities we are working among. In the case of Mohammed, three primary excluded-middle issues were identi$ed (protection, provision, and purpose), all of which stem from the primary discipleship need to trust God. e bread of trust ritual was designed to provide impactful and contextually appropriate discipleship. As demonstrated above, this new ritual was shaped by symbols and myths that were especially relevant to Mohammed.
I believe that as this ritual is repeated, it will e!ectively speak to Mohammed’s primary discipleship need of trust. Mohammed has already begun to trust God more fully for his protection, provision, and purpose. e bene$t of the ritual is that he will become increasingly rooted in the story of Jesus feeding the $ve thousand and will be able to make clear connections to how this myth of God’s action in history speaks to his immediate felt needs. e ritual does not disciple Mohammed to believe that everything
will be easy or that he will be provided with abundance. It does, however, disciple him to trust God more fully in all aspects of his life. It reminds all participants involved in the ritual that our ultimate purpose in life is to pick up our cross and follow Jesus in great trust. ere is a laying down of life, a breaking of the body, a humiliation that must take place before we can be joined with Christ in his exaltation.
As the designer of the ritual, this exercise has had a great impact on my own life. Walking with Mohammed through this di&cult season has taught me a new way of making disciples that speaks more directly into their real felt needs. Previously, much of the training that I had developed primarily focused on discipling believers to trust the right theological ideas and principles. Now, I have come to see that even though concepts of high spirituality are important, they must be translated into a contextualized and meaningful application that addresses the excluded-middle issues of our audiences.
e bread of trust ritual can be applied in more settings than just my personal discipleship times with Mohammed. A recommended future action step is to utilize the same ritual in my local church. ere are many in my country who are living as expatriate workers and are far from their people and lands. Even though they have not necessarily been displaced, the need to trust God for protection, provision, and purpose is still very present for many. Suppose it were to become a semi-regular activity engaged in by my church. In that case, I believe we would grow as disciples and learn more about how we can utilize the discipleship tools of ritual, symbol, and myth in our community.
is is the conclusion of our current case study, but the door is le open to continue this research theme in the future. It would be helpful to take a broader look at how rituals have been refashioned or designed in other contexts to address discipleship issues. Additionally, it would be of great bene$t to explore the
e!ects these discipleship strategies have had on the lives of believers over a more extended period. is will require leaders and decision-makers in institutions for Christian education to release vision and resourcing for such research endeavors. I am fully convinced that ritual can be utilized as a particularly e!ective discipleship tool. It has been shown to produce a signi$cant and positive impact on the life of Mohammed and, if used e!ectively, will produce much additional fruit in the future among both displaced believers and other followers of Jesus in all parts of the globe.
References Cited
English Standard Version Bible. (2001). ESV Online. https://esv. literalword.com/
Hiebert, P. G. (1982). e Flaw of the Excluded Middle. Missiology, 10(1), 35–47. https://doi. org/10.1177/009182968201000103
Johnson, T. M. (2017). Christian martyrdom: A global demographic assessment.
Moon, W. Jay. (2017). Intercultural discipleship: Learning from global approaches to spiritual formation. Baker Academic.
Rehman, J. (2010). Freedom of expression, apostasy, and blasphemy within Islam. In Criminal Justice Matters, 79(1), 4–5. https://doi.org/10.1080/09627250903569841
Schirrmacher, C. (2020). Leaving Islam. In Handbook of Leaving Religion (pp. 81–95). Brill. https://doi. org/10.1163/9789004331471_008
Turner, Victor. (1995). !e ritual process: Structure and antistructure. Cornell University Press.
Van Gennep, A., & Kertzer, D. I. (2019). !e rites of passage (M. B. Vizedom & G. L. Ca!ee, Trans.; Second edition). e University of Chicago Press.
Chapter 5
Redeeming Filippino Rice Planting Rituals
By: Danyal Qal
Intrpduction
Al-Nor prays ve times a day. Every Friday, he visits the mosque. Once a year, he fasts for thirty days and gives alms to the poor during this time. Al-Nor is a farmer and is considered a good Muslim. Before planting rice on his farm, he will ask the local imam for advice. !e imam selects the seeds to use by performing some rituals. Both men know that these rituals are not according to what formal Islam teaches. Al-Nor and the imam belong to an estimated 70-75% of Muslims who mix their traditional beliefs and practices with formal Islam and practice folk Islam (Love, 1994, p. 87; Rogeberg, 2017, p. 92).
It is not a secret that many Filipinos, regardless of their a&liation with Christianity or Islam, still engage in traditional rituals from their previous beliefs. Anthropologist Hiebert (1982) calls these the “excluded middle” issues as they occur between our visible physical world and the unseen heavenly realm. Pastors and cross-cultural workers either do not address these issues or are unaware of them. My seminary students reported that their church members also engage in these kinds of rituals on their farms. However, they have not identi$ed e!ective methods to halt these practices.
For over ten years, I worked with a team engaged in community development projects among Maguindanao farmers. Today, I teach in a seminary. is ethnographic research aims to identify rituals employed in the rice planting cycle and to select one of them as an example to demonstrate how they can
114 Danyal Qal be redeemed and incorporated into the discipleship process. For this chapter, I de$ne discipleship as journeying with people and pointing them to God. As such, the discipleship process begins with evangelism and continues throughout the life of followers of Jesus intending to become Christlike (cf. Swanson, 1989, p. 53). Although I will focus on one ritual among the Maguindanao, the application has broader implications among pastors and crosscultural workers in the Philippines, as similar practices can be observed throughout the country.
Phenomenological Study
Before attempting to redeem any ritual, I will describe the rice farming process and some of its rituals. e remainder of this section is a $rst-person creative non-$ction story told by Al-Nor. He is a $ctional character that incorporates my $ndings from interviews with Muslim farmers, an apo na palay1, a presentation from Said (2017), and my experience working with Maguindanao farmers.
I am Al-Nor, a Maguindanao rice farmer from Allah Valey. Maguindanao means “people of the &ood plains” (Koenke, 2014, p. 1; McKenna, 1998, p. 28; Steward, 1977, p. 45; Williams, 2013, p. 16). For generations, my family planted rice in the area shown in Map 1.
1 e title for the “traditional agricultural technician” (Said, 2017). It translates as “grandson of the rice” from Maguindanaon. According to tradition, the rice is much older than people.
Map 1
Maguindanao area surrounding the %ood plains of the Pulangi River
With the encroachment of the Spaniards, and later the Americans, we lost much of our heritage to Christian settlers from the Northern parts of the Philippines (Majul, 1999; Milligan, 2010, pp. 31–32; Muslim, 1994; Williams, 2009, p. 1; Yango, 2016). Life is not easy for me and my fellow Maguindanao farmers as we Muslims are discriminated against by the Christian settlers who took control of much of our traditional homeland. It has caused many con&icts in the past, but now, things are settled, and we get along well with our Christian neighbors, for the most part, as they struggle as we do.
I have four children. Before, farmers in this area had many more children. I have eight siblings. Today, it is becoming harder
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to have many children because college is expensive, and the farm cannot provide enough for large families. I want my children to become teachers to provide for my wife and me when we cannot farm anymore. I hope they can nish college, but sometimes they must help on the farm, and it is hard to pay for their education. Especially this year, I need a good harvest to pay for our accumulated debt.
Rice Planting
We plant rice twice a year on our elds with an intermediate crop like corn or watermelon once a year. I am glad to have Imam Adi to help me. He is my trusted apo na palay. Adi knows a lot about rice farming, but he is also a religious leader with the gi of communicating with the unseen spirits (cf. Malinowski, 2002, p. 46). By observing the celestial bodies, Adi already knows March will be an excellent time to start planting. It is already the end of February, and I must plow the eld to prepare everything. My two sons need to help me. !ey will miss a week of school, but I cannot a ord to pay others for the work.
You must know that we usually do not plant rice by scattering it directly in the eld. Planting the seeds in a separate bed is more e ective as I can monitor the seedlings, water them, and care for them much better. I cannot use any seeds; Imam Adi must “talk” to the seeds to determine the ones I can plant. First, he will make a “house” with four saccharum spontaneum sticks. Adi will bury one stick in each cardinal direction and tie them together on the top. Next, he will make eight holes—one in each corner and one along each edge of the square. !e four corners correspond to the four angels in Islam, Jabbarail, Mikael, Idsrael, and Idsrapil, and the four edges correspond to the four Muslim caliphates, Abubakar, Omar, Usman, and Ali. Adi puts a few grains of rice in each of the four holes. While doing so, he speaks a formula for each hole. !e formulas are Maguindanao but written in Arabic script. !e
Filippino Rice Planting Rituals | 117 formulas are directed to jinn (spirits in Islam) that reside in the forests and trees around the farm. Part of this ritual is also giving a food o ering to the jinn. !e o ering consists of chicken and black rice, cooked without any seasoning. !is way, Adi feeds jinn and asks them to protect the elds from wild pigs, rats, and insects. !ese jinn are apo Umpk (Maguindanao mythological spirit) and his companions.
During these rituals, imam Ali communicates with Allah, Islamic and traditional Maguindanao spirits that live in our area, animal spirits, and the rice. In other provinces, where the Islamists are very in&uential, these ancestral traditions are banned because their imams are trained in Arabia. According to them, our traditions are not following Islam. Still, as with many traditions, they do not entirely disappear but are performed secretly (Gustafson, 2014).
A er this rst ritual, the apo na palay opens a sack of rice and puts a handful on a piece of wood. !en, he groups the rice into groups of four. !e rice is suitable for planting only if the remaining grains are exactly two. If the remainder is zero, one, or three, the seeds are not used for planting, just consumption. Once the correct rice for planting is determined, Adi puts a handful in the middle of the house he built earlier. A er this ritual, I can plant the seeds in the plot the apo na palay chose.
It only takes a few weeks to transfer the seedlings to the eld. Before doing so, I will call Adi again. He will make a house for apo Umpk in one corner of the eld. !is time, with three sticks with the accompanying formulas from his book. On the opposite side of the farm, I must plant a few square meters of black rice, the kind used for food o erings. Apo Umpk knows that the rice is intended for him. He will automatically watch over and protect my rice by watching over his rice. !e process of transplanting is laborious. We work the whole day with our backs bent in the heat.
At least, from now on, the rest of the work will be relatively easy. Farmers cannot do much because we depend entirely on Allah to provide rain and sunshine and the spirits to protect our crops. During the growth stage of the rice, I usually call Adi a few more times. He will come and check if the plants are developing at a good rate or if anything else needs to be done. Every time he comes, he performs some rituals on the $eld.
Whenever I have problems with weeds, insects, or other animals, I call the apo na palay. He understands what the rice plant needs but can also communicate with the unseen world beyond what we can see. For example, when I have a problem with wild pigs, he will do a ritual and communicate their spirit. It can be described as a negotiation because Adi also knows that the pigs must $nd food. is ability to $nd solutions to satisfy every involved party is disappearing. A er performing a ritual that brings balance and harmony, Adi will recommend action steps that can be described as organic farming. Imam Adi said he has di&culty $nding a successor as it is not only about agricultural techniques but also relating to the unseen spirits. For that reason, many farmers will use commercial fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides.
Close to the harvest, the apo na palay will revisit me again. He will check on the yield of the plants. Adi will wrap eight naturing rice grains in fresh leaves to ensure a good harvest. A er saying his formulas, he will tie the bundle to a particular variety of bamboo that I will hang close to the entrance of my home. Some of the unmatured rice is also given as food o!erings to apo Umpk and this company so that they get excited about the upcoming harvest.
We Filipinos eat rice three times a day. Rice is life! We still harvest manually, but the labor is not as hard as planting because we know that the fruit of our labor is being collected. Gladly, I give a share of the harvest to the apo na palay. A er all, without him, the harvest would not be successful. A er the harvest, I will prepare a meal for apo Umpk. Remember the corner with the black rice? Yes, that is the rice I prepare before Adi does his rituals and says his formulas before feeding it to apo Umpk. Failing to do this may o!end the spirits, and eating this rice can make us and our families sick.
e $nal part of the o!ering is the zakat. As a Muslim, I must not forget the poor. e zakat is our way of doing our religious duty. It is the way we thank Allah for his blessing. I pray $ve times a day and hope Allah will give me a good harvest this year because my eldest child wants to attend college, but we do not know how to pay for all the expenses.
Behind the Curtain2
When thinking about the rituals described by AlNor, the dominant symbols used in the rituals are a tangible representation of the unseen world. Rice is a signi$cant part of all food o!erings, and houses for the spirits are made of sticks that look like houses. Many Symbols are used throughout the di!erent rituals. Sometimes, multiple symbols, such as the o!erings to the apo na palay, the o!ering to the poor, and the o!ering to apo Umpk, converge to convey the same meaning, thereby unifying a single meaning through various symbols. Other symbols, like the house for apo Umpk, bring together the meanings of protection and hold additional religious signi$cance. e third of Turner’s
2 is chapter contains a considerable amount of research from my ongoing dissertation.
120 Danyal Qal (1967) properties of meaning, polarization, can be observed as all these symbols and rituals combined serve as motivation and guidance for the farmer in ful$lling his planting responsibilities and maintaining productivity. is aspect is what the functionalist Malinowski (2002) observed among the Trobrianders of the Western Paci$c:
e garden magician, according to native ideas, thus controls both the work of man and the forces of Nature. He also acts directly as supervisor of gardening, sees to it that people do not skimp their work, or lag behind with it. (p. 46)
Al-Nor’s story gave us a good description of the rice-planting rituals. Following the second step of Moon’s (2017) four steps of critical contextualization for existing rituals, I will brie%y look into the underlying issues behind the practices before critically evaluating them from a Biblical perspective and attempting to use them as tools for worldview transformation (pp. 121–125).
Among the Maguindanao, magic and spells for various aspects of life are common (Cardoza, 1986; Williams, 1997, 2008). Malinowski (1926) describes magic as a practical aspect of life (p. 107). e rituals performed among Maguindanao rice farmers reveal a common denominator as they are deployed to gain a sense of control over natural and spiritual forces beyond human reach. Malinowski (1979; cf. Malinowski & Red$eld, 1948) describes magic as a “special type of ritual” (p. 38) used to “control change, to eliminate accidents, to foresee the unexpected turn of natural events, or to make human handiwork reliable and adequate” (p. 38). Magic is employed to in%uence events that are beyond an individual’s control in various aspects of life (2002, pp. 304–305). “ e integral cultural function of magic, therefore, consists in the bridging-over of gaps and inadequacies in highly important activities not yet completely mastered by man” (1926, p. 111).
A er Al-Nor’s story describing the symbols and rituals used among Maguindanao rice farmers, I li ed the curtain to shed light on the underlying beliefs that squarely fall into what Hiebert (1982) describes as the excluded middle. We will focus on what the Bible says about the rituals we identi$ed and the beliefs connected to them.
First, we acknowledge that nature is indeed beyond human control. Like the Muslim faith, the Bible a&rms that God controls nature. A er the %ood, God promised Noah “planting and harvest, cold and heat, summer and winter, day and night” (Gen. (Gen. 8:22, !e Voice Bible, 2011) will never cease. God can use droughts and other natural disasters as punishment for disobedience. e Story of king Ahab exempli$es that God dried up the earth as punishment for sin (1 Ki. 17:1).
Second, the Bible clearly states that spiritual beings surround us. Paul warns the church in Ephesus that their battle is not against people but against spiritual powers and beings (Eph. 6:12). We can also read about God’s army of angels $ghting for us, for example, in 2 Ki. 6:8-23, Aram’s king waged a war against Israel. In a seemingly desperate situation, God revealed to Elisha and his servant an army of horses and chariots of $re $ghting for Israel.
Lastly, the practice of o!ering to the poor must be commended. e Israelites have been instructed not to forget the poor among them (Deu. 15:11). Jesus taught that giving to the poor equates to giving to God directly (Mt. 25:40). In Acts, we can see that sharing wealth with the less fortunate was a common practice in the early church (Ac. 2:45, 4:32). e Prophet Malachi clearly said that God will shower those with blessings who put God $rst in their $nances (Mal. 3:10).
e Bible disagrees with something behind every ritual observed in the rice planting process: the human attempt to control and manipulate spiritual powers. Be it by striking a “deal” with spirits or “forcing” God’s hand through o!erings. e Bible clearly states that divination and sorcery are forbidden (Deu. 18:10-11). Saul, the $rst king of Israel, sought the help of the medium at En-dor and summoned the spirit of Samuel. However, his actions resulted in a penalty (1 Sam. 28:3-25).
e Bible clearly shows that God alone is to be worshiped (Ex. 20:3-5). It also talks about putting God to the test, as in trying to manipulate God for one’s gain. When tempted by the devil, Jesus quotes Deu. 6:16 saying: “Do not put the Eternal One, your God, to the test” (Mt. 4:7, !e Voice Bible, 2011). Deu. 6:16 refers to an instance in Massah where the Israelites challenged God.
We must realize that despite all expertise and techniques, much of the success of rice farming is beyond the farmer’s control. He must do his part and depend on God for rain and sun. As crosscultural workers, we must also acknowledge the spiritual beings and forces Maguindanao farmers deal with. We must consider the seen and the unseen realities to bring lasting transformation.
Missiological Transformation
e most intricate ritual in the rice planting cycle is the initial one, where the apo na palay selects the seed and constructs the house using four sticks. I recommend using this as our starting point to maximize its in%uence throughout the entire crop cycle. Before being able to perform a ritual, we must establish ourselves as religious people and prosperous farmers. e latter can also be achieved by partnering with successful Christian farmers or other persons of peace on neighboring farms. A challenge lies in replacing the apo na palay. However, as their in%uence fades
due to the di&culty in $nding suitable successors, we have an opportunity to propose an alternative.
Once we overcome these initial challenges and gain local farmers’ trust, we must be there at the beginning of the planting season. Before purchasing the seeds, visiting the farmer on their farm is essential. If we lack expertise, we bring along an agricultural expert. We must mark this visit as the separation stage of the ritual. We can talk about $nancial wisdom using Lk 14:28-30, soil conditions, and seed options. Together, we will go and purchase the appropriate seeds. We will replace the ritual of counting grain with agricultural advice and anointing the selected seeds with oil as we pray over them. However, we acknowledge God’s hand over the selection process by praying for the correct seeds and God’s blessing on the farmer’s investment.
We then bring the farmer into the liminal stage of the ritual (Gennep, 2019; Moon, 2013; Turner, 1999) by choosing a proper section for the initial planting of the seeds. e agricultural expert must explain why a particular plot has the best growing conditions for the seeds. Just before the farmer scatters the seeds, we pray over it before reciting Ps. 126:5-6 together and talk about the need for a seed to die to bring forth more fruit (Jh. 12:24).
Once the seeds are in the ground, we build a “house” with four saccharum spontaneum sticks. We must emphasize that it is not a house for apo Umpk but a symbol representing God’s presence. At this point, we can have a discovery Bible study with the farmer about the Tabernacle representing God’s presence among his people. It is essential to mention that it is only a symbol as the creator of the universe cannot be contained in a man-made structure (Ac. 17:24). Depending on the situation and already established background knowledge, we can already mention that it also represents Jesus’ presence among his followers (Jh. 1:14). A er the Bible study, we go back to the four-stick house and plant a bunch of seeds at each corner of the house that will symbolize
God’s reign over the whole earth as the four corners represent the four cardinal directions. We must establish that God’s Spirit himself is present and has power over all other spiritual beings and forces (Rom. 8:38-39) and that He promised continuous planting and harvesting (Gen. 8:22).
We pray again and ask God for his presence and protection. As a last step in the liminal stage, we ask the farmer to place a handful of rice grains in the middle of the house as a representation of his willingness to return some of the later harvest to God as he will bless other people in need (Prov. 19:17, Mt. 25:40).
Although the liminal stage will continue in some way until the harvest is brought in, it is important to have a reintegration stage and let the farmer put his faith in God. e whole ritual will take the better part of a day and should be $nished with a meal together. During the meal, we can discuss Jesus’ Sermon on the Mount, where he said that we do not need to worry as God even provides for the birds in the sky (Mt. 6:25:27). Before leaving, we can all recite Ps. 23 together and leave a printed copy or audio $le with the farmer for him to memorize it so he can recall the verse as encouragement.
roughout the process, we must keep in mind that excluded middle issues are not asking to answer the “how?” but the “why?” questions (Wesch, 2018, p. 49). e agricultural advice only takes care of the how. However, we must also answer the why and assure people that God controls both the seen and unseen worlds.
Conclusion and Recommendations
Looking at the spiritual dimension, the unseen reality of farming has opened my horizon to understanding Maguindanao farmers. Teaching agricultural techniques is good, but the impact will always be limited if we fail to consider the unseen reality. I
Filippino Rice
125 am still involved in ministries reaching out to farmers. Promoting rituals and giving new meaning to existing symbols will be a focus of my future training.
Cross-cultural workers must learn to establish themselves by giving agricultural advice, understanding the unseen world, and having the correct answers for the community. Many crosscultural workers, myself included, focus on agricultural training as a way of helping the physical needs of a community and hope that it will build a bridge to spiritual dialogue. is exercise convinced me that teaching agriculture must include the unseen spiritual dimension from the get-go. Understanding the beliefs behind our visible world opens doors for the discipleship process by giving symbols new meaning and establishing rituals in the farming process.
e scope of this paper did not allow for more profound research of all rituals involved in the rice planting process. Further research is needed to create appropriate rituals for each stage of the cycle. Suppose we can establish trust among farmers at the beginning of the cycle. In that case, we will have multiple opportunities to disciple Maguindanao farmers through further rituals and symbols throughout the planting process to become followers of Jesus.
Furthermore, similar beliefs and rituals also govern other types of farming among Maguindanao, whether planting corn, coconut, vegetables, or backyard farming. ese represent other areas in need of research for cross-cultural workers.
Lastly, as mentioned in the introduction, the excluded middle issues have remarkable similarities between Christian and Muslim farmers in the Philippines (cf. Williams, 2005, pp. 119–120). Many of my students in a local seminary who are pastors report about their church members going to the traditional agricultural experts to seek advice for their farms. As I asked,
none of these pastors have any solution for this kind of syncretism among farmers exempt from preaching against it, which has proven ine!ective. I recommend and will strongly advocate for local pastors to use the process described in this paper to o!er alternatives to the traditional agricultural experts among their church members.
e time constraints of this assignment did not allow me to apply any of the suggestions above except to open the eyes of other cross-cultural workers to these excluded middle issues. I look forward to seeing transformation as I use symbols and rituals to disciple farmers to follow Jesus.
References Cited
Cardoza, R. (1986). Sourcery Among Maguindanaon Of Barrio Bunao. unpublished manuscript.
Gennep, A. van. (2019). !e rites of passage (M. B. Vizedom & G. L. Ca!ee, Trans.; Second edition). e University of Chicago Press.
Gustafson, C. (2014). Qualities of an Adored Maguindanaon Leader [DIS]. Fuller eological Seminary.
Hiebert, P. G. (1982). e Flaw of the Excluded Middle. Missiology: An International Review, 10(1), 35–47. https:// doi.org/10.1177/009182968201000103
Koenke, J. (2014). Maguindanao Worldview: Surfacing Assumptions of Freewill and Fate that Impact Behavior [DIS]. Fuller eological Seminary.
Love, R. (1994). “Church Planting Among Folk Muslims.” International Journal of Frontier Missions, 11(2).
Majul, C. A. (1999). Muslims in the Philippines. University of the Philippines Press.
Malinowski, B. (1926). Myth in Primitive Psychology. Psyche. https://rcin.org.pl/Content/31582/PDF/WA004_20187_ U6900_Malinowski-Myth.pdf
Malinowski, B. (1979). e Role of Magic and Religion. In W. A. Lessa & E. Z. Vogt (Eds.), Reader in Comparative Religion: An Anthropological Approach (4th ed, pp. 37–46). Harper & Row.
Malinowski, B. (2002). Argonauts of the Western Paci c: An Account of Native Enterprise and Adventure in the Archipelagoes of Melanesian New Guinea. Routledge.
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Malinowski, B., & Red$eld, R. (1948). Magic, science and religion and other essays (Text Edition). e Free Press.
McKenna, T. M. (1998). Muslim rulers and rebels: Everyday politics and armed separatism in the southern Philippines. University of California Press.
Milligan, J. A. (2010). e Prophet and the Engineer Meet Under the Mango Tree: Leadership, Education, and Con%ict in the Southern Philippines. Educational Policy, 24(1), 28–51. https://doi.org/10.1177/0895904809354069
Moon, W. Jay. (2013). Using Rituals to Disciple Oral Learners: Part 1. Orality Journal, 2(1), 43–63.
Moon, W. Jay. (2017). Intercultural discipleship: Learning from global approaches to spiritual formation. Baker Academic.
Muslim, M. A. (1994). !e Moro armed struggle in the Philippines: !e nonviolent autonomy alternative. O&ce of the President and College of Public A!airs, Mindanao State University.
Rogeberg, J. (2017). Islam in Saudi Arabia: !e Homogeneous Portrayal and Heterogeneous Reality [M. Arts in Global Studies]. Liberty University School of Divinity.
Said, N. (2017). Maguindanaon Rice Farming. https://www. slideshare.net/norolaynsaid/maguindanaon-rice-farming
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!e Voice Bible: Step into the story of Scripture. (2011). omas Nelson, Inc.
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Turner, V. (1967). !e forest of symbols: Aspects of Ndembu ritual. Cornell University Press.
Turner, V. (1999). Betwixt and between: !e liminial period in rites de passage. Symposium on New Approaches to the Study of Religion.
Wesch, M. (2018). !e art of being human: A Textbook for cultural anthropology. New Prairie Press. https://newprairiepress. org/ebooks/20
Williams, M. S. (1997). Causality, Power, and Cultural Traits of the Maguindanao. Philippine Sociological Review, 45(1–4), 34–63.
Williams, M. S. (2005). Bwaya as Spirit-Being: Filipino Islam and the Supernatural. JAM, 7(1), 119–131.
Williams, M. S. (2008). A Short Examination on Beliefs in Popular Islam. Musa r: A Bulletin of Intercultural Studies, 2(2), 3–4.
Williams, M. S. (2009). Retrospect and Prospect of Magindanaon Leadership in Central Mindanao: Four Vantage Points. Kyoto Review of Southeast Asia, 11.
Williams, M. S. (2013). Business and Peace !e Case of La Frutera Plantation in the Southern Philippines. Scholars’ Press.
Yango, E. (2016). A Christology from below in Muslim Maguindanon context. In P. D. Bazzell & A. Peñamora (Eds.), Christologies, cultures, and religions: Portraits of Christ in the Philippines. OMF Literature.
Introduction
Chapter 6
Unrequited Love in Philippines
By: Ezra Santos
Dear fellow church leaders,
By God’s grace, I hope you are all doing well. I am writing this paper to inform you of my proposal to conduct a unique discipleship approach for one of our members, Juan (pseudonym). As we all know, Juan has been struggling to grow in his walk with the Lord. A er several meetings with him, I was able to listen to his struggles, his pain, and his challenges. I could only be heartbroken by his current condition and feeling of stagnation. He feels worse: he feels abandoned and worthless. As the pastor overseeing his growth, it is my responsibility to help ensure that his journey with the Lord continues. !us, I have been thinking and exploring ways to help him as a church so that he feels that he is not alone and that we are standing by him, praying for him, and loving him. !is paper outlines the tentative conclusion of this exploration.
In my recent Ph.D. class, under the mentorship of Dr. Jay Moon, I learned a discipleship approach that I think will greatly help Juan. In this paper, I will detail my proposed approach in these stages: rst, I will describe Juan’s current condition; second, I will evaluate his condition and issues according to the teachings of Scripture; third, I will explain the discipleship approach that I intend to employ; fourth and nally, I will outline the procedure of this approach from beginning to end.
In presenting this paper to you, I hope to seek your insights and input about this proposal. I take wisdom from Paul and Barnabas, who, although con dent in the Gospel message that they
Santos preached, still thought it wise to consult the apostles and elders in Jerusalem to ensure that they were on the right track following objections against them and their message (Acts 15:21). May the Lord give us wisdom in reviewing this proposal.
Phenomenological Study and Ontological Critique: Juan’s Identity and Issues
Born in a city in Central Luzon, Juan was born to a family of farmers. As the eldest of four siblings in a family that was not well-o!, he had to start working at a young age to help his parents generate more income. He tried various manual labor jobs, including farming, carpentry, and cra ing. e pressure on him was signi$cant due to his role as the oldest child.
With a great desire to earn more, Juan moved alone to the capital city, Manila, to $nd work. at’s also where the Lord met him in a youth camp. Since then, he has served the Lord. What signi$cantly helped him draw closer to God was a woman at church whom he greatly admired. She was the woman who invited him to the youth camp. Eventually, he fell in love with her. en, he went on to study at the Bible college where I met him. He felt that God was calling him to ministry, and he had hoped that someday, he would serve as a church pastor, married to the woman who had introduced her to the Lord. To his great frustration, however, the woman never loved him back. He felt that he was used and abandoned by the said woman, who he claims gave him mixed signals only to reject him in the end. is was a major heartbreak for Juan. Years later, in the present, he doesn’t admit it, but he clearly feels that he needs some closure from that experience; unfortunately, the woman is now married, and he cannot approach her anymore.
Juan went on in his life, moving from place to place and church to church as he tried to move on from that painful love story. During this time, we dri ed apart a little; still friends
Unrequited Love in Philippines | 133 but too busy to check on each other. ere was a time when he attended a youth camp, and that’s when his next tragic experience happened. Long story short, the youth pastor in charge of the camp invited him to his home only to take advantage of him sexually. He only felt more used, abandoned, broken, and ruined a er that experience. He went on to counseling, but he felt that the only way to $x everything was to end his life. at’s when we reconnected because I was the only person he felt like informing about his plan. Looking back, I want to think that that interaction was divinely appointed because what resulted from that conversation was one saved life. By God’s grace, he changed his mind and decided to give life another chance. Since then, we have been closer than ever, and most recently, he decided to ask for my mentorship, which I gladly accepted.
In addition to these tragic experiences, Juan also su!ers from severe insecurity, and with it comes a sense of shame. He feels that he is not progressing in life. Although he is now engaged, he does not feel excited about it. Instead, he feels anxious and insecure and is worried that he may have only asked his $ancé to marry him because he feels pressured since most of his friends— us—are now married. He feels that he will be le behind if he does not get married soon. He already feels ashamed being way behind us since most of us in his circle of friends now serve as pastors and do well in our lives and ministry. So, he feels like needing to catch up to minimize the gap between him and us.
Juan, then, is a person who has had harrowing life experiences. He su!ers from a traumatic past resulting from a failed love story, sexual abuse, and haunting insecurity. ere could be more underlying issues, but these are the things that he explicitly mentioned when I checked on him recently. I asked him to think of an image to help me visualize his feelings. He said that the $rst thing that comes to mind is an image of an abandoned building that has been used and le to collapse on its own. Looking back at his experiences and his current state of
stagnation, regrets, and regress, he feels that God has abandoned him. I also asked what he would do if we were not friends, and he had no one to talk to about these things. He said that he would probably end his life, or if not, he would be an atheist rather than believe and serve a God who does not care about him.
e issues and their degree seem to qualify what Dr. Jay Moon describes as “excluded middle issues,” which are “intimate questions and concerns that require unseen spirit power and guidance to e!ect change in this world” but “are o en overlooked in the church; hence, people are forced to go to other sources for help” (Moon, 2017, pp. 29–33). e latter description is more relevant for Juan’s case because not only did he not $nd help from the church, but the church itself—a pastor contributed to his trauma. is raises an important question: How can we help Juan e!ectively address these excluded middle issues? Like any other problem, we must $rst evaluate his issues, especially from a biblical-theological standpoint. at is what the next section is about. I will propose an approach speci$cally designed to address excluded middle issues.
But $rst, I wish to acknowledge Juan’s courage to be vulnerable before me when we talked about the issues he has been having. To have such traumatic experiences and be able to talk about it, I think, shows a lot of courage on his part, and it is a positive sign that shows his hope to be redeemed from it. Second, I wish to admit that although I am well-intentioned in this proposal, it will still be limited in many ways. For example, even though I will approach my evaluation and proposal from a biblical-theological lens, I am aware that things like counseling, psychotherapy, and possibly even psychiatric help may be needed to help him recover his well-being. is paper aims to get the healing process started, beginning with a proposed strategy to recover his spiritual identity, which, according to Ed Lapiz, a Filipino pastor and anthropologist, is the core of our Filipino being (Lapiz, 2018, p. 16)
Because of his painful experiences and present insecurities, Juan feels that God does not care about him. What does the Bible have to say about such feelings?
First, the painful emotion that comes with being neglected is not foreign to God. Yahweh himself was abandoned by his people when they went a er false gods numerous times (e.g., Jdg. 2:12-14). Perhaps no book captures this more than Hosea, where, throughout the book, God could be seen as vacillating over how to deal with a covenant partner who betrayed him and abandoned him (Hos. 11:8). In the New Testament, we $nd Jesus himself expressing the same level of pain when he felt alone on the cross. He remarks, “My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?” (Mk. 15:34). Juan can take comfort in the fact that whatever he is feeling, God fully understands not only cognitively but a!ectively, and experientially. us, he can be open and fully vulnerable before God about his situation.
Second, it is important to remember how God relates to the world and all individuals. e Christian God is not like the God of the deists who, a er creating the world, stepped back and le it to operate by itself. God, in Deism, is a god who does not care enough to intervene in the matters of the world and the lives of the people (Williams, 2016, p. 247). On the contrary, what we $nd in Scripture is a God who is thoroughly and intimately involved in creation, human a!airs, and history (perhaps more accurately, ‘his story’). According to God’s own speech, he created the world carefully and measured every part of creation accordingly (Job 38:4-5). He saw it as good, and he sustains it actively, even a er sin entered the world, so in the words of the Psalmist, “it stands fast” (Ps. 119:90). God is also involved with human lives. We can see this with the way God carefully thought about humans (Gen. 1:27) and created man by using his very own hands and breath (2:7). roughout the Scriptures, we see God repeatedly a&rming
136 Ezra Santos the intrinsic value of humans and God’s intimate concern for them. us, David asked, “What is a mortal that you remember him, or the Son of Man that you take care of him?” (Ps. 8:4). In the New Testament, Jesus a&rms this truth by saying that the Father watches over us, and he knows our needs even before we mention them. Among all of God’s creation, Jesus teaches that humans are most precious in the Father’s eyes (Matt. 6:25-34). Because of sin, man has been destined for judgment (Rom. 6:23), but God desires for all men to be redeemed (2 Pet. 3:9). us, in the words of the Apostle Paul, “But God, being rich in mercy, because of the great love with which he loved us, even when we were dead in our trespasses, made us alive together with Christ—by grace you have been saved” (Eph. 2:4-5).
ese two important themes—God knows our pain and that God cares for all of us—can be found throughout Scripture, pointing us to an important theological truth: God cares for all creation, most especially for humans—us. It may not always be easy to discern God’s care, especially in times of great su!ering and trauma, which may lead us to question God occasionally. Much like with Job, God welcomes that and reminds him of his active presence and care for him and all the world (Job 38:1-40:2). is is a profound truth worth re%ecting on. For Juan, this raises an important question: given his personal experiences, in what ways has God shown his care for him? For us church leaders, and me in particular as his lead discipler, we must explore ways how to guide him into re%ecting on this question that leads him to reembrace the biblical truth that God cares deeply for him.
Missiological Transformation
In thinking through how best to assist Juan in his journey to recover his spiritual identity, what I found to be most potentially helpful is the use of ritual. is approach is based on the “Intercultural Discipleship” model proposed by Dr. Jay Moon,
Unrequited Love in Philippines | 137 in which ritual plays a key role. In the following discussion, I will brie%y outline the theoretical and theological foundation of this discipleship model. For brevity, I will limit my discussion to the salient points related to the speci$c approach that I will attempt to implement with Juan. en, I will discuss how I intend to proceed with the ritual.
According to Moon, Intercultural Discipleship is “the process of worldview transformation whereby Jesus’ followers center their lives on the kingdom of God (Matt. 6:33) and obey Christ’s commands in culture (Matt. 28:19–20), utilizing culturally available genres.” A fundamental theological assumption undergirds this model: “God goes before us in culture, and we begin the discipleship process by continuing the conversation that God has already started. We do not bring God to a culture; rather, God brings us to the culture.” e role of the intercultural discipler is to identify the “stepping stones that God has already placed in the culture for discipleship” and utilize them to lead people to Christ (Moon, 2017, p. 51).
In my view, this discipleship model rests $rmly on Scripture and is consistent with the Missio Dei. Missio Dei, being God’s mission, is primarily enacted by God with the church’s participation through evangelism and discipleship (Lausanne Committee for World Evangelization, 2011, pp. 106–107). Intercultural Discipleship, as a discipleship approach, helps us to that end. In this, God is our prime example who used the existing worldview of the ancient Israelites to reveal himself and transform it. One example is the Israelite sacri$cial system. Because religion was mainly practiced through rituals in the Ancient Near East, God also instituted rituals as a way for Israelites to practice their devotion to him. In this way, God used a familiar cultural practice but did so in a way that also transformed it. us, whereas other nations would have their own ritual practices (e.g., Lev. 18:21), the Israelites were to conduct their ritual in a manner that re%ected God’s holiness (Lev. 19:1-8). e Old Testament is replete with
138 Ezra Santos examples of this, and Calvin calls this “divine accommodation.” Divine Accommodation is the idea that God con$gures his divine revelation using categories familiar to us so that we would be able to grasp it (McGrath, 2017, p. 169). Ultimately, we can see this exempli$ed in God’s incarnation in the person of Jesus. God, in order to reveal himself more fully to humans, became one himself. Not only did God use the existing worldview of the people he wanted to redeem, but he became one of them—us. us, “the Word became %esh and dwelt among us” (Jn. 1:14). With God himself as the exemplar of a missional approach that utilizes existing cultural forms and genre, there is, thus, solid biblical grounding for the assumptions upon which Moon’s Intercultural Discipleship is based upon.
In unpacking Intercultural Discipleship, Moon mentions the di!erent “culturally available genres” we can identify and use for discipleship. ese genres include “symbols, rituals, proverbs, stories, dance, music, and drama” (Moon, 2017, p. 53). Of these, I would like to use ritual to help Juan.
Ritual is o en viewed negatively, either as a boring, meaningless practice or as a primitive, dangerous attempt to save ourselves with ‘works’ that undermine the $nished work of Jesus and his word. On these bases, unfortunately, ritual has been dismissed by Christians, o en too quickly because of its negative connotation (Moon, 2017, p. 91). Ritual is indeed a foreign concept to many modern people, not only to Christians. Even among biblical scholars and social scientists, de$ning ritual has been challenging (Klingbeil, 2007, p. 14). With such diverse views among the lay and the specialists, it is unsurprising that people commonly misunderstand and dismiss the idea. As a result, perhaps especially among protestant, evangelical Christians, its discipleship potential is too o en overlooked (Ap!el-Marglin, 2011, p. 50).
What is Ritual? According to Moon, “Rituals can be de$ned as a prescribed set of actions that employ symbols to reenact the deepest beliefs, feelings, and values of a people” (Moon, 2017, p. 92). In this action, the person undergoes a concrete process in which his most valued beliefs and feelings are either a&rmed or corrected, with the goal of becoming a better disciple a er the procedure.
In terms of process, Moon, following Arnold Van Gennep (1960), says that there are three distinct stages in ritual. First is the separation, where the participants are physically removed from their regular routine. is disruption in one’s daily life pattern creates a sense of disturbance, which results in an expectation for a return to normalcy or something better. is prepares the participant for the second phase, which is transition. Here, the participants are stripped of the things that typically characterize their identity—status, rank, accomplishments, and so on. In this stage, the participants enter into a realm that is marked by “uncertainty, confusion, and chaos” and into a communal journey toward sense and meaning. During this process, the participants form what Victor Turner calls communitas, a special bond among participants that results in a stronger sense of community, as well as a deeper sense of faith. e third and $nal step is reincorporation. In this stage, the participants who have yielded positive results are reintegrated into their community. is stage o en concludes with a celebration that marks the end of the process, as well as the beginning of a new phase for the participants (Moon, 2017, pp. 92–95).
ere are several reasons why the use of ritual should be reconsidered in discipleship. Here, I can only discuss it in brief:
1. Whether we are aware of it or not, some forms of rituals are a part of our daily lives. Examples include handshaking, praying before a meal, and birthday celebrations.
2. Rituals like baptism and the Lord’s Supper were “central to, and de$nitive for, early Christian life” (DeMaris, 2008, p. 11).
3. Studies show that rituals, done correctly, can be a positive activity that reinforces existing values and e!ectively transforms worldviews (Moon, 2017, p. 92). A er all, ritual is a form of concrete learning. As Tom Ste!en observes, most people in the world prefer to learn through concrete means (Ste!en, 2005, p. 27), and ritual is a powerful example of that.
e Logic of Ritual for Juan
All three reasons apply to Juan. As a Filipino living in the Metro, where a myriad of symbols and practices exist, Juan would be familiar with the concept of ritual even if not with the terminology itself. As a Christian, he is well aware of Christian rites such as baptism, the Lord’s supper, and many others we practiced in the church. If done correctly, the ritual approach to discipleship may have the greatest potential to help him overcome his insecurities and sense of abandonment from God. As Moon said, “Rituals provide important opportunities to address excluded middle issues but for growing disciples so that the ultimate God becomes deeply intimate and close in their personal and communal lives” (Moon, 2017, p. 92). Berlejeung also notes the power of ritual in maintaining or restoring the relationship between the human and the divine. She says, “Ritual and worship serve to keep the human-divine communication intact, to maintain and optimize it, and, if necessary, to repair it” (Berlejeung, 2020, p. 345). us, the use of ritual may not only result in a restored awareness of God’s care but also in a restored relationship with him.
Having explained brie%y (1) the theological grounds for Intercultural Discipleship, (2) the use of rituals as a speci$c
approach, and (3) the potential of this approach for Juan, let me now discuss how I will proceed. Moon provides guidelines for both when there is and when no ritual exists. In Juan’s case, because no speci$c ritual addresses his root issues, I will follow the guidelines Moon set forth in constructing a ritual.
e Ritual Procedure
In constructing a ritual, Moon suggests taking the following steps:
1. Identify an excluded middle issue that the disciple needs to address.
2. Identify primary roots to address.
3. Evaluate individual roots. Scripture, not individual preference, evaluates each of the root issues.
4. Choose symbols.
5. Select the biblical themes and stories that you want to emphasize in the ritual to serve as the true myths. ese will help to reshape the “operating system” to transform the disciple’s worldview.
6. Carefully select the ritual specialist.
7. Create sacred space and sacred time.
8. Incorporate the three stages of the ritual process.
At this point in this paper, you will have noticed that some of the items in this procedure have already been provided. Namely, I identi$ed the excluded middle issues that Juan is experiencing, thus 1; then, I identi$ed the primary roots of these issues and evaluated them from Scripture, thus 2 and 3; then I identi$ed the themes that will be emphasized in the ritual (i.e., God’s care for humans), thus 5; $nally, I also mentioned that as his discipler, I would be facilitating this ritual with him, thus 6. What is le is
142 Ezra Santos numbers 4, 7, and 8. is section will discuss these remaining steps.
In choosing symbols, Moon suggested that we consider Turner’s ideas about the properties of symbols. ere are three: polarization, which is that symbols connect abstract ideals with our physical senses; condensation, which is that symbols can convey multiple meanings; and uni cation, which is that multiple symbols can convey one uni$ed meaning (Moon, 2017, p. 33).
So, what symbol can help Juan remember God’s care? e stars in heaven will be a good symbol to remind him of that. In the Filipino context, stars have multiple symbolisms and thus have a condensation property. Chinese culture is very dominant in the Philippines, so many of their traditions, holidays, and practices are familiar, even hard-wired, to many of us. In Chinese beliefs, like the Chinese horoscope, the stars provide direction and guidance in one’s life. It o!ers a sense of continuity and direction and fosters expectation or hope for something good. is is why, even today, many Filipinos know their star sign, and many still check their daily horoscope so that they can be guided for the day. In the Bible, stars are o en used as a sign of God’s sustaining power and care for the universe (Ps. 8:3; 136:9; 147:4; Jer. 31:35). In Gen. 15, God also used the stars to instill in Abram that he is faithful. e multivalent symbolism of the stars can remind Juan of God’s faithfulness and care for the world and that he should live with a sense of gratitude and direction toward God’s purpose for him.
Another symbol that might help is the birds and %owers in the $eld. ese images were the very symbols that Jesus referred to in his discourse about the Father’s care. ese symbols can be very powerful images that have the polarization property, where through them, the ideological pole (namely, that the Father cares for him) is concretized and connects with his sensory pole (namely, the birds in the air and the %owers in the $eld).
Having decided the main initial symbols that we will use in the ritual, the next step involves creating a sacred space and a sacred time for the ritual. Both space and time are described as sacred here but will be dedicated for the sole purpose of the ritual. For this to work, it needs to be a time when Juan is willing to make himself available and a place that not only makes the symbols accessible but also a place where Juan can have the freedom to be vulnerable. Juan and I will be at a dedicated time and place, away from the normal routines of life, so that we can process his excluded middle issues together.
Considering these things, the idea for a time that comes to mind is a Saturday when Juan is o! from work. On Saturdays, Juan normally spends his day o! resting, cooking, doing laundry, and binge-watching. is is his normal routine, and doing the ritual on a Saturday will disrupt his Sabbath. Any other day might be possible, but there is the risk of him being just distracted because he would be too worried about his work to focus on the ritual. Saturday, therefore, is a good time for the ritual. As for the venue, the place I suggest is the Touch of Glory Prayer Mountain. Several reasons make this place the ideal venue for the ritual. First, it is a place that is far from the metro. e farther he is from the environment that gives him a sense of normalcy, the greater the separation stage of the ritual. Second, the symbols mentioned above are readily accessible in this place. Because the prayer mountain is located on the mountainous terrain of Antipolo City, the place is full of green scenery, such as trees and plants, which make it a home for several bird species. e only roofed places are the chapel, the prayer cells, the restaurant, and the lodge. Most of the place is open hence, the stars can be seen from almost anywhere. e lodge is also convenient: if he needs more time, we can stay there for the night to continue the ritual until he reaches spiritual saturation. ird and $nally, Juan has always liked that place precisely because of its serene environment, which gives
144 Ezra Santos him space to re%ect and ponder. is is why the Touch of Glory Prayer Mountain is ideal for the ritual.
Finally, with all the elements in place, the only thing le to do is outline the ritual’s step-by-step process. Assuming that we have agreed to conduct the ritual, we will proceed with the $rst of three stages, separation, where we will go to the Touch of Glory Prayer Mountain on a Saturday of his preference. From there, we will go to the second stage, transition.
As the ritual specialist, I would facilitate the ritual with certain activities using symbols. During this time, we will be less concerned with things like time, work, and even our phones. Because it will be a sacred time and place, we will devote our attention to God’s actions. We will be sensitive to how God will move in Juan’s life through the ritual. With our phones and watches kept away for the duration of the ritual, I will begin by conversing with him about his situation. A er this, everything else is less structured, almost le to the leading of the Holy Spirit. But activities like prayer will certainly be there. If he feels like it, we can also use the prayer cells to create a moment of isolation with God, much like Jacob at Penuel. ere, he can wrestle with God. We will also walk around, and as we do, I will show him the di!erent symbols mentioned above, which are readily available at the venue. ere are birds and %owers everywhere in that place which he can touch; while looking at the stars, I can have him hold a candle, or perhaps we can drink a warm co!ee together as we gaze upon the stars and marvel at God’s creation. We may even play Babbie Mason’s song, Trust his Heart as we’re doing this.
We can repeat these activities or utilize other symbols depending on what else is available. Once he reaches spiritual saturation, where he $nally realizes God’s loving care for him, he is now ready for the third and $nal step, reincorporation. On the way back, we can have a special meal to celebrate his renewed spirit, perhaps a hot Filipino soup-based dish like Sinigang or
Bulalo. e hot soup should warm his body and should remind him of the warm co!ee that we had while star gazing and how the Holy Spirit rekindled his soul. As a parting gi , I can also give him an analog alarm clock to illustrate that God cares for him every minute and season of his life. Yes, the movement of the hands of the clock is circular, which may give him the impression that life is just repeating itself—no progress, no direction, and that is one way of looking at it. But I would encourage him to rethink that thought because the fact is, while it is true that the movement of the hands of the clock is circular, every second and minute is not the same as before: there is movement, there is progress, there is direction. To complement this, I can also give him a compass to signify a sense of direction. Of course, there are two ways of looking at it, especially if the needle is pointing that way. You can look at it as pointing forward or upward. And both can be true for him. As Moon said, following what he calls the “centered set approach” may help him understand that what is important is that he keeps moving forward and upward, and that continues to trust God’s love for him. I would also encourage him to think about his daily routine and think of a speci$c time or hour where he typically feels all the previous negative feelings. en, I would encourage him to set up an alarm using the analog clock to remind him that God cares for him. In doing this step, I may have to ask for the help of his partner and/or some of the brethren in the church to give him a sense of communitas. is is important because, as Lapiz observed, Filipinos are “groupists” or collectivists (Lapiz, 2018, p. 11). To come home and be warmly welcomed by a community that loves him and a&rms him will provide great encouragement that should further upli his spirit (Lapiz, 2018, p. 23). is will also strengthen him with honor, which counters the sense of disgrace that he initially felt, which for a Filipino person is hugely detrimental. Having like a ‘hero’s welcome’ provides redemption that addresses his great identity and social crisis as a Filipino (Santos, 2003, pp. 11–12).
If we are careful to follow the leading of the Holy Spirit as we conduct the ritual, we should expect positive outcomes in Juan’s life. Among other things, we can expect that he will have a renewed spirit of con$dence and trust in God. So that instead of feeling insecure and doubting God’s care, he would again appreciate God’s love for him. Besides verbal feedback from him, another way that we can expect to see the positive impact of the ritual is with his revitalized love for God’s ministry. us, we can expect him to recommit himself to serve with greater passion and enthusiasm in the church, especially in reaching out to people who may be having a struggle similar to the one he had just overcome. In other words, his life would again be directed toward being a disciple, following Jesus, and serving him in every area of his life.
Yet, it is important to consider that while we desire to see these outcomes in Juan’s life, in reality, these things might take time or even several di!erent rituals to develop. Renfrew, for example, cautions, “Religious rituals can rarely be expected to produce immediate and demonstrable material results” (Renfrew, 2018, p. 14). It is also possible that ritual alone will not be su&cient and that other forms of intervention may be needed. We should keep these things in mind, but we should not be discouraged because none of these invalidates the value and potential e&cacy of the ritual proposed above. With it, we can help Juan begin a meaningful journey toward healing, liberation, and discipleship.
Conclusion is paper outlines a proposed discipleship approach to help Juan confront his excluded middle issues. Juan su!ers from a painful, traumatic past that manifests in his insecurity, loss of trust in God’s care, as well as his feeling of being abandoned. Because these issues have led Juan away from the faith before,
and because these prompted him almost to end his life, we may classify these issues as excluded middle issues or intimate issues that need special attention and spiritual intervention to be addressed. e question for us as church leaders is, how can we help Juan deal with these issues so that he can recover his trust in God’s love and care?
e Scripture shows that God understands Juan’s feelings. But while it is o en di&cult to discern God’s care, he does care. He cares for all of his creation, as well as for us humans. To help Juan recover his trust in God’s care, I proposed the use of a discipleship model that Dr. Jay Moon calls Intercultural Discipleship, which capitalizes on the “culturally available genres” for discipleship. Of the genres listed by Moon, I speci$cally proposed using Ritual, or an ordered set of actions that uses concrete symbols to help the disciple become a better follower of Jesus. Following this, I gave an overview of what ritual is, why I think it has the greatest potential to help Juan, the actual step-by-step procedure, as well as its anticipated results. If this approach is done correctly with great sensitivity to the leading of the Holy Spirit, I think this will help Juan confront his excluded middle issue.
Having said this, I would like to seek your thoughts and insights regarding this proposal. I pray that as we discuss this matter, we will listen to the Lord’s leading together, not only in thinking of how to help Juan but also others like him who are under our pastoral care. May the Lord grant us wisdom in this regard.
Ezra Santos References Cited
Ap!el-Marglin, F. (2011). Subversive spiritualities: How rituals enact the world. Oxford University Press.
Berlejeung, A. (2020). Divine Presence and Absence. In S. E. Balentine (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Ritual and Worship in the Hebrew Bible (pp. 345–361). Oxford University Press.
DeMaris, R. E. (2008). !e New Testament in its ritual world. Routledge.
Klingbeil, G. A. (2007). Bridging the gap: Ritual and ritual texts in the Bible. Eisenbrauns.
Lapiz, E. M. (2018). Pagpapahiyang: Redeeming Culture and Indigenizing Christianity.
Lausanne Committee for World Evangelization (Ed.). (2011). !e Cape Town Commitment: A confession of faith and a call to action. Hendrickson Publ.
McGrath, A. E. (2017). Christian theology: An introduction (25th Anniversary Sixth Edition). Blackwell.
Moon, W. Jay. (2017). Intercultural discipleship: Learning from global approaches to spiritual formation. Baker Academic.
Renfrew, C. (2018). Introduction: Play as the Precursor of Ritual in Early Human Societies. In C. Renfrew, I. Morley, & M. Boyd (Eds.), Ritual, Play, and Belief in Evolution and Early Human Societies. Cambridge University Press.
Santos, N. F. (2003). Turning our shame into honor: Transformation of the Filipino hiya in the light of Mark’s Gospel. Lifechange Pub.
Ste!en, T. S. (2005). Reconnecting God’s story to ministry: Cross-cultural storytelling at home and abroad (Rev. ed). InterVarsity Press : Biblica Books.
Unrequited Love in Philippines | 149
Williams, S. N. (2016). Deism. In New Dictionary of !eology: Historical and Systematic. InterVarsity Press.
Chapter7
Infertility Ceremony in Ghana
By Ernest Perbi-Asare
Introduction
Akan Parents in my church ( e Church of Pentecost) in Assakae, a suburb of Takoradi in the Western Region of Ghana who have been converted into Christianity have resisted e!orts by their extended families to take their children (girls) through the ‘Bragoro’ puberty rites of passage since they see it as devilish. Other Christian parents in the church who are afraid to incur the wrath of their family members secretly go through the ‘Bragoro’ puberty rites at the blind side of the church leadership.
Church members who have found other young Christian girls in my church go through the ‘Bragoro’ puberty rites secretly have tagged them as hypocrites and ‘shallow professing Christians’ who do not apply kingdom principles and values as practicing Christians who are to earnestly contend for the faith once delivered to the saints.
e belief among the Akan community in Assakae is that, any young girl who refuses to go through the ‘Bragoro’ puberty rites will be barren in her adult life. Most young girls in my church who refused to go through the ‘Bragoro’ puberty rites and got married are having issues giving birth and this have been associatedtotheirnonparticipationinthe‘Bragoro’pubertyrites.
On the other hand, some church members (girls) who stood $rm on their Christian principles and did not go through the ‘Bragoro’ puberty rites but got married and have given birth are of the view that it is not true that if one does not go through
152 Ernest Perbi-Asare the ‘Bragoro’ puberty rites, she will be barren because they did not go through it but they have given birth.
e issue above among others ongoing in my church is the reason why I am attempting this project by engaging orality and the arts to disciple Akan Christian women going through infertility in Assakae District of e Church of Pentecost in Ghana.
Phenomenological Study
Another motivation for embarking on this project hinges on a conversation I had with one young lady called Yaa who recently joined my church.
Yaa, a young married lady in one of my local churches informed me that she has gotten married for years but has not given birth. !e farthest is to get pregnant and have miscarriage along her nine-month journey which had continued for years now. She had seen gynecologists and sought for medical attention on this issue but to no avail. Someone directed her to join our church since it is a Pentecostal church and that we lay much emphasizes on prayer and also to join our prayer revival meetings.
In one of our prayer services, I called those who have issues with child birth to move forward for a word of prayer. To my utmost surprise, Yaa among other ladies stepped forward for prayer. A er the service, Yaa came to me and told me that she thinks her issue doesn’t only need prayer because she has personally fasted and prayed on the issue and have been moving from prayer revival meetings to the other aside seeking for medical attention so she thinks that the cause of her barrenness is her refusal for not going through the ‘Bragoro’ puberty rites when she was entering adulthood as her traditional custom demanded.
‘I am double sure at this stage of my life that my inability to give birth maybe due to my non participation in the ‘Bragoro’ puberty rites when I was young,’ she a%rmed.
“Pastor, please ooh can’t I, as a Christian, baptized in the Holy Spirit and committed to Jesus Christ go through the ‘Bragoro’ puberty rites God has put in my culture to save me from this predicament?” she pleaded.
She then broke into tears asking me to help her in her di%culty.
Instead of Yaa cutting o! her lap because her child has defecated on it by denouncing her ‘Bragoro’ puberty rites heritage entirely, why won’t she allow the values and principles of the kingdom of Jesus Christ to transform her Akan ‘Bragoro’ puberty rites worldview?
My conversation with Yaa helped me to come to the awareness that it is possible to use the arts for discipleship through contextualization in the Akan culture.
I am envisaging how transformative this experience will be for me as a Pastor, Yaa and other young ladies who may be in Yaa’s situation in my church and the Christian fraternity as we get understanding the arts in the Akan ‘Bragoro’ culture.
Ontological Critique
Moon (2017) observes that disciple-makers o en go along with the practices they see in their culture and think that those practices are the best when it comes to dealing with other cultures. An Akan proverb from Ghana states, “If you have not traveled to someone else’s farm, you may think that you are the best farmer.” I believe our thoughts and beliefs regarding discipleship will change if we take time to travel around the world to see for ourselves how believers of the Christian faith follow
154 Ernest Perbi-Asare
Jesus in di!erent cultures. If this is done, I trust that there will be a new approach to handling discipleship by way of engaging many oral art forms.
Moon (2017) explains intercultural discipleship as “the process of worldview transformation whereby Jesus followers center their lives on the Kingdom of God and obey Christ’s commands in culture utilizing cultural available genre.” is de$nition for me reveals discipleship as an unending process in one’s life (it rather ends when one dies) and its ultimate aim is to transform people’s worldview. If this is so, then young people in my church including Yaa will be able to see themselves as fully Akan natives (with adherence to puberty rites) and fully followers of Jesus Christ to a&rm the goal of discipleship as empowering people to put Jesus Christ at the center of the issues and concerns they face on daily basis rather than merely graduating from a program.
Worldview Transformation
In addressing the issue at stake in this project, de$ning the term worldview will be an important aspect. Hiebert (2008:2526), de$nes worldview as “ e foundational cognitive, a!ective, and evaluative assumptions and frameworks a group of people makes about the nature of reality which they use to order their lives. It encompasses people’s images or maps of the reality of all things that they use for living their lives.” He further states that worldview is not just the set of beliefs inculcated in the head; but the things people love and what they place value in as well. An Akan proverb states that, ‘Onipa dan ye ade a odo na enye ade a odwen ho keke,’ literally meaning that ‘a man becomes what he loves and not just what he imagines or thinks.’ is means that when people come to faith in Jesus Christ, it shouldn’t just be a new belief system in their minds or heads whilst they still continue to enjoy the pleasures of the world. If they do, they will be aligned
Infertility Ceremony in Ghana | 155 to worldly people. From this background, we can establish that in transforming worldview, one needs to consider what people imagine or think, what they love so dearly and what they value or treasure so well into consideration.
Using Folk Religious Framework for Discipleship in Akan Cultures
Critically studying the religious framework propounded by Hiebert (1999a) which aims at helping one to understand frameworks of religions and the work related to intercultural discipleship, I see the Deist religious framework as too scienti$c, less religious and more western as compared to the folk religious framework which resonate with the Akan culture which Yaa belongs, which aside its high religion for questions related to the work of unseen forces which a!ects the other world with a folk science area where one can see how forces a!ects the world, he describes a middle area which addresses issues related to the work of unseen forces in the world. Hiebert admits that folk cultures like the Akan culture have this “middle area” which is called the “folk religion,’ which handles questions related to how unseen forces a!ects this world. In otherder for Yaa not to become stuck in her discipleship journey, e Church of Pentecost must engage these middle issues. Some of the middle issues are when one’s business is not growing the way it should grow (this-world concern), whom does he consult for assistance (unseen forces)?.
If Christians do not respond to these issues on concern, then the Akan people may be tempted to visit a divine priest or priestess for help. Again, people want to begin a project like building a house or venturing into a new business, they look for spiritual direction for the unseen spiritual forces to intervene on their behalf. For me, these are key concerns for Yaa to be able to enjoy her new found faith in a way as a full Christian and a full Akan young lady. Every culture in the world has peculiar issues
156 Ernest Perbi-Asare and questions that give answers in this middle area. ere are many such issues in folk cultures which are critical for discipleship which hinges around Christianity and cultural practices.
Art Forms in Culture
Considering the middle issues stated above which is geared towards discipling people like Yaa, then it will not be wrong to say that many cognitive styles of discipleship hardly ever hit their target without the use of the arts. Graciously God in his own wisdom has provided these art forms in culture to help Yaa to handle these cultural issues in a way that will recognize her as a full Christian and a full Akan by engaging some of these art forms: symbols, rituals, proverbs, stories among others. Mikhael Bahktin states that these arts forms are very important because, “Each genre provides a speci$c way of visualizing a given part of reality since they each combine speci$c blindnesses and insights” (Morson and Emerson 1990, 275–276).
Critical Evaluation and Missiological Transformation Symbols in Discipleship
For a successful discipleship journey, Yaa would have to enter the world of symbols which Leeds-Hurwitz (1993,6) de$nes it as “something present that stands for something absent” and engage it for a better understanding. To be abreast of how Yaa can apply symbols in Akan culture for discipleship, I will I will talk about Turner’s (1967) three properties of symbols: condensation, uni$cation, and polarization
Condensation is reveals the meaning that one symbol conveys many meanings. In contextualizing the Akan ‘Bragoro’ puberty rites,
I will use fresh green ‘nyinya’ leaves (Momordica charantia) and put it around the neck of the Yaa who is going through the puberty rites.
is represents cleansing her from bad omen around her life as a young girl and guiding her into adulthood without any misfortune. Again, some of the fresh ‘nyanya leaves will be put in water for her to drink. Since the ‘nyinya’ leaf is very sweet, it is believed that the life span of Yaa will be sweeter and fertile. Finally, some of the ‘nyinya’ leaves are dried and burned in a pot for the girl to smell the aroma of the burning leaves as a sign of the presence of the Holy Spirit.
By this, we can see that the ‘nyinya’ symbol condenses into many meanings as a form of cleansing, to aid in fertility and fruitful life and also the presence of the Holy Spirit.
Uni cation
e second property of symbols as described by turner is termed as the uni$cation property which emphasizes that many symbols are united into one which is at variance with the condensation property but harmonizes each other as well. is is where many symbols used have one meaning. Here, I will use a white calico around the entrance of the room where Yaa will stay for the ritual, a blue beads around her neck to match with a white bracelet around her wrists and ankles with a read headgear. All these symbols represent victory. Anyone who comes to that environment expects nothing that victory in all aspects of life.
Polarization
Turner’s third property which he deems most powerful is termed as the polarization property. With this, one symbol is able to connect two experiences that are usually polar opposite. e symbols are able to connect both an ideology (beliefs, norms and
158 Ernest Perbi-Asare values) and a sensory pole (experience, feelings, needs, appetites and desires that a!ects one’s heart which one wants to do. e symbol now helps one to do what she should do and helps her to be obedient to that.
Pounding ‘nyinya’ leaves into powdered form and mixing it with shea-butter. is when smeared on the body is believed to take persistence worries away. One guy shared with me that he had been troubled with anger in his life and has tried so many approaches to leave that habit but when he was introduced to this approach it worked perfectly for him in no time. He said it calms his nerves down whenever something wants to infuriate him into anger.
As he remembers within the day that he has this ‘nyinya’ powder and shea-butter smeared and feels the moisture on his skin and the aroma it reminds not to be angry at people no matter how they infuriate him. e ‘nyinya’ powder and the shea-butter under the polarization property symbols helped him to do what he couldn’t do in order to continue his discipleship in this area.
Ritual Process
Van Gennep (1960) has identi$ed three stages for ritual process as separation, liminality and reintegration or reincorporation.
Separation
Yaa will be exempted from her daily responsibilities. Kept in closed doors (preferably in the mission house) during this period she would be taught personal hygiene, how to trim her nails, shave her pubic hairs neatly, bath well among others. Intermittently incense will be burned in the room as a sign of the presence of the Holy Spirit. Le alone in the mission house, she will bend down, lie down, squat, row on the ground and explore
Infertility Ceremony in Ghana | 159 all possible posture of prayer mood. She will then be allowed to recite the Bible from cover to cover to be abreast of God’s word and also to commit into memory the things she reads. is situation may leave her in loneliness as she will be there alone in this period.
Liminality/Transition
is is a whole day event with merry making amidst drumming, dancing and singing involving the whole community. On this particular day, farmers do not go to work since it is a day of rest for farmers and $shermen to relax and rest from their previous days work. is non-working day happens once in a month is it is welcome with all joy. is is where many people love to $x memorable events since one can get the whole community actively involved in every proceeding. Although the next day a er the event will be a busy working day, community members will forgo their relaxation to involve themselves actively in this event. e elderly, children among others people share their joys together and use this occasion to bond very well in the church. e women sit in a horse shoe formation and begin to sing in groups. ey praise God through these songs whiles drummers display their drumming skills beautifully.
Disciples of Jesus Christ from other neighboring communities try to join these celebrations where the ritual “drives meaning into the bone” (Grimes 1996) in a way that makes sure that the disciples are $rmly connected to Jesus and his follower. As this goes on, the ritual specialist, an elderly woman in the church who is married, has given birth to many children, none of her children has passed on before, whose husband is alive and has never divorced or been divorced, who is trusted and respected by the individual(s) and the group will lead this process of the liminal stage. She will use scriptures to address some ‘middles issues’ women who have issues with infertility go through. With
160 Ernest Perbi-Asare
scripture reference from Genesis 11:30, the story of Sarah can be shared as to how the Bible revealed that she was barren and had no children and in Genesis 21:2, how God visited her and her a son to her husband Abraham in an old age. e participants can sing this song together as they dance with accompanying instruments:
Se wotwere no Yesu a,
When you trust in Jesus,
W’anim rengu ase da
You will never be disappointed
Se nea worehwe kwan wo ne nkyen kye mpo
Even if what you are expecting from him keeps long
Gye no di se ekye se den ara a
Have the faith that even if it keeps long in coming to reality,
Yesu beye ama wo.
Jesus will do it for you.
Reference can be made about Rebeccah (Genesis 25:21), Rachel (Genesis 29:31), Hannah (1 Samuel 1-2) the mother of Prophet Samuel, the anonymous wife of Manoah, the mother of Samson (Judges 13) and the woman of Shunem also called the Shunammite woman (2 Kings 4:14-16) regarding dealing with infertility in their lives and how God met them at the point of their needs. With all the tiredness in this stage of the ritual process, participants will be eager to enter into the $nal stage of the process.
Reincorporation
At this stage, there is abundance of food and drinks for all participants to enjoy to compensate them for going through
Infertility Ceremony in Ghana | 161 the rigorous activities in the previous stages. is stage brings all the people together. e food is not shared for individuals but rather they are put in a big bowls where children, women and men eat together in a communal way. is strengthens the bond the people had established over the years and helps people to encounter the Christian community in a more tangible way. Here, the ritual specialist will take Yaa to the house and dress her in kente (traditional cloth) and beads (traditional necklace and bracelets) and then given her $rst meal in the form of a boiled egg (kosua a yanoa) which represents fertility or fruitfulness.
e ritualist will put some mashed yam (eto) aside and use a black cloth to cover Yaa’s face. She then invites two children (male and female) to come and eat the mashed yam in front of the Yaa. She then asks Yaa to stretch her hand to catch one of the children. If she catches a girl or a boy, it means that during her child birth her $rst a child of that sex. A er this all children in the community are invited to come and eat the rest of the mashed yam as Jesus came opportunity to children to come to him in Matthew 19:14, ‘Let the children come to me’. e invitation of all the children in the community to come and eat the mashed yam means that her future home be joyous and may she give birth to more children.
A special gi will be o!ered to Yaa. e gi carefully selected will help her as she re-enter society. For this puberty rite of passage, Yaa will be given the tusks of an elephant (sonowere) and salt. e explanation for these two symbols will be that, the task of the elephant which it uses to gather food and even used to dig the ground when there is scarcity of water represents strength and the perseverance spirit of the elephant. ese developed incisors of the elephant ‘tusk’ can be used for harming people or other animals and at the same time to gather food and even used to dig the ground when there is scarcity of water. is means that in life one needs the courage and the boldness to face life’s challenges especially that of infertility. e
salt is used for seasoning and preserving food and makes food taste so nice. e rationale is that her life will taste sweet and that like salt, she will be preserved for years until God ful$ls all that concerns her life. e gi will become a solid reminder to activate her memories and declarations made during the ritual.
Conclusions is project will demonstrate the use of rituals for discipleship in Akan oral cultures speci$cally among the Ahanta people group in relation to issues pertaining to puberty rites and infertility. While o en overlooked by mono-cultural disciplers from print cultures, cross-cultural disciplers recognize the value of rituals to transform worldviews. Learning from other religions and from the practice of the early church, the three-stage ritual process structure can also be applied to contemporary discipleship of oral learners to help deal with “middle issues”. When no cultural ritual exists, there is the possibility to use orality and the arts in the discipler’s culture to create new rituals to help followers of Jesus Christ maintain continuity through life’s transitions. Both anticipated and unexpected “middle issues” can be addressed by well-designed rituals so that disciples do not get “stuck” in their faith whiles they serve God faithfully as fully Akans and and fully Christians.
Infertility Ceremony in Ghana | 163
References Cited
Hiebert, Paul G., R. D. Shaw, and T. Tienou. “Split Level Christianity.” In Understanding Folk Religion: A Christian Response to Popular Beliefs and Practices, 15–29. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1999a.
Hiebert, Paul G., R. D. Shaw, and T. Tienou. Understanding Folk Religion: A Christian Response to Popular Beliefs and Practices. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1999b.
Hiebert, Paul G. Transforming Worldviews: An Anthropological Understanding of How People Change. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2008,
Leeds-Hurwitz, Wendy. Semiotics and Communication: Signs, Codes, Cultures. Edited by J. Bryant. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1993.
Moon, W. Jay. Intercultural Discipleship: Learning from Global Approaches to Spiritual Formation. Encountering Mission Series, Scott Moreau, ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2017.
Morson, G. S., and C. Emerson. Mikhail Bakhtin: Creation of a Prosaics. Stanford, CA: Stanford University, 1990.
Turner, Victor. !e Forest of Symbols: Aspects of Ndembu Ritual. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. 1967.
Van Gennep, Arnold. Rites of Passage. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1960.
King James Bible. (1769/2017). Genesis 11:30 https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%20 11%3A30&version=KJV
https://www.statsghana.gov.gh accessed on 23rd February 2024 at 10:30am
Chapter 8
Diwali
Festival In India
By G.P., D.M., K.
Introduction
Melody Rimai was from the northeastern states of India and migrated to Delhi for better educational and employment opportunities and personal and professional growth. She reached the capital city of Delhi. She was a devout Christian, loved her faith, and sought to live a life that honored God in all she did. However, as the holiday season approached, she found herself wrestling with a particular aspect of the festival: Diwali, the festival of light. As she pondered over the festive season of Diwali, the thought struck her - why are young people discouraged from participating in it? She could not help but wonder what could be the underlying problem that prevented them from being a part of the celebrations. Although she participated in the festival, it does not necessarily mean that she is worldly. Instead, she has a desire to explore di erent cultures. As a matter of fact, she was from the background of the northeast region of India, which has a rich and diverse cultural heritage, and migrants from this region may have their own unique perspectives on Diwali. She was fascinated by the vibrant colours, the festive lights, and the lively celebrations that are a hallmark of the festival. For her, the festival of light or Diwali in Delhi, can be a fascinating experience, as it is a festival celebrated with great enthusiasm and zeal in the city.
She learned that Diwali is one of the most important festivals in Hinduism, celebrated with great enthusiasm and joy throughout India and in many parts of the world. Diwali symbolizes the triumph of light over darkness, good over evil, and knowledge over
166 Ginpiang, Dingu, and Kalibo ignorance, and it holds signi cant cultural and spiritual importance for Hindus.
Diwali’s religious rituals and observances include lighting oil lamps (diyas) and candles, performing puja (worship) ceremonies, o ering prayers to deities like Lord Rama and Goddess Lakshmi, and seeking blessings for prosperity and happiness.
She participated in the festival of lights, Diwali, in Delhi. Her colleagues and youth leaders criticized her for being a Christian and participating in a pagan religious festival. She was frustrated and felt like they saw her as a worldly Christian.
Diwali symbolizes light; Jesus is considered the light in a Christian context. Diwali, the festival of lights, holds great signi cance in Hinduism. It is celebrated to symbolize the victory of light over darkness, good over evil, and knowledge over ignorance. On the other hand, in the Christian context, Jesus Christ is widely regarded as the light of the world. His teachings and life serve as a guiding light for millions of Christians around the globe, illuminating their path towards eternal peace and salvation.
It is important for youth leaders and colleagues to avoid portraying the world as a purely malevolent and wicked place. !is misrepresentation can lead to a negative and pessimistic worldview, which can be harmful to individuals and society as a whole. Instead, it is crucial to acknowledge that while there may be challenges and di%culties in the world, there is also beauty, kindness, and hope to be found. A balanced and realistic perspective can help foster resilience, empathy, and a sense of purpose in individuals, allowing them to contribute positively to the world.
Melody’s Rimai story is an excellent example of how Christians can struggle to participate in certain aspects of Diwali and try to align their celebrations with their faith. By acknowledging the underlying issues of taking part in Diwali as worldly and evil, and deliberately shi ing the focus to the spiritual
aspects, it is possible to promote discipleship, leading to a more meaningful and transformative celebration.
Phenomenological Study
e word Diwali comes from the Sanskrit word “Deepavali,” which means “row of lights.”1 Like many Hindu festivals, there is not just one reason to celebrate the $ve-day holiday. Pankaj Jain, a professor of anthropology, says that the ancient celebration is linked to multiple stories in religious texts, and it is impossible to say which came $rst or how long-ago Diwali started.2
Many of these stories are about the triumph of good over evil. In northern India, a common tale associated with Diwali is about King Rama, one of the incarnations of the god Vishnu. When an evil king in Lanka (some people associate with Sri Lanka) captures Rama’s wife, Sita, he “builds up an army of monkeys” to rescue her. e monkeys “build a bridge over from India to Sri Lanka, and they invade Sri Lanka and free Sita and kill that evil king.” As Rama and Sita return to the north, “millions of lights are spread out across the city Ayodhya just to help them come back home, just to welcome them.” Lighting lamps have long been one of the ways that Hindus celebrate Diwali.
Another Diwali story in Hindu mythology is that Diwali marks the day Lord Krishna defeated the demon Narakasura and freed the people of his kingdom. A er he slayed the demon, Lord Krishna declared it a day of festivities. In some parts of India,
1______https://www.britannica.com/video/238868/Diwali-festivalsigni$cance-traditions. (Accessed on 22-02-2024).
2 ______ “ e Ancient Origins of Diwali | HISTORY.” 19 Oct. 2017, https:// www.history.com/news/the-ancient-origins-of-indias-biggest-holiday. (Accessed on 21-03-2024).
168 Ginpiang, Dingu, and Kalibo people burn e&gies of the demon king in both stories as part of the celebration. 3
Five days festivities
1. Dhanteras: e $rst day is dedicated to the goddess Lakshmi, and people o en mark the occasion by cleaning their houses and making rangolis or kolam, intricate colored patterns cra ed on the %oor with %owers, powder, rice, or sand.
2. Chhoti Diwali or Kalichaudas: e second day, also known as “small Diwali,” is o en spent preparing for the largest celebration, which takes place on the third day. People o en o!er prayers for the souls of their departed ancestors and many light clay lamps, called diyas.
3. Diwali: e third and most recognized day of the $ve days of Diwali involves dressing in snazzy new clothes, visiting a temple to perform pujas, or worship services, lighting diyas and other lights around the house, and enjoying $reworks displays.
4. Annakut, Padwa, Govardhan Puja: e fourth day of Diwali marks the $rst day of the New Year for many parts of India, so it’s also a time to feel thankful for the past year, look ahead to the next, and exchange small people gi s with loved ones. is day can also be dedicated to the relationship between married partners, recognizing the love between Rama and Sita.
5. Bhai Duj, Bhai Bheej: Diwali’s $ h and $nal day celebrates the bond between siblings, so family members
3 ______ “Exploring the Diwali story & how the Festival of Lights is celebrated.” 02 Nov. 2021, https://www.trafalgar.com/real-word/diwali-story/. (Accessed on 22-02-2024).
| 169 will o en visit one another on this day and share a meal ogether.4
Ontological Critique: Signifcance of Diwali
e festival of Diwali brings a sense of purity and happiness, $lling everyone’s hearts with compassion. Diwali is not just about light, fun, gambling, and gi s; it is also a time to re%ect on our life and deeds and make the necessary changes for the upcoming year. Most importantly, Diwali illuminates our inner self and signi$es the destruction of all dark thoughts and desires, leading to profound inner illumination and self-re%ection. Every ritual of the Diwali festival has a story and signi$cance behind it. Diwali symbolizes the spiritual victory of light over darkness, good over evil, and knowledge over ignorance.5
Apart from its religious signi$cance, Diwali is also a time for cultural events, dance performances, and social gatherings to forget their di!erences and celebrate the joy and happiness of the festival.
Rituals and customs followed during Diwali
e approach to Diwali is sometimes di!erent in di!erent households and countries. Below are some general rituals followed around the world.
Card playing: A long time ago, people played cards, believing that gambling with money would impress goodness of
4 _______ “ e History of Diwali and Why It’s Celebrated - Good Housekeeping.” 06 Nov. 2023, https://www.goodhousekeeping.com/holidays/ a37680263/what-is-diwali-history-story-celebration-facts/. (Accessed on 20-022024).
5 _____”Diwali meaning: Story behind the Hindu festival of light and the ....” 04 Nov. 2021, https://inews.co.uk/news/uk/diwali-meaning-story-behindhindu-festival-of-light-traditions-explained-1280537. (Accessed on 20-02-2024).
170 Ginpiang, Dingu, and Kalibo wealth and bring prosperity. is trend is slowly returning as it is seen as a good excuse for family/friend gatherings.
Rangoli art of drawings and patterns of %oor: On the day before Diwali, ladies make beautiful rangoli designs to welcome Goddess Lakshmi. e tradition of rangoli started in Maharashtra and spread to other parts of the world within Hindu communities. is is very popular with children, and many communities have competitions as a platform to showcase art and talent’
Fireworks: Fireworks are of special signi$cance during Diwali celebrations. Firecrackers not only Remove the darkness but also make the celebrations of the victory of good over evil. ey are burst as an expression of obeisance to the heavens for attaining wealth, health, knowledge, peace, and prosperity.
Exchange of gi s and sweets: It is integral to all Indian festivals. During Diwali, many exchange gi s and sweets with family and friends. Markets are full of buyers, and shopkeepers tend to do booming business.
Oil lamps: Traditionally, oil was used as a light source, but nowadays, candles and lamps are more common. According to Hindu mythology, when Rama returned to Ayodhya, the entire kingdom was illuminated by oil lamps. e lamp’s %ame has two signi$cant qualities: $rstly, it banishes darkness, and secondly, the upward movement of the %ame symbolizes the path to wisdom and divinity.
Gharonda: On the eve of Diwali, children in India make small mud houses known as Gharonda. ese are toy houses made with bricks, plastered with mud, and later painted and decorated with limestone. Idols of Goddess Lakshmi and Lord Ganesha are kept inside the mud house.
Cleaning: Diwali is the time to clean households and business premises thoroughly. Business and shop owners arrange to worship Goddess Lakshmi and Lord Ganesha in a clean environment amidst a display of light and $reworks. e general
171 idea is to remove the dampness and staleness gathered over the previous year. Cleaning the household is not complete without purging the dirt from within. One should start afresh by following the path of honesty and sincerity in daily life.6
Traditional observance during Diwali Festivals
Religious Observance: Diwali is a colorful festival $lled with rich traditions and rituals. During this time, families get together to clean and decorate their homes, exchange gi s, and prepare delicious meals. For Hindus, Diwali holds great religious signi$cance as it is a time to o!er prayers to their deities, especially Goddess Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and prosperity. It is believed that performing puja and seeking blessings during Diwali can bring good fortune and prosperity to their homes.
Harvest Festival: In certain regions of India, Diwali is commemorated as a harvest festival to show appreciation for a plentiful harvest and request blessings for a prosperous future.
Unity of Diversity: Diwali is a festival celebrated in India for $ve days, promoting inclusivity and unity among people of di!erent faiths, including Sikhs, Jains, and Buddhists. During Diwali, people decorate their homes with lights, rangolis, and diyas, prepare delicious food and sweets, exchange gi s, and burst $reworks. Diwali symbolizes positivity, hope, and happiness, highlighting the message of unity in diversity.
Global celebration: It is a Festival of Lights celebrated by the Indian diaspora worldwide. It holds cultural and religious importance for the Hindu, Sikh, and Jain communities. People light diyas, decorate their houses, exchange gi s, and indulge
6 ______”Some Rituals and Customs followed during Diwali - Oshwal.” https://oshwal.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/Rhea-Shah-Essay.pdf. (Accessed on 20-02-2024).
172 Ginpiang, Dingu, and Kalibo in sweets. Diwali signi$es the triumph of good over evil and promotes unity in diversity.7
On the morning of Diwali, many Hindus- mainly in South Indians- wake up very early to take oil baths. e oldest members of the family place three drops of oil on the forehead, a er which they proceed to take their baths. An oil bath is believed to have equal merit to taking a bath in the sacred Ganges River in India. New clothes, usually traditional Indian attire such as the dhoti and angavastram for men and the sari for women, worn during Diwali, represent a new start and a hope that the individual will become a better person. Traditionally, Hindus prefer to wear bright colors during Diwali. ey avoid wearing black, which is associated with death and deemed inauspicious.
A er the morning rituals, Hindu families visit temples to o!er their prayers, before proceeding to visit relatives and friends. Being a religious festival, some Hindus choose to abstain from meat during Diwali.
Migrants’ encounters with Diwali: Initial impressions, perceptions, and curiosity
Migrants have several common initial impressions that migrants o en have when encountering Diwali for the $rst time. Migrants may come from di!erent cultural backgrounds, traditions, customs, and festivals. For example, the northeast region of India has a rich and diverse cultural heritage, and migrants from this region may have their own unique perspectives on encountering Diwali. ey may be fascinated by the vibrant colors, the festive lights, and the lively celebrations that are a hallmark of the festival. Northeast encounters with
7 _______ “Diwali Festival - Importance, Signi$cance, History and Story.” 25 Sept. 2023, https://www.roamanch.com/diwali-festival/. (Accessed on 21-022024).
Diwali in Delhi can be a fascinating experience, as it is a festival celebrated with great enthusiasm and zeal in the city. For those from the northeast, who may be unfamiliar with the customs and traditions associated with Diwali, it can be a unique and eyeopening experience. eir initial impressions of Diwali may be shaped by comparisons to their cultural celebrations, leading to feelings of curiosity, surprise, or fascination.
Diwali is a festival celebrated by many in India and around the world. For migrants unfamiliar with the holiday, their encounters with Diwali can be a unique and eye-opening experience. Some may perceive it as a beautiful display of lights and colors, while others may view it as a noisy and chaotic celebration. Depending on their cultural background and personal beliefs, migrants may perceive Diwali di!erently. However, it is important to remember that Diwali is a signi$cant and meaningful celebration for many people, and it is an opportunity to learn and appreciate di!erent cultures and traditions.
Migrants’ initial impressions of Diwali may also be in%uenced by the social context in which they encounter the festival. For example, their interactions with local residents, participation in community events, and exposure to Diwalirelated media or advertisements may shape their perceptions and experiences of the festival.
Diwali is a sensory-rich festival characterized by colorful decorations, festive lights, aromatic foods, and lively celebrations. Migrants may be drawn to Diwali’s vibrant sights and sounds, which can evoke feelings of excitement, wonder, and joy. For example, For Northeastern migrants, encountering Diwali in Delhi can be a sensory-rich experience, with bustling markets, vibrant colors, and lively celebrations. However, due to the noise and air pollution caused by $recrackers, some migrants may $nd the festival overwhelming and chaotic.
174 Ginpiang, Dingu, and Kalibo
Migrants’ perceptions of Diwali are shaped by their experiences, interactions with the festival, and their broader understanding of Indian culture and society. Migrants can learn that Diwali is one of the most important festivals in Hinduism, celebrated with great enthusiasm and joy throughout India and in many parts of the world. Diwali symbolizes the triumph of light over darkness, good over evil, and knowledge over ignorance, and it holds signi$cant cultural and spiritual importance for Hindus.
Religious Observances: Migrants need to become familiar with Diwali’s religious rituals and observances. ese may include lighting oil lamps (diyas) and candles, performing puja (worship) ceremonies, o!ering prayers to deities like Lord Rama and Goddess Lakshmi, and seeking blessings for prosperity and happiness.
Traditional Practices: Migrants may learn about the various traditional practices and customs associated with Diwali, such as cleaning and decorating homes, creating colorful rangoli designs, exchanging gi s and sweets with family and friends, wearing new clothes, and preparing special festive foods.8
During Diwali, migrants may gain an understanding of the symbolism of light, which represents the triumph of good over evil and the dispelling of darkness from our lives. ey may appreciate the signi$cance of lighting lamps and illuminating homes and streets to welcome the blessings of prosperity, happiness, and spiritual enlightenment.
Migrants might feel a sense of community and togetherness as they join in with families and communities to celebrate the occasion with shared joy and enthusiasm. ey can engage in community events, gatherings, and cultural performances, which
8 _______ “Religious Observances, Festivals, and CelebrationsResearchGate.” 22 Jun. 2017, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318168795_ Religious_Observances_Festivals_and_Celebrations. (Accessed on 21-02-2024).
Diwali Festival in India | 175 can help them to strengthen their bonds with fellow migrants and members of the local Indian community.
e celebration of Diwali can elicit diverse reactions from migrants, shaped by their unique cultural backgrounds and personal encounters. While some may feel inundated by the noise and air pollution generated by the $reworks, for others, Diwali symbolizes the triumph of light over darkness, good over evil, and knowledge over ignorance. Gradually, migrants may better understand and appreciate the holiday’s cultural importance, religious customs, customary rituals, illumination symbolism, and sense of communal belonging.
People who migrate to a new country may have di!erent reasons for being interested in Diwali, the Hindu Festival of Lights.
Migrants are o en interested in learning about the cultures and traditions of their new home country. Diwali, one of the most signi$cant festivals in India, attracts their attention due to its colorful celebrations, rituals, and customs. It is an excellent opportunity for migrants to gain knowledge about Indian culture and improve their understanding of the country they live in.
Participating in local festivals like Diwali can help migrants integrate into the community and build connections with their neighbors and colleagues. It is a great way to foster a sense of belonging and camaraderie with members of the Indian community, strengthening social ties and building friendships.
e spiritual signi$cance of Diwali can draw in migrants who appreciate the festival’s symbolism of light triumphing over darkness and its focus on spiritual renewal and enlightenment. e festival represents values of positivity, hope, and inner transformation that can resonate with people from all religious backgrounds.
176 Ginpiang, Dingu, and Kalibo
Celebrating Diwali can bring migrants the joy and excitement of a traditional festival, even while living far from home. It is a time of vibrant traditions and rituals that allow them to experience the festivities of their culture and country of origin. Additionally, it is an opportunity for migrants to share their cultural heritage with others and create meaningful connections.
Diwali is an incredible festival that will truly capture the hearts of migrants with its festive and joyful atmosphere. e beautiful decorations, scrumptious food, lively music, and overall celebratory spirit create a sense of positivity and excitement that is truly infectious and can be enjoyed by people of all backgrounds.
Cultural context:
Diwali, also known as the Festival of Lights, is a signi$cant religious festival celebrated by Hindus, Sikhs, Jains, and some Buddhists around the world. It usually takes place in October or November, depending on the lunar calendar. For Hindus, Diwali marks the return of Lord Rama to his kingdom, Ayodhya, a er defeating the demon king Ravana. It symbolizes the victory of light over darkness and good over evil. People light oil lamps and candles and decorate their homes with colorful rangoli patterns to welcome prosperity and happiness. In Sikhism, Diwali holds particular signi$cance as it commemorates the release of Guru Hargobind Ji, the sixth Sikh Guru, along with 52 princes, from imprisonment by the Mughal Emperor Jahangir. Sikhs also celebrate the foundation stone laying ceremony of the Golden Temple in Amritsar. Jains celebrate Diwali to commemorate Lord Mahavira attaining Nirvana (liberation) or Moksha. It is a time for re%ection, introspection, and seeking enlightenment. Diwali is a time for family gatherings, feasting, exchanging gi s, and
spreading joy. It is a beautiful festival with deep spiritual and cultural signi$cance for millions worldwide.9
Hindu Perspective
Diwali holds immense importance in Hindu mythology. It primarily commemorates the return of Lord Rama, along with his wife Sita and brother Lakshmana, to their kingdom of Ayodhya a er 14 years of exile and the defeat of the demon king Ravana. e people of Ayodhya celebrated their return by lighting diyas (oil lamps) and bursting $recrackers, symbolizing the triumph of light over darkness and good over evil. It is also associated with the story of Lord Krishna defeating the demon Narakasura. In Hindu tradition, Diwali, o en referred to as Deepavali, is one of the most signi$cant festivals celebrated with great zeal and enthusiasm. Its roots lie in the ancient Hindu epic, the Ramayana, which narrates the tale of Lord Rama, the seventh incarnation of the god Vishnu, and his epic journey. Diwali marks the culmination of Rama’s 14-year exile, during which he defeated the ten-headed demon king Ravana, who had abducted his wife, Sita. e return of Rama, Sita, and his loyal brother Lakshmana to the kingdom of Ayodhya is celebrated as a joyous occasion, symbolizing the triumph of righteousness, virtue, and dharma (righteous duty) over the forces of darkness and evil.
Central to the celebration of Diwali is the lighting of oil lamps, diyas, and candles, illuminating homes, temples, and public spaces. is act symbolizes the dispelling of ignorance and the spread of light and knowledge, guiding individuals towards righteousness and inner enlightenment. e glow of these lights signi$es the victory of good over evil and the hope for a brighter future. Another important aspect of Diwali is the worship of
9 _______Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia. “Diwali.” Encyclopedia Britannica, March 10, 2024. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Diwali-Hindufestival.
178 Ginpiang, Dingu, and Kalibo Goddess Lakshmi, the embodiment of wealth, prosperity, and auspiciousness. Devotees o!er prayers and perform rituals to invoke the blessings of Lakshmi, seeking her divine grace for abundance and success in their endeavors. It is believed that on the night of Diwali, Lakshmi visits homes that are clean, adorned, and brightly lit, bestowing blessings of prosperity and well-being upon the inhabitants. Diwali is also a time for families and communities to come together, exchange gi s, and share festive meals. It is a time for reconciliation, forgiveness, and the strengthening of bonds with loved ones. e bursting of $reworks and the festive atmosphere further enhance the spirit of joy and celebration during Diwali.10
Overall, Diwali holds deep religious signi$cance for Hindus, serving as a reminder of the eternal battle between light and darkness and the triumph of virtue and righteousness. It is a celebration of hope, renewal, and the victory of good over evil, bringing people together in joyous festivities and spiritual upli ment.
Sikh Perspective
For Sikhs, Diwali, known as Bandi Chhor Divas, coincides with the release of the sixth Sikh Guru, Guru Hargobind Sahib Ji, from imprisonment along with 52 other kings by the Mughal Emperor Jahangir. Guru Hargobind Ji negotiated their release to coincide with the Diwali Hindu festival. e Sikhs celebrated this event by lighting up the Golden Temple and other Gurudwaras (Sikh temples), $reworks, and festivities. It’s a time for Sikhs to remember the importance of freedom and standing against oppression. From a Sikh perspective, Diwali, known as Bandi Chhor Divas, holds profound religious signi$cance. It commemorates a pivotal event in Sikh history associated with the 10 _______Diwali lights 2023: Why we light diyas on DeepawaliHindustan Times. (Accessed on 21 Feb 2024).
sixth Sikh Guru, Guru Hargobind Sahib Ji. During the Mughal era, Guru Hargobind Sahib Ji was unjustly imprisoned by Emperor Jahangir and several Hindu Rajput kings in the fort of Gwalior.
Diwali marks the day of Guru Hargobind Sahib Ji’s release from imprisonment, along with 52 other kings, in 1619 CE. However, Guru Hargobind Sahib Ji refused to leave without securing the release of the other unjustly imprisoned kings. Emperor Jahangir agreed to release as many kings as could hold onto the Guru’s cloak. Guru Hargobind Sahib Ji ingeniously wore a cloak with 52 tails, enabling each king to hold on to a tail and walk free alongside him. is act of compassion and sel%essness embodies Sikh principles of justice, freedom, and standing against oppression.
On Diwali, Sikhs commemorate this event by illuminating the Golden Temple in Amritsar and other Gurudwaras (Sikh temples) with thousands of lights, symbolizing the triumph of light over darkness and the victory of truth over tyranny. Sikhs o!er prayers, sing hymns from the Guru Granth Sahib (the Sikh holy scripture), and participate in Nagar Kirtan processions, spreading the message of Guru Hargobind Sahib Ji’s teachings. Bandi Chhor Divas is a celebration of Guru Hargobind Sahib Ji’s release and a reminder of the importance of freedom, justice, and compassion in Sikh tradition. It emphasizes the Sikh values of standing up against oppression and advocating for the rights of all individuals, irrespective of their backgrounds. e spirit of Diwali for Sikhs lies in the pursuit of righteousness and the promotion of equality, unity, and social justice in society.
Jain Perspective
In Jainism, Diwali marks Lord Mahavira’s anniversary of attaining Nirvana or Moksha (liberation) from the cycle of birth and death. Lord Mahavira, Jainism’s 24th and last Tirthankara
180 Ginpiang, Dingu, and Kalibo (spiritual teacher), achieved enlightenment on this day. Jains celebrate Diwali by lighting lamps, o!ering prayers, and engaging in acts of charity and forgiveness. It is a time for Jains to re%ect on the teachings of Lord Mahavira and strive for spiritual purity.
In Jain tradition, Diwali holds profound signi$cance as it commemorates the pinnacle of spiritual achievement: the attainment of Nirvana by Lord Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara and the founder of Jainism. Diwali marks the anniversary of this event, symbolizing the culmination of Lord Mahavira’s spiritual journey and his liberation from the cycle of birth and death. During Diwali, Jains engage in various religious observances and practices to honor Lord Mahavira and re%ect on his teachings. is includes visiting Jain temples, known as derasars or mandirs, to o!er prayers, perform rituals, and listen to sermons that expound upon the principles of Jain philosophy. ese practices focus on inner illumination and spiritual enlightenment rather than external displays of celebration.
Unlike other traditions where lighting lamps and $reworks characterize Diwali, Jains emphasize the illumination of inner light through meditation, introspection, and self-discipline. Diwali serves as a reminder for Jains to cultivate virtues such as non-violence (ahimsa), truthfulness (satya), non-attachment (aparigraha), and compassion (karuna) in their daily lives., Furthermore, Diwali is a time for Jains to engage in acts of charity, forgiveness, and sel%ess service, embodying the principles of Jainism and contributing to the welfare of others. By practicing these virtues and observing Diwali with sincerity and devotion, Jains seek to deepen their spiritual understanding, purify their souls, and progress on the path toward ultimate liberation, known as moksha or nirvana.
Overall, Diwali in Jain tradition is a solemn and contemplative occasion, centered around spiritual re%ection, ethical conduct, and the pursuit of enlightenment. It serves as
a reminder of the eternal truth taught by Lord Mahavira and inspires Jains to lead lives of virtue, compassion, and spiritual integrity. rough the observance of Diwali, Jains rea&rm their commitment to the core principles of Jainism and strive to attain liberation from the cycle of su!ering and rebirth.
Despite the variations in stories and practices, the essence of Diwali remains consistent across these religions: it is a celebration of light, goodness, and the victory of righteousness over darkness and ignorance. It is a time for families to come together, exchange gi s, share sweets, and o!er prayers for prosperity and happiness.
In Hindu tradition, Diwali is a festival steeped in historical signi$cance, primarily commemorating the triumphant return of Lord Rama to Ayodhya a er his arduous 14-year exile and victorious battle against the demon king Ravana, as depicted in the revered epic, the Ramayana. is homecoming symbolizes the restoration of righteousness and the triumph of good over evil, inspiring Hindus to celebrate with fervor and joy. Moreover, Diwali also signi$es the defeat of the malevolent demon Narakasura by Lord Krishna, another pivotal event that underscores the victory of light over darkness and the triumph of virtue. Additionally, the festival marks the auspicious birth of Goddess Lakshmi during the churning of the cosmic ocean, symbolizing the in%ux of wealth, prosperity, and abundance into the lives of devotees.
For Sikhs, Diwali holds special historical signi$cance as Bandi Chhor Divas, translating to “Day of Liberation.” is occasion commemorates the release of Guru Hargobind Sahib Ji, the sixth Sikh Guru, and 52 kings from unjust captivity by Emperor Jahangir in 1619 CE. Guru Hargobind Sahib Ji’s refusal to leave without securing the freedom of his fellow prisoner’s underscores principles of compassion, justice, and solidarity. e historical narrative of Bandi Chhor Divas resonates deeply with Sikhs, serving as a poignant reminder of the eternal struggle for
182 Ginpiang, Dingu, and Kalibo freedom and the unwavering commitment to righteousness in the face of oppression.11
In Jain tradition, Diwali marks the historical milestone of Lord Mahavira’s attainment of Nirvana, or liberation, approximately in 527 BCE. Lord Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara, achieved enlightenment a er years of rigorous spiritual practice, embodying the quintessential Jain principles of non-violence, truthfulness, and spiritual discipline. His liberation from the cycle of birth and death serves as a beacon of hope and inspiration for Jains, emphasizing the transcendence of worldly attachments and the pursuit of spiritual enlightenment.
ese historical narratives imbue Diwali with profound meaning and signi$cance, uniting followers of Hinduism, Sikhism, and Jainism in celebration and reverence. rough rituals, prayers, and festive gatherings, adherents honor the timeless values of righteousness, compassion, and spiritual enlightenment embedded within the historical fabric of Diwali, fostering a sense of communal harmony and spiritual upli ment.
Critical Evaluation and Missiological Transformation
e Bible does not record Jesus explicitly instructing his followers to celebrate his birthday. e New Testament provides details about Jesus’ birth in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke. Still, it does not contain any commands or instructions from Jesus regarding the commemoration of his birth.
e tradition of celebrating Christmas as the birth of Jesus developed later in Christian history. It is believed to have originated in the early Christian Church as a way to honor and remember the incarnation of Jesus, the Son of God, as a human being. Over time, the celebration of Christmas became an important part of
11 _______Bandi Chhor Diwas (Sikh Diwali) - A Festival of Light and Resilience Sikhism. Accessed on 21 Mar. 24.
Christian liturgical and cultural practices, observed by various Christian denominations around the world.
While the Bible does not mandate the celebration of Christmas or provide speci$c instructions on how to observe it, many Christians view Christmas as an opportunity to re%ect on the signi$cance of Jesus’ birth and to celebrate the hope and joy that his coming brings to the world. Ultimately, the decision to celebrate Christmas and the manner in which it is observed is a matter of personal and cultural tradition within the Christian faith.
“Jesus said, ‘I am the light of the world’” is a statement found in the Bible in the book of John 8:12. It is a declaration by Jesus about his identity and mission, asserting that he is the source of spiritual enlightenment and guidance for humanity. Diwali, also known as the Festival of Lights, is a signi$cant Hindu festival celebrated by millions of people around the world. It symbolizes the victory of light over darkness, good over evil, and knowledge over ignorance.
Diwali, also known as the Festival of Lights, is a signi$cant Hindu festival celebrated by millions of people around the world. It symbolizes the victory of light over darkness, good over evil, and knowledge over ignorance.
In the context of Diwali, the statement “I am the light of the world” attributed to Jesus can be seen as a universal message that resonates with the themes of light and enlightenment celebrated during the festival. While Diwali is rooted in Hindu traditions and mythology, the concept of light as a symbol of spiritual illumination transcends religious boundaries and can be understood in a broader spiritual context.
Matthew 5:14 and 16 in the Bible are part of Jesus’ Sermon on the Mount, where he delivers teachings on various topics, including the role of his followers in the world. e verses read,
184 Ginpiang, Dingu, and Kalibo
“You are the light of the world. A town built on a hill cannot be hidden… In the same way, let your light shine before others, that they may see your good deeds and glorify your Father in heaven.” When contextualized in the light of Diwali, the Festival of Lights, these verses can be understood as a call to believers to embody the values of light, goodness, and righteousness celebrated during the festival.
Just as Diwali commemorates the victory of light over darkness and the triumph of good over evil, Jesus’ message encourages his followers to be radiant beacons of hope, love, and compassion in the world. By letting their light shine through acts of kindness, generosity, and service, believers can illuminate the world around them and inspire others to glorify God.
For Christians celebrating Diwali or re%ecting on its themes, Jesus’ declaration empowers them to embrace their role as ambassadors of light and agents of positive change in society. By living out their faith with integrity and authenticity, believers can contribute to the collective e!orts to bring about peace, reconciliation, and harmony among diverse communities. In this sense, the message of Jesus as the light of the world resonates with the spirit of Diwali, inspiring believers to shine brightly as re%ections of God’s love and grace, and to work towards building a brighter, more compassionate world for all. erefore, in the context of Diwali, the statement “I am the light of the world” attributed to Jesus can be interpreted as a reminder of the universal signi$cance of light as a symbol of spiritual enlightenment, regardless of religious a&liation. Just as the lamps and candles lit during Diwali dispel darkness and bring warmth and joy, so too does the presence of Jesus bring hope, peace, and salvation to all who believe in him.
1. Symbolism of Light: Diwali, the Festival of Lights, symbolizes the triumph of light over darkness and good over evil.
e lighting of lamps and candles signi$es spiritual enlightenment, hope, and positivity.
2. Jesus as the Source of Light: Jesus’ declaration of being the light of the world re%ects his role as the source of divine illumination, truth, and salvation. He embodies the qualities of love, compassion, and grace that dispel darkness and bring hope to humanity.
3. Believers as Re%ectors of Light: Just as lamps and candles re%ect light, believers are called to re%ect the light of Jesus in their lives. By embodying his teachings and values, they become beacons of hope, love, and goodness in their communities.
4. Shining Brightly: Believers are encouraged to shine brightly with the light of Christ, spreading love, compassion, and kindness to those around them. eir words and actions serve as re%ections of God’s love, illuminating the world with divine grace.
5. Impact and Transformation: As believers re%ect the light of Jesus in their lives, they contribute to positive change and transformation in the world. ey bring hope, healing, and reconciliation to a world in need, embodying the spirit of Diwali’s message of light and unity.
e teachings of Jesus in the context of Diwali remind believers of their identity as re%ectors of divine light. As they celebrate Diwali and re%ect on its themes, believers are inspired to shine brightly with the light of Christ, bringing hope, healing, and reconciliation to a world in need.
Conclusion
Indeed, Jesus’ declaration of being the “light of the world” resonates universally, transcending cultural and religious boundaries to o!er hope and salvation to all. is proclamation
186 Ginpiang, Dingu, and Kalibo holds immense signi$cance, illuminating the path to spiritual enlightenment and providing guidance in a world o en clouded by darkness. From a missiological perspective, missionaries can leverage this concept to convey the transformative power of Christ, inviting individuals from diverse backgrounds to experience the freedom and abundant life found in a relationship with Him.
In the context of light festivals, which carry deep cultural signi$cance in many societies, missionaries have a unique opportunity to engage with the symbolic imagery of light. By drawing parallels between the festival’s illumination and the spiritual enlightenment o!ered through Jesus, missionaries can make Christianity accessible and relevant to the local community. is contextualization fosters greater openness to the gospel message and facilitates meaningful dialogue about spiritual truths.
Moreover, Jesus’ assertion as the “light of the world” serves as a catalyst for interfaith dialogue, inviting individuals to explore the claims of Christianity and encounter the person of Jesus Christ. rough respectful engagement and dialogue, missionaries create opportunities for individuals to experience the transformative impact of Jesus’ light in their lives.
Ultimately, embracing Jesus as the “light of the world” has the potential to bring about profound spiritual transformation, o!ering hope, healing, and restoration to individuals and communities. By proclaiming Jesus’ light and inviting others to follow Him, missionaries extend the invitation to experience the abundant life found in Christ.
References Cited:
_______https://www.britannica.com/video/238868/Diwalifestival-signi$cance-traditions. (Accessed on 22-02-2024).
______” e Ancient Origins of Diwali | HISTORY.” 19 Oct. 2017, https://www.history.com/news/the-ancient-origins-of-indiasbiggest-holiday. (Accessed on 21-03-2024).
______ “Exploring the Diwali story & how the Festival of Lights is celebrated.” 02 Nov. 2021, https://www.trafalgar.com/real-word/diwali-story/. (Accessed on 22-02-2024).
_______ “ e History of Diwali and Why It’s Celebrated - Good Housekeeping.” 06 Nov. 2023,https://www.goodhousekeeping.com/holidays/a37680263/ what-is-diwali-history-story-celebration-facts/. (Accessed on 20-02-2024).
_____”Diwali meaning: Story behind the Hindu festival of light and the ....” 04 Nov. 2021, https://inews.co.uk/news/uk/diwali-meaning-story-behindhindu-festival-of-light-traditions-explained-1280537. (Accessed on 20-02-2024).
______”Some Rituals and Customs followed during DiwaliOshwal.”
https://oshwal.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/Rhea-ShahEssay.pdf. (Accessed on 20-02-2024).
_______ “Diwali Festival - Importance, Signi$cance, History and Story.” 25 Sept. 2023,
188 Ginpiang, Dingu, and Kalibo https://www.roamanch.com/diwali-festival/. (Accessed on 2102-2024).
_______ “Religious Observances, Festivals, and CelebrationsResearchGate.” 22 Jun. 2017, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318168795_ Religious_Observances_Festivals_and_Celebrations. (Accessed on 21-02-2024).
______Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia. “Diwali.” Encyclopedia Britannica, March 10, 2024. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Diwali-Hindu-festival.
______Diwali lights 2023: Why we light diyas on DeepawaliHindustan Times Accessed on 21 Feb 2024.
______Bandi Chhor Diwas (Sikh Diwali) - A Festival of Light and Resilience Sikhism Accessed on 21 Mar. 24.
Chapter 9 University Student Acclimation in Indonesia
By Jong Ang
Introduction
e university students of Salatiga are a unique group of people from various ethnolinguistic groups in Indonesia. However, they have common aspirations, hopes, and even fears. I have had the privilege of knowing these people for the past thirteen years with my family through our pioneered student ministry in a local Student Center. e university students of Salatiga are an exceptional group of people who hail from diverse ethnolinguistic backgrounds across Indonesia. During this time, we have witnessed their journey towards following Jesus while preserving their unique identitiesm as Javanese, Bataknese, or other ethnic groups within the Indonesian nation. Our experience of the past thirteen years has been a learning journey, where we have built relationships, fostered collaborative learning, and gained a deeper understanding of their culture and worldview.
As a cross-cultural witness here, I aim to help individuals follow Jesus and embrace his teachings while retaining their unique cultural identities of being Javanese or Bataknese or whatever ethnolinguistic group they came from as citizens of one nation, Indonesia. For the past thirteen years, we have worked with various ethnic groups in Indonesia, such as the Javanese and Bataknese, to gain insights into their rich stories and cultural worldviews. Moon and Moreau (Moon & Moreau, 2017, p. 142) assert that close relationships allow us to know others’ stories. By building relationships with the Salatiga students, we have gained a deeper understanding of their culture and worldview, enabling us to develop a more relevant gospel presentation and discipleship
190 Jong Ang approach. While there is only one gospel of Jesus Christ, it is always embedded in culture (Moreau et al., 2014, p. 9). erefore, e!ective discipleship requires adapting our communication to the local context (Brown, 2004, p. 122).
In this paper, we will look at some issues that Paul Hiebert calls excluded middle issues (Hiebert et al., 1999, p. 74) and address those issues where discipleship can best happen. Two issues that Hiebert et. al (1999, p. 74) mentioned signi$cantly $t the students of Salatiga:
1. How do I obtain guidance for an uncertain future?
2. How a person knows which spirit is of God and which is there just to scare or harm me?
I will address those two issues through the stages of the ritual needed to make it more relevant to the students.
Phenomenological Study
e university students of Salatiga are part of the big group of Central Java province, which houses 51 universities with the number 1 out of 14 in the provincial capital, Semarang. Salatiga, a small town in Central Java, accommodates a Christian university called Satca Wacana. Christian University (SWCU) and the National Islam University. It is a Christian university that has a diverse student population, including more than $ y percent Muslim students. e National Islam University is also located in Salatiga, which has a diverse student population belonging to a single religion. e students came from di!erent islands in Indonesia, which gives them the name mini-Indonesia. Despite their unique backgrounds based on their ethnolinguistic groups, they all possess a common Indonesian culture. One of them is being collectivistic, where students choose their program tracking based on what the family expects them to be and not necessarily their own choice. ey decide on other aspects of
University Student Acclimation in Indonesia | 191 their lives based on their community as well. Most of them are part of religious organizations because their parents are part of it. Collectively, many of them unconsciously possess either or both a shame-and-honor worldview and a fear-and-power. Many of them would always express that their studies in higher education were to honor their parents.
In addition to that, the fear-and-power worldview is best observed through their fear of spirits that roam around day or night. Fear of the mere presence of spirits and other unknown fears that may hurt them. eir fear may have something to do with those spirits that could a!ect their future or any decisions they make in their daily lives.
ese intellectuals of Salatiga have a parallel story with the University of Areopagus in Athens,1 as narrated in Acts 17: 16-34. Athens is an intellectual center as well as religio-cultural center that is $lled with Idols which makes those idol strongholds for its place and citizens’ lives. Salatiga houses thousands of intellectuals in its two major universities and small colleges but is also known for its diversity in religion, which gives us an idea of the many practices of idolatry. e majority are Muslims, and the second largest group is Christian followed by Buddhist and Hindu people. Salatiga City, along with Central Java Province, used to be a Hindu region in Indonesia before the coming of Islam. Hinduism adhered to the culture of Java, called Kejawen. 2 ese beliefs are very much embedded in the culture of many Javanese. Islam in Central and East Java used to be known as Islam Kejawen (Imron et al., 2023, p. 72) or academically as Folk Islam. eir art forms can still be seen in many places in Central
1 Athens is known for idolatry that makes Paul feel distressed (v.16). According to Craig Keener, the city streets of Athens o en showcased numbers of statues of men and gods, with pillars mounted with heads of Hermes (Keener, 1993, p. 372)
2 Kejawen is known to be the culture of Central Java and East Java that is a combination of Animism, Dynamism, and Hindu-Buddhism beliefs (Imron et al., 2023, p. 72)
192 Jong Ang
Java where Hindu gods and goddesses are erected on major streets and buildings or sculpted on the walls and printed on their famous Batik (dyed garments). People in Salatiga celebrate their diversity, and they are known best for their practice of “tolerance” toward pluralistic religions. Despite the diversity and tolerance in Salatiga, the spiritual concerns related to the practice of multiple religions cannot be overlooked.
Ontological Critique
What are some issues that Paul Hiebert calls excluded middle issues and how do they relate to the students of Salatiga?
Obtaining guidance
e issue of obtaining guidance for an uncertain future is a matter of concern for many students, despite the widespread religiosity prevalent among them. e notion of God as uninvolved in the universe and irrelevant, as held by some students, is reminiscent of the Epicureans of Athens in Acts 17 (Keener, 1993, p. 372). It would be interesting to gauge the students’ perspectives on God’s relationship with human through qualitative analysis for further research.
Students who have made mistakes during their university journey may experience anxiety about their future, given the stigma surrounding failure. Furthermore, they also worry about that they may encounter di&culties in securing employment a er graduation, as evidenced by the experiences of some graduates. For example, Gerry (pseudonym) had to switch jobs two or three times within a year due to confusion about his career path, while Lorna had to relocate to a remote island involuntarily to $nd work. From there, the question of how the current students obtain guidance is very much a common question for them while they are at the university.
Signi$cantly, that question is related to one’s family background in Indonesia, where the father $gure is o en absent in the family structure (Kamila & Mukhlis, 2013, p. 100). e 20th century father was primarily seen as a breadwinner who neglected his role as a caregiver to his children (Hidayat & Hastuti, 2022, p. 71). Lismi and Efendi (2023, p. 73) muse,
Communication can be a bridge for parents to be able to teach children to deal with the dynamics of life and become teaching to tell about good and bad things. e advice can explain the concept of nature, values, and morals to children. (Dalimunthe et al., 2020, p. 73)
us, With the absence of this parental guidance, students may experience a sense of alienation from God the Father, further exacerbating their anxiety about their uncertain future. is issue is particularly relevant in an honor-shame culture like Indonesia, where students are averse to bringing shame to their families and communities.
Discernment of the Spirit
Secondly, the question of how a person knows which spirit is of God and which is there just to scare or harm me? Every religion in the area has its beliefs regarding spirits. For instance, Muslims believe in bad “jin” or spirits that can ruin a person’s life. For Muslims and Catholics believe that the spirit of a dead person remains on earth for a certain period before moving on to their destination. Some Muslim scholars believe that is no basis for that in Qur’an. However, Javanese Islam is known for this belief that the deceased souls come back to their home a er death before going to his creator (Mu$dah, 2022, p. 58). When the soul leaves, his relatives could always contact him through a medium ((2022, p. 59). ese beliefs can be a source of fear for some Indonesians. Hindus believe in multiple gods and goddesses that exist in the spiritual realm but are not visible to the naked eye. Some of these
194 Jong Ang spirits can be harmful to people. In Kejawen’s beliefs, people can harm others by summoning spirits to harm them. As a result, some Javanese people avoid con%icts as much as possible. If the church fails to address these middle-ground issues, even intellectuals such as university students may turn to “dukun” for guidance and protection against evil attacks. Dukun are known for their healing abilities and can also serve as wise advisers to royalty. According to Nourse, “ ey were respected for their cleverness and intelligence and assisted or advised royalty in lifethreatening activities such as birth or war” (Nourse, 2013, p. 403).
Critical Evaluation and Missiological Transformation
A noted missiologist and cultural anthropologist explained:
Gospel and cultural engagement is about the conversion of cultures, the turning to Christ and turning over to Christ of all that is there in us, about us and round about us that he has de$ned and shaped us when Jesus meet us, so that the elements of our cultural identity are brought within the orbit of discipleship (Hiebert et al., 1999, p. 145)
Hence, to have a meaningful and transformative discipleship, discipleship needs to penetrate the worldview of the people. In many cases, university students may be in%uenced by scienti$c worldviews due to their academic journey. To help these students with their struggles and understanding of self, some universities o!er courses such as “Understanding the Self”. is course o!ers scienti$c learning about the self and struggles, along with some theological basics that are required by the government to be taught in every educational institution according to the students’ respective religions. However, the sessions are done through propositions and scienti$c lectures. is Western in%uence assumed that the scienti$c method covered and solved all other truths (Moon & Moreau, 2017, p.
University Student Acclimation
Indonesia | 195 11). While students may be informed of some solutions, it may still leave a hole in their lives. Moon explicates the worldview lenses of both scienti$c and spirit-oriented lenses; in spiritoriented cultures like Indonesians, spiritual power is at the center of their lives (2017, p. 11). To address this, the scienti$c method must be contextualized, according to Moon, with a spirit-power worldview so that there will be holistic discipleship and a true transformation may happen (p. 12). In the Indonesian culture, for example, spiritual power is at the center of their lives. To achieve true transformation, the scienti$c method must be contextualized with a spirit-power worldview.
Paul asserts this when he emphasizes spiritual warfare in his letter to the Ephesians: “For our struggle is not against %esh and blood, but against the rulers, against the authorities, against the powers of this dark world and the spiritual forces of evil in the heavenly realms.” (6.12). Spiritual warfare is the battle between the kingdom of darkness and the kingdom of light (Colossians 1:10–13). To achieve discipleship, rituals will be incorporated to help facilitate transformation.
Rituals in the Camp
In this section, I will be using the three-stage ritual structure of Arnold Van Gennep (196) which was quoted and elaborated by Jay Moon in his book Intercultural Discipleship (Moon & Moreau, 2017, p. 92). However, I will give the detailed stages in the last part of this section. e goal is to address the excluded middle issues concerning the guidance that students need to face their uncertain future, as well as their fear of spirits. By the end of the ritual, students should realize that God is their best guide to navigate life’s uncertainties. His presence, in the form of the Holy Spirit, will guide us peacefully within our hearts amid the many di!erent struggles of this world. He o!ers peace and not
196 Jong Ang fear, as Paul says to Timothy 1:7, “For God has not given us a spirit of fear and timidity but of power, love, and self-discipline.”
e ritual process to address these issues shall be done in our annual students’ leadership camp with the number of new students with whom we start to establish relationships. I will not be using the word “ritual” to explain to the students but rather use the word “celebration” to come together in our evening plenary session and address the common concerns of most students during their university years. Celebrations are what many would think is the common terminology that everyone uses for many events, both cultural and church activities in their lives, but are ritualistic (Wu, 2018, p. 1); (Moreau et al., 2014, p. 275). is celebration shows meaningful cultural expression (Wu, 2018, p. 1) and spiritual signi$cance. ere must be a realization of selfawareness, one’s struggles along the process, and a remarkable shi of enlightenment and transformation that happens in every part of the ritual. us, ritual paves the way for individual participants and an entire community to feel a sense of commitment to God (Moon & Moreau, 2017, p. 91).
What are the parts of rituals and their corresponding functions?
Symbol and Local Myth to Introduce God’s Word
Salatiga and the whole of Java Island are rich with various symbols with interesting meanings. Symbols have deep spiritual signi$cance (Moon, 2012, p. 144). It allows the disciple to understand better and deeper the message of God for his life. Spoken words that are articulated to communicate something important are commendable, and yet, some of those words may not be enough to express deeper values. at is where the symbol comes in. Leeds-Hurwitz asserts that it is “something present for something absent” (1993, p. 6). In other words, symbols may be of valuable use to meet the needs of the excluded middle issues.
Tumpeng is the symbol that we will use to address the excluded middle issues. Tumpeng or cone-shaped rice is commonly used on every occasion in Indonesia. It is used for a birthday, wedding, or any anksgiving celebration. ose are rituals in nature, and tumpeng is a symbol of thanksgiving being present to go through certain stages in life. It is originally from Java but was adopted by all Indonesians and modi$ed according to their own culture. Tumpeng came from Javanese portmanteau:3 yen metu kudu sing mempeng or “if one wants to go out, it must be serious” (Sugiman, 2017).
e rice is cone-shaped and positioned in the middle of a big serving plate. Other kinds of tumpeng use white rice (Tumpeng Putih), rice with coconut milk (Tumpeng Uduk), and the most common is made with yellow ginger (Tumpeng Kuning). Aw gives more details on the various rice colors:
White means sinless, and it is meant for traditional ceremonies in Java, such as birthdays, seventh-month pregnancy, pasaran [a day of the Javanese $ve-day week], wetonan (Javaneseweek based birthday) and gusur tanah [land clearance],” Uduk rice comes from the word wudhu, meaning the cook has to perform ritual ablutions because the rice is preferred for Islamic religious events like Ashura and Mawlid.(2020)
It originated in Java and symbolized the number of volcanoes all around the island. is mountain is sacred for many Javanese, and other writers believe that it is the particular mountain, “Meru” or “Mahameru.” is is where the Hindu god named Hyang or some of their ancestors sit (Sugiman, 2017). In Hinduism, it makes the mountain sacred and gives a signi$cant role to the Javanese community (Pianto et al., 2022, p. 62). In addition, Sutiyon highlights the symbol of the mountain where humans came from God and will go back or end with God again
3 a word or part of a word made by combining the spellings and meanings of two or more other words or word parts (De$nition of PORTMANTEAU, 2024)
198 Jong Ang (Sutiyono, 1998, p. 66). Hence, tumpeng symbolizes the great God of that mountain and recognizes his help.
Tumpeng was originally surrounded by seven dishes. Seven in the Javanese language is called pitu (seven) which means pitulongan transcribed into the Indonesian language as pertolongan or help (Sugiman, 2017). Hence, if one serves this on any occasion or celebration, they seek help from the great Creator so that one can receive goodness and avoid any untoward incident in one’s life (2017) (Jatikusuma, 2013). Interestingly, journalist Aw gives detailed side dish and their meaning based on her interview with an icon of making Tumpeng in Indonesia named Ayu: (2020)
As for side dishes, bean sprouts and long beans in the form of urap-urap (mixed with grated coconut) are aimed at promoting interaction and friendliness. Botok tawon (bees with grated coconut) symbolizes the character of bees, which are bene$cial, always needed and make a lot of friends. Ayam ingkung (whole chicken with head facing upward) signi$es a gesture in the direction of God, and rempeyek teri (small fried chips) is intended to depict harmony.
“Ingredients symbolize di!erent things, but they represent participants’ relation to God and others and the desire for guidance and prosperity” (Angeles & Qalb, 2022, p. 53). ese side dishes are signi$cant as my team brings students from di!erent walks of life together and discusses those rich meanings that can penetrate deeper spiritual meaning to them.
How does this make sense given the excluded middle issues of the students in Salatiga? e Tumpeng symbol and its myth will help them understand the Biblical story that needs to be heard by the disciples in the student community. “Christians (disciplers) can use these remarkable, colorful traditional rituals by repurposing a culture’s activities and directing the underlying beliefs to the one true God” (2022, p. 55). Many Indonesians may
University Student Acclimation in Indonesia | 199 be familiar with this myth, although not in so many details, but it is very interesting to use this to highlight God and his help ready for all who seek him. is myth shall be redeemed through its parallel narrative of Moses and the Israelites on the mountain. It is in Mt. Sinai, where God showed up to him and later to the Israelites; Exodus 19:16 & 17 describes the scene:
“On the morning of the third day, there was thunder and lightning, with a thick cloud over the mountain, and a very loud trumpet blast. Everyone in the camp trembled. en Moses led the people out of the camp to meet with God, and they stood at the foot of the mountain.
God showed himself through symbols of the mountain, $re, thunder, and clouds. He was on top of the mountain, where he descended like a $re that caused the thick smoke (v. 18, 20) and called Moses to ascend to meet with Him. is story can easily be connected to Indonesia’s own story of tumpeng. is was the beginning of when God gave his ten commandments to His people. Interestingly, it was on this mountain where the Lord gave his comforting word as their Father: “You yourselves have seen what I did to Egypt, and how I carried you on eagles’ wings and brought you to myself.” (Exo. 19.4) e Lord reminded the Israelites that He had borne them “on eagles’ wings”. From slavery in Egypt, they were freed and saved by God. He had sowed them his power through various times in Egypt and the Red Sea miracle was an enormous one. God is just showing how powerful he is and that He will take care of them no matter what. And as they continue their journey in the wilderness, God has shown his presence, who is always present with them, day and night. As Moses describes: “By day the Lord went ahead of them in a pillar of cloud to guide them on their way and by night in a pillar of $re to give them light, so that they could travel by day or night. Neither the pillar of cloud by day nor the pillar of $re by night le its place in front of the people.” (Exodus 13.20-21). God has shown himself as present to his people in their daily lives.
200 Jong Ang
He promised them to be his treasured possessions, the kingdom of priests and holy nation. ese will remain if the Israelite fully obeys them and keep His covenant. (Exodus 19:4). Furthermore, God used a metaphor to describe himself in Psalm 18.10 that he is a strong tower and that those who trust him will be safe in him. In the same way, Jesus is referred to as our rock. In 1 Corinthians 10.4, he is our rock that provides water in the wilderness, the rock that sustains us through his strength. Describing God as a tower or Jesus as a rock is called a metaphor. Metaphors are a needed tool to understand something new to penetrate the worldview of the people. For Guevin, metaphor is the message itself (Guevin, 1989, p. 70). It speaks directly to us. Craig Ott (2014, p. 358) asserts that metaphors can be used by the Holy Spirit to speak to our hearts and minds and can easily penetrate the senses. (Moon & Moreau, 2017, p. 11)
e Mt Sinai narrative, connected to the local story of Mt. Meru through the rich symbol of Tumpeng is astonishing. For oral culture, like the university students of Salatiga, those stories would be appropriate for them to get the point (Ste!en, 2018, p. 108). It can engage the students to be a part of those stories that stimulate people’s imaginations (Frei et al., 1992). Hence, it shapes worldview (Moon & Moreau, 2017, p. 136) that would allow them to $rmly put their faith in God in their lives including their future.
Local Proverb
e next item that we include in our ritual is the local proverb. Jay Moon and Scott Moreau describe it as an extended metaphor so that people can easily conceptualize matters (Moon & Moreau, 2017, p. 159). During the pandemic, I started to get interested in some of the rich Javanese proverbs; I tried to discuss some with a Muslim student whom I disciple. Surprisingly, it was so easy for him to get engaged in our discussion, which was not
University Student Acclimation in Indonesia | 201 the case before that day. He just smoothly gave me the translation in Indonesian and in English as well. It was as quick as putting on sneakers. When I asked him what that proverb meant, he began quoting a verse in the Qur’an. I also just learned from him that local proverbs are used to teach Islam in every Islam religion class, which is a required subject for all Muslim students in Indonesia, just like all other o&cial religions in this country. In the same way, I told him a verse from the Bible. Because the proverbs made a clear cut into his mind, I realized it made him understand God’s word with clarity. Proverbs open a window in his mind that allows me to tell more stories about God. It clears the path on the way to his worldview.
To address the excluded middle issues of the university students in Salatiga, I will incorporate local Javanese proverbs that shout wisdom like this: Panggah sabar, seng di enteni bakal teko wujod pasti ge wong-wong sabar” (Stay impatient, your waiting will come to an end and will be assured of your future). I asked Arvino, one of our alumni from the student ministry, to interpret it in English (as he is good in both the local and English languages). He muses: ‘When we get what we want, that’s God’s direction, but, when we don’t get what we want, that’s God’s protection.’ I hope this proverb will encourage the students to put their trust in God in every endeavor that they have toward living now and in the future. Solomon’s proverb would reinforce this local Javanese one that says: Trust in the Lord with all your heart; do not depend on your understanding. Seek his will in all you do, and he will show you which path to take (Proverb 3:5-6). is proverb calls for a total commitment to Him, a challenge for the students to see their relationship with God not as a separate entity from all their academic and daily lives but as an active part of them. He will always be there to accompany them to bless them as they put their trust in him and his will. rough the integration of proverbs, communication becomes clear and rich taste to the students as a Nigerian proverb entices: ‘Proverbs are
202 Jong Ang the palm oil with which words are eaten’ (Moon & Moreau, 2017, p. 162).
Highlighting the Role of the Holy Spirit
e Holy Spirit makes a special ministry to his people by giving gi s that allow the members of the church to complement one another but also to use them for ministering to nonbelievers. In his letter to the church in Corinth (chapters 12 and 14), Paul highlights the di!erent gi s available for the church. One of these is relevant to addressing the excluded middle issues, especially the second issue. e Holy Spirit gives believers the ability to discern if something is from God or the devil (1 Cor. 12:10). e student does not need to worry when facing spiritual warfare. One will know how to discern as he seeks the guidance of the Holy Spirit. As we put our total trust in God, He promises us peace that transcends all understanding. e Holy Spirit gives peace. He also gives us power, like what Jesus said to his disciples in Luke 10.19: “I have given you authority over all the power of the enemy, and you can walk among snakes and scorpions and crush them. Nothing will injure you.” Finally, as the students think about the uncertainty of the future and the di!erent struggles that might intimidate them, God reminds us of His word in 1 Timothy 1:7, “For God has not given us a spirit of fear and timidity, but of power, love, and self-discipline.”
Ritual Stages
A er discussing the details of each component of the ritual, we will $nally go through the three stages that Jay Moon describes in his book Intercultural Discipleship (Moon & Moreau, 2017, p. 91). It is indeed important to include myths, historical accounts, and personal accounts that the people value in our discipleship to address excluded middle issues in culture (2017, p. 142). However,
it is also notable to establish a new biblical meaning to those parts of the culture we mentioned, repurposing or giving new directions towards the Biblical truth as we go along the stages of ritual. It must be given equal emphasis on local stories and the Bible stories, where the Bible stories will redeem the local stories from any strongholds that adhere to idolatry. Tumpeng, which was created and used to glorify idols, is now redeemed through the story of Mt. Sinai and God’s promises in Exodus 19.4-6. is repurposing and giving new meaning to the story will amazingly enter the collective memory of an entire community and make it an intimate part of their being (Bowman & Bowman, 2017, p. 231).
ere will be one large Tumpeng dish in the center so that everyone may appreciate its beauty as I narrate the tale and explain the meaning of the symbol of Tumpeng. Along with the main and big tumpeng dish, there will be smaller tumpeng to facilitate a faster distribution the food by the ministry coaches. is distribution symbolizes the last stage of ritualization.
Stage 1- Separation.
e students are gathered at the main hall of the camp building. is year’s plan would be at the local tourism location of Bandungan, Central Java. e main hall is an indoor space more conducive to hear each other’s interaction. In the room, everyone is bunched shoulder to shoulder with fellow students, common or newly found friends, and acquaintances. e goal is for them to have a sense of belongingness and that they are not alone in their journey. is coincides with the meaning of the various side dishes of Tumpeng as discussed above. We will all just be focusing our eyes on the beauty of this cone-shaped rice dish and smell the sweet and spicy aroma of the meat and vegetable dishes that surround and adorn the base of the rice. is is more engaging in the story that I incorporate with the Tunpeng. It also makes them one, united in their diverse backgrounds.
I shall begin by introducing the story of the Tumpeng, initially on the part of the meaning of the mountain and the belief attached to it. I will let someone, or two students explain some tumpeng varieties in their region. To emphasize the separation stage, I will ask one or two senior students to share their experiences of starting a university journey in Salatiga coming from a di!erent city or island of Indonesia. ey will share how they navigate and explore life in the small city with a vast diversity in culture but speaking in the same national language. Shared experiences will di!er, such as living in a dorm, eating di!erent meals, having di!erent neighbors, and having di!erent daily schedules. Someone will then o!er a constructive reaction from the di&cult stage of separation by sharing an experience of meeting people with di!erent cultures but the same aspirations. is will bridge the second stage.
Stage 2- Transition (Moon & Moreau, 2017, p. 93)
Liminality4 is what de$nes this level. I’ll give someone a call who is ready to talk about her struggles and how being apart from her family is making her feel bad. In Indonesian culture, a person’s family is their most valuable possession. ey make decisions as a group and appear to go forward as one. But even with the availability of online communication, it doesn’t seem to be the case anymore. It’s possible to feel more cut o! from one’s parents and close relatives. Due to their physical separation from their home, even children who feel as though their father is no longer present will experience a distinct sense that both parents are no longer present. e lack of direction and the uncertainty of the future are becoming increasingly prevalent.
4 Liminality: “the transitional period or phrase of a rite of passage, during which the participant lacks social status or rank, remains anonymous, shows obedience and humility, and follows prescribed forms of conduct, dress, etc.” Turner also uses the term “anti-structure” to di!erentiate this period from the normal %ow of life (structure). http??dictionary.refernce.com (Moon & Moreau, 2017, p. 93)
I will now tell the biblical account of Mount Sinai and how God delivered the Israelites from Egypt. A er that, I will concentrate on a few signi$cant $gures that God has appointed to lead his people, such Moses and Aaron along with describing the diaspora of the Israelites. I will talk about Moses’ hardships being away from his adopted Egyptian family and his embarrassment at having to say goodbye to them a er being nurtured as a prince. Character in the Bible will provide us a full and accurate picture of God’s nature. is will help the university students to be more connected with the stories (Eldredge & Curtis, 1997, p. 38) and let their deepest convictions even more on $re to transform as they listen to the story and highlight the characters. Let the students dramatically use all their senses to understand the experience of the Israelites as they le and walked in the middle of the divided sea. A musical score can help the audience to be in that story. At this time, let one or two senior students share their struggles that they cannot forget in Salatiga. Others can share their own experiences during the COVID-19 season.
Returning to the narrative concerning the side dish in Tumpeng. e discussion will continue to explain the diversity of dishes and the multifaceted representation of the various ethnic groups in one city of Salatiga. Subsequently, I will give way for some students to explain their own stories of unity in diversity drawing from their own individual perspective. Amidst these students’ struggles, both personal and academic, they will articulate these shared struggles by the majority of the students, even though they come from di!erent backgrounds.
As a transitional step to Stage ree, I will explain the role of God in our lives, emphasizing his being relational in nature, and His steadfast commitment to be with his people, like the story of God when he descended to Mt. Sinai to commune with them. It underscores his willingness to o!er guidance and protection to his people. is is the peak of the ritual process of discipleship.
Stage 3 – Reincorporation (Moon & Moreau, 2017, p. 94)
I will now announce our collective transition into the third stage of our celebration, where we will partake together in the consumption of tumpeng, rice, and side dishes. While I address the gathering, I will personally begin $lling my plate with rice and side dishes from the main serving as a demonstration. Concurrently, other coaches will commence preparing plates to be $lled with tumpeng. It’s imperative that the coaches take on the responsibility of serving as a manifestation of servant leadership, symbolizing our commitment to guide and support each student through their journey. is is in light of the coaches usher them through this rite of passage, knowing that God is guiding them as they face uncertainties in the future. Additionally, I will invite select student leaders and/or coaches to recite local and biblical proverbs, enriching our communal experience. Furthermore, I will allocate time for an alumnus to share their personal testimony, illustrating how God has guided them throughout their university journey. As we relish each bite, savoring the %avor that symbolizes our awareness of God’s nurturing presence, akin to a caring father guiding his children, we will also use this moment to hear students in smaller groups to express their re%ections on this ritualistic experience.
Conclusions and Recommendations
e challenges faced by university students in Salatiga concerning the quest for guidance in their journey, coupled with apprehensions about encountering unfamiliar spirits, pose signi$cant hurdles. ese struggles have the potential to impact various aspects of their lives, including their con$dence in confronting challenges and nurturing aspirations for personal growth, familial well-being, and community advancement. While the church may bring them inside her congregation, it is essential
University Student Acclimation in Indonesia | 207 to heed the wisdom suggested by Howard Hendricks that without undergoing a structured discipleship process, genuine spiritual transformation may remain elusive. [Howard Hendricks, 2017 as quoted by (Moon & Moreau, 2017, p. 4)]. ere is a great risk that these students may resort to seeking guidance from shamans, fortune-tellers, or, worse yet, become engaged in the deceptive allure of the virtual realm manipulated by the evil forces. Indonesia’s rich culture including its myth, symbols, proverbs and other form of arts are part of God’s image that were undermined and blemished by the devil whose aim is to destroy anything God created (ref. John 10:10). Nevertheless, these elements of their culturally rich heritage, which serve as potential avenues for the Holy Spirit to initiate dialogue with various ethnic groups, can be redeemed and repurposed to a new and substantial meaning that easily resonates deeply into the peoples’ worldview. It is the window for God’s word to transform their lives. Tumpeng is a simple and yet powerful symbol that every student must hear and understand in the process of a ritual. is process will usher them to impactful understanding of knowing God as a father who cares for us all. erefore, conducting a meticulous examination of our target audience, coupled with a discerning selection of appropriate biblical narratives, is necessary to cra a discipleship approach that is not only meaningful but also transformative in nature.
I am enthusiastic about suggesting avenues for future research, particularly regarding the exploration of university students’ worldviews concerning God and its in%uence on their daily lives. Furthermore, I am eager to learn the role of the Pentecostal church in addressing the excluded middle issues faced by university students. Finally, I highly recommend digging into Jay Moon and Scott Moreau’s work on Intercultural Discipleship, alongside Scott Moreau’s E!ective Intercultural Communication and Paul Hiebert’s Understanding Folk Religion. ese resources
208 Jong Ang
o!er invaluable insights on transformative discipleship that would certainly enrich our understanding of this crucial aspect.
Reference Cited
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Bowman, Carla, and Jim Bowman. Building Bridges To Oral Cultures: Journeys Among !e Least-Reached. Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library, 2017.
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Eldredge, John, and Brent Curtis. !e Sacred Romance: Drawing Closer to the Heart of God by Brent Curtis. Edition. omas Nelson, 1997.
Frei, Hans W., George Hansinger, and William C. Placher. Types of Christian !eology. 1st ed. Yale University Press, 1992. Accessed January 10, 2024. https://www.perlego.com/ book/1161623/types-of-christian-theology.
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Hiebert, Paul G., R. Daniel Shaw, and Tite Tienou. Understanding Folk Religion: A Christian Response to Popular Beliefs and Practices. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Publishing Group, 1999.
Imron, Ali, Anggi Eryana, and Rohmat Suprapto. “Kejawen Dalam Pandangan Islam.” Edudeena : Journal of Islamic Religious Education 7, no. 1 (July 31, 2023): 71–81. Accessed February 28, 2024. https://jurnalfaktarbiyah.iainkediri. ac.id/index.php/edudeena/article/view/1237.
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Kamila, Ismi Isnani, and Mukhlis Mukhlis. “Perbedaan Harga Diri (Self Esteem) Remaja Ditinjau dari Keberadaan Ayah.” Jurnal Psikologi 9, no. 2 (December 1, 2013): 100–112. Accessed February 28, 2024. https://ejournal.uin-suska. ac.id/index.php/psikologi/article/view/172.
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Chapter 10
Black Magic in India
By: F.N., G., H.
Introduction
Rahul, a devout individual who placed his faith in God, regularly visited temples and made o erings. His life progressed smoothly until his company faced nancial di%culties and began laying o employees. Struggling to nd a solution, he diligently searched for new ideas every day. In a moment of desperation, he remembered the story of Saul seeking advice from the witch of Endor for a quick recovery.
Years passed a er Rahul’s wish was granted, yet his life took a negative turn. Perplexed by the unfolding events and unsure of how to rectify them, he grappled with the loss of inner peace. Despite his e orts, he failed to recall the formula for his previous success. Consequently, he sought help from counselors in an attempt to regain tranquility. However, even a er ve days of counseling, he only experienced temporary relief.
Ultimately, Rahul found himself yearning to transcend his earthly existence. !is raises the question: why did Rahul contemplate leaving the earth a er achieving his desires and losing his peace of mind?
A pious and equitable person carefully contemplates, listens to the narratives of others, and subsequently o!ers a response. is indicates the presence of someone who understands my su!ering, provides solutions, and navigates me through challenging times, beyond merely imparting religious teachings. Religious principles are designed to steer individuals away from detrimental paths and towards positive ones by acquainting them with the Gospel’s
teachings and the transformative in%uence of God, which can bring solace and alter their life narratives. is procedure entails upholding one’s convictions, exercising spiritual judgment, and seeking assistance from a community and available resources. It is imperative to establish a $rm grounding in faith, establish boundaries, and seek counsel from respected spiritual leaders when faced with issues related to malevolent forces.
Methodology is research paper centres on carrying out a case study that investigates the origins and real-world experiences of the Kerala community. e Research Had been made on analyse on Interviews and analyse of church believers and evangelism and their claims in Contempary Kerala situation overall response including Christianity from Kerala Perspective.
Ontological Critique: Impact of black magic on Kerala
e practice of black magic can have detrimental e!ects on individuals and society as a whole. It can lead to the exploitation and manipulation of vulnerable individuals, as those who claim to possess supernatural powers may take advantage of their desperation or fear.
Furthermore, the belief in black magic can create divisions within communities and families. Accusations of practicing black magic can lead to social ostracism, violence, and even death in extreme cases. is can result in a breakdown of trust and harmony within society.
Moreover, the fear and belief in black magic can hinder social progress and development. Instead of focusing on education, healthcare, and other important issues, communities may become consumed by superstitions and rituals associated
Black Magic in India | 217 with black magic. is can impede the overall growth and wellbeing of the society.
To address the issue of black magic, it is crucial to tackle the root causes and educate the society about the dangers and fallacies associated with it. is can be done through awareness campaigns, workshops, and educational programs that promote critical thinking and scienti$c reasoning.
Additionally, law enforcement agencies should actively enforce the laws that criminalize black magic practices. is can serve as a deterrent and discourage individuals from engaging in such activities. It is important for the government to work closely with communities and religious leaders to create a uni$ed front against black magic.
Furthermore, providing access to education, healthcare, and other basic necessities can help alleviate the socio-economic factors that contribute to the prevalence of black magic. By addressing the underlying issues, individuals may be less inclined to turn to black magic as a solution to their problems in kerala
Identifying excluded middle issues
In Kerala, the local villagers frequently sought the aid of magicians or saints to alleviate their ailments, infertility, or misfortunes. ese spiritual practitioners relied on the power of magical charms, chants, or amulets to tackle these challenges. ose who embraced Christianity turned to missionaries for assistance in dealing with such issues. Regrettably, the missionaries o en lacked the necessary knowledge and evidence to e!ectively address inquiries concerning curses, black magic, witchcra , and sorcery. As a result, the belief and practice of black magic persists among the people of South India, as they remain oblivious to the potential consequences associated with it.
Rahul, a devout individual who placed his faith in God, regularly visited temples and made sacri$ces. His life was going smoothly until his company began laying o! employees due to $nancial di&culties. Desperate to $nd a solution, he searched for new ideas every day. In a moment of desperation, he recalled the story of Saul consulting the witch of Endor for a quick recovery.
Years passed a er Rahul’s wish was granted, but his life took a turn for the worse. He struggled to understand why things were falling apart and how to $x them. Despite his e!orts, he couldn’t remember the key to his past success. is led to a loss of inner peace, prompting him to seek help from counsellors. However, even a er $ve days of counselling, he only found temporary relief.
Ultimately, Rahul found himself wishing he could escape his earthly existence. is raises the question: why did Rahul contemplate leaving the earth a er achieving his desires and losing his peace of mind?
Next Steps:
To move this case study forward, it would help to do a critical evaluation, using Scripture to address the root issues identi$ed in the ontological critique. en, missiological transformation can be suggested by using locally available genre to engage the gospel with the cultural issues identi$ed.
Chapter 11
Discipling Polygamous Christian Converts in Nigeria
By Kehinde Seyi Ojelade
Introduction
Retired Reverend Oguntade narrated his challenges while in active service as a pastor of the church, where over sixty- ve percent of his church congregations were converted polygamists. He was determined not to allow cultural and economic impediments, including the choice of marriage, to drag the souls of these people to hell if persecution from both within and outside the church community against the polygamist congregants was something to bereckonedwith.Herecalledhowsomeconvertedpolygamistswere returning to the idol shrine. Most of them were pagan worshippers from birth before converting to Christianity. Deities like Obatala, Ifa, and Osun are familiar with symbols and ritual activities during annual and seasonal pilgrimage to o er sacri ces to gods. He labored day and night for these polygamists to come back to the church in their culture and follow Christ wholeheartedly along with their household.
Phenomenological Study
In the early 80s, the Nigerian Baptist Convention ensued in a doctrinal issue that the church members with multiple relationships should not baptized and excommunicated from the local church. Baptist members from the farming community in the northern part of Oyo State, mainly polygamists, were indignant to the Convention directives that called for the divorce of all other wives and stayed with the $rst wife for the baptism to be conducted and become full members of the Baptist local church even though they had given birth to many children for
220 Kehinde Seyi Ojelade the husband. E!orts to resolve the crisis arose from polygamy family members proved abortive, and these members seceded to start another local Baptist church. e Nigerian Baptist Convention, however, instructed the church pastor to resign and leave the church if the members concerned failed to comply with the directive to divorce illegal unions with women except for the $rst wife and retain their membership as monogamy. e pastor rejected the Convention’s o!er and resolved to continue leading the polygamist congregants in worship service unto God. Today, they are known as African Baptists; with the determination of the church Reverend, these polygamists were saved, converted, baptized, and disciples to follow Jesus Christ, and the children of these polygamists are now ordained full-time ministers of God in di!erent denominations across the world.
e African continent is globally adjudged as the most oral culture and learner’s community (Ajibade Ezekiel, 2020), with a unique choice of marriage di!erent from the Western choice of marriage. Many African communities practice polygamy as a system of marriage for various reasons around existential survival. Christianity anathematizes polygamy with disdain and a taboo practice where separation and divorce are recommended chie%y for polygamous Christian converts without regard for salvation and socio-economic impact on the concerned person(s). ere is an age-long debate within the church community as to whether polygamous converts should be disciplined and what pedagogy for oral preference is in Christian discipleship lessons.
Yoruba culture admires white clothes because they are associated with ancient indigenous deities rituals such as (Obatala) and goddess (Osun); worshippers and adherents usually use salt as a sign of friendship(Babalola, 2017, p. 74) and wear white clothes, which is culturally agreed to be the just, merciful, bene$cial, compassionate, rescuer, fair gods among other deities. Obatala, Ifa, and Osun are renowned for whiteness (Familusi, 2012, p. 303), and this symbolizes purity; any unclean or de$lement actions are
Discipling Polygamous Christian Covert | 221 forbidden from entering any sacred places because they could render all objects ine!ective for sacri$ce.
Discourse on the rights of polygyny spouses to salvation and discipleship in Africa and extensively across the world has not received signi$cant focus among mission scholars. ere is no doubt that African culture unanimously encouraged polygamy before the missionaries came with Christian religion. Sharp hostility to polygamous converts and their families deserves a paradigm shi so that the supposed hitherto discipleship marginalization of multiple relationship partners would be emancipated.
African Polygyny in a Yoruba context with an emphasis on culture and tradition has been ridiculed when issues of discipleship arise in many local churches. Such converts are relegated with less concern as if they are exempted from the love of God for humanity embedded in salvation orchestrated by God through the birth, death, resurrection, and ascension of Jesus Christ. Hence, I intend to use cross-cultural discipleship to correct misconceptions about cultural worldview transformation about genuine salvation, utilizing cultural genres to disciple excluded Christian polygamist converts among the Yoruba community of the Southwestern with 44 million people in total representing 16 percent of the Nigeria population (Nationalet al.) which comprises of Oyo, Ogun, Ondo, Osun, Lagos, Ekiti, Kwara, Kogi, and parts of Edo states. Yoruba tribe believes that “no man can clap with one hand”(local adage) and like many other African societies, Yoruba is essentially patriarchal and traditionalists with distinct cultural heritage and identity, including panegyrics based on quality of ancestral/divinities possession of powers (Mbiti, 1979, p.120; Awolalu, 1979, pp. 19–20), where men are understood to have many women as wives and concubines with cultural solid faith in a world encapsulated in both spiritual and physical realities and a&rm the superiority of the spirit world as it tends to control physical existence (Adamo, 2021, p. 8).
222 Kehinde Seyi Ojelade
Moon (2010), supporting Lovejoy, described oral learners as those who “learn best and whose lives are most likely to be transformed when instruction comes in oral forms” (p. 1). Oral pedagogy in disciplining polygamists promised e!ective transformation into maturing Christlikeness. However, sadly, textual learners turn against the bene$ts of the orality style of potent disciplining multiple relationships converts with the local culture.
Orality “ relies on spoken and symbols, rather than written, language for communication.” However, what sets orality apart is reliance on spoken language. e extent to which people rely on spoken, symbols, and ritual communication instead of written communication is characterized by “orality” (Lovejoy, 2008, p. 122).
igpen (2016) noted that the phenomenon of orality intersects with so many $elds (p. 42). e majority of the societies where polygamy is still dominant are oral cultures of the world, and missiology scholars considered it a challenge to Christian ministry. Oral cultures are not print-oriented and must respond better to forms of witnessing, discipling, teaching, and preaching based on print. Some tracts, Bible distribution, $ll-inthe-blanks workbooks, and bookstores are largely unappealing and ine!ective within oral cultures .(Lovejoy, 2008, p. 121).
Discipleship materials designed around outlines and lists of principles communicate wrongly with people living in oral cultures. At the same time, the role of symbols and rituals needs to be understood and addressed (Moon, 2012, p. 142), and their print-based way of organizing thought is still an obstacle in communication. Christian churches, mission organizations, and ministries engage the new ways of communicating, relating, and thinking that characterize oral cultures(Lovejoy, 2008). However,
taking the gospel to all peoples, there is a need to understand orality’s better route to communicate it for godly transformation.
Orality expert Walter Ong maintained that there are degrees of orality depending on whether someone relies totally or less on all components of spoken language. Scholars who have written about orality have approached it as the absence of textual literacy. Meanwhile, examining orality as the absence of textual or written literacy focuses on what people cannot do rather than on what they do. Textual or written communication in discipleship is not the norm; rather, a combination of symbols and rituals improves the phenomenon of orality in in%uential discipling oral community beyond mere discipleship literacy campaigns. Lovejoy argued that textual literacy has excellent value and should be encouraged, “it is a mistake to take a one-dimensional and negative perspective on orality by simply equating it with illiteracy” (Lovejoy, 2008, pp. 122–123). A er all, the Christian’s Holy Book ‘Bible’ was initially composed with cultural oral language before textual transliteration. Navigating discipleship for the polygamists with oral preference learners’ pedagogy in their mother tongue would enhance the transformation of cultural belief to become Christlikeness in cultural form instead of condemnation and abandonment. Walter Ong(1983) further distinguishes primary orality from secondary orality.
‘Primary orality exists in communities with no written language and little or no acquaintance with reading and writing. Primary orality is increasingly rare. Secondary orality depends on electronic media and the literate people who operate it. Secondary orality uses television, radio, $lm, and the like to communicate the staples of oral communication: story, song, poetry, proverb, drama, symbols, ritual, and discussion’.(p. 10)
Communication is e!ective when the message is relationally received, contextualized, and perceived as relevant. Christian strategies that would disciple groups of people must
224 Kehinde Seyi Ojelade address their concerns, fears, dreams, and cultural di!erences to actualize Kingdom transformation and communally bene$cial to displaying observable behavioral change .(Madinger et al., 2007, p. 3).
I am aligned and comfortable with oral communication patterns, which allow discipleship learners to hear, see, and relate clearly in their mother tongue, to understand, respond, and reproduce the message of the gospel. Church leaders and their missionaries should master new ways of discipling polygamists who expressed genuine conversion and salvation experience through an oral learning preference to communicate with available easy-to-relate symbols and rituals with their cultural milieu.
Suppose the gospel is to spread freely and rapidly within an unreached people group. In that case, strategists working in that group must do their best to avoid methodology hindering oral people from winning and disciplining their families, friends, and others. Training models will be most e!ective when they consider orality. Churches will then begin to see training and new leaders emerge from within the oral peoples. ese leaders will rapidly facilitate church-planting movements to disciple and equip leaders for the new churches as the Holy Spirit raises leaders.
Critical Evaluation
Twenty-$ve years in missionary enterprise among the people of Odo-Oje near Jabata, Nigeria. At a pastor’s retreat program, Reverend Joe Alani, an ordained Baptist Missionary, expressed displeasure about an un-repented lifestyle, spiritual redundancy, and church members engaging in syncretism. Not long a er, I decided to visit the mission $eld several kilometers away from civilization on vacation invitation and to assist the missionary couple in teaching discipleship to young adult and middle-aged classes, predominantly a community of farmers,
$shermen, and oral learners. Evident noticeable, misplaced discipleship curriculum that emphasized Western culture, not only meant for the enlightened and textual literate audience but also closely related to the monastery where I had just earned a degree.
Discipleship training is designed to train, equip, and involve a person in spiritual growth activities such as prayer, Bbible study, personal devotion, fellowship, serving, and witnessing. Discipleship is growing in cultivating spiritual disciplines and disciples that will help people become more fruitful, maturing, and dedicated Christians. It is di&cult to follow Jesus on personal terms; rather, conform to the terms of the master through the discipline of obedience and submission. Spiritual discipline is a mark of Christians who have been discipled. Spiritual formation is an ongoing spiritual exercise that intends to take a er Jesus Christ in everything, both in one’s private and public life.
Discipleship is a daily growing continuous process whereby Jesus followers center their lives on the Kingdom of God (Matt. 6:33) and obey Christ’s command in the culture in which they live (Matth. 28:19-20) As they respond to daily challenges in a manner that is both biblically faithful and culturally relevant in order to maintain a kingdom-centered balanced life.
Moon (2012) stated that discipleship is a lifelong process from mature followers of Christ who overcome the extremes of syncretism (culture is not critique, thereby blending two faith systems) and isolation (culture is rejected). Split-level Christianity is another focus of discipleship calling for attention to avoid responding to ultimate life issues such as salvation and victory over battles of life); unfortunately, many neglect intimate issues such as hunger, sickness, and marriage). I was expressing concern for the totality of life instead of being limited to speci$c “spiritual” capable of broken discipleship; however, both ultimate
226 Kehinde Seyi Ojelade and intimate concerns of life are of the utmost importance before God.
Discipleship is a process whereby Jesus-followers center their lives on the Kingdom of God and obey Christ’s commands by integrating Jesus’s words and deeds into their community’s development. Practically speaking, holistic discipleship addresses questions like, “How do we transform Christians who are shaped by unspoken cultural in%uences like secularism, consumerism, individualism, or fatalism?” (J. Moon, 2012, p. 2) Equip relationalnarrative communicators to make disciples. Oral strategies provide multiple ways for e!ectively engaging converts to readily involve oral communicators to reach their own people group and others with the gospel. Storying is one reproducible evangelistic and church-planting approach; new believers can readily share the gospel, plant new churches, and disciple new believers in the same way they were reached and discipled.
e $rst element to disciple polygamy is communicating with people in their mother tongue, the language in which they learned their faith, character, religion, values, and cultural identity discipleship through familiar signs and symbols rather than foreign or strange objects. Jesus taught using everyday objects and symbols such as stone, light, and salt, which people can relate to in their heart language.
e second element is to develop discipling drama, song, artwork, and ritual that are cultural worldviews speci$c to $t the local culture under the leadership of the Holy Spirit, leading to an obedient Christian. Discipleship involves the disciple spending time with the more mature believers, learning by following Christ’s example. Philippians 4:9; 2 Timothy2:2
Finally, develop and recognize the essential stories in transforming a person’s worldview. ose stories answer four fundamental worldview questions: To in%uence the worldviews of disciples, I need to tell biblical stories that o!er alternative
answers to the fundamental worldview questions. e Bible answers these questions with extraordinary vividness and power in the opening chapters of Genesis.20. at is one reason to include Old Testament stories in discipling. Furthermore, when I tell biblical stories chronologically, it o!ers a robust alternative worldview from the very beginning of our presentation. Biblical stories and the view of the world embedded in them can replace or re$ne the cultural stories and the worldview embedded in them.
Wright argues that this is why Jesus o en told stories, particularly parables. Jesus intended them to challenge the existing Jewish worldview and to provide an alternative picture of reality that Jesus called “the kingdom of God” or “kingdom of heaven.” Wright says, “Stories are peculiarly good at modifying or subverting other stories and their worldviews. Where headon attack would undoubtedly fail, the parable hides the serpent’s wisdom behind the dove’s innocence, gaining entrance and favor, which can then be used to change assumptions that the hearer would otherwise keep hidden away for safety.
Ontological Critique
Most African religious practices have cultural disciples who emerged from the rites in the metaphysics of the Yoruba people of Southwestern Nigeria. Systemic religion transition and conversion into Christian religion from known and familiar traditional religion come with contention and severe displeasure against the condemnation of culture and style of living, especially the choice of marital relationships.
Meanwhile, the arrival of Western missionaries in West Africa and the subsequent emergence of indigenous missionaries gave birth to ecclesiastical inconclusive position over people’s marriage choices. African men who still practice Polygyny claim that monogamy is purely and strictly meant for the Europeans and
228 Kehinde Seyi Ojelade
Americans who had economic luck at their disposal. While most of the black nations struggled to earn a living through hard labor, which required more hands. Hence, Africans could not abide by a foreign marriage system. ere is a growing argument that West Africa has become the fastest-growing Christian community in the world, surpassing the nations that sent missionaries to Africa, and there has been a subsequent astronomical increase in foreign Christianity monogamy among the black converts.
Undoubtedly, many Muslims in Yoruba land reject Christianity monogamy because the church has continued to wrestle in the history of Christion missions about perceptions of African marriage and identity of choice marriage, which remain the most heated discussion around black congregations, con%ict over the choice of marriage in the historical context, church relationship to multiple relationship members is virtually untouched in contemporary ethnographical context.
In some ways, the very prevalence of the incompatibility discourses helps explain the perceived dichotomy between monogamy and Polygyny that persists. However, only some researchers have examined marriage choices systematically to see if, or to what extent, they are related to such ideological questions and cultural and ideological reasons behind the choice of marriage. Over the years, the debate over African Christian marriage has been complex, with tensions and confrontation between the church and African marriage practices. Scholars displayed misunderstanding about the perceived unromantic style of African marriage and the customs attached, including the marriage of battle to uphold monogamy and eradicate polygamy by all means.
is chapter examines the ontological critique, missiological transformation, and phenomenological study of the conceptual divide between monogamous Christian marriage and Polygyny and the claim that ordinarily few women automatically prefer
the initial biblical acceptable type of marital homes. On the other hand, some women in Africa marry another woman for their husband for house chores as Jacobs’ wives in the Bible permitted their female servants to have a sexual relationship with Jacob, and they bore children for him.
By comparing the assumption in the literature with ethnographic data from the Yoruba tribe, this paper intends to portray that polygyny Christians cannot be neglected or sidelined by denominational views and eschewed from the discipleship program of the church instead of cultural worldview transformation. A de$nitive conceptual divide characterizes a person’s choice of marriage. However, personal motives related to economics, prestige, and competition for power are the root factors in marriage choices among Yorubas in Nigeria and not necessarily sexual desires and appetite.
e Indigenous practice of discipleship forms part of the people’s belief systems from generation to generation. As understood among the cultural people, it is performed to absolve and consent assured in permitting transition that demonstrates the quality continuity of such acts and practices. e permissibility of disciplining religious adherents in Yoruba ontology is centered on devotion to ancestral gods of the land and its practices.
e perceived irrelevance of disciplining polygamists by the church in Africa has been unfavorably discussed among Christian leaders. A prohibition against performing certain acts is motivated by magical or social sanction. Christian expresses disapproval of disciplining people with multiple relationships due to certain kinds of behavior being harmful to other believers, either for reasons of spiritual growth or an attitude that violates the Christian faith code. It has been discovered that some polygamists limit their relationship rights with God due to the unhealthy failure of the church to accommodate them through
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biblical discipleship to make them thoroughly Christian and fully native.
e church has continued to wrestle in the history of Christiaon missions about perceptions of African norms and identity of marriage choices, which remain the most heated discussion around black congregations, con%ict over the choice of marriage in the historical context, church relationship to multiple relationship members is virtually untouched in contemporary ethnographical context.
Between conversion and destruction of culture
Does complete conversion to Christianity involve the destruction? “Of beliefs, customs, and the whole shape of society.” When missionaries encountered polygynous marriages, many tended to recognize only the $rst of a man’s partners; all others were dubbed “concubines” (R. Gray, 1990, p. 47). In many congregations, if a polygynous man wished to attend church, he would be forced to break up his family, separating himself from his so-called illegitimate wives and children (Hastings, 1967, p. 171; Simensen et al., 1986).
Children of Polygyny could be labeled bastards (Hastings (1967:168), and churches could excommunicate polygynous men (Mann, 1994, p. 169). e prevailing missionary view contended that monogamy, as an imitation of the marriage between Christ and the church, was indispensable to accepting God (Bediako, 1995, p. 184; Rouss-Grosseau, 1992, p. 238). Although Hastings (1973:79) advocated a “steadfast but compassionate monogamy, not an intolerant one,” he also wrote that a Christian society without Christian marriage and family life is unthinkable.
In Nigeria, I have observed that even the Catholic Church is a common target of accusations that the clergy look the other way toward hidden Polygyny in order to increase church membership. According to Daneel (2000), “ ere are seven to eight thousand independent African churches that were founded during the last century and are independent of Western missions” (p. 1). Some scholars claim these churches originated as part of the political opposition to colonial and missionary control (Ayegboyin& Ishola., 1997, p. 22). However, others maintain that accepting plural marriages has fueled their popularity. However, it is undeniable that Christianity’s growth in Africa is concentrated in these churches. Scholars suggest that tolerance for Polygyny may be a rationale for the founding of the new churches, and other scholars and missionaries support this belief.
Christian Denomination with Polygyny Permissive
Today, there are Christian denominations in Africa, each with its marriage philosophy, and individual churches, priests, and pastors may enforce rules with varying rigor (Adeleru, 1999). Many of these churches, both established and independent, do reject Polygyny and criticize polygyny-permissive denominations (Hillman, 1975, p. 33; Turner (1966). Nevertheless, many examples of congregations position themselves on the other side of the issue. Statements defending Polygyny are also made by the Celestial Church of Christ, which openly accepts polygynists and demands no church marriage. According to the church’s literature, “we accept into the heart of our religion both monogamous and polygamous individuals because to claim that $delity to the marriage vow is essential while most husbands commonly live in concubinage with other women, appears to us a hypocrisy.
232 Kehinde Seyi Ojelade
Missiological Transformation
From this perspective, the process of “Africanizing” Christianity capitalizes on con%icting cultural identities. In this regard, it is signi$cant that the literature on these new denominations generally refers to them as African Independent Churches rather than independent churches. As their name suggests, they are perceived as having grown out of typically African cultural traditions, and they frequently are presented as the African counterpart to Western Christianity. Today, cultural identity remains at the core of religious debates in Africa, and similar debates circulate in popular discourses, in which the question of Polygyny is o en situated as part of a more signi$cant debate about “modernity” versus “tradition.” A Nigerian man quoted in a newspaper voiced a similar argument for the inappropriateness of imposing foreign monogamy on polygynous Africa (Karanja, 1984, p. 20). In some ways, the very prevalence of the incompatibility discourses helps explain the perceived dichotomy between monogamy and Polygyny that persists.
Root Concerns
Generally, Africa is one of the underdeveloped continents in the world, with reasons for ravaging poverty, slavery, injustice, age-long leadership failure, and stagnant economy. e majority of the social development programs in Nigeria could be more e&cient. Hence, citizens, irrespective of culture, tribe, gender, and age, are searching for economic survival, signi$cantly to increase household cash %ow (Oladipo, 2000, p. 149), which is a signi$cant root of polygamy practice in Yoruba. Farming and agriculture generally are the joint occupations of a larger percentage of African families for survival and means of taking care of economic responsibility. Before the invention of mechanized farming, African farmers maximized the opportunity of available workforce in human capital for the cultivation of farms and
other related activities. Hence, the sole reason why farmers in Yoruba land ventured into polygamy was by having many wives with the intention of having more children who would assist in their farming enterprise. e practice of polygamy based on economic reasons continues in the present contemporary despite civilization and exposure. However, due to extreme poverty ravaging the entire continent of Africa and epileptic agricultural interventions from the local and federal governments, including the International Agencies for Development of Agriculture, many farmers could not a!ord mechanized farm implements, which are highly capital-intensive for an average farmer in Africa, Nigeria, and Yoruba land in particular.
Practically, some men engaged in polygamy to increase the number of children to be used for farming work/activities (Economic factor) and, secondly, to showcase a uence and $nancial power to manage large families (Social factor) and not necessarily sexual aggrandizement. e more, the merrier, and the bigger the size of your family, the better you are likely to have more hands joining you in the journey for prosperity. ese o!spring are migrating and developing support and passion for abstract polygamy by having multiple opposite genders; even as singles displaying pride about the paternal foundation of multiple relationships, they needed to be culturally and oral proverbial disciples.
O en, African men exhibit family size rivalry resulting in multiple relationships, which usually graced with social standing before, during, and a er farm harvest; this marital competition encourages young adult men to delve into polygamy to be recognized economically in the community as the family size increases with several wives and children available for farming or trade businesses.
Some artisans and traders are in polygamy to retain and maximize pro$t for the bene$t of the whole family. A monogamist
234 Kehinde Seyi Ojelade
bricklayer needs to engage more hands who would negotiate wages and entitlements daily. In contrast, a polygamous father would only need to give instructions and assign duties to wives and children who had been integrated, in essence, increasing the family’s sources of income. On many occasions, however, childlessness is another root cause of polygamy for some people in other circumstances, like delay in childbearing, like Elkanah in the Bible, who married Peninnah due to Hannah’s childlessness for many years. However, the focus of this paper centered on economic survival and factors as the root cause of many Africans engaging in polygamy.
Treating each other with love, dignity, and respect, the focus will be on the parents and children born in the Course of the union, and the dignity of life involved needs to be physically and spiritually catered for; neglecting these children poses a danger to their future, family, society, and kingdom Of God.
First hand
One of the polygamists in our local church, Mr. Adebowale, got converted and was discipled along with his two wives and his children; the family continued serving the Lord in various capacities of the church departments; two wives are members of the choir. Adebowale released his block industry truck vehicle for weekly evangelism, which served as a massive relief for the church in transportation nance. In another development, Adebowale served as Chairman of the Church Building Committee, where his wealth of experience in building construction was an added advantage to the church as the expert and consultancy fees remained in the church account.
Adebowale’s journey of becoming a disciple of Jesus Christ followed the resolution of his church to organize Christian fellowship that focuses on converted polygamists in the community where many other Christian denominations see multiple relationship people as a taboo to the church community. !e all-white married couple’s
retreat symbolizes the purity and sanctity of equal love among the members of the polygamist’s household. !e only quali cation was a willingness to follow Jesus as Lord. Discipleship, in short, was not for the faint of heart and weak of will but for those who were ready to be trained in the faith as an athlete is trained in a sport. Age, gender, physique, background, and social status did not matter; commitment and consistency did.
Symbols
e symbol can be de$ned as an ‘object that is available that represents what is not available.’ In another development, ‘it is something visible that represents something else that is invisible .’For example, the eagle is onethe symbol of the United States. Symbols and rituals are not ordinary activities of the culture but rather connect deep spiritual signi$cance to the oral preference learners in a non-textual culture of the world; the value of symbols and rituals in a well-cra ed story from various cultural contexts negate the print-based in contrast. “Many oral learners rely upon visible symbols to point to the unseen God. While this approach includes using visible objects like a cross, eagle feather, or incense, the artwork is also a visual symbol that helps oral people connect with the unseen world.” (Moon, 2016, p. 9)
e symbol for this discipleship exercise is white cloth, which stands for peace, unity, gentleness, joy, forgiveness, humility, obedience, cleanliness, presence of the Holy Spirit, loyalty, purity, and holiness; these are some of the attributes of God as each concerned person begins to live righteously to please Him even when unredeemable mistakes have been made; sincerity and honesty are needed to continue to journey of life. White color means benevolence without malicious intent against the system of commotion and hostility among the women and their children with a focus on bullying that creates enmity and jealousy that never allows love and peace to reign.
236 Kehinde Seyi Ojelade
e spiritual implication of white cloth as discipleship symbolizes a new beginning for the multiple relationship partners. Hence, God desires to see all come to repentance and live righteous lives; it is expedient to turn a new leaf. Christian discipleship is a means of daily transformation to become and live to imitate Christ by understanding the wrongs of the past and consciously making an e!ort toward a renewed mind that focuses on God. An African playlet shows that “when a person was rescued from gutter soaked with a dirty cloth, it is important and wise enough to $rst change the cloth by replacing such dress with a clean cloth.” Starting afresh required %inging away the old and putting on the new life of God.
Ritual/pilgrimage activities
Citing Bradshaw (1996), Moon a&rms that rituals are the heart of our struggle to build any fence of spirituality (Moon, 2012); in other words, symbols and rituals must be integrated to build strong spiritual development.
e four basic dimensions of religiousness and ritual, according to (Saroglou et al., 2020)
Believing, Bonding, Behaving, and Belonging, and corresponding cognitive, emotional, moral, and social motives and functions of religion, each of the four dimensions corresponds to a speci$c aspect of religion, kinds of religious products, and underlying ideals, as well as speci$c motives, to become, continue, or stop being religious, di!erent ways to express religiousness and distinct functions of religion (pp. 522–556).
is religious ritual is potent in search of oneness, purity, equity, awe, inner peace, and motives and functions such as emotional regulation and attachment security. e believing dimension refers to the cognitive aspects of religion, beliefs related to transcendence, the ideal of truth, especially regarding
the big existential questions, and motives and functions such as the search for meaning and epistemic certainty. e bonding dimension refers to the emotional aspects of connecting with the transcendence and the co-religionists. e behaving dimension refers to the moral aspect of religion, implying norms and moral rules, ideals of virtue, purity, and moral order, and the search for self-control and a values hierarchy. Finally, the belonging dimension refers to the social aspects of religion, insertion into a community, continuity with a tradition, and the search for collective identity and social self-esteem by belonging to a group with a glorious past and an eternal future.
Arguably, nonbelievers may $nd religious beliefs irrational, religious rituals unsatisfactory, religious morality hypocritical, and the religious group as inhibiting autonomy (Saroglou, 2012). e event would identify the phases as (1) rites of separation from a previous world (preliminal rites), (2) transition rites (liminal or threshold), and (3) rites of incorporation (postliminal rites) into a new social world. As (Turner, 1996, p. 139) observes, the usual function of rites of passage, especially the postliminal phase, is to confer full status, such that polygamists become fully involved in the rich manifold of the church and mission activities. e condition of liminality is the fertile source of rituals and symbols, not to mention myths, philosophical systems, and works of art. Given Christian liminality, one should $nd a %ourishing ritual life within.
Oral learners prefer this group-retrospection that is externalized in a ritual so that they will be united, the ritual can bond the community members to each other and also to their corporate faith. disciples are then bonded to other disciples. In addition, they are bonded to their faith (Moon, 2010, p. 9).
e quarterly couples retreat would be the place for the ritual and pilgrimage center for the rebirth and renewal of the homes involved in polygamy. “Egungun to ti jade, kuro ninu
238 Kehinde Seyi Ojelade
aiwoo,” meaning ‘masquerade that is dancing in public, has gone beyond don’t look.’ ere would be a Christian multiple homes fellowship like a widow’s fellowship that will allow parties to discuss the practicability of their devotion to God and service to humanity. Along with the word of God, Christian counselors, and marriage experts will be invited to address various concerns that may arise before, during, and a er the ritual.
e couples will be integrated to partake in the sacraments and ordinances of the church, such as the Lord’s Supper, Baptism, and others which some denominations view as taboo. eir concern hinged on the little fox that corrupt the vineyard, an invitation to encourage other monogamous church members to engage in multiple marital relationships. e couples retreat in the past has been linked to marital, family, and relationship pilgrimage; the venue is carefully chosen devoid of distraction, intrusion, and infringements. e participants’ rights and privileges are respected without violating physical and spiritual principles that guide and foster godly relationships.
e marriage counselors will attend to the peculiarity of each relationship in line with biblical stories that apply to their situation. Multiple relationship couples deserve to be handled in order to discourage further and future entangling with the act of polygamy. Husband or men would have their separate sessions, and so also would the $rst wife, second, middle, and last wives would have their sessions to highlight each role ad expectation in the new found journey with Christ, as Christianity without discipleship is like salvation without Christ, discipleship is a continuous lifestyle that daily follows. However, humans are de$ned by more than their thoughts and ideas (which are highly individualistic concepts); they are de$ned by the group to which they belong and the activities in which they participate. (Arrington, 2018, p. 224). My polygamist converts are de$ned by their practices: the music they sing (Christian hymns), the behaviors they no longer participate in (womanizing, and
drinking), their fashion accessories (Bible bags), their handshake signifying Christian fellowship of relationship.
Critical Evaluation
Jacob marries Leah, Rachel, and more in Genesis 29:1830:24. For a time, God did permit a man to have more than one wife. (Genesis 4:19; 16:1-4; 29:18-29) However, God did not originate the practice of polygamy. He provided only one wife for Adam.
2 Samuel 5:13 13 A er he le Hebron, David took more concubines and wives in Jerusalem, and more sons and daughters were born to him. Among the bears, Dav? became a threat to his kingdom and even sought to kill him. David’s uncontrolled sexual desire for Bathsheba led to the murder of Uriah, one of the $nest soldiers of David, and the Lord revenged the act with the death of a son.
Solomon, on the other hand, in his old age, his wife turned his heart to other gods. 1 Kings 11:4 says Solomon’s heart was not entirely devoted to the Lord his God, as the heart of David his father had been. Solomon built houses for foreign gods and did detestable acts in the eyes of the Lord. e Lord Jesus Christ called all people to become his disciples. He called in John 1:39-43, “Come” and “follow me.” Our task is to respond to the call, choose to follow Jesus and decide to follow him with loyal commitment. is requires the quietness of our spirit to hear his voice and the willingness to obey as we learn from him daily. How will these biblical stories serve in the ritual?
Conclusion
Discipleship is not solely dependent on Christian leadership. However, it is a way of acquiring knowledge about a continuous daily growing relationship with God and consistent
240 Kehinde Seyi Ojelade
day-to-day steps of following with the purpose of becoming like Christ. Cultural discipleship is the process of worldview transformation whereby Jesus’ followers center their lives on the Kingdom of God and obey Christ’s commands in culture, utilizing culturally available genres. e worldview includes the foundational cognitive (what you think), a!ective (what you love), and evaluative (how you make decisions) assumptions and frameworks a group of people makes about the nature of reality, which they use to order their lives. It encompasses people’s images or maps of the reality of all things used for living their lives. However, there are mental maps people carry in their heads in which cultures highlight and $lter various parts of reality; these, among others, shape our pattern for discipline since discipleship aims to transform the worldview and not destroy it.
Some of the culturally available genres to be engaged for worldview transformational discipleship include Symbols, Ritual, Dance, Proverbs, Music, Stories, Drama, and Holistic Discipleship; each genre provides a speci$c way of visualizing a given part of reality since they each combine speci$c blindness and insights. Language uni$es culture; Genre strati$es culture. Expanding disciplining polygamy requires learning essential pieces from other cultures, communal process, initiation process, integrating life and faith, uniting intimate with ultimate God, starting with what is already available in culture for genres like symbols and ceremonies are essential in discipleship.
Spiritual relatedness and work engagement A sense of spiritual relatedness is an experience of connection with the sacred/transcendent. Experiences of connection with the sacred are variously articulated within di!erent religious traditions as a sense of closeness to God, union with the sacred, communion through prayer or meditation or sacrament, personal relationship with God, etc. Within much of the Christian tradition, satisfaction in one’s perceived relationship with God is a psycho-spiritual state necessary for negotiating the environment of church
ministry successfully, mainly because part of the work of a church leader is to model and attempt to foster this relationship among congregational members, especially discipling multi-relationship congregants with pedagogy easily to relate within their culture.
242 Kehinde Seyi Ojelade
References Cited
Adamo, D. T. (2021). e African background of the prosperity gospel. !eologia Viatorum, 45(1), Article 1. https:// theologiaviatorum.org/index.php/tv/article/view/71
Ajibade Ezekiel. (2020). Engaging Orality for E ective Teaching of Christian Preaching in Niigerian Baptist !eological Seminary, Ogbomoso.
https://www.academia.edu/51312058/
Arrington, A. (2018). Reimagining Discipleship: e Lisu Life–Rhythm of Shared Christian Practices. International Bulletin of Mission Research, 42(3), Article 3.
Babalola, E. O. (2017). Christ Metaphorical use of Salt and Light in Matthew 5: 13-16 as the Impetus for the Contributions of !eological Education in Transforming the World. https:// www.academia.edu/download/54821568/Vol_10_2-_ Cont._J._Educ._Res._67-90.pdf
Familusi, O. O. (2012). African culture and the status of women: e Yoruba example. !e Journal of Pan African Studies, 5(1), 299–313. http://jpanafrican.org/docs/vol5no1/5.1AfricanCulture. pdf
Lovejoy, G. (2008). e extent of orality. !e Journal for Baptist !eology And Ministry, 5(1), 121–133.
Madinger, C., Eggers, D. C., & McClellan, K. D. (2007). Why orality works: Insights from $eld experiences. ION Conference 2007. Orlando FL, InternationalOrality
Moon, W. Jay (2012). “Holistic Discipleship: Integrating Community Development in the Discipleship Process.” Embrace, Number 3:9-13.
Moon, W. Jay (2010). Discipling through the Eyes of Oral Learners. Missiology: An International Review, 38(2), 127–140. https://doi.org/10.1177/009182961003800204
Moon, W. Jay (2012). Rituals and Symbols in Community Development. Missiology: An International Review, 40(2), 141–152. https://doi.org/10.1177/009182961204000203
Moon, W. Jay (2016). Fad or renaissance? Misconceptions of the orality movement. International Bulletin of Mission Research, 40(1), 6–21.
Oladipo, J. (2000). e Role of the Church in Poverty Alleviation in Africa. Transformation: An International Journal of Holistic Mission Studies, 17(4), 146–152. https://doi. org/10.1177/026537880001700408
Saroglou, V., Clobert, M., Cohen, A. B., Johnson, K. A., Ladd, K. L., Van Pachterbeke, M., Adamovova, L., Blogowska, J., Brandt, P.-Y., Çukur, C. S., Hwang, K.-K., Miglietta, A., Motti-Stefanidi, F., Muñoz-García, A., Murken, S., Roussiau, N., & Tapia Valladares, J. (2020). Believing, Bonding, Behaving, and Belonging: e Cognitive, Emotional, Moral, and Social Dimensions of Religiousness across Cultures. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 51(7–8), 551–575. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022120946488
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igpen, L. L. (2016). Connected learning: A grounded theory study of how Cambodian adulds with limited formal education learn. Biola University.
Walter, O. (1983). Orality and Literacy: !e Technologizing of the World. Routledge.
Chapter 12
Wearing Yantra in India
By: L.S., M.C., H.H., M.V.
Introduction
Boinu experiences recurrent episodes of illness such as seizures, leading to periods of unconsciousness. Her condition remains uncured despite seeking medical help from various hospitals and consulting multiple doctors. parents took her to several traditional doctors, but she was not cured. Each doctor provided a di erent reason for her illness and gave her Yantra which contains a medicine/ costing around 2000 rupees. She expressed skepticism about the e ectiveness of the drug but maintained faith in divine healing, believing that if it’s God’s will, she will be cured. She mentioned that she did not receive a cure due to not wearing the Yantra, and her condition is not deteriorating solely because she has not worn it. She wears it because her parents insist on it and to avoid disappointing them. She stated that she wore the Yantra on her way back home, and as soon as she reached home, without the acknowledgment of her parents she removed the Yantra because she did not believe it. On the other hand, her parents were fear of the evil spirits that attacked Boinu and they could not witness the su ering of their daughter. So, they insisted that Boinu wear the Yantra even though she refused.
Phenomenological Study
e researchers will focus on the community of adou Kuki of Manipur and the research will be limited to the person called Boinu who had experienced an evil spirit attack.
Wearing of Yantra.
Wearing a yantra is a practice in some spiritual traditions where individuals wear a small replica or representation of a yantra as a form of spiritual protection, empowerment, or alignment with speci$c energies. When a yantra is worn, it is believed to create a subtle connection between the wearer and the spiritual energies associated with the Yantra. is connection can serve various purposes, such as given below.
Protection: Some people wear Yantra for protection against negative in%uences, energies, or entities. e Yantra is believed to create a shield or barrier around the wearer, de%ecting harmful forces and providing spiritual defense.
Empowerment: Wearing a Yantra can also be seen as aligning oneself with speci$c divine energies or qualities associated with the Yantra. By wearing the Yantra, individuals seek to absorb and embody these qualities, such as strength, wisdom, abundance, or love.
Spiritual Practice: For practitioners of meditation or spiritual disciplines, wearing a Yantra can remind them of their spiritual goals and aspirations. It can enhance focus, concentration, and awareness during meditation or other spiritual practices. Yantra worn as jewelry or amulets are typically made of metal, such as gold, silver, or copper, and may be adorned with gemstones or inscriptions. ey are o en worn as pendants or rings, allowing the wearer to keep the Yantra close to their body throughout the day. It is important to note that wearing a Yantra is a personal choice and belief system, and its e!ectiveness may vary depending on individual faith and intention. Additionally, proper guidance from a spiritual teacher or practitioner may be bene$cial for selecting and utilizing a Yantra for speci$c purposes.
As a Christian and believer in Christ, who is the creator of everything and the ultimate source of power, I trust that he will
rescue us from the enslavement of sin and heal us from spiritual attacks. Wearing Yantra or amulets is unnecessary for protection against evil spirits. It is considered contrary to God’s will to rely on anything other than God. It hinders fellow believers and sometimes it becomes a topic of debate and argument between the believers.
What is Yantra?
Fig. 1. Symbol of Yantra
A Yantra is a mystical diagram or symbolic representation used in Hindu and Tantric traditions for meditation, worship, and ritual purposes. e word “Yantra” is derived from the Sanskrit root “yam,” meaning “to control” or “to restrain,” and “tra,” meaning “instrument” or “tool.” erefore, a Yantra is o en considered a tool or instrument for focusing the mind and cultivating spiritual energy. Yantra can be simple or complex geometric shapes, o en featuring intersecting lines, triangles, circles, and other symbolic elements. ey are typically composed of various patterns and designs arranged in a speci$c geometric con$guration. Each Yantra is associated with a speci$c deity or cosmic force and is believed to embody the energy and essence of that deity.1
1 Sushma, Johari Madan. Yantra - An Encyclopedia: A complete guide to Yantra making and its miraculous bene ts (United Kingdom: Gold Rain Exclusive,
erefore, practitioners of Hinduism, Tantra, and other spiritual traditions use Yantra for various purposes, including meditation, invoking spiritual energies, attracting blessings, and seeking protection. Yantra is also used in rituals and ceremonies to enhance spiritual practices and connect with divine energies.
Ontological Critique
e researchers have identi$ed some of the root causes of wearing Yantra by the young lady who had su!ered from an evil spirit attack or possessed, as the researcher had provided in the subheadings.
Parents’ Fear of Attack by the Evil Spirit
e fear of attack by evil spirits, also known as demon phobia, has deep roots in various cultures and belief systems around the world. While the intensity and manifestations of this fear can vary greatly, it o en stems from religious or cultural beliefs about supernatural entities and their ability to cause harm. In many cultures, stories and legends of malevolent spirits or demons exist, instilling fear in individuals who believe in their existence. ese beliefs can be reinforced through religious teachings, folklore, and personal experiences or encounters (real or perceived) with the supernatural.2
In the context of Manipur the young woman, wears the Yantra or the amulets because of her parents’ fear. In addition, the parents want her to wear for the safety of themselves and their children, particularly in vulnerable moments such as at night or during periods of illness or distress. is fear leads to various protective measures being taken, such as rituals, prayers, or 2022), 65.
2 Kaniaki, D. D., et al. Snatched from Satan’s Claws: An Amazing Deliverance by Christ. Nairobi, (Kenya: Kenya Litho, 1991),73.
seeking assistance from spiritual leaders or practitioners to ward o! evil spirits.
erefore, in some cases, individuals may experience extreme anxiety or even panic attacks related to their fear of evil spirits. is signi$cantly a!ects their daily lives and functioning, leading to avoidance behaviors or di&culties in managing their emotions. It is important to recognize that while beliefs in evil spirits are deeply ingrained in some cultures, they may not align with scienti$c explanations or evidence-based practices. In cases where fear of evil spirits becomes overwhelming or interferes with daily life, seeking support from mental health professionals who are culturally sensitive can be bene$cial in addressing and managing these fears.
Fear of disappointing the parents/parents’ pressure
In this context, the young woman in regards wearing Yantra is not because she is afraid of an evil spirit attack or possessed but fearing disappointment from her parents, even though wearing a Yantra may serve as a form of spiritual reassurance or coping mechanism to some extent it does not give the real healing or curing. Many individuals fear disappointing their parents and turn to spiritual practices like wearing a Yantra as a way to seek protection, guidance, or blessings. Some believe that by wearing the Yantra, they are invoking divine intervention or aligning themselves with higher powers that can help them navigate the challenges of meeting parental expectations.
For some, wearing a Yantra may provide a sense of comfort and security, serving as a tangible reminder of their faith and connection to something greater than themselves. It can also symbolize a commitment to spiritual values and beliefs, which may in%uence their actions and decisions in ways that they hope, will be pleasing to their parents. However, it is important to note that wearing a Yantra or engaging in any spiritual practice should
250 L.S., M.C., H.H., M.V.
not be seen as a substitute for addressing underlying emotional or psychological issues related to the fear of disappointing parents. While spiritual beliefs and practices can provide support and solace, seeking guidance from mental health professionals or counselors may also be bene$cial in addressing these fears and developing healthy coping strategies. Additionally, open communication with parents about feelings of fear or anxiety can foster understanding and support within the family dynamic.
Fear of being criticized by fellow Christians
e young women had gone through several challenges, including fear of being criticized by fellow Christians for wearing a Yantra because it is a complex and challenging experience. Since particular individuals value both their Christian faith and cultural or spiritual practices that do not align directly with Christian beliefs. But the young woman being a true follower of Christ and a believer doesn’t want to abstain from criticized and pessimistic comments.
Looking into a brief understanding of symbols and how it is regarded and believed by other person understanding.
Understanding the Symbolism: Individuals need to understand the signi$cance of the Yantra within their own cultural or spiritual context. Yantra are o en regarded as symbols of protection, guidance, or spiritual connection in various belief systems. Explaining this symbolism to fellow Christians can help foster understanding and dispel misconceptions.3
Instead of depending on Yantra, it is necessary to seek guidance through prayer and spiritual re%ection. We Christians ought to believe in the power of prayer to provide strength,
3 Muhammad Fauzan Bin Abu Bakar, Introduction to Symbolism. https:// www.academia.edu/6434118/Introduction_to_Symbolism. Access on 22/3/24, 12:07 AM.
clarity, and guidance during challenging times. Turning to prayer can o!er comfort and reassurance when facing criticism or uncertainty. Ultimately, individuals should prioritize their own spiritual well-being and connection with God above the opinions of others. While navigating the fear of criticism from fellow Christians can be di&cult, staying true to one’s beliefs and values is essential for maintaining authenticity and integrity in one’s faith journey.
Critical Evaluation
How does the Bible speak about protecting the Evil spirit?
e Bible primarily speaks about protection from evil spirits rather than protecting evil spirits themselves. roughout the Bible, various passages address the concept of spiritual warfare and protection from demonic forces. In the book of Ephesians 6:10-18: is passage is known as the “Armor of God” and emphasizes the importance of putting on spiritual armor to stand against the schemes of the devil. It mentions various elements of armor, such as the belt of truth, the breastplate of righteousness, the shield of faith, the helmet of salvation, and the sword of the Spirit, which is the Word of God. It encourages believers to be vigilant and prayerful in their spiritual battles.
In addition, from the book of James 4:7: “Submit yourselves therefore to God. Resist the devil, and he will %ee from you.” is verse highlights the importance of submitting to God and resisting the devil’s in%uence. It suggests that by drawing near to God and living according to His will, believers can overcome the power of evil spirits.
First Peter 5:8-9: “Be sober-minded; be watchful. Your adversary the devil prowls around like a roaring lion, seeking someone to devour. Resist him, $rm in your faith, knowing that the same kinds of su!ering are being experienced by your
brotherhood throughout the world.” is passage underscores the need for vigilance and steadfastness in resisting the attacks of the devil. It reminds believers that they are not alone in facing spiritual battles and encourages them to stand $rm in their faith.4
Matthew 6:13: In the Lord’s Prayer, Jesus teaches his disciples to pray, “And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil.” is prayer acknowledges the reality of spiritual warfare and the need for God’s protection from the in%uence of evil.
Overall, the Bible teaches that believers can $nd protection from evil spirits through faith in God, obedience to His commands, prayer, and reliance on spiritual resources such as the Word of God and the Holy Spirit. It emphasizes the importance of being vigilant, resisting temptation, and seeking God’s strength and guidance in spiritual battles.5
How does the Bible talk about healing of sickness?
e Bible contains numerous accounts and teachings related to the healing of sickness, demonstrating God’s compassion and power to restore health. e researchers will highlight some of the key aspects of how the Bible addresses healing.
Miracles of Jesus: e Gospels, particularly Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, contain numerous accounts of Jesus performing miraculous healings. ese include healing the sick, restoring sight to the blind, curing leprosy, and even raising the dead.
4 Peter H. David’s, !e New International Commentary on the New Testament: !e rst Epistle of Peter Edited by Gordon D. Fee (Grand Rapid: Erdaman Publishing Co, 1990), 209.
5 Whitney Hopler, What Does the Bible Say about Evil Spirits? Crosswalk. com Contributing Writer, Oct 27, 2023.https://www.crosswalk.com/faith/biblestudy/what-does-the-bible-say-about-evil-spirits.html. Access on 22/3/24, 12:55 AM
ese miracles demonstrate Jesus’ divinity and his mission to bring healing and wholeness to humanity.
Faith and Healing: Many healing stories in the Bible emphasize the role of faith. Jesus o en commended individuals for their faith before healing them or others. For example, in Matthew 9:22, Jesus tells a woman, “Take heart, daughter; your faith has made you well.” is suggests that faith in God’s power to heal is an essential component of experiencing healing.” “Jesus was thus inviting people to see his work of healing as a sign of his identity he was performing the works of God, which the Father had given him to do. His works revealed his union with the Father: “ e Father who dwells in me does his works.”6
Prayer and Intercession: e Bible encourages believers to pray for healing, both for themselves and for others. James 5:1415 instructs believers to call for the elders of the church to pray over the sick, anointing them with oil in the name of the Lord, with the promise that “the prayer of faith will save the one who is sick, and the Lord will raise him.”
God’s Promise: roughout the Old and New Testaments, God makes promises of healing to his people. For example, in Exodus 15:26, God declares, “I am the Lord, who heals you.” Psalm 103:2-3 praises God, saying, “Bless the Lord, O my soul, and forget not all his bene$ts, who forgives all your iniquity, who heals all your diseases.” ese verses a&rm God’s character as a healer who cares for the well-being of his people.
Divine intervention: e Bible contains stories of divine intervention in response to prayer and faith. For example, in Acts 3:1-10, Peter and John heal a man who had been lame from birth, simply by invoking the name of Jesus Christ. is miraculous
6 Vern S. Poythress, !e Miracles of Jesus (Wheaton, Illinois: Crossway, 2016), 40.
healing serves as a testimony to the power of God and the authority of Jesus’ name.7
Overall, the Bible teaches that healing is part of God’s nature and that he is compassionate towards those who are su!ering. While healing may not always occur in the way or timing we expect, the Bible encourages believers to trust in God’s goodness and to seek healing through prayer, faith, and obedience to his will.
Has the Bible accepted it?
e Bible does not speci$cally address the concept of wearing a Yantra, which is commonly linked to speci$c Eastern spiritual rituals. e primary emphasis of the Bible is in its instructions pertaining to the veneration of God, devotion to moral and ethical tenets, and spiritual rituals within the framework of Judeo-Christian customs. Although Yantra or similar artefacts are not explicitly mentioned in the Bible, it does provide guidance on things pertaining to faith, spirituality, and worship. e interpretation of these teachings by Christians is contingent upon their individual beliefs and traditions. Christians may hold varying viewpoints regarding customs like wearing Yantra, which are in%uenced by their interpretation of biblical values and their cultural or spiritual heritage. Certain individuals who identify as Christians may exhibit a skeptical or cautious attitude towards activities that deviate from the established Judeo-Christian beliefs. Conversely, others may display a greater willingness to integrate components from alternative spiritual traditions into their religious observance.
Ultimately, whether wearing a Yantra or engaging in any spiritual practice is acceptable for a Christian is a matter of personal conviction and interpretation of biblical teachings. It is
7 Daniel Dei and Robert Osei-Bonsu, Confession, Prayer, and Healing: Rethinking James 5:14-16: Global Advanced Research Journal of Arts and Humanities (GARJAH) Vol. 3(1) pp. XXX-XXX, March 2015.
essential for individuals to prayerfully discern how their beliefs and practices align with their understanding of God’s will and the teachings of the Bible. Additionally, seeking guidance from spiritual leaders or mentors within one’s faith tradition can provide valuable insights and support in navigating such matters.
Missiological Transformation
How to communicate the gospel?
Communicating the gospel with the person who is experiencing possession by evil spirits or who wears a Yantra requires sensitivity, compassion, and respect for individual beliefs and experiences. Here are some steps to consider:
Establish Trust and Rapport: Approach the individual with empathy and a genuine desire to understand their situation. Listen attentively to their experiences and concerns without judgment. Building trust is essential for e!ective communication.
Respect Cultural and Spiritual Belief: Recognize that the person’s belief in evil spirits or the wearing of a Yantra may be deeply rooted in their cultural or spiritual background. Avoid dismissing or criticizing their beliefs; instead, seek to understand them and acknowledge their signi$cance.
Share the Message of Hope: Communicate the gospel message in a way that emphasizes God’s love, grace, and power to bring healing and deliverance. Highlight scriptures that speak to God’s ability to overcome evil and bring freedom to those who are oppressed.
Demonstrate Christ’s Love: Show Christ’s love through your words and actions. O!er support, prayer, and practical assistance to the individual, demonstrating that your desire is for their wellbeing and spiritual wholeness.
Pray for Guidance and Discernment: Seek guidance from the Holy Spirit in your interactions with the individual. Pray for discernment to know how best to communicate the gospel and support them in their spiritual journey.
We should also remember that ultimately, it is the Holy Spirit who convicts hearts and brings about spiritual transformation. Trust in God’s timing and continue to li the individual in prayer, trusting that He will work in their life according to His perfect plan.
How do we help them move out of fear?
To help a person move out of fear of evil spirit attack or possession requires a compassionate and supportive approach that addresses both their emotional needs and their spiritual concerns. Provide biblical teachings on spiritual warfare and the authority that believers have in Christ over evil spirits. Share scriptures that emphasize God’s power to protect and deliver His people from spiritual attacks. Luke 10:19 “I have given you authority to trample on snakes and scorpions and to overcome all the power of the enemy; nothing will harm you.”
Help the individual cultivate a deeper faith and trust in God’s promises and protection. Remind them of scriptures that speak to God’s faithfulness and His promise to never leave nor forsake His children. Psalm 91:4-5 “He will cover you with his feathers, and under his wings, you will $nd refuge; his faithfulness will be your shield and rampart. You will not fear the terror of night, nor the arrow that %ies by day.”
Share stories from the Bible of God’s faithfulness and deliverance from evil forces.
Second Timothy 1:7 “For the Spirit, God gave us does not make us timid, but gives us power, love, and self-discipline.”
Encourage them to $ll their minds with God’s truth rather than dwelling on fear-inducing thoughts. Philippians 4:8 “Finally, brothers and sisters, whatever is true, whatever is noble, whatever is right, whatever is pure, whatever is lovely, whatever is admirable if anything is excellent or praiseworthy think about such things.” Emphasize the importance of meditating on God’s Word to $nd peace and strength.
By incorporating these biblical principles and scriptures, you can provide spiritual guidance and support to help individuals overcome fear and $nd peace amid spiritual battles. In addition, it is important to approach the situation with patience, sensitivity, and a willingness to walk alongside the individual in their journey toward healing and freedom from fear. Remember to continue o!ering support and encouragement, trusting in God’s power to bring about transformation and deliverance.
Should she continue to wear the Yantra or not?
As a Christian, it is important to uphold biblical principles and teachings in all aspects of life, including spiritual practices and beliefs. e wearing of a Yantra, which is associated with non-Christian spiritual traditions, may raise concerns about its compatibility with Christian faith and teachings. Here are some biblical references that can inform the decision.
e Bible explicitly warns against engaging in practices associated with idolatry and the worship of false gods. Exodus 20:3-5 “You shall have no other gods before me. You shall not make for yourself an image in the form of anything in heaven above or on the earth beneath or in the waters below. You shall not bow down to them or worship them; for I, the Lord your God, am a jealous God.”
Christianity emphasizes the exclusive worship of God and adherence to His commandments. Matthew 4:10 “Jesus said to
258 L.S., M.C., H.H., M.V. him, Away from me, Satan, for it is written, Worship the Lord your God, and serve him only.”
Believers are encouraged to avoid practices associated with darkness or spiritual forces that are contrary to God’s will. Ephesians 5:11 “Have nothing to do with the fruitless deeds of darkness, but rather expose them.”
Based on these biblical principles, it may be appropriate to gently encourage the individual to reconsider wearing the Yantra. Emphasize the importance of aligning one’s beliefs and practices with biblical teachings and the worship of God alone. O!er support and guidance as they seek to deepen their relationship with God and grow in their understanding of the Christian faith. Ultimately, the decision to continue wearing the Yantra is a personal one that the individual must prayerfully discern in light of their commitment to following Christ and honoring God’s commandments. Encourage them to seek wisdom and guidance from God’s Word and the Holy Spirit as they make this decision.
Can the Yantra symbol be replaced with another Christian symbol?
e process of substituting the Yantra with a Christian symbol entails identifying a symbol of profound spiritual signi$cance within the Christian tradition that can e!ectively achieve a comparable objective. Below are a few recommendations for Christian symbols and their potential as substitutes for the Yantra: e cross holds a prominent position as the most universally acknowledged emblem of Christianity, symbolizing the sacri$cial demise and subsequent resurrection of Jesus Christ. Urge the person to don a cross necklace or bear a cross as a symbol of Christ’s a!ection, sel%essness, and triumph over wrongdoing and mortality. e dove serves as a representation of the Holy Spirit and the tranquility of God. Motivate the person to adorn themselves with jewelry or exhibit goods adorned with a dove
Wearing Yantra in India | 259 emblem as a symbol of the Holy Spirit’s existence and in%uence in their life.
e individual should be encouraged to select biblical verses that hold personal signi$cance, as they serve to resonate with their beliefs and serve as reminders of God’s promises and protection. Individuals have the option to inscribe these verses onto cards or adorn themselves with jewelry set with scripture verses, serving as a personal symbol of their religious beliefs. e individual is advised to utilize prayer beads or a rosary as a means of engaging in prayer and meditation, with a speci$c emphasis on Christian prayers and contemplations, as opposed to the Yantra. e biblical passage Proverbs 3:5-6 “Place your complete trust in the Lord and refrain from relying on your comprehension; always surrender to him in all your actions, and he will guide you in the correct direction.” In the process of facilitating an individual’s shi from wearing the Yantra to adopting a Christian symbol, it is crucial to underscore the spiritual value and underlying meaning associated with the selected symbol. Advocate for the development of a more profound connection with the divine and to seek solace and resilience via their religious beliefs.
What rituals will be e ective to disciples them?
When it comes to discipleship, the emphasis in Christianity is typically on teaching, mentoring, and spiritual growth rather than on speci$c rituals. However, some practices and disciplines can be incorporated into the discipleship process to help individuals grow in their faith and relationship with God.
• Prayer: Encourage disciples to develop a regular habit of prayer, both individually and in the community. Prayer is essential for communication with God, seeking His guidance, and expressing gratitude and praise. 1 essalonians 5:16-18 “Rejoice always, pray
continually, give thanks in all circumstances; for this is God’s will for you in Christ Jesus.”
• Bible Study: Teach disciples the importance of studying and meditating on God’s Word. Encourage them to read the Bible daily, re%ect on its teachings, and apply its principles to their lives. 2 Timothy 3:16-17 “All Scripture is God-breathed and is useful for teaching, rebuking, correcting and training in righteousness, so that the servant of God may be thoroughly equipped for every good work.”
• Fellowship: Create opportunities for disciples to gather together with other believers for worship, fellowship, and mutual encouragement. Community is essential for spiritual growth and accountability. Hebrews 10:24-25 “And let us consider how we may spur one another on toward love and good deeds, not giving up meeting together, as some are in the habit of doing but encouraging one another and all the more as you see the Day approaching.” Teach disciples the importance of worshiping God in spirit and truth. Encourage them to engage in both personal and corporate worship as a way of expressing their love and devotion to God. John 4:23-24 “Yet a time is coming and has now come when the true worshipers will worship the Father in the Spirit and truth, for they are the kind of worshipers the Father seeks. God is spirit, and his worshipers must worship in the Spirit and truth.” By incorporating these practices into the discipleship process, individuals can grow in their relationship with God, deepen their understanding of His Word, and become more e!ective in living out their faith in daily life and encouraging them to rely on the power of God and the guidance of the Holy Spirit as they navigate spiritual challenges and minister to those in need.
In Christian teaching, evil spirit attacks can a!ect various aspects of individuals, communities, and relationships. Evil spirit attacks can disrupt family dynamics, causing tension, fear, and emotional distress among family members. Witnessing a loved one experiencing spiritual oppression can be deeply unsettling and may lead to strained relationships and con%icts within the family unit. As it is written in the book of Ephesians 6:12 “For our struggle is not against %esh and blood, but against the rulers, against the authorities, against the powers of this dark world and the spiritual forces of evil in the heavenly realms.”
Individuals who see or undergo malevolent spiritual assaults may endure psychological and emotional anguish, encompassing anxiety, apprehension, despondency, and a sense of powerlessness. e attacks can have a substantial psychological impact, necessitating assistance from mental health experts and spiritual counselors. Malevolent spiritual assaults have the potential to test individuals’ faith and belief systems, prompting them to scrutinize their comprehension of spiritual truths and their trust in the safeguarding and sustenance of God.
Nevertheless, these attacks can also present prospects for spiritual development, fostering a stronger belief system, and fostering dependence on the omnipotence and authority of God. e occurrence of malevolent spiritual assaults can have a signi$cant in%uence on the social interactions within communities, resulting in the stigmatization, exclusion, or prejudice of individuals who are impacted. Incorrect interpretations and fallacies regarding spiritual battles and demonic domination have the potential to intensify social tensions and divisions. According to the biblical passage in Galatians 6:2, it is said that individuals should shoulder one another’s responsibilities as a means of adhering to the law of Christ.
Although demonic spirit attacks might yield adverse consequences, they also o!er prospects for ministry, assistance, and spiritual development. Christians can unite to engage in prayer, and intercession, and provide practical aid to those impacted, so exemplifying Christ’s love and compassion amid spiritual con%ict. In general, malevolent spiritual assaults have diverse impacts on persons, communities, and interpersonal connections, necessitating a comprehensive strategy to tackle spiritual, emotional, and pragmatic requirements. Christians are obligated to react with a!ection, empathy, and belief, placing their trust in God’s ability to conquer malevolence and provide healing and rejuvenation to those impacted.
What will happen if we ignore this ritual/need?
Failing to acknowledge the necessity of confronting spiritual warfare and malevolent spirit assaults as a Christian can result in substantial repercussions for both one’s spiritual welfare and the Christian community. Failure to acknowledge the necessity of addressing spiritual battles may lead to a dearth of discipleship and assistance for those confronted with spiritual assaults. Individuals may encounter di&culties in e&ciently navigating spiritual concerns in the absence of counsel, prayer, and support from fellow believers. e neglect of spiritual warfare has the potential to undermine the e&cacy of Christian ministry and witness. Matthew 5:16 “Similarly, allow your radiance to illuminate others, enabling them to witness your virtuous actions and exalt your Father in the celestial realm.”
Neglecting spiritual warfare can lead to spiritual bondage and oppression. 2 Corinthians 10:3-4 “For though we live in the world, we do not wage war as the world does. e weapons we $ght with are not the weapons of the world. On the contrary, they have divine power to demolish strongholds.” In summary, scripture emphasizes the importance of being vigilant in spiritual
warfare and relying on God’s strength and protection. Ignoring this need can have serious consequences on spiritual health, community, and e!ectiveness in Christian life and ministry.
What functional substitutes could be used instead of Yantra?
Within a Christian context, functional alternatives to the Yantra would prioritize symbols or activities that are by Christian values and principles. Individuals have the option to select signi$cant biblical verses that align with their faith and spiritual path, rather than relying on a tangible representation. Individuals have the option to transcribe these verses onto cards, exhibit them inside their residence, or commit them to memory as a particular memento of God’s assurances and existence. Philippians 4:67 “Do not experience anxiety in any circumstance. Instead, in every situation, express your requests to God through prayer and petition, while expressing gratitude.” e tranquility of God, above all comprehension, will protect your hearts and minds in Christ Jesus.
Anointing oil is a representation of divine favor and existence, frequently employed in Christian ceremonies like anointing for healing or consecration. It can function as a symbol of God’s omnipotence and sustenance during moments of adversity. James 5:14 Has anyone among you fallen ill? ey should summon the church elders to o!er prayers and apply oil to them in the name of the Lord. Functional alternatives for the Yantra can be found in Christian artwork that portrays scenes from the Bible, encouraging words, or symbols of faith. ey can be exhibited in the household or adorned as accessories to motivate and elevate the soul. Christians can e!ectively communicate and reinforce their faith without sacri$cing their views by directing their attention towards practical replacements that are grounded in biblical teachings and values.
In conclusion, let us explore how these aspects can inform alternatives to wearing the Yantra within a Christian context. Christianity is built upon the mythos of Jesus Christ’s life, teachings, death, and resurrection, which form the foundational narrative of the faith. Worldview assumptions include beliefs about God’s nature, humanity’s fallen condition, and the need for redemption through Christ. Functional alternatives to wearing the Yantra should align with these Christian myths and worldview assumptions. John 3:16 “For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life.”
Symbols in Christianity carry deep theological signi$cance and o en represent core doctrines and beliefs. For example, the cross symbolizes Jesus’ sacri$cial death and victory over sin, while the dove represents the Holy Spirit. When considering alternatives to the Yantra, Christians should choose symbols that re%ect key aspects of their faith and reinforce central Christian teachings. 1 Corinthians 1:18 “For the message of the cross is foolishness to those who are perishing, but to us who are being saved it is the power of God.”
In Christianity, clergy members such as priests, pastors, and ministers serve as ritual specialists, guiding the faithful in religious practices and ceremonies. ey may play a role in blessing or consecrating objects or symbols used in worship. When seeking alternatives to the Yantra, consulting with clergy members can guide appropriate symbols or rituals within the Christian tradition. Christians recognize certain spaces, such as churches or cathedrals, as sacred places where they gather for worship, prayer, and sacraments. Similarly, certain times, such as Sunday worship services or religious holidays, are considered sacred times for communal worship and re%ection. Alternatives to wearing the Yantra should be integrated into these sacred spaces
and times, enhancing the spiritual signi$cance of the rituals and symbols used.
Rituals in Christianity follow speci$c patterns and sequences, o en involving actions such as prayer, scripture reading, and sacramental rites. When considering alternatives to the Yantra, Christians should incorporate these ritual elements into their spiritual practices. For example, wearing a cross necklace or carrying a pocket-sized Bible can serve as reminders of faith and devotion within the ritual process of daily life. James 5:14 “Is anyone among you sick? Let them call the elders of the church to pray over them and anoint them with oil in the name of the Lord.” By considering these aspects of Christian faith and practice, believers can identify meaningful alternatives to wearing the Yantra that align with their religious worldview and deepen their spiritual connection with God. ese alternatives should uphold core Christian beliefs, utilize sacred symbols and rituals, and be integrated into the fabric of communal worship and devotion.
In addition, Evil spirits are a reality that you must deal with in this fallen world. ey’re not to be taken lightly, for entertainment. You should take them seriously. Evil spirits can harm you and your loved ones signi$cantly if you’re not careful. However, you never need to be afraid of evil spirits when you’re connected to God, whose power is far greater than any type of evil. Jesus has given those who trust him the power to overcome evil. In a relationship with Jesus, you can defend yourself and others successfully against evil spirits. You’ll stay spiritually safe if you stay close to God, day by day.
Books:
D, Kaniaki, D. D. Snatched from Satan’s Claws: An Amazing Deliverance by Christ. Nairobi, Kenya: Kenya Litho, 1991.
Madan, Sushma Johari Madan. Yantra - An Encyclopedia: A complete guide to Yantra making and its miraculous bene ts. United Kingdom: Gold Rain Exclusive, 2022.
Peter, H. David’s. !e New International Commentary on the New Testament: !e rst Epistle of Peter Edited by Gordon D. Fee. Grand Rapid: Erdaman Publishing Co, 1990.
Poythress, Vern S. !e Miracles of Jesus. Wheaton, Illinois: Crossway, 2016.
Vern S. Poythress, !e Miracles of Jesus (Wheaton, Illinois: Crossway, 2016), 40. Articles
Hopler, Whitney. What Does the Bible Say about Evil Spirits? Crosswalk.com Contributing Writer, Oct 27, 2023.https:// www.crosswalk.com/faith/bible-study/what-does-thebible-say-about-evil-spirits.html. Access on 22/3/24, 12:55 AM.
Osei-Bonsu, Daniel Dei and Robert. Confession, Prayer, and Healing: Rethinking James 5:14-16: Global Advanced Research Journal of Arts and Humanities (GARJAH) Vol. 3(1), March 2015.
Online sources
Bakar, Muhammad Fauzan Bin Abu Bakar. Introduction to Symbolism. https://www.academia.edu/6434118/ Introduction_to_Symbolism. Access on 22/3/24.
Daniel Dei and Robert Osei-Bonsu, Confession, Prayer, and Healing: Rethinking James 5:14-16: Global Advanced Research Journal of Arts and Humanities (GARJAH) Vol. 3(1). March 2015.
Chapter 13
Karwa Chauth Ritual in India
By: P.R.
Introduction
Mrs. Mohini’s situation presents a unique and complex intersection of cultural practices and religious identity. As a Hindu convert to Christianity, she nds herself grappling with the expectations of her family and society regarding the observance of Karwa Chauth, a traditional Hindu ritual. !is ritual involves fasting from sunrise to moonrise for the well-being and longevity of her husband, which is deeply ingrained in the cultural fabric of her community.
One of the key aspects of Mrs. Mohini’s dilemma is the pressure she faces from her family, particularly her in-laws, to participate in Karwa Chauth. For them, this ritual is not just a tradition but a deeply held belief that failing to observe it could have negative consequences for her husband’s health and longevity. !is familial pressure creates a sense of obligation for Mrs. Mohini, as she wants to respect her family’s traditions and maintain harmony within her marital relationship.
At the same time, Mrs. Mohini’s decision is further complicated by her Christian faith, which may con&ict with the beliefs and practices associated with Karwa Chauth. Some Christians may advise her against participating in the ritual, citing concerns about idolatry or compromising her Christian identity. !is con&icting advice adds to Mrs. Mohini’s internal struggle, as she tries to reconcile her religious beliefs with her cultural obligations.
Moreover, the societal expectations and consequences associated with Mrs. Mohini’s decision cannot be overlooked. In traditional Hindu societies, women who do not participate in Karwa
Chauth may face criticism and judgment from their community. !ere is a perception that a woman’s love and devotion to her husband are measured by her observance of this ritual, which can lead to social ostracization for those who do not conform.
By critically analyzing Mrs. Mohini’s case, this paper aims to shed light on the complexities of cultural practices and religious identity in pluralistic societies. It highlights the challenges faced by individuals who navigate between di!erent cultural and religious frameworks, and the need for a nuanced understanding of these dynamics. Ultimately, this analysis contributes to the broader discourse on cultural diversity and religious pluralism, emphasizing the importance of respecting individual agency and autonomy in matters of faith and tradition.
Phenomenological Study
Karwa Chauth, traditionally observed by married Hindu women primarily in North India, is a ritual fasting practice from sunrise to moonrise, undertaken for the longevity and well-being of their husbands. is ritual is deeply entrenched in cultural and religious beliefs, symbolizing the wife’s devotion and willingness to sacri$ce for her husband’s welfare. However, in contemporary society, Karwa Chauth has become a topic of debate and criticism due to its perceived patriarchal undertones and its imposition on women.
Mrs. Mohini’s situation adds a layer of complexity to the understanding of Karwa Chauth. As a devout Christian, she $nds herself in a challenging position, trying to navigate between honoring her family’s traditions and upholding her Christian beliefs. Mohini’s story highlights the inherent tensions between religious identity, cultural expectations, and personal convictions. Her dilemma underscores the importance of critically examining cultural practices like Karwa Chauth in the context of modern society, where individuals o en face con%icting demands from
their religious, cultural, and personal spheres. is case study serves as a poignant reminder of the need for sensitivity and understanding in addressing the complexities of cultural and religious diversity in today’s pluralistic societies.
What is Karwa Chauth?
Karwa Chauth is a traditional Hindu ritual observed primarily by married women, especially in North India, where they fast from sunrise to moonrise for the well-being and longevity of their husbands. is ritual holds signi$cant cultural and religious importance and is celebrated with great enthusiasm and devotion in many parts of India.
e word “Karwa” refers to a small earthen pot used to store holy water, while “Chauth” means the fourth day a er the full moon in the Hindu lunisolar calendar, which is when the fast is observed. Origins can be traced back to ancient Hindu scriptures and legends.
Legend of Queen Veeravati:
Queen Veeravati observed a strict fast on Karwa Chauth for the well-being of her husband, impressing the gods, who granted her husband’s life back. Draupadi, the wife of the Pandavas, observed the fast of Karwa Chauth for the prosperity and wellbeing of her husbands, exemplifying wifely devotion in Hindu culture.1
Rituals and Practices
1 “When is Karwa Chauth in 2023? Story, History, Signi$cance, Importance and all you need to know,” Times of India, November 1, 2023, http://timeso$ndia. indiatimes.com/life-style/events/when-is-karwa-chauth-in-2023-story-historysigni$cance-importance-and-all-you-need-to-know/articleshow/104826150.cms, accessed March 5, 2024.
1. Begins early in the morning with the consumption of “Sargi,” a pre-dawn meal.
2. Day-long fast from food and water until sighting the moon in the evening.
3. Activities include decorating hands with henna, dressing up in traditional attire, and preparing for the evening rituals.
4. Evening puja dedicated to the well-being and longevity of husbands, involving worship of the moon and breaking the fast with husbands’ help.
5. Followed by a festive meal with delicious dishes and sweets.
Ontological Critique
Signi$cance and Modern Evolution
I. Symbolizes the deep bond between husband and wife and the sacri$ces wives are willing to make for their husbands’ well-being.
II. Strengthens family ties and community bonds, with women coming together to celebrate and support each other during the fast.
III. Has gained popularity beyond its traditional regions and evolved with modern interpretations and practices, becoming more inclusive and relevant in today’s context.
Why Does Mohini Celebreate Karva Chauth?
1. To Please Her Husband:
One of the primary reasons behind Mohini’s participation in Karwa Chauth is her desire to demonstrate love and respect for her husband. In traditional Hindu families, Karwa Chauth is considered a way for wives to show their devotion and commitment to their husbands. By observing this ritual, Mohini aims to maintain harmony in her marital relationship and ful$ll the expectations placed on her as a wife.
Despite her Christian beliefs, Mohini’s adherence to this practice re%ects her understanding of the importance of cultural traditions in strengthening marital bonds. She may view Karwa Chauth as an opportunity to express her love for her husband in a culturally meaningful way, even though it con%icts with her religious convictions.
2. Family Pressure:
Another signi$cant factor in%uencing Mohini’s decision to observe Karwa Chauth is the pressure from her family, especially her in-laws, who hold traditional beliefs regarding the ritual’s signi$cance. In many Indian families, Karwa Chauth is not just a religious observance but also a symbol of family unity and tradition. Mohini may feel compelled to conform to this practice to avoid con%ict with her in-laws and to maintain family harmony.
e fear of social ostracization may also play a role in Mohini’s decision. In traditional Indian society, women who do not observe Karwa Chauth may face criticism and judgment from their community. By participating in the ritual, Mohini may seek to avoid being perceived as neglectful or uncaring towards her husband, thus ful$lling societal expectations placed on married women.
3. Respect for Family Culture:
As a new member of her husband’s family, Mohini may feel a strong sense of obligation to respect and uphold their cultural traditions, including Karwa Chauth. For Mohini, participating
274 Pradeep in this ritual may be a way of integrating into her new family and honoring their heritage. Mohini’s participation in Karwa Chauth can be seen as a form of cultural adaptation, where she is willing to temporarily set aside her religious beliefs to respect and honor her husband’s and in-laws’ traditions. is willingness to embrace her husband’s culture demonstrates her commitment to her marital relationship and her desire to create a harmonious family environment.
4. For Fellowship:
Additionally, Mohini’s participation in Karwa Chauth may provide her with a sense of belonging and camaraderie with other women in her community who observe the ritual. e shared experience of fasting and praying for their husbands creates a bond among women, reinforcing the cultural signi$cance of the practice.
By participating in Karwa Chauth, Mohini may feel connected to her community and $nd support among other women facing similar cultural and religious dilemmas. is sense of fellowship and solidarity can be a powerful motivator for Mohini to observe the ritual, despite its con%icts with her Christian beliefs.
Con!icting Advice From Christians
Mohini’s decision to observe Karwa Chauth, a Hindu ritual, raises signi$cant questions about cultural and religious identity, particularly in the context of the Christian community. Her choice re%ects broader debates within Christianity regarding engagement with non-Christian practices.
1. Tension between Cultural Traditions and Religious Convictions
Concerns about Syncretism: Some Christians view participation in Karwa Chauth as potentially leading to syncretism, the blending of di!erent religious beliefs or practices. ey argue that such participation may compromise one’s Christian identity, con%icting with biblical teachings.
Views among Christians
Pagan Practice: Some Christians see Karwa Chauth as a pagan practice con%icting with Christian values, especially regarding exclusive worship of God.
Cultural Honor: Others advocate for a more nuanced approach, viewing participation as a way to honor and show love and respect to one’s spouse without compromising Christian faith.
Critical Evaluation
Foundational Principles: Love, respect, and honoring one’s spouse are seen as foundational biblical principles supporting participation in cultural practices like Karwa Chauth.
Building Bridges: Engaging in such practices is viewed as a way to build bridges with non-Christian family members and demonstrate the compatibility of Christian faith with diverse cultural expressions.
Guiding Factors for Mohini: Mohini must carefully weigh the advice she receives, considering the implications on her faith, her relationship with her husband, and her witness to others.
Decision-making Process: Her choice to observe or abstain from Karwa Chauth should be guided by her understanding of Christian teachings and her conscience, while also considering the cultural context in which she lives.
Deeply Ingrained Cultural Tradition: In traditional Hindu societies, Karwa Chauth is not just a religious observance but a cultural tradition symbolizing a woman’s love and commitment to her husband.
Social Pressure to Conform: Women who do not participate in Karwa Chauth are o en viewed with suspicion and labeled as neglectful wives, leading to social criticism and ostracization.
Community Perception: Participation in Karwa Chauth is seen as a test of a woman’s love and devotion, and those who do not conform are judged harshly, impacting their standing in the community.
Impact on Relationships: Mohini’s decision not to observe Karwa Chauth may strain her relationships within her family and community, as her choice goes against their expectations and beliefs.
Common
Biblical emes
Faith: Faith is a central theme in both Karwa Chauth and Christian teachings. In the Karwa Chauth festival, married Hindu women fast from sunrise to moonrise, praying for the well-being and longevity of their husbands. is act of fasting is an expression of faith in the belief that their prayers will be answered and their husbands will be blessed with long life. Similarly, in Christian teachings, faith is emphasized as a key aspect of the Christian life. e Bible teaches that faith is the assurance of things hoped for, the conviction of things not seen (Hebrews 11:1). Both traditions emphasize the importance of faith in God and the belief that prayers o!ered in faith will be answered.
Love: Love is another common theme in both Karwa Chauth and Christian teachings. In the Karwa Chauth festival,
the fasting and prayers of married women are an expression of their love and devotion to their husbands. ey are willing to undergo hardship and sacri$ce for the well-being of their spouses, demonstrating the depth of their love. Similarly, in Christian teachings, love is emphasized as the greatest commandment. Jesus taught his followers to love one another as he loved them (John 13:34-35), sacri$cially and unconditionally. Both traditions teach the importance of sel%ess love and devotion to others.
Sacri ce: Sacri$ce is a fundamental aspect of both Karwa Chauth and Christian teachings. In the Karwa Chauth festival, married women fast for the entire day, abstaining from food and water, as a form of sacri$ce. is act of self-denial is seen as a way to demonstrate their love and devotion to their husbands. Similarly, in Christian teachings, sacri$ce is central to the Christian faith. Jesus Christ is seen as the ultimate sacri$ce for humanity, dying on the cross to atone for the sins of the world. Christians are called to take up their cross and follow Jesus, willing to sacri$ce their own desires and comforts for the sake of others (Matthew 16:24).
Community: Community is an important aspect of both Karwa Chauth and Christian teachings. In the Karwa Chauth festival, married women come together to fast and pray, forming a supportive community of women who share a common goal. ey encourage and support each other throughout the day, strengthening their bonds of friendship and sisterhood. Similarly, in Christian teachings, community is emphasized as an essential part of the Christian life. Christians are encouraged to gather together regularly for worship, fellowship, and mutual support (Hebrews 10:25). e church is seen as the body of Christ, with each member playing a vital role in the community.
Celebration of Life: Finally, both Karwa Chauth and Christian teachings celebrate the gi of life. In the Karwa Chauth festival, married women pray for the long life of their husbands, celebrating the blessing of their marriage and the life they share
278 Pradeep together. Similarly, in Christian teachings, life is seen as a precious gi from God, to be cherished and celebrated. Christians are called to live their lives in a way that honors God and re%ects his love and grace (1 Corinthians 10:31). Both traditions emphasize the importance of gratitude for the gi of life and the need to live in a way that brings glory to God.
Missiological Transformation
Paul G. Hiebert in his article on Critical Contextualization says, is wholesale rejection of old customs, however, creates several serious theological and missiological problems. First, it is based on the implicit assumption that the cultural forms of western Christians are themselves Christian. An uncritical rejection of other cultures as pagan is generally tied to an uncritical acceptance of our own cultural expressions as biblical. Consequently, we are in danger of losing a prophetic stance that calls our own culture into judgment, and of making Christianity a civil religion that justi$es our cultural ways.2 is highlights a critical issue In contemporary Christianity, particularly in its interaction with non-Western cultures. It warns against the wholesale rejection of old customs in favor of Western cultural forms, cautioning that this approach risks assuming Western cultural expressions as inherently Christian. is mindset not only overlooks the value of diverse cultural expressions but also fails to critically evaluate Western cultural practices through the lens of Christianity.
It prompts us to consider the dangers of cultural Imperialism within Christianity, where one culture’s practices are deemed superior or more authentic than others. It calls for
2 Hiebert, Paul G. “Critical Contextualization.” Missiology (July 1984): 288. AtlaSerials, Religion Collection.
a more nuanced approach, one that recognizes the richness of cultural diversity and the need to critically evaluate all cultural expressions, including those of the dominant culture.
Moreover, the excerpt challenges Christians to adopt a prophetic stance that calls their own culture into question. It suggests that true Christianity should not be a mere re%ection of cultural norms but rather a transformative force that challenges and critiques all cultural expressions, including one’s own.
Critical contextualization is a key concept in the discussion of whether a Christian can celebrate Karwa Chauth, a Hindu ritual. is approach seeks to understand cultural practices within their social, historical, and religious contexts, rather than dismissing them outright based on religious di!erences. In the case of Karwa Chauth, objections to Christian participation o en revolve around concerns about idolatry or compromising Christian beliefs. However, a deeper examination reveals that the rituals and stories associated with Karwa Chauth hold a cultural signi$cance that transcends strict religious adherence.
At its core, Karwa Chauth celebrates the strength of the marital bond and the deep love and commitment between a husband and wife. ese values are universal and resonate with many cultures and religions, including Christianity. In Christian marital vows, couples pledge love, respect, and support for each other through life’s challenges, echoing the sentiments of Karwa Chauth. e Bible also emphasizes the importance of love within marriage, with passages like Ephesians 5:21-33 highlighting the sacri$cial love between Christ and the church as a model for marital love.
Furthermore, the idea that love is the ful$llment of the law, as stated in Romans 13:8-10, is relevant in the context of Karwa Chauth. While the ritual may not have its origins in Christian scripture, its emphasis on love aligns with the fundamental Christian principle of loving one another. In this light, Mohini’s
desire to express her love for her husband through a cultural practice like Karwa Chauth, even if adapted to align with her Christian beliefs, does not necessarily contradict Christian teachings.
Missiology, the practice of spreading the Christian faith, plays a crucial role in how Christians engage with cultural practices like Karwa Chauth. In this context, missiology encourages $nding meaningful ways to express Christian values within existing traditions, allowing individuals like Mohini to maintain their cultural identity while living out their Christian faith.
One way Mohini can approach Karwa Chauth from a missiological perspective is by leveraging the ritual as an opportunity to express her love and dedication to her husband in a way that aligns with her Christian beliefs. Rather than viewing Karwa Chauth as a religious observance that con%icts with Christianity, she can see it as a cultural expression of love and commitment that can be adapted to re%ect her Christian faith.
To adapt the tradition of Karwa Chauth, Mohini can participate in its core aspects, such as fasting and expressing love and dedication to her husband, while modifying certain elements to align with her Christian beliefs. For example, instead of o!ering prayers to Hindu deities for her husband’s well-being, she can o!er personal Christian prayers, seeking God’s blessings and protection for her husband. is adaptation allows Mohini to maintain the essence of Karwa Chauth while incorporating her Christian faith into the practice.
Another adaptation Mohini can make is in the way she breaks her fast. Instead of following traditional customs associated with Karwa Chauth, such as breaking the fast with speci$c foods or rituals, she can use this time as a moment of re%ection and gratitude for the life she shares with her husband. is shi in focus allows her to incorporate Christian values of gratitude and re%ection into the practice of Karwa Chauth.
As I re%ect on Mrs. Mohini’s situation, I am struck by the complex intersection of cultural practices and religious identity that she navigates. As a Hindu convert to Christianity, Mohini’s decision to observe Karwa Chauth presents a profound challenge, as she seeks to honor her family’s traditions while remaining true to her Christian faith. Her story highlights the tensions and dilemmas faced by individuals who straddle multiple cultural and religious frameworks, illustrating the complexities of cultural diversity and religious pluralism in our world today.
Mohini’s decision to participate in Karwa Chauth can be viewed as an act of love and respect for her husband, demonstrating her commitment to her marital relationship and her desire to maintain harmony within her family. However, her choice also raises questions about the compatibility of cultural practices like Karwa Chauth with Christian beliefs. As Christians, we are called to worship and serve God alone, and participating in rituals that involve prayers to other deities can be seen as con%icting with this fundamental principle.
At the same time, Mohini’s story challenges us to consider the importance of cultural sensitivity and understanding in our interactions with others. It reminds us that people’s beliefs and practices are deeply rooted in their cultural heritage and personal experiences, and that we should approach these di!erences with respect and empathy.
As I stand in solidarity with Mrs. Mohini, I a&rm her right to make choices that re%ect her values and beliefs, even if they di!er from my own. I recognize the complexity of her situation and the courage it takes to navigate between con%icting cultural and religious expectations. My hope is that by sharing her story, we can foster greater understanding and appreciation for the diverse ways in which people express their faith and identity.
In conclusion, Mrs. Mohini’s case serves as a compelling example of the complex interplay between cultural practices and religious identity. Her situation highlights the challenges faced by individuals who navigate between di!erent cultural and religious frameworks, and the need for a nuanced understanding of these dynamics in pluralistic societies.
e pressure she faces from her family and society regarding the observance of Karwa Chauth re%ects the deeply ingrained cultural signi$cance of this ritual, particularly in traditional Hindu communities. is pressure creates a sense of obligation for Mrs. Mohini, as she seeks to respect her family’s traditions and maintain harmony within her marital relationship.
Furthermore, the con%icting advice from Christians adds another layer of complexity to Mrs. Mohini’s dilemma. While some Christians may advise her against participating in the ritual due to concerns about idolatry or compromising her Christian identity, others may advocate for a more nuanced approach that emphasizes cultural sensitivity and understanding.
In navigating these challenges, Mrs. Mohini’s case accentuates the importance of critical contextualization and missiological application. By critically analyzing cultural practices like Karwa Chauth, individuals can $nd meaningful ways to express their religious beliefs within their cultural traditions. Likewise, missiology encourages $nding meaningful expressions of Christian values within existing cultural practices, allowing individuals like Mrs. Mohini to maintain their cultural identity while living out their Christian faith.
Hiebert, Paul G. “Critical Contextualization.” Missiology (July 1984): 288. AtlaSerials, Religion Collection.
When is Karwa Chauth in 2023? Story, History, Signi$cance, Importance and all you need to know.” Times of India. November 1, 2023. http://timeso$ndia.indiatimes.com/ life-style/events/when-is-karwa-chauth-in-2023-storyhistory-significance-importance-and-all-you-need-toknow/articleshow/104826150.cms. Accessed March 5, 2024.
Chapter 14
Malevolent Spirits and Illness in India
By: K.R.
Introduction
In the place called “Phuba Khuman Village” (Phyabuh), there lives a small family which consists of three members. Father by the name “Shepou” was a well-known person among the villagers, a mother by the name “Sheveine” acted as the housewife, and a son by the name “Sapuh”. !ey belong to a high social status family background in their community. !e villagers give so much respect because of the role that Shepou plays in the village.
!e misfortune among the family began with the sudden illness of their only son (Sapuh). !e village is located in a remote place where modern ideas and technologies were not being well introduced. !e illness of their son occurred between the most important season of the year which was the time of cultivation and the preparation for the seed sowing entry of the month. !e illness of their son (Sapuh), symbolized favoritism or a bad omen to their family for that year. !e illness of their son began to deteriorate into a serious picture of their son. !e worries of his parents grew strong and fearful because he was the only son that they could bear in their family. In the meantime, they were also worried about their yearly demands and activities such as the preparation of seed sowing for their daily sustainable living. His parents couldn’t diagnose their son’s illness and there was no doctor in the village who was there to examine Sapuh’s illness. !e transportation connection was not available in the form of easy access to the place where the doctor could examine their son’s illness or the cause of his sickness. All the villagers begin to look into their family from a di erent perspective. Some think that it might have happened because of their family’s
curse of sin which their forefathers had done. Others observe, that their son might have met an evil spirit somewhere on his way back home. Illnesses in those days are mostly linked to malevolent spirits which they believe may have touched the patient while in a eld or forest and taken as a serious illness that required a ritual to be performed.
!e gospel of Christ has been introduced to their village through their neighboring villages. But, the practices of ritual are being continued. !e gospel was shared in a very shallow manner and not yet deeply rooted in their heart by most of their villagers. His parents decided to go and consult the village soothsayer or sorcerer (teingumai), who or what is the cause of their son’s illness. If Sapuh’s had met an evil spirit they were to seek the location where he had met that very spirit. What are the rituals required to cure their son’s illness? !e sorcerer told them that their son had met an evil on his way back home from the eld. !e spirit is the “Phyarei Rah”, he told them to go and do a ritual in that very place by taking an unblemished rooster to satisfy the spirit’s demands. Out of fear his parents obeyed what the sorcerer had told them and o ered a sacri ce of a rooster to the malevolent spirits who had touched their son.
Sapuh began to question himself in his mind with doubtful thoughts, why do we still practice a sacri ce of our illness to the malevolent spirits, as we considered ourselves as a follower of Christ? If we continue this ritual of sacri cing to a malevolent spirit as the cause of my illness and with fear giving reverend to him rather than to Christ who is the source of our life?
Phenomenological Study
e Poumai Naga tribe is a very old tribe with its people living in and around the trans-border states of Manipur and Nagaland. ey are believed to be the descendants of the great
Malevolent Spirits and Illness in India | 287 patriarch “Pou”, who was one of the $rst settlers at Makhra$i (the present Makhel). It’s one of the most signi$cant places for the brotherhood of the Tenymis Nagas Tribe. It’s a place where our ancestral separation or push outwards to $nd new habitation place as some view because of the increase of the population.
e Poumai Naga tribe is classi$ed under the Mongolian race based on their physical, and cultural a&nity, language, and route of migration, according to di!erent renowned scholars. eir physical stature is predominantly medium, skin color is light yellowish brown to dark brown, head hair form varies from stretched to deep wavy and black to dark brown, the color of the eye is light brown to dark, epicanthic eye-fold is masked, the axis of the eye is an oblique and opening slit-like, the cheek is prominent, lip sizes are moderately thin to thick.
e tribesmen are God-loving as well as God-fearing and believe in the existence of Supreme deities both benevolent and malevolent who control the universe. eir religious life is entwined with paying due honor and respect by making o!erings, sacri$ces, etc. apart from observing rituals and ceremonies which are oriented towards appeasement to these deities. It is also a customary practice to o!er morsels of food or libation of drinks before consuming them wherever they may be.
Social Organisation and Cultural Features
Poumai villages tend to be autonomous and self-rule is usually through a council of elder men. Each village has between 2-6 khels or neighborhoods where a particular clan dwells. Within each village, the clans form the governing structure, with one or two representatives from each khel sitting on the village council. During the time of the emergence of these tales and stories each Poumai village used to have dormitories: Khekizii where young men slept together and Loukizii for young women. e boys’
dormitory (morung is a common name given to it) served as the means of education where boys learned warrior skills, leadership, teamwork, and traditional stories, songs, and dances. Similarly, young women in the Loukizii learned appropriate skills for their role in society.1
In the society, there were also people who were very rich and tried to get social recognition and approval through sponsoring Feasts of Merit. rough this act, they obtained a status in society and were considered blessed, wise and powerful.
Rituals
A ritual is ordinarily understood as a religious or solemn ceremony involving a series of actions performed according to a prescribed order. Ritualistic actions are performed in the belief that it will produce an e!ect; hence every action will have a meaning and a purpose.
e life of Poumais moves along with agricultural activities. eir lives depend on agricultural produce. And for good crops, they depend on the timely arrival of the monsoon and good weather conditions. e di!erent agricultural festivals celebrated by the Poumai Nagas indicate the ushering of di!erent seasons of the lunar calendar. ese festivals are replete with rituals, practices, and celebrations. Being an animistic religion, the rituals and the symbols played a pivotal role in beliefs and practices. In the Poumai Naga performance of rituals and celebrations of festivals, they form part of the cultural ethos of the people.2
Seed Sowing Season
1 Paul Punii, Poumai Naga Folktales (Guwahati: North Eastern Social Research Centre, 2017), 6-7.
2 ----------, “ e Poumai Naga Agricultural Festivals and Rituals vis-à-vis Folklores: Covid-19 Pandemic Application”, Salesian Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, vol. XI, no.2 (Dec. 2020): 77-105, 10.51818/SJHSS.11.2020.77-105.
Malevolent Spirits and Illness in India | 289 e ritual for sowing of paddy seeds is observed with great care and sacredness in all villages. e ritual begins on the 2nd week of the lunar calendar of Roupa (March). is is the $rst day on which animals are killed in preparation for the celebration. On this day daughters who are married to men from other villages and relatives and guests arrive at the village for the celebration. On the Second day, Chidzii (dedication of prayer to the hime deity) ritual prayer and o!ering libation to the house deity is performed. It is a day of Genna (a day of ritual observation and refraining from work). e father of the family performs this ritual near the riiphi-the central pillar, which is also the altar of the house fasts till noon. Wine is poured into the plantain cup and o!ered to deity Grandma Tro and Grandpa Hralu, saying “Ra paipaoh, nehai zaoprai vei sohlou-o. e priest or chief of the village who o&ciates the ritual collects two shoots of Mousii (rhus glabra plant) and a handful of Laipa (%ower plant) and places them together in the $eld. e Mousii and Laipa are symbolically chosen for the abundant yield of their seeds. e village chief would then pray thus, Oh Ramai, e-rimai thou panou, moushi, eh laipapah kanou mache lou-o, eh panou cha veilou-o which means, “O God, may our rice grow like that of the seeds of Mousii (rhus glabra plant) and Laipa and may it yield a good harvest.” A er the performance of this ritual, the people may start to plant various crops and sow paddy.3
Ontological Critique
e possible root cause is fear of losing their son which comes from the malevolent spirit intervention, and wariness for their cultivational season that’s going to begin. If someone is ill in their family it’s a taboo to go to work and perform their duties. Poumai Naga believes that before executing any works,
3 Punii, e Poumai Naga Agricultural Festivals and Rituals vis-à-vis Folklores: Covid-19 Pandemic Application”.
they invoke the Deity for its blessing, believing that he is always with them wherever they are. Until their son’s illness is cured, they cannot perform the ritual together with their communities.4 e root issues revolve around the tension between traditional beliefs and the introduction of Christianity:
1. Religious Syncretism: e story depicts a community grappling with the introduction of Christianity while still adhering to traditional animistic beliefs and rituals. is syncretism raises questions about the coexistence of di!erent belief systems and the challenges of fully embracing Christianity while still holding onto ancestral practices.
2. Cultural Stigma and Misconceptions: e villagers’ attribution of illness to malevolent spirits re%ects deeply ingrained cultural beliefs and superstitions. e stigma surrounding illness and the tendency to attribute it to supernatural causes hinder e!orts to address health issues e!ectively and promote evidencebased healthcare practices.
3. Doubt and Spiritual Con%ict: Sapuh’s internal struggle with doubt and con%icting beliefs re%ects the psychological and spiritual turmoil experienced by individuals navigating the transition between traditional beliefs and Christianity. His questioning of the e&cacy of ritual sacri$ces and his desire to align his faith with his understanding of Christ’s teachings illustrate the complexity of faith and belief systems in a changing cultural landscape.
So, the issues require a multifaceted approach that acknowledges the intersectionality of religious, cultural, and
4 R Haba Pao, !e Poumai Naga Folk Songs (Imphal: Jain Book Shop Publications, 2021), 7-8.
socioeconomic. It involves promoting access to modern medical care, challenging harmful superstitions through education and community outreach, fostering dialogue and understanding between di!erent religious communities, and empowering individuals to reconcile their faith with their evolving beliefs and values.
e Characteristics of all four exhibited that they align with beliefs and practices considered incompatible with the Christian faith, including reliance on sorcery, fear, and anxiety, compliance with deceptive practices, and failure to discern spiritual truth. ese behaviors highlight a need for deeper understanding and adherence to Christian teachings and principles.
Sapuh’s Parents:
1. Reliance on Sorcery: Shepou’s decision to consult the village sorcerer rather than seeking medical assistance or relying on prayer re%ects a reliance on sorcery and superstition, which is incompatible with Christian teachings (Deuteronomy 18:10-12, Galatians 5:19-21).
2. Fear and Anxiety: Shepou’s strong worries and fears about his son’s illness, to the extent of seeking supernatural solutions, indicate a lack of trust in God’s providence and sovereignty (Matthew 6:25-34, Philippians 4:6-7).
3. Compliance with Sorcery: Like Shepou, Sheveine also complies with the sorcerer’s instructions to perform rituals to appease malevolent spirits, rather than relying on God for healing and protection (James 4:7-8, 1 Peter 5:8-9).
4. Failure to Discern Truth: Sheveine’s acceptance of the sorcerer’s diagnosis without questioning or seeking alternative perspectives demonstrates a failure to
discern truth and exercise spiritual discernment (1 John 4:1, Matthew 7:15-20).
Sorcerer:
1. Engagement in Sorcery: e sorcerer’s role in diagnosing and prescribing rituals for Sapuh’s illness re%ects engagement in sorcery and divination, which are condemned in Christian teachings. Acts 8:9-24, this passage recounts the encounter between Philip the Evangelist and Simon the Sorcerer in Samaria, o!ering signi$cant missiological insights. Simon, a sorcerer, held in%uence and admiration among the people through his magical practices. However, when Philip arrived preaching the gospel and performing miracles in Jesus’ name, Simon witnessed a power greater than his own. e response of the Samaritans to Philip’s message underscores the potency of the gospel to challenge existing spiritual paradigms and draw people to faith. Simon’s attempt to purchase the ability to impart the Holy Spirit reveals a fundamental misunderstanding of God’s grace and the role of spiritual gi s. is encounter serves as a cautionary tale about the dangers of syncretism and the manipulation of spiritual experiences for personal gain, emphasizing the need for discernment and sincerity in embracing the gospel.5
2. Deception and Manipulation: e sorcerer’s exploitation of the family’s fears and vulnerability to manipulate them into performing rituals for supposed spiritual healing indicates deceitful and manipulative behavior, contrary to Christian ethics (Ephesians 5:11, Colossians 2:8).
5 William A. Dyrness, “Contextualization: Lessons from Acts,” International Bulletin of Mission Research 29, no. 1 (2005): 26-33.
1. Doubtful oughts and Questioning: While Sapuh begins to question the validity of the ritual sacri$ces to malevolent spirits, his initial compliance with his parents’ decisions re%ects a lack of conviction and discernment in his faith (James 1:6-8, Romans 14:23).
2. Fear and Reverence for Spirits: Like his parents, Sapuh demonstrates fear and reverence for malevolent spirits, rather than trusting in God’s protection and sovereignty over his life (Psalm 56:3, Isaiah 41:10).
Poumai taboos (Nue) and shame (Hraongu) related to sickness:
i. Neu (Taboo): e word Neu (taboo) can be considered as God’s dictate that concerns with dos and don’ts in one’s life. In the fear of God, abstaining from doing certain work, speaking or habits including food and drink can be described as taboo.
ii. Hraongu (Shame): e word Hraongu means refraining from doing certain things, avoiding certain food habits, or going to certain places due to a sense of shame or feeling of obligation.
iii. Neu, Hraongu, and Tsiichi: ese terms have been in existence since time immemorial and were manifested by the inspiration of the spirit to our fore-parents, seers, people with consulted wisdom, and godly people, Neu, Hraongu, and Tsiichi serve as a testament/law between God and human beings. Such laws were passed down from generation to generation. Rahba souneuse (literally means it’s a taboo to o!end God) is considered to be God’s word that was existence from the beginning. Anyone who does not properly observe Neu and Hraongu faces the following consequences:
1. No prosperity (Hahkhou tobase)
2. ey will not be able to conceive a baby (Teunah salou base)
3. May be sickly (Rah-rai p ise)
4. May become mad (Vayu vedaose)
5. May see physical deformity (Shovaiyu vedaose)
6. May have a short life (Hriiziise)
7. May face unnatural death (!aisii veimoa thaihose)
8. Even the death body stinks soon (Thaiyu koute-ah thaiphao kaingise)
9. ere will be defects in birth in their family and their animals (Teunah li hrii-ah khao marii li tou-ah shovai-a baise).
Even the o!spring and animals may have deformity. Such people are considered cursed kindred, others may isolate them at marriageable times. Before the arrival of education and Christianity in our land. Neu, Hraongu, and Tsiichi guided the society like the written constitutions and biblical teachings for the people. We $nd quite several similarities between the Jewish culture and our society.6
ese are some of the taboos (Neu) and proverbs (Tsiichi) when someone is ill. ese rituals are done like how the Israelites had to follow the commandment law given by God through Moses for their daily lives. ere is a saying, “ ose who strictly follow Naaneu are the ones who achieve great things in life.” e numbers on Neu and Tsiichi refer to the location of the proverbs mentioned by the author of the original researchers. ey are as follows:7
6 Ngaopunii Rao, Poumai Neu Ea Tsiichi Bvii (Poumai Taboos and Proverbs with English Translation), Senapati: PCD, 2022, 14-15.
7 is numbers refers to the location of the taboos and proverbs in the original research.
Sounouli souh-a veimo ea shou siilou moyu thaizii teingumai hi ho noulaise (When a person falls ill and the sickness could not be diagnosed, one should then consult teingumai “Sorcerer”): In Christianity, seeking guidance from sorcerers or engaging in occult practices is generally discouraged, as it may involve interactions with spiritual forces that are not aligned with God’s will. Instead, Christians are encouraged to seek healing and guidance through prayer, faith, and the counsel of trusted spiritual leaders. e Bible warns against consulting mediums or sorcerers in passages such as Leviticus 19:31, which states, “Do not turn to mediums or seek out spiritists, for you will be de$led by them. I am the Lord your God” (New International Version).8 Similarly, Isaiah 8:19 cautions, “When someone tells you to consult mediums and spiritists, who whisper and mutter, should not a people inquire of their God? Why consult the dead on behalf of the living?”9
• Soubaah phoe tea Cho chaahayu nou, da-a naaneu soulaise (An unblemished cow is slaughtered for soubaah phoe rite).
• Hou poho romii hinou, phalaise (Chicken should be released at Romii “the main village gate”).
• Houjiih poho romii hinou, Ziihngu khailaise ( e Rooster should be killed at the village main gate).
• Luhlia hayu hukai nou duloua, poho romii hinou shakhai laise (A piece of metal should be kept at the village main gate).
• Boh veishoyu Pai-Lou Khailoua, poho romii hinou shakhai laise (A plant called Pailou which is a kind of smallish plant should be plucked and kept at the village main gate).
8 Leviticus 19:31, New International Version (NIV)
9 Isaiah 8:19, New International Version (NIV)
• Haibiia rahnaa souyuki, naa souyu paopu hai jopgiipuo loneuse (During this time, the one who perform this rite should abstain from sleeping with his wife).
• Sounou souh-a rako vemore tea ho, rako lahri-a dakhai tayuthai, thailo reive neuse (A er calling the spirit of the patient to come back, it is taboo for the one who had called the spirit to look back).
• Souh-a buyu nahi ne rako vere tea ve chalou mokoute, ludu hi maiye chaneuse ( e one who called the spirit to come back home should not talk to anyone till he/she reaches and talk to the patient).
• Teingu maihi veyu hai, bahsa-a veyu zhaimose (While coming to consult the shaman/medium, it is against the norm to come empty handed).
• Teingu maiye koniih neuse (It is taboo to make fun of shaman/ medium/spirit man).10
Existing ritual:
As being brought up in the Animistic religious belief that had passed down from generation to generation in the form of oral transmission. e ritual that can be seen within the community is the practice of consulting the soothsayer or sorcerer for any kind of inquiry that’s needed for the information. e inquiry was not only based on the ill person but, even on the means of tracing the thief of the property or goods of a particular person. e people do whatever the soothsayer or witch tells them to do.
From a missiological perspective, addressing such practices involves understanding the cultural context and providing alternative spiritual frameworks that align with Christian teachings. One missiological response could involve
10 Rao, Poumai Neu Ea Tsiichi Bvii (Poumai Taboos and Proverbs with English Translation, 118-119.
contextualizing the Christian message within the cultural context while emphasizing the transformative power of the gospel. Missionaries and Christian leaders can engage with the community respectfully, acknowledging their cultural practices while introducing biblical teachings that promote reliance on God rather than on occult practices. is approach aims to gradually shi the community’s reliance away from soothsayers and towards faith in God’s guidance and providence.11
Additionally, providing education and empowerment initiatives can help individuals within the community develop critical thinking skills and access to resources, reducing their dependency on soothsayers for guidance. By o!ering practical assistance and support, missionaries can demonstrate the tangible bene$ts of aligning with Christian principles while addressing the underlying social and economic factors that contribute to reliance on occult practices.
Function of the ritual
e community in question places signi$cant emphasis on rituals, viewing adherence to these rituals, known as Naaneu, as essential for achieving success and prosperity in life. is belief underscores the deep-rooted cultural signi$cance of rituals within their society. e saying “ ose who strictly follow Naaneu are the ones who achieve great things in life” re%ects the communal understanding that adherence to these rituals is not merely a tradition but a pathway to success and ful$llment.
In the face of adversity, such as the illness of their son and the importance of the upcoming season for cultivation, the family experiences profound anxiety. eir concerns extend beyond the physical well-being of their son to encompass broader existential worries about their livelihood and sustenance. e intertwining
11 Paul G. Hiebert, “ e Flaw of the Excluded Middle,” Missiology: An International Review 10, no. 3 (1982): 311-318.
298 K.R. of personal and communal well-being with adherence to rituals re%ects the deeply ingrained nature of these practices within the fabric of their society.
Moreover, the community’s reverence for taboos (Neu) and the fear of shame (Hraongu) further highlights the signi$cance of these cultural norms. ese taboos and notions of shame serve as a form of societal regulation, akin to a secular constitution, shaping behavior and social interactions. In the absence of written documentation, these cultural norms are transmitted orally across generations, akin to oral scriptures. Elderly members of the community play a crucial role in preserving and transmitting these traditions through storytelling and oral narratives, thereby ensuring their continuity and relevance.
Overall, the community’s reliance on rituals, taboos, and oral traditions re%ects a deep-seated commitment to cultural preservation and communal identity. ese practices not only provide a framework for navigating life’s challenges but also serve as repositories of wisdom and collective memory, shaping the community’s understanding of the world and their place within it.
Critical Evaluation
In the Bible, illness is a recurring theme, and it o!ers guidance on how individuals and communities can respond to sickness. Here are some key teachings and principles:
1. Prayer for Healing: e Bible encourages believers to pray for healing for themselves and others. James 5:1415 advises, “Is anyone among you sick? Let them call the elders of the church to pray over them and anoint them with oil in the name of the Lord. And the prayer
o!ered in faith will make the sick person well; the Lord will raise them up.”12
2. Faith and Trust in God’s Will: While praying for healing, it’s essential to trust in God’s sovereignty and will. Jesus demonstrated this trust in Gethsemane when he prayed, “Yet not as I will, but as you will” (Matthew 26:39). Acceptance of God’s plan, even in the face of illness, is a vital aspect of faith.13
3. Comfort and Support: e Bible teaches compassion and care for the sick. Galatians 6:2 encourages believers to “carry each other’s burdens,” including the burden of illness. Providing physical, emotional, and spiritual support to the sick is an expression of Christian love.14
4. Seeking Medical Help: While trusting in God’s power to heal, there is also room for seeking medical assistance. Luke, the physician, is mentioned several times in the New Testament, indicating that medical care is not contrary to faith (Colossians 4:14).15
Missiological Transformation
Bringing missiological transformation in response to illness involves integrating these biblical teachings into holistic approaches to healthcare and community well-being. is can include:
1. Medical Missions: Engaging in medical missions to provide healthcare services to underserved communities, combining physical healing with spiritual ministry.
12 James 5:14-15.
13 Matt. 26:39
14 Gal. 6:2.
15 Col. 4:14
2. Health Education: O!ering health education programs within communities to promote preventive healthcare practices and raise awareness about common illnesses and their management.
3. Pastoral Care: Equipping church leaders with skills in pastoral care to provide spiritual support and guidance to the sick and their families, integrating prayer, scripture, and counseling.
4. Community Outreach: Implementing community outreach programs that address not only physical health but also social determinants of health, such as poverty, education, and access to clean water and sanitation.
By integrating biblical principles of care and compassion with practical initiatives in healthcare and community development, missiological transformation can contribute to holistic well-being and the advancement of God’s kingdom.16
Conclusion
In conclusion, the narratives and teachings found in the Bible provide valuable insights into how individuals and communities should approach illness and su!ering. While the Old Testament contains rituals and practices speci$c to the cultural and religious context of ancient Israel, Christians today approach illness with a blend of spiritual and practical responses guided by the teachings of Jesus Christ and the apostles.
e Bible encourages believers to pray for healing, seek medical assistance, support one another in times of sickness, and ultimately trust in God’s plan. ese principles emphasize the
16 John Roxborogh, “Missiology a er “Mission”?” International Bulletin of Missionary Research, vol. 38, no. 3 (2014): 120-124.
importance of both spiritual faith and practical care in addressing illness and promoting holistic well-being.
In the context of missiological transformation, Christians are called to integrate these principles into their mission work by o!ering holistic care that addresses both the spiritual and physical needs of individuals and communities. is involves cultural sensitivity, empowerment through education and resources, and demonstrating God’s love through practical acts of service and compassion.
Dyrness, William A. “Contextualization: Lessons from Acts.” International Bulletin of Mission Research 29, no. 1 (2005): 26-33.
Hiebert, Paul G. “ e Flaw of the Excluded Middle.” Missiology: An International Review 10, no. 3 (1982): 311-318.
New International Version. Biblica, 2011.
Punii, Paul. Poumai Naga Folktales. Guwahati: North Eastern Social Research Centre, 2017.
----------. “ e Poumai Naga Agricultural Festivals and Rituals visà-vis Folklores: Covid-19 Pandemic Application.” Salesian Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences. Volume. XI, no.2 (Dec. 2020): 77-105. 10.51818/SJHSS.11.2020.77-105.
Pao, R Haba. !e Poumai Naga Folk Songs. Imphal: Jain Book Shop Publications, 2021.
Rao, Ngaopunii, Poumai Neu Ea Tsiichi Bvii (Poumai Taboos and Proverbs with English Translation), Senapati: PCD, 2022.
Roxborogh, John. “Missiology a er “Mission”?” International Bulletin of Missionary Research. Volume. 38, no. 3 (2014): 120-124.
Chapter 15
Child Marriage issues in Hyderabad
By: R.J.
Introduction
Child marriage refers to any formal marriage or informal union between a child under the age of 18 and an adult or another child (from Old French mariage “marriage; dowry”, from Latin maritaticum from Latin Maritatus past).
Biblical marriage, as described in the Bible, is a covenantal relationship between one man and one woman, established by God, with the purpose of companionship, unity, and mutual support. Biblical marriage is intended to re%ect the relationship between Christ and His Bride, the universal Church. we can begin to understand the meaning of marriage, its purposes, and its blessings. As children of God our identity, truth and world view are established by God because we recognize the He is the Creator and we are His created. We see this reality revealed in the very $rst verse in scripture.
Since God is the Creator, and we His creation, He is the one who de$nes what is true and just. We learn about this truth through His word, which guides our understanding of important topics like marriage, sex, life, work, and $nances. erefore, as believers, we rely on God’s word to form our worldview because we recognize His ultimate authority as the Creator.
A Hindu family has ve daughers and one son. For parents, it’s very hard to feed the children while parents are doing farminger work and work in the villages. !ey are sending their children to the Government schools for study. In their family, the third child is
beautiful. Her child name is Kavya, she is studying 7 class, she is a very good girl, and she helps her parents on Sunday and holiday times.
One day, a man from the village was going to work and he met this poor Man with his daughter. He startedr asking about Kavya. One day, he came to the Kavya home to aAsk Kavya’s Father if he will give Kavya to the man’s son Ravi, he is now 29 years old. When the man asks to take Kavya as his Daughter-in-law, then this poor man is so happy. He quickly accepted.
When Kavya’s marriage is complete, the man’s family is so happy.
Kavya is not happy: She obeyed her parents’ words but now she is not speaking any more to the parents. A few days later, Kavya is crying and afraid. She returns to her father’s home,
She shared her problems with her mother: the husband is beating her, he is drinking alcohol, and neither the father-in-law or mother-in-law are taking care or even helping. Kavya is carrying loads day and night, the is totally depressed both mentally and physically.
She is not strong. !ree days without food le her physically more weak. She could not able to speak since she is crying. A er a few months, Kavya’s husband and father-in-law came to call Kavya but Kavya is fearful and crying - she is not going back to the husband’s house. Kavya decided to divorce the husband and Kavya’s family is not happy because Kavya le a rich man’s family and now Kavya is bringing shame to her family. Kavay’s family is feeling shame in the society. Her parents are scolding Kavay that she doesn’t have know how to live a life from her family and from society people talking about Kavay,
Kavay does into a deep mentally depression. One day, she took poison to kill herimself since she decided to not to live in the world. When Kavya’s mother entered the house and saw Kavya unconscious, she rushed Kavya to the hospital.
In the hospital, she recovered and is out of danger. A few days later, Kavya returns home but she is not mentally well because she doesn’t have respect in her family and in the society
1 John 4:7 Beloved, let us love one another, for love is from God, and whoever loves has been born of God and knows God.
One day a pastor and his wife meet to the Kavya. !e pastor invited to Kavya to the Church but she is not accepted it since she is fearing to go church because she is belonging to a Hindu family. One day she feels ready to go church and she came inside of the church secretly. When the pastor and his wife saw Kavya, they were both happy and began praying for Kavya.
A few days later, Kavya’s family knows that she is going to the church. Her parents kick Kavya out of the house.
“We don’t need you!”the parents say. “Because of you, our family doesn’t even have respect.” Kavya does not leave the church and the pastor helps Kavya nancially. Kavya also acceptedr Christ has a personal saviourhiver. Kavya is a believer now in the church, leading a good life now but her family is still Hindu - they are not accepting Christ.
Jeremiah 29:11: For I know the plans I have for you, declares the Lord, plans for welfare and not for evil, to give you a future and a hope.
Phenomenological Study
In legal documents dealing with Christians, o en the terms Christian, Indian Christian, ‘Christian Convert’ and ‘Native Christian’ Christian, are used. is points to the many dilemmas that the law had to deal with as in colonial times, when churches. ere were problems both ways. On the one hand, Indian churches began to struggle for autonomy and were upset with the obtuseness displayed by British Church leaders regarding issues of caste, sex etc. on the other hand, there was a resistance to accepting Indian Church leaders by British soldiers and civilians. e question of which personal law should apply to Christians in India much has been written on the British system, even under the French, what laws applied to ‘native Christians’ was o en held to be their personal law. Native Christians were of two kinds-one, those who were Christians prior to the arrival of the colonizers and two, those who were Christian converts. However, in many cases, native personal laws continued and this was attributed to religion. us, the feeling was that “the native’s personal laws depend upon his religious profession and that any change of religion by him involves, as its corollary, a corresponding change in these laws.
However, there is no such thing as Christian religious law as Indian Christian law has largely nothing to do with Indian Christian traditions as such British India saw the enactment of a number of laws for the Indian Christian community, but these were based on British law at that point of time.
Subjects of France, including native Christians were governed by the French Civil Code in matters of personal law. French Renoncants in Pondicherry even today have their own laws as do Christians in Jammu and Kashmir or those scheduled Tribes whose laws are protected by the State. In the state of Goa.
Child Marriage in Hyderabad | 307 ere is a uniform civil code of sorts which is the Portuguese Code extended to their territory in Goa as well.1
India is a country of many diverse cultures. e law is a subset of culture. For ages, each community had its own set of rules are lost in the mists of antiquity. Many a time, this let us say, hypothetical, a homogenous community had its own forms of worship. With changing times and with migration, this group came in touch with other groups with their own cultures. Due to this, this community was exposed to new deities or forms or worship, When the British, beginning with the East India Company began administering Indian territories, they needed to “forge a manageable grid through which Indian realities, could be understood, and thereby controlled by the new authority. ey relied more on textual sources rather than the customary law that was actually being followed. they also constructed the idea of ‘Hindu law’ and applied Hindu textual law the law of the Brahmins suddenly received legitimacy as the law for most persons Hindu or not. Similarly, the applied to all Muslims in India from 1937 despite the fact that many Muslim communitas had their own personal law. e modern framework of religious personal laws is therefore a British creation.
Cultures Practice Ritual in Hyderabad
Hyderabad city as the former capital of Hyderabad State had received the royal patronage for arts, literature and architecture by the former rulers, also attracting men of letters and arts from di!erent parts of the world to get settled in the city. Such multi-ethnic settlements popularised multi cultural events such as Mushairas, literary and stage drama. Besides the
1 Sarasu Esther Thomas, Law for Christians in Contemporary India, BTESSC: Bangalore. 2024, page 8-10
308 Rageshwari
popularity of Western and other Indian popular music’s such as the $lmi music, the residents of Hyderabad
Telugu cuisine is the part of South Indian cuisine characterized by their highly spicy food. Hyderabad is rich in culture and history. e city is known for its opulent heritage, with a wide array of mosques, churches, temples, monuments, historic places, food and the arts. e city of Hyderabad is recognized for its hospitality and is the one place where you can $nd a perfect amalgam of North and South Indian dwellers belonging to di!erent regions. Telugu, Tamil, Malayalam, Hindi, Urdu and Marathi are some of the many languages that are spoken here. Hyderabad has its own distinctive culture with the profusion of Islamic and Hindu philosophies. People who speak Telugu and are of ‘Andhra’ descent are called ‘Andhraites’, whereas, the people whose vernacular Hindi language is Urdu, are typically known as Hyderabadis. e food in Hyderabad is considered to be the $eriest in India and is indeed, $t for the kings! Hyderabadi Biryani, ‘Double Ka Meetha’, ‘Haleem’ and ‘Naancut’ biscuits are some of the popular food items here. Festivals such as Diwali, Eid, Dusshera and Christmas are also celebrated on a large scale annually. A perfect blend of traditional ethos and modern lifestyle, the culture of Hyderabad is a diverse one.
Language
e population of Hyderabad speaks a number of diverse languages such as Hindi, English, Urdu and Telugu, making Hyderabad, a truly cosmopolitan city. Hyderabad, being the capital of Andhra Pradesh, has the perfect concoction of North and South Indian languages. In many nooks and crannies of the city, one will be able to hear the local dialect, Urdu, which is popularly read, written and spoken here.
Hyderabad was the hub of the Bahamani Kingdom and traditionally, Urdu was the court language of the royals. Centuries down the line, Urdu is still commonly used in Hyderabad. Telugu is the native language of Andhra Pradesh. Derived from the Dravidian community, Telugu dates back to ancient times and is the second most popular language in Hyderabad. Apart from Urdu and Telugu, Hindi, English, Marathi, Tamil and Gujarati are also followed in this city.
Food
e ‘tehzeeb’ (culture) of Hyderabad would be incomplete without a special mention of its zesty food. ‘Mehman-nawazi’ (hospitality), combined with the rich fare of the Hyderabadis, have won praises and accolades all over the world. If you are new to Hyderabad, get ready to be completely bowled by the traditional Hyderabadi cuisine in the umpteen restaurants and food stalls located all over the city.
Ramlila
Dasara marks the day when Goddess Durga clashed with demon Mahishasura’s army and slayed him once and for all. But the festival is also believed to be the day when Lord Rama defeated Ravana, and the victory is celebrated with fervour. Ramlila, a drama in which Ramayana is enacted, is an integral part of the nine-day festivities. E&gies of Ravana, and his brothers Meghnad and Kumbhakaran are burnt to represent the victory of good over evil. “ e Ramlila is performed by several theatre artistes in the city at melas and gardens. e tradition has changed over the years. Now, artists enact only the conclusive phase of the Ramayana,” Sri Baji, a well-known actor from Surabhi eatre, says.
Culture Festivals of the Hyderabad
Festivals such as Dusshera, Bathukamma, Ramzan, Eid, Christmas, Diwali and Navaratri are celebrated on a grand scale all over Hyderabad. Being a melting pot of cultures and ethnicity, Hyderabad has its very own range of festivals that are unique to its culture and traditions. e Deccan Festival is an important event and is held in Hyderabad annually. Other festivals such as Muharram, Bonalu, Sankranti and Rakhi are also celebrated with great fanfare across the city and state.
Bathukamma: Bathukamma is a Hindu festival that celebrates the harvest season. It is a time for women to gather and make colourful %ower garlands, which are then o!ered to the goddesses. e festival is celebrated with great joy in Hyderabad, and the streets are $lled with the sight and smell of %owers.
e most important festival of Telangana, the women make small Bathukamma and immerse them in water. “ e festival originates from the tale of Bathukamma, an avatar of Goddess Lakshmi, who visits our home for nine days to bless us,” says Vijaya Lakshmi, a resident of Hyderabad and a traditional story keeper. “For the $rst $ve days a er Mahalaya Amavasya, we clean the house, the pooja room and the courtyard. In the courtyard, we apply cow dung mixed with water and use rice %our to draw rangolis. We later prepare the Bathukamma with cow dung cakes and decorate the front yard with small conical lumps. e %owers are arranged in circular layers on a brass plate. Sometimes, we also place a small brass lamp atop the decoration,” says Vijaya Lakshmi. On the $nal day of the festival, a day before Dasara, the men go out to buy %owers such as Gunugu, Tangedu and Chamanti, for the women to arrange them. All the women in the community get together sing the Uyyala song as they walk to the nearby lake, where they immerse the Bathukamma.
Durga Puja: Durga Puja begins on the sixth day of Navaratri, with intricately decorated Durga idols placed at pandals and homes. On the seventh day (Saptami), a small banana plant, called Kola Bou, is taken to a water body where it’s washed. We then dress it in a red-bordered sari and bring it back in a Jathara and place it near the goddess. From the eighth day onwards, prayers, poojas traditional chants, Rabindra Geet and Annadanam’s take place. Bishwajeet Mukharjee, the secretary of Hyderabad Bangla Samithi which organises a grand Durga Puja every year, says: “A fast is observed by both women and men during Navratri, until Navami, the ninth day. On the tenth day, married women initiate the procession on Vijaya Dashami by $rst applying vermillion on the goddess and then to each other. It is a symbolic ritual of marriage and fertility. erea er, the idol is immersed in water.”
Garba: e folk dance represents the $ght between Mahishasura and Goddess Durga. Garba is not to be confused with Dandiya Raas, which represents the love between Radha and Krishna. Hence, it is also called Raas Leela. “Today, both Dandiya and Garba are performed during Navratri in Hyderabad. Garba is a devotional dance performed in front of Goddess Durga, whereas Raas Leela is performed by youngsters for fun,” says Shanthanu Shah, a mechanical engineer at Megha Engineers, who dances Garba every year. “We are fond of playing Garba is organised by the Gujarati and Marwadi communities at cultural spaces, resorts, clubs and dance studios across the city. e dance is performed around the Garbha Deep, which represents life and literally translates to the lamp of the womb.
Cultural in!uences
Culture is a blend of Persian, Mughal, and Decani in%uences. e city is home to a wide variety of temples, mosques, and other historical landmarks, which re%ect its rich cultural heritage.
Hyderabad is home to a diverse range of cultures and traditions. is lovely Pearl City is a melting pot of faiths, including Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Jainism, and Zoroastrianism. e city’s culture is a mash-up of old Islamic traditions with Telugu Hindu customs. Telugu and Urdu are the two main languages spoken in Hyderabad. In the Hyderabad area, Telugu is extensively spoken. One cannot truly understand Hyderabad’s cultural heritage without experiencing its delectable cuisine. e city is renowned for its aromatic biryanis, delectable haleem, %avorful kebabs, and the iconic Irani chai. e blend of Mughal, Persian, and Turkish in%uences has given birth to a unique culinary tradition that is celebrated worldwide. Exploring the city’s bustling food streets and indulging in its mouthwatering delicacies is an experience every youth should have.
Ontological Critique
Impacts of child marriage: Child marriage can lead to girls having sex before they are physically and emotionally ready, and when they know little about their own sexual and reproductive health and rights (SRHR). Child marriage is a key driver of adolescent pregnancy which carries serious health risks – and can increase the risk of contracting sexually transmitted infections and experiencing gender-based violence (GBV). In some contexts, child marriage is also closely linked to female genital mutilation/ cutting (FGM/C), which is a human rights violation and is damaging to girls’ physical and mental health.2
Reducing child marriage will help to improve the health of millions of girls and women, and their children.
Girls married as children don’t tend to be educated to their full capacity and generally lack the skills and knowledge to create
Child Marriage in Hyderabad | 313 viable job prospects, which pushes them into an intergenerational cycle of poverty. Child marriage also pushes women to have children earlier, further reducing their participation in the labour force and increasing the economic burden on the family.3
Child marriages have an adverse impact on girls as it pushes them to be sexually active before they are physically and mentally ready, and they have zero or little context about their rights. Child marriage is also a major contributor to adolescent pregnancies, which have a negative impact on girls’ education and upward mobility and are associated with serious health risks. One such health risk shows up in the form of gender-based violence Apart from these, child marriage adversely a!ects girls’ mental health. Girls engaged or married as minors are at increased risk for depression and suicidal tendencies, in great part due to its link with varying forms of gender-based violence like forced marriage and intimate partner violence (IPV) (Population Council and IIPS 2008).
Early marriage not only disrupts a child’s educational attainment, it also creates frequent interruptions in employment due to childbirth and the disproportionate burden of time required to care for the child, eventually forcing them into low-paying, unstable jobs (ICRW 2018). e impact on lifetime earnings is huge as a result of girls’ being married o! early, with a reduction of over nine percent. End of child marriage has directly been linked to a generation of additional resources, in both earnings as well as productivity.
3 Marriage Squeeze is de$ned as “an imbalance in the number of men and women available to marry in a particular society”. Ravinder Kaur et al. (2017) state that `rapid fertility decline and availability of sex determination technologies have led to a skewed sex ratio in favour of males.’ is impacts the marriage markets of a certain society by causing a marriage squeeze. httips://promundoglobal.org/ wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Engaging-Men-and-Boys-to-End-the-Practice-ofChild-Marriage1.pdf
For instance, ending child marriage in Bangladesh could lead to additional earnings of $4.8 billion per year. Looking at the magnitude of the country and the problem, India is bound to add a large proportion to the GDP as a result of ending child marriage. Similarly, child grooms are compelled to assume adult responsibilities for which they may be unprepared. Early marriage leads to early fatherhood, which adds additional pressure to provide for a family, cutting education and job chances short. According to UNICEF, an estimated 115 million boys and men worldwide were married as children, with one in every $ve children, or 23 million, married before the age of 15
!e Issues of Child labour policy
Children are society’s most precious resource and as such should have the right to have their development and growth enhanced and protected in a safe and nurturing environment.
e issue of child marriage has attracted renewed attention recently. A stronger consensus is emerging to eliminate the practice. For example, in November 2014, the human rights committee of the 193-nation General Assembly adopted by consensus (without needing a vote) a resolution urging all states to take the necessary steps to end child, early, and forced marriage. Such steps include adopting and enforcing laws banning child marriage, but they should also include providing support and incentives to eliminate the practice.
A total of 118 countries sponsored the resolution, including some of the countries with the highest incidence of child marriage (such as Mali, Ethiopia, and the Central African Republic). While such resolutions are not legally binding, they help increase pressure on governments to take measures to eliminate the practice. Earlier in 2014 and jointly hosted the $rst Girl Summit
Child Marriage in Hyderabad | 315 to mobilize e!orts to end child, early, and forced marriage as well as female genital mutilation. Ending child marriage is also a potential target to be included in the Sustainable Development Goals.
Forms of child labour
1 roughout history and in virtually all culture children have worked, but this has o en been within a family context where children were socialized and introduced to many adult skills and responsibilities, both earning status as family and community members, and acquiring skills which promoted their self-esteem and con$dence as capable and independent human beings.
2 Working to help their families in ways that are neither harmful nor exploitative may be a reasonable activity; however, many children are forced to perform tasks over long hours that are unacceptable for their stage of development, representing a serious violation of their rights.
3 Child labour refers to the exploitation of children through any form of work that deprives children of their childhood, interferes with their ability to attend Although child labour is most o en found in countries with lower socioeconomic resources, it also occurs in developed countries.5,6 e latest global estimates indicate that 152 million children (64 million girls and 88 million boys) are engaged in child labour, accounting for almost one in 10 of all children worldwide. While the number of children in child labour has declined since 2000, the rate of reduction slowed by two-thirds in the most recent four-year period
Education is required for all children aged between 6 and 14 years. e legislation also mandated that 25percent of seats in every private school must be allocated for children from
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disadvantaged groups and physically challenged children. India formulated a National Policy on Child Labour in 1987. is Policy seeks to adopt a gradual and sequential approach with a focus on rehabilitation of children working in hazardous occupations. It envisioned strict enforcement of Indian laws on child labour combined with development programmes to address the root causes of child labour such as poverty.47 In 1988, this led to the National Child Labour Project initiative. Under this legal and development initiative, the Indian Government has currently issued funding targeted solely to eliminate child labour in India.
e Apprentices Act,1961. Unless a child attains the age of 14 years and satis$es the standard of education and physical $tness test, he or she cannot undergo apprenticeship training.
e Plantation Labour Act, 1951. is Act prohibits the employment of children below the age of 12 years; a child above the age of 12 years can be employed only when an appointed doctor issues a $tness certi$cate for that child. e role of corporate industries in permitting the use of child workers needs to be evaluated further. Sensible global population growth and education of children are important facets of this process. In addition, there should be appropriate implementation of the existing laws relating to child labour that were summarized and outlined above. Governments and their monitoring departments have to play an e!ective role in this process. In addition, existing legislation must be enforced and o!ences must carry appropriate $nes and punishments. It is necessary for the police and government agencies to fully investigate such cases, for prosecutors to seek maximum penalties and for courts to support these initiatives. It is only if these cases are being seen to be treated very seriously in medicolegal environments that the point will be made that child labour is not being condoned by society.
Child marriage has remained a burning problem in Indian society. According to the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act (PCMA), “child marriage means a marriage to which either of the contracting parties is a child.” By de$nition, a child refers to an individual “who, if a male, has not completed twenty-one years of age, and if a female, has not completed eighteen years of age.” Whereas, concepts such as `early marriage’ and `forced marriage’ are not de$ned in Indian jurisprudence.
By the 19th century, the practice of child marriage had become a widespread phenomenon across the country (Heimsath 1964). In India, despite amended laws advocating 18 years as the legal minimum age at marriage for females, a substantial proportion, i.e., every third adolescent girl in the age group of 15–19 years, is married, and every second married adolescent girl has given birth to a child (Lal 2015). In 2017, 7 percent of Indian women married before the age of 15 (Scott 2020). According to the most recent South Asian Demographic and Health Surveys (2014–2018), 41 percent of women in India were married before the age of 18, compared to 69percent in Bangladesh. e prevalence of child marriage has decreased signi$cantly in (2015-16), falling from 47.4 percent in 2005-06 to 26.8 percent in 2015-16. According to the most recent round of NFHS-V, 2019-21), India Fact Sheet, 23.3 percent of women aged 20-24 years married before the age of 18. Nine states/UTs have state $gures that are higher than the national average, with West Bengal topping the list with 41.6 percent of women aged 20-24 years marrying before the age of 18. Bihar came close with 40.8 percent Tripura (40.1 percent), Jharkhand (32.2 percent), Assam (31.8 percent), Andhra Pradesh (29.3 percent), Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu (26.4 percent), Rajasthan (25.4 percent) and Telangana (23.5 percent) were the other states with
$gures higher than the national average (23.3 percent). Madhya Pradesh with 23.1 percent was close to the national average (23.3 percent).
Child marriage has a multitude of rami$cations for the child, family, community and society as a whole. According to studies, child marriage has a negative impact on children’s health, education and personal development, as well as exposes them to emotional, physical and sexual violence. Child marriages have an impact on a country’s economic development. e United Nations recognises that ending child marriage can lead to the achievement of eight of its Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), namely no poverty, zero hunger, good health and well-being, quality education, gender equality, decent work and economic growth, reduced inequalities, peace and strong institutions. Globally, the prevalence of child marriage among girls is likely to be six times higher than the prevalence of child marriage among boys (UNICEF Press Release 2019). e statistics are indicative of how child marriages disproportionately a!ect girls. e highest prevalence rate of child marriage reported by 20–24-year-olds is among the South
Other factors
e sex ratio imbalance is also a signi$cant factor contributing to the occurrence of child marriage. e skewed sex ratio and the shortage of girls of marriageable age increase the demand for child brides. e sex ratio imbalance in India is mainly due to sex-selective abortion, which is still widely practised despite the ban on sex determination and sex selection. is further gives rise to a situation called `the marriage squeeze’5 — an asymmetry in the availability of potential spouses; this situation, in which potential bridegrooms outnumber potential brides, o en leads to a reduction in female age at marriage. In the
Child Marriage in Hyderabad | 319 situation of a bride shortage, poor parents o en tend to marry o! a young daughter for attractive o!ers or concessions from older bridegrooms (Goli 2017:22). Low autonomy in decision-making due to insu&cient life skills, including decision-making, problemsolving, negotiation and critical thinking skills, is another reason for propelling the participants to early marriage. According to a study that involved young girls as participants from communities where child marriage is a common practice, the girls responded that marriage was an opportunity for them to meet some of their social, emotional and sexual needs. e social needs that propelled them to early marriage were the needs to receive respect, serenity and independency. e participants believed that they could achieve their personal independence through marriage and by acquiring the spouse’s identity. Satisfaction of emotional needs was another reason to persuade the participants to consider early marriage. ey also believed that marriage could give them the feeling of being loved. 4
Consequences of Child Marriage
Fi een of the studies included in our review estimated the e!ect of child marriage on various aspects of contraceptive use. All were based on cross-sectional data and thirteen used data from the DHS.
Of these $ een studies, eight estimated the e!ect of child marriage on the likelihood that women were using contraception at the time the surveys were conducted. As with other outcomes, results were mixed. Child marriage reportedly increased the likelihood of using modern contraception in India and Bangladesh. Results from Pakistan and Nepal indicate that the same may be true in those countries but the estimates were imprecise. A
4 Marriage Squeeze is de$ned as “an imbalance in the number of men and women available to marry in a particular society”. Ravinder Kaur et al. (2017)
second study from Nepal concluded that child marriage led to lower odds of using modern contraception. e two studies from Nepal used di!erent samples of women, which may partially explain the di!erences in their results. A study based on pooled data from 18 African countries found that child marriage was correlated with a lower likelihood of using modern contraception. However, results varied markedly between countries and across geographic regions; in some, child marriage appeared to increase the likelihood of using modern contraception. In Ghana, de Groot et al. found that child marriage was not correlated with the odds of using any form of contraception or with the use of modern contraceptives.
Two other studies investigated the e!ect of child marriage on the use of any method of contraception, including those not classi$ed as modern. Marriage prior to the age of 15 led to lower odds of contraceptive use in Rwanda, but there was no indication that those who married between 15 and 17 years of age were any more or less likely to use contraception than those who married at older ages. In Bangladesh, women who married as children were more likely to be using some form of contraception at the time of the survey than those who married at the age of 18 or older. In yet another iteration of this outcome, Yaya reported that women who married as children were more likely to have ever used modern contraception. A single study estimated the e!ect of child marriage among men on the likelihood that they were using modern contraception. In $ve of ten countries studied, child marriage was not related to modern contraceptive use. In two (Honduras and Nepal), child marriage seemed to slightly increase the odds of contraceptive use, but it decreased the likelihood in Madagascar.
A second outcome that has received particular focus is whether a woman used contraception before her $rst pregnancy.
All four studies that examined the e!ect of child marriage on this outcome were based on data from South Asia and concluded that marrying as a child decreased the likelihood that a woman used contraception prior to her $rst pregnancy. e authors of these studies frequently interpreted their results as an indicator of uncontrolled fertility that may place girls and their children at risk of poor health outcomes. However, this relationship is more challenging to interpret because the outcome variables used did not capture whether pregnancies were desired shortly a er marriage or the outcomes of those pregnancies.
Four studies estimated the impact of child marriage on the likelihood that a woman had an unmet need for contraception. is outcome was conceptually de$ned as a woman who is sexually active but not using contraception and who reports a desire to delay the next birth (a need for spacing), have no more births (a need for limiting), or a combination of the two. Once again, conclusions di!er between studies. Using pooled DHS data from 47 countries, Kidman and Heymann found that marrying as a child increased the likelihood that women had an unmet need for contraception to either space or limit births. An analysis of DHS data from Ethiopia found that women who married as children were less likely to have an unmet need for spacing and less likely to have an unmet need for limiting births compared to women who married at older ages. In Zambia, child marriage was correlated with a greater unmet need for spacing and for limiting. In Ghana, de Groot et al. found that child marriage was not correlated with an unmet need for limiting. ese studies all used di!erent samples, which may partially explain the di!erences in their results.
Child marriage and use of maternal health care
Nine of the studies included in our review estimated the e!ect of child marriage on the use of health care during pregnancy, at the time of delivery, and during the post-partum period, which we collectively refer to as maternal health care.
Studies of prenatal care de$ned their outcomes as the receipt of at least one prenatal checkup, the receipt of four or more prenatal checkups, or a count of the total number of prenatal checkups received. Once again, results within countries come to di!erent conclusions. In Nepal, one study found that women who married as children were less likely to receive four or more prenatal checkups while another found no evidence that child marriage in%uenced this outcome. A study from India found no indication that child marriage a!ected prenatal care but two others concluded that child marriage decreased the likelihood of receiving at least one checkup and of receiving at least four checkups. In one study from Pakistan, women who married as children were less likely to receive any prenatal care than those who married at older ages, but there was no di!erence in the likelihood of receiving four or more checkups. A separate study from the same country reported that child marriage had no e!ect on the number of prenatal care checkups. e e!ect of child marriage on the number of prenatal care visits varied between geographic regions in Africa. In some, child marriage appeared correlated with a decrease the number of visits while in others there was no e!ect.
Compared to other outcomes, the results of studies that estimated the impact of child marriage on the likelihood of delivering in a health care facility were remarkably consistent. Across geographic locations, all seven studies that examined this outcome concluded that child marriage reduced the likelihood of delivery in a health care facility. Six of the same studies also found
323 that women who married as children were less likely to have a skilled health care provider present during delivery.
Only two studies considered post-natal care. One reported that child marriage led to lower likelihood of a post-natal checkup within 42 days of delivery in India while the other found a lower likelihood of a checkup within 24 h of delivery in Nepal.
Other health consequences of child marriage
A few of the studies included in our review examined outcomes other than those discussed above. We note them brie%y here. A case-control study from India reported that women diagnosed with cervical cancer were more likely to have been married before the age of 18. A large, pooled analysis of DHS data from 47 countries reported that child marriage was associated with symptoms of sexually transmitted infections. A small, crosssectional study from a single Indian state found no evidence that child marriage led to an increase in the odds of obstetric $stula. A third study from India examined the e!ect of child marriage on the odds of experiencing at least one complication during pregnancy, delivery, or within two months a er delivery. Marriage before the age of 15 seemed to increase the likelihood of pregnancy complications, but there was no evidence of an e!ect for marriage between 15 and 17 years. Child marriage was not associated with delivery complications, but was associated with postnatal complications. A study from Ghana found no indication that child marriage in%uenced the likelihood of self-reported poor health, of being ill in the two weeks prior to the survey, or of having a health insurance card but did report that child marriage increased the odds of having di&culty with activities of daily living, such as bending or walking.
Our systematic review synthesized research on the health consequences of marrying before the age of 18. Studies almost uniformly found that women who married before the age of 18 began having children of their own at earlier ages and gave birth to more children over the course of their reproductive lives when compared to those who married at the age of 18 or later. Whether these outcomes, considered alone, are harmful to health is not clear. ough there are many reasons to be concerned about adolescent childbearing, none of the studies of the e!ect of child marriage on the timing of births considered whether those pregnancies were planned or desired or whether they resulted in obstetric complications or maternal morbidity or mortality. Similarly, having multiple births, especially at short intervals, may increase the risk of obstetric complications and subsequent morbidity or mortality. However, studies that compared the number of children born to women who married before the age of 18 with the number born to those who married at later ages also did not measure whether those pregnancies were planned or whether they led to harm. Rather, studies seemed to assume that these are negative outcomes without directly measuring intentions or harms.
A separate set of studies that estimated the e!ect of child marriage on the experience of mistimed or unwanted pregnancies came to divergent conclusions: some found that child marriage increased the likelihood of these outcomes but others found that child marriage protected against them or had no e!ect. Studies of whether child marriage a!ected the likelihood of obstetric complications, miscarriage or stillbirth did not consider maternal age when those events occurred. Moreover, the fact that child marriage corresponds with a larger number of pregnancies means that girls who married prior to the age of 18 had more opportunities to experience these events compared to those who
married later; this was not discussed in any of the studies we identi$ed.
e results of studies in other outcome domains are very mixed and challenge some common narratives regarding child marriage. To illustrate, studies included in this review came to con%icting conclusions regarding whether child marriage increases or decreases the use of modern contraception, the likelihood of giving birth within the $rst year of marriage, and the likelihood of repeated childbirth within two years. Conclusions regarding mistimed and unwanted pregnancies were also mixed, as noted above. Collectively, these results suggest that child marriage is not uniformly characterized by an inability to control the number or timing of births and suggests that a more cautious approach to discussions of agency within these marriages is warranted, at least regarding fertility and fertility control.
Critical Evaluation
Some Scripture portions that discuss marriage directly are:
Genesis 2:22-24: And the rib that the Lord God had taken from the man he made into a woman and brought her to the man. en the man said, “ is at last is bone of my bones and %esh of my %esh; she shall be called Woman, because she was taken out of Man.” erefore, a man shall leave his father and his mother and hold fast to his wife, and they shall become one %esh.
Genesis 2:18: en the Lord God said, “It is not good that the man should be alone; I will make him a helper $t for him.”
Proverbs 18:22: He who $nds a wife $nds a good thing and obtains Favor from the Lord.
Ephesians 5:25-33: Husbands, love your wives, as Christ loved the church and gave himself up for her, that he might sanctify her, having cleansed her by the washing of water with the word, so that he might present the church to himself in splendor, without spot or wrinkle or any such thing, that she might be holy and without blemish. In the same way husbands should love their wives as their own bodies. He who loves his wife loves himself. For no one ever hated his own %esh, but nourishes and cherishes it, just as Christ does the church,
Ephesians 5:28: In the same way husbands should love their wives as their own bodies. He who loves his wife loves himself.
1 Corinthians 13:4-8: Love is patient and kind; love does not envy or boast; it is not arrogant or rude. It does not insist on its own way; it is not irritable or resentful; it does not rejoice at wrongdoing, but rejoices with the truth. Love bears all things, believes all things, hopes all things, endures all things. Love never ends. As for prophecies, they will pass away; as for tongues, they will cease; as for knowledge, it will pass away.
1 Corinthians 11:12: For as woman was made from man, so man is now born of woman. And all things are from God. Genesis 2:24. erefore, a man shall leave his father and his mother and hold fast to his wife, and they shall become one %esh.
Conclusion
A marriage must be a sacred union between mature individuals and not an illogical institution which compromises with the future of our children. e problem must be solved at the grassroots level beginning with ending poverty and lack of education. is way, people will learn better and do better. Child marriage is a violation of children’s rights and a practice that
hampers societal development. While it is deeply entrenched in many societies, a combination of education, economic empowerment, and legal measures can help combat this practice. It is crucial for all stakeholders, including governments, NGOs, and communities, to work together to end child marriage and ensure a better future for all children. Child marriage is a complex issue that requires comprehensive, multi-faceted approaches to eradicate. By promoting education, gender equality, and economic stability, societies can help ensure that every child is a!orded the right to a safe and ful$lling childhood. as believers, we rely on God’s word to form our worldview because we recognize His ultimate authority as the Creator
Sarasu Esther omas, Law for Christians in Contemporary India, BTESSC: Bangalore. 2024, pages 8-10.
Marriage Squeeze is de$ned as “an imbalance in the number of men and women available to marry in a particular society”. Ravinder Kaur et al. (2017).
Marriage Squeeze is de$ned as “an imbalance in the number of men and women available to marry in a particular society”. Ravinder Kaur et al. (2017) state that `rapid fertility decline and availability of sex determination technologies have led to a skewed sex ratio in favour of males.’ is impacts the marriage markets of a certain society by causing a marriage squeeze.
Dalangang Filipina & Sexual Struggles in Philippines
By: Maria Angelica B. de Vera
Introduction
Dearest Rev., Director of Young Adults at Simbahan ng Pagkakaisa, Manila
Greetings in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ!
Countless single young adult Filipinas struggle with sexuality1- and many of them do so silently within the four walls of the church. Unfortunately, issues of sexuality are taboo in churcha church led primarily by men who cannot relate to the struggles of women. Worse yet, women who are vocal about their struggles are put to shame and stigmatized, o en labelled as slutty and without morals. !is not only stunts their growth, but at times even drives them away from the church.
!ese single adult young women want to live pure and godly lives and it is not enough to just have them read a book or even attend a class, seminar, or Bible study. !ese women need something tangible and more experiential to enable them to resist - which is why I have written and am sending you this study.
!is study begins with the background along with the problem it will tackle. It will then move toward the use of symbol and ritual to address not just the problem but also the root causes of the problem. !e study then moves toward naming and elaborating on a symbol
1 In the recent years, the term sexuality has o en been equated to sexual orientation. But this study will embrace the dictionary de$nition of sexuality, that being: the quality or state of being sexual: (a) the condition of having sex; (b) sexual activity; and (c) expression of sexual receptivity or interest especially when excessive (Merriam- Webster, n.d.)
330 Maria Angelica B. de Vera from within the Filipino culture. !e study then discusses the ritual, beginning with its foundation and then the ritual itself. Finally, the study will conclude with why this should matter to everyone in the church, areas for future research, and how you, and hopefully the larger church, can get involved.
I would like to invite you to be part of what the Lord is already doing and will be doing in the lives of these women. So, please read on prayerfully and allow His spirit to speak to you.
May this be the beginning of seeing more women truly transformed, renewed, and living victoriously for the glory of God in all areas of their lives!
In Christ, Angelica de Vera
Phenomenological Study
Just as with the rest of the world, Philippine society, culture, and values continue to evolve. Many of the traditionally held Filipino values have been replaced by Western ones; - yet, despite that, deeply embedded in Filipino culture is the image of an ideal woman. She is the dalagang Filipina: demure, reserved, religious, chaste. It is a largely conservative ideal for women - much like what Philippine society appears to be.
Yes, Filipino society has long been conservative, and it tries to keep that image- especially when it comes to sex and sexuality. is can be seen within the Filipino family where the topic of sex is almost never spoken of (E. Atienza, personal communication, Feb. 2, 2024). One will observe that when anything related to sex is brought up in the family, the common response is bad yan (that’s bad) or bastos yan (that’s vulgar/ that’s crude/ that’s obscene). It is no di!erent in Filipino schools. In fact, the Department of Education, in a position paper read last February 7, 2023 to the
Sexual Struggles in Philippines | 331
Senate Panel for women and children discussing proposals for bills to “make comprehensive sexuality education compulsory” states that the bills “will surely help break the persistent taboo on discussing adolescent sexuality and reproductive health and ease the social stigma attached to it” (Gregorio, 2023). Not only is sex education lacking in schools, but it is also a topic swept under the rug. So, because sex is not talked about at home nor is it talked about in school, young Filipinos- particularly women- are le to $gure sex out on their own, exploring something that they should not.
is is the unfortunate reality in the Philippines: a society trying hard to keep its conservative image yet fails at the expense of its people. In the Philippines, one will see that the very things that the society condemns are widely practiced- and the country is living out that contradiction in every way (Heusa! & Katigbak, 2012).
e Absentee Evangelical Church
ere is no doubt that as Philippine society continues to live out this contradiction, more and more young women fall prey to the lure of sex outside marriage. Many of these young women are found in the church: single young adults striving to live sexually pure, but o en falling short and ending up living a double life. ese women struggle silently within the four walls of the church and in the company of the saints who appear to live such blameless lives.
While the church should be the $rst to come alongside these young women, the problem is sexuality, particularly that of women, continues to be taboo within it. Not only so, but those who do speak out and are vocal about their sexual struggles are put to shame and stigmatized. Making matters worse is the fact that the church is still largely dominated by men who cannot relate
332 Maria Angelica B. de Vera
to women’s issues on sexuality; it is also still largely patriarchal. ere is no doubt that these women will run to where they are most welcomed: the world- and it shows up in the form of worldly media, self-help books, and hypersexualized friends.
Furthermore, the discipleship strategies that churches in the Philippines continue to employ and heavily relyrely heavily on print materials, is highly individualistic, and focuses on the abstract rather than the concrete and practical. e Church has largely utilized Bible studies, seminars, the pulpit, and, of course, books to disciple these women and it has been largely inadequate, especially for women born into majority world culture which is highly oral and collective. ese young women, whose ages range from 18 up until 35, were born in the postmodern era and are greatly inclined to learn through non-text-based means. Rick Brown (2004) rightly observes: “A general trend in history has been the progress from primary orality to some literacy with residual orality, and from then in some cases to a print-oriented culture. e modern trend is to move on to secondary orality, to a post-literate or multi-media culture” (p.123). Additionally, all of us who live in this postmodern era do so in an environment laden with symbols and symbolism and generally crave for experience over just mere facts (Moon, 2017, 236). It is not enough to simply read and study; it is not enough to feed people with informationin fact, the world is already saturated with all kinds of information. If the church is to be relevant to the times and meet the needs of the people it has been tasked to reach and care for, it needs to be willing to let go of the old, traditional way of discipleship!
Of course, that does not mean that the church will discard all text-based learning. On the contrary, the church should keep it, but it should not rely solely on it to disciple its people. ere should be a combination of both oral and literate pedagogies and methods (Moon, 2017, p.6)! Unfortunately, literate strategies are already deeply ingrained into the ways of the church- so what the
church needs to do now is to begin introducing the new- and it can do so by bringing back some of the elements of culture that the church has already thrown out!
roughout history and across cultures and religions, myths, symbols, and rituals have been instrumental in embedding its beliefs and values deep into the hearts of its adherents (Moon, 2017, p. 4). Within each culture are sacred stories or myths, set of symbols, and various rituals it can proudly call its own- and these are available for the church to contextualize and hopefully use for God- glorifying purposes. Yet while this is so, they $rst need to be brought under the scrutiny of scripture. Under the lens of scripture, one will uncover an aspect- or even aspects- of these elements of culture that should be a&rmed, modi$ed, or rejected (Moon, 2017, 123). is way, we don’t just throw out potential transformative tools that are already available to us!
Well, the Philippines has been blessed with a rich cultural heritage packed with symbols and rituals that can serve as discipleship tools that Evangelical Churches can use. Unfortunately, these have been vili$ed on a large scale and thrown out indiscriminately. But circumstances require that we pick them up for contextualization and use. at is what this study purposes to do so that single, young adult Filipinas can live sexually pure lives. ese rituals and symbols will serve as tools these women can use to overcome their struggles with sexuality and even address the root cause of their struggles.
Ontological Critique
ere are no easy answers to the question of why women struggle with sexuality. Underneath the surface is an already complicated root system that is further complicated by the fact that these young women have already had a sexual past. It is that sexual past that makes the struggle even more unbearable
334 Maria Angelica B. de Vera
because the body remembers experiences- both the painful and the pleasurable, the hurtful and the sensual. is is one of the physiological reasons behind the sexual struggle of countless single young women.
But there are more physiological reasons for young women’s struggles with sex and sexuality. One of which are sex hormones: chemicals under the control of the pituary gland found in the brain. Certainly, the brain has much to do with sex and sexuality as even our very thoughts and the images that come across our mind can become part of the motivation and process (Santrock, 2000, p. 380). So, it does not help that the environment in which we move is inundated with highly sexualized imagery, advertising sex as a basic need and as something essential to a full life. In addition to that, there are theories that even smell, food, and substance play a role in sexual desire (Santrock, 2000, p. 381). e struggle, on physiological terms, can come from all fronts.
But unlike animals, our sexuality is in%uenced by so much more than just the physiological. Issues of self-image and self- worth likewise come into play- and this is particularly true among women. Sadly, many women believe the lie that if they had sex, they were attractive and desirable- which in turn bolstered their con$dence (Parrott & Parrott, 1998, p. 128). According to Parrott & Parrott (1998), women see sex as a “barometer of [their] worthiness and as a means to relational connectedness” (p.128).
Family life and dynamics likewise play a role in a woman’s sexuality. Many young women grew up in families where they did not get the a!ection and acceptance they needed. is then turned sex into an avenue to meet that need. Again, quoting Parrott & Parrott (1998), “Sex became their way of getting the cuddling and acceptance that was missing in their family” (p. 128).
e root issues beneath young women’s sexual struggles are indeed complex yet even further beneath this complicated
Struggles
Philippines | 335 root system is one major root from which all these can be tracedand that is the desire for pleasure apart from God. While we, as Christ-followers, know that our soul will only be truly satis$ed when it $nds its pleasure in God, the world engages all senses to lure as many into its pleasures. at is why these young women need more than books or information to get them through. at is why they need a properly contextualized ritual and symbol that will engage as much of their senses to counteract the world’s lure!
Unfortunately, there is no existing ritual within Filipino culture that can be put under the scrutiny of scripture and used toward that end- and not surprisingly because, as mentioned earlier, sex is taboo in Filipino culture and women are expected to be chaste. Yet while that is so, there is a symbol within the culture! Of course, I will need to create a ritual and incorporate that symbol into it- and what symbol could be more apt than the Philippine National Flower, the Sampaguita!
e Sampaguita Flower
e Sampaguita (Philippine Jasmine) is the National Flower of the Philippines. Filipinos see this tiny, white, and sweetly fragrant %ower to be a symbol of purity, $delity (Philippine National Flower- Sampaguita, n.d.), and, particularly among the poor, hope (Exploring National Symbols of the Philippines, n.d.). It is also said to be a symbol of humility and simplicity (Josh Foliage Friend, n.d.) and of love, dedication, and devotion (Clark, 2023). Additionally, Filipino designer, Mak Tumang, says of the Sampaguita: “this %ower has a lot to do with the concept of coming home” (2019). e name sampaguita was derived from the Filipino words “Sumpa Kita” which is translated as “I promise You” (Catanghal, 2018).
Besides being the National Flower, the unassuming Sampaguita o en plays a prominent role in the Philippine art
336 Maria Angelica B. de Vera scene. Be it music, visual art, or even literature, one will $nd the Sampaguita proudly on display (Clark, 2023). e Sampaguita is likewise used to make garlands and leis given to be worn as a symbol of respect and hospitality (Samo, 2023). ese garlands and leis are o en seen hung on foreign dignitaries or top o&cials. But it is not just the honorable people who are bestowed with Sampaguita garlands and leis- the saints of old, lifeless statues, within the Roman Catholic Church are, too. Despite being mere representations of a once living person, Sampaguita leis are o!ered with much reverence and deep devotion. ese %owers are likewise present in most, if not all, religious ceremonies, and festivities (Clark, 2023).
But besides all that has been mentioned, the Sampaguita is also widely used in the cosmetics industry, particularly in the manufacture of perfumes and essential oils. It is also believed to have medicinal, antimicrobial, anti-in%ammatory, and analgesic properties and so is used in traditional medicine to bring relief to various ailments (Samo, 2023).
Critical Evaluation
As seen above, the Sampaguita has a very prominent place in Philippine life and culture and is likewise rich with symbolism. All the meanings attached to the Sampaguita have been a&rmed by Scripture and the following are some of the many passages in the Bible that can attest to that fact:
Meaning attached to Sampaguita
Purity
Select Bible verses
Matthew 5:8
Hebrews 13:4
1 Corinthians 6:18
1 Timothy 4:12
Leviticus 18:30
Fidelity
Hope
Humility
Simplicity
Dedication and devotion
Exodus 20:14
Matthew 5: 27-28
Hebrews 13:4
Jeremiah 29:11
Romans 15:13
Hebrews 11:1
1 Corinthians 13: 3
Isaiah 40: 31
Ephesians 4: 2
Philippians 2:3
Proverbs 11:2
Proverbs 22:4
1 Peter 5:6
Matthew 6:19-21
1 Timothy 6:6-8
Luke 12:15
Proverbs 15:16
Proverbs 16:8
Romans 12:10
Exodus 20:3-8
Colossians 3:17
Romans 12:1
Even the concept of “coming home”, as attested by designer Mak Tumang, can be a&rmed by Scripture. “Coming home” is a picture of repentance- just as the prodigal son came home a er sinful living as seen in Luke 15:11-32.
While that is so, the way the Sampaguita has been used to show devotion to saints needs to be redeemed. As mentioned earlier, the %ower has been used to honor and give devotion to saints, - which could perhaps be the reason why this %ower is barely seen in and is, to some degree, vili$ed, within Evangelical Churches. e %ower in and o! itself is not vile, but unfortunately, it has been attached to such religious traditions.
338 Maria Angelica B. de Vera
Fortunately, it is not too late to work towards redemption of the lovely Sampaguita. e act of using it to give devotion to the saints of old should be done away with and replaced with using it to honor His living saints and using it to show devotion to one another in sisterly love- one that %ows from the devotion to the One True God.
As the Sampaguita and all that it symbolizes is brought under the lens of scripture, it becomes “puri$ed for sacred use”, so to speak. When properly contextualized, the %ower truly becomes a $tting symbol in addressing the needs of the young women as they struggle with sexuality. But again, the best results happen when this symbol is used within the context of a ritualand better yet, if the ritual is founded on myths.
Missiological Transformation
Contrary to popular belief, myths are not falsities but are sacred stories. ese sacred stories are crucial in the formation of the world view of a people (Moon, 2017, pp. 76-77). Moon (2017) further says of myths:
…myths form a worldview of how God has acted in history. Contemporary believers then use symbols to construct rituals in order to ‘act out’ the myths in sacred time and space. When this is done well, God acts again today, as God has done in the past in order to transform people. is combination of symbols, rituals, myths, and worldviews is thus useful in helping disciples experience God again for transformation (82).
As believers, our myths or sacred stories are found nowhere else but in Scripture! ese myths are a crucial foundation, or in the words of Moon, an “operating system” (136), for these rituals.
So, the ritual, which I am calling a reconsecration service, is based on the story found in Nehemiah 8: 1-12:47. It is the story of the Israelites who have returned to the Promised Land
Sexual Struggles in Philippines | 339 a er decades of exile. e Book of the Law of Moses was read to them by Ezra the priest- and they understood it! ey were thus convicted of their disobedience and confessed their sins to the Lord which led to them make vows of obedience to God’s law. is is a sacred story of second chances! It is the story of disobedient people given another chance to live in obedience and be the set apart people they were called to be. Additionally, this story will be a beautiful reminder for the young women that it’s never too late to live a life set-apart for God’s purposes. is story is a reminder that despite a disobedient past, they can reconsecrate themselves to the Lord and can walk in obedience in the present and into the unknown future!
e Ritual: A Reconsecration Service
Participants: is ritual gathering is for single, young adult women. Ideally, this should be open to all, but we want to keep it intimate. We hope to have a minimum of three women and a maximum of $ve. ere are many reasons for this. First is because we are dealing with a very intimate issue. Intimate issues call for intimate gatherings. Second, this will make accountability and the deepening of relationships with one another doable. I hope that the relations built here will be more than skin deep and truly be a sisterhood rather than a mere barkada (group of friends).
Besides the participants, present also will be the ritual specialist (or facilitator, which will be me for this initial gathering) and the ate (older sister). e ate will be sharing her story- and possibly a story of how the Lord is redeeming her past and enabling her to overcome her struggles. e ate is akin to a “sponsor” in many recovery programs. A sponsor, as de$ned by
340 Maria Angelica B. de Vera
Alcoholics Anonymous (2017), is an equal and is “an alcoholic who has made some progress in the recovery program and shares that experience on a continuous, individual basis with another alcoholic who is attempting to attain or maintain sobriety through AA” (p.7). Furthermore, a sponsor is not someone who will serve as a therapist or give professional help and is not even supposed to force her beliefs on the one receiving her sponsorship. Rather, a sponsor is someone who will be a “con$dant”, a “guide”, someone who listens and understands (Editorial Sta!, 2022). Ideally, a sponsor would be someone who has already been in and through the program for at least a year, but since this is a new undertaking, we will have as our ate or sponsor a woman whom I have been closely walking with and mentoring, Ms. L.2 Hopefully, this ritual will give birth to more such rituals among young adult women and will raise up more ates and ritual specialists who will conduct it and walk closely with more women struggling with sexuality.
Venue:
While it would have been great to conduct this ritual out of town, many young adult women have such busy schedules and tight budgets. I want to do away with anything that could possibly hinder any woman from participating in this ritual gathering. So, we will conduct it in the church building and make use of the Koinonia Center on the $rst %oor. is room is big and spacious and will allow us to have separate areas for eating and for the ritual itself. It will likewise allow for more privacy as there are no windows or openings except the tiny one on the door.
Regarding the set-up of the room, I have drawn the planned layout of the room, and it is found below:
2 For privacy purposes, the name of the ate will not be revealed in this study.
Hopefully this set up will allow for a homey atmosphere.
Promotions: As much as I would like to open this ritual to more women, we cannot accommodate a big group. Since this is a very sensitive and intimate issue, it is not something we would like to broadcast to the church. is initial gathering will be by invitation only and will initially be for the young women in my group who have expressed their struggles with sexuality. Not broadcasting and promoting this ritual gathering will not only protect the privacy of the participants but will also allow for some suspense both for the $rst batch of participants and the batches that follow.
Day and date: e ritual will be held on a Saturday. We o en meet with the larger group, Ohana,3 on Sundays, and it is always bustling with activity! I want us to meet separately so that these women can truly get away not just from their usual busy Saturday routine, but also from the larger group and truly be present in this ritual. I, too, want to be fully present for them and I cannot when the rest of the members of the group are around.
3 Ohana is the name of the young adult ministry I pioneered. It is a missional community composed of young adult men and women from all walks of life.
342 Maria Angelica B. de Vera
e ritual is tentatively set on May 4, 2024.
Food: What is a gathering without food? Of course, the ladies will be sharing a meal, but rather than providing the food, they will be encouraged to bring something to share. ere is a certain kind of joy that comes with sharing food that comes from one’s own kitchen but if not from one’s own kitchen, food that was given much thought to. I hope that these women can share this joy together as they share not just a meal but also food they brought.
A caveat at this point, while the women will be tasked to bring food to share, they will be encouraged to bring healthy food as we want to promote a wholistic discipleship- and that includes good stewardship of our health. is will likewise be an avenue for the ladies to begin bonding even before the event begins as they talk amongst themselves about what they plan to bring or perhaps if they want to partner up with someone to bring a particular dish.
Other
matters
e entire event will begin at around 11 am- and will do so with an early lunch. While we want the women to feel comfortable and at home, they will be encouraged to come looking their best. is will make them feel good about themselves and boost their morale- plus, women always love a reason to dress up! I hope that this ritual will give them an opportunity to do so.
Furthermore - and as the title of this section implies- rather than call this event and gathering a ritual as it really is, we will call it a service. Many of those who live in urban areas think of ritual as something cultic or done in tribal areas. us, this will be called a “re-consecration service”. e entire service, or ritual, will last for about three hours.
e Ritual proper: e script, e Ritual specialist and the ate will welcome the women as they arrive. As the women gather, they arrange the food on the food table (see room layout) and begin with the pleasantries. Once all the women have arrived and settled down, the ritual can begin- and will do so with a meal and chikahan (light conversations). e act of sharing a meal together over light conversations is already a great way of strengthening the bond between these young women.
Once everyone is done with their meals, the ritual specialist will motion to the other side of the room for the actual ritual. e ritual specialist will also ask the ladies to leave their phones on the table or in their bag and put them on silent mode so as to avoid any possible distraction.
Ritual Specialist:
Hello, ladies, and welcome once again to this special time! I know that I told you that we were going to have some girl timebut I also have something special planned for you! I think you’ve noticed the &owers on that table (points to the table on the side). Well, we are going to have what I would like to call a “reconsecration service”. All of you ladies have shared with me your struggles with sexuality… and I know how you all want to live pure lives. I want to help you as best and see you all &ourish, which is why we are having this. I know you’re all excited, so let’s start with a word of prayer. > pray< Amen.
At this point, let’s dive into God’s word. !e passages I will read to you are foundational to our service today and I pray that the reading will prepare your heart for the activity that follows. So, the passages are Nehemiah 8: 1-3, 9& 10; Nehemiah 9: 1-3; and Nehemiah 10: 28-29. !ese are parts of the story of the Israelites as they returned from a hard exile in Babylon. As I read these verses,
344 Maria Angelica B. de Vera
I want you to close your eyes and put yourselves in the shoes of the Israelites.
>ritual specialist reads the passages slowly<
(A er reading) What do you think the Israelites felt as the word of the Lord was read to them? (ladies answer)
Yes, they were convicted and saw how they had disobeyed a God who only loved and cared for them. !ere is nothing wrong with being convicted- it is, in fact, good. Conviction should bring us to repentance, and it should move us towards what the Lord desires for us- as what it did to the Israelites when they made an oath to obey God from then on.
You all came here convicted, all wanting to live pure lives that honor God. It’s a struggle- and it doesn’t help that we are all constantly bombarded with all things sex by the media and the internet. Which is why we are gathered here today. Words are not enough. We need each other and we need something more wholistic, something which engages most if not all our senses, to overcome. But before we can overcome, we need to come to the Lord in humility, confessing our sins and asking him to cleanse us and enable us to start anew.
So, let’s have a moment of silence to confess our sins to the Lord.
>Ritual specialist leads a general prayer of confession< Amen.
Now, let me call on someone special. You all know her, and she will be sharing her testimony. She will be your ate, the one walking closely with you as your equal, struggling with you, journeying with you, and someone you will be accountable to, Ms. L.
Ms. L:
Shares her struggles and how the Lord is helping her overcome and how it is so important to have someone walk closely with you in your struggle.
Ritual specialist:
!ank you so much, Ms. L. In the future, I hope you will all be an ate to someone struggling with sexuality. An ate doesn’t need to be perfect or completely without struggle. If you’ve heard about AA, an ate is like the sponsor in that program. !e ate will be someone to understand and listen to you; she will be mentoring you and someone you will also be accountable to. And I hope one day you will be that to someone. Of course, you will all be accountable to one another, but it helps to have someone who has gone ahead and knows what it is like.
Anyway, so, today is a special day for us all as we re-consecrate ourselves, our bodies and our desires to the Lord and for His glory. As we do so, I will be giving each of you a Sampaguita lei and Ms. L will be putting it on you. But before that, we will explain to you why the Sampaguita and what’s so special about having it in a lei.
Well, we know that the Sampaguita is our national &ower, and we know how amazingly fragrant this &ower is! (Ritual specialist can smell the sampaguita lei at this point for e ect.) But there’s more to the Sampaguita than that! Did you know that this tiny white &ower symbolizes so many things!?!
Yes, this tiny &ower (Ritual specialist holds up a Sampaguita &ower for the women to see) is a symbol of purity, delity, hope, humility, simplicity, dedication, and devotion- all that we aspire for and are called to as Christ followers. But let me highlight a few for us today. We are all called to live in purity in all aspects of our lives, including our sexuality, to be loyal to God and give our all our allegiance to Him. In the same way, we want to be faithful to our God’s best- and we can start now by keeping sexually pure. We
346 Maria Angelica B. de Vera are called to live in dedication and devotion to the Lord and to him alone in all areas of our lives.
Ms. L:
Well, we know that this little &ower by itself is already fragrant, but its fragrance lls the room when you put the &owers together in a garland or lei. Not only is it more fragrant, but it is also more useful when done so. Sampaguita garlands and leis have been used in many religious festivals, adorning saints. Sampaguita garlands and leis have also been used to honor high o%cials and foreign dignitaries. No one gives a lone &ower. It is always better when it is with other sampaguita &owers. So, I hope that this Sampaguita lei reminds you that we are better together- that we can be overcomers together.
Ritual specialist:
As Ms. L mentioned a while ago, these leis and garlands have been used for religious purposes as devotees adorn the saints with them. But our devotion is not to the saints but to the one true God and the best o ering we can give Him is our entire being, and that includes our bodies, just as Romans 12:1 says.
So, as this lei is being worn on you (at this point, Ms. L puts the Sampaguita on the women present and I put the lei on Ms. L and Ms. L puts the lei on me) I want you to be reminded that your bodies are your o ering to the Lord. So, honor your bodies- and honor God as you do so. You may not be a high o%cial or a foreign dignitary, but your bodies are worthy of honor because they have been bought with the blood of Jesus Christ. And just as saints were adorned with these Sampaguita leis, we likewise adorn you with them because I want you to remember that you are His saints. He has made you holy.
!e Sampaguita is beautiful and so are you. May this little white &ower remind you also of the beauty of purity in body, mind, and desires. May the scent of our national &ower remind you of
what it means to be a Christian dalangang Filipina who has set herself apart for the Lord. Let’s pray, and as we do, I’d like all of you to say a short prayer out loud. Beginning with Ms. L and then anyone can say a prayer out loud. I will close.
>Ladies hold hands in prayer, with each saying a prayer<
Ritual specialist:
Amen. !ank you so much, ladies for coming and making time for this. !at sampaguita lei is yours for the keeping. I know it will eventually dry up and won’t smell as good as it does now. But I hope, rather than throwing it away, you’d press it or turn it into art or keep it in your journal as a reminder of this gathering and the commitment we made to God and to one another through this service.
Speaking of reminders, besides the lei, I want to give you a more tangible reminder of this gathering and the promises we made. I am also giving you this Sampaguita plant. Now, what do we do with plants? Of course, we care for it, nourish it, give it tender care and love. No one who cares for a plant would just pluck out its leaves, destroy it, or trample on it. May this plant remind you that your bodies also deserve care, nourishing, and love- and should never be used for ungodly pleasure, which will only destroy it. !is plant will continue to bloom, if cared for- and I pray that as you continue to follow God, you, too will bloom in all aspects of life. May its blooms and the fragrance of its blooms remind you of the beauty of purity.
Whenever you nd yourself struggling, reach out for one of the blooms of this Sampaguita plant. Smell it, look at it. May it remind you of today. May it remind you that you are not a slave
348 Maria Angelica B. de Vera
to your sexuality. May it remind you that your entire being is now fully consecrated and set apart for the Lord and His purposes alone.
And yes, before we all go, let’s have a sel e! (Women bring out their phones to take photos, beginning with the ritual specialist). I will print out copies of this photo to give to you which will be a reminder that we’re in this together! By the way, please do not post photos on social media to protect each other’s privacy.
Ladies, this is just the beginning. We have a whole lifetime to journey with one another, keeping each other accountable, and encouraging one another to pursue holiness day by day! Also, let’s make the most of our Telegram group chat and feel free to pour out your struggles there and ask for prayer. Also don’t forget our accountability group meetings every other week. I look forward to seeing you all take turns facilitating this group. See you then and I love you all! (Ladies hug one another.)
Oh, don’t forget! Ohana tomorrow, 10:30 am at the Ohana room! Let’s have lunch together a er our Bible study and celebrate! (As part of the reintegration, the women will have a meal the next day with the rest of the group.)
Reintegration stage
A er the ritual, the women will of course return to their usual routine and daily life. Of course, the ritual will not magically erase their struggle with sexuality- and rituals should never be equated with any of that sort of thing! Yet even so, it should be di!erent: the way they look at and treat their bodies should be di!erent; their relationship with their sexuality should be di!erent; and even their relationship with one another should be di!erent.
But more than that, this ritual should enable these young women to live empowered and victorious. As they see the symbol
Sexual Struggles in Philippines | 349 and remember and even re-enact the ritual and be in close community with the other young women who struggle as they do, they will see that they do not need to be enslaved by their sexuality.
Having been empowered, all these young women are expected to one day be an ate to someone. Of course, it is not right to just suddenly thrust them into such a responsibility. ey will be trained, little by little, to lead and mentor younger women. is will be done through the accountability group that was forged as part of the ritual process. Each young woman will be given an opportunity to facilitate the accountability group sessions/ gatherings. As their leader, I will only be serving in the background and allow them to take ownership of the group and plan things for the group. My role will be to encourage them to continue stepping up- and get involved in the other ministries of the church where they can meet more young women whom they can in%uence.
It is my prayer that this ritual will be the beginning of seeing countless young women live truly empowered, victorious, and fruitful lives.
Conclusion
In a church that is a buzz with so many activities and with so many needs, it is so easy to just downplay this ritual for a handful of women struggling with something so intimate. But to overlook the struggle of a few members is to hurt the entire church. Yes, its e!ect will be felt on a macro and micro scale.
On a macro scale, neglecting this ritual will result in the church missing out on countless blessings! First, it will miss out on the blessing of seeing God move mightily to transform liveschanged people who in turn will be catalysts of change in society! Second, the church misses out on the blessing of having more
350 Maria Angelica B. de Vera
women step up and serve. is ritual is not only intended toward the end of seeing women live pure lives but also for women to serve other women too- and in that, also serve the larger church. But more importantly, the church misses out on what it is called to do- to make disciples who make disciples. Discipleship is not a program, it is not a class, or a bible study. It is a transformative life-on-life relationship- and that is what this ritual is about!
en in a more micro scale, and in the long run, downplaying this ritual and leaving this issue unaddressed will a!ect the married life of these women. It is not unknown to us that gratifying sexual desires outside marriage always has disastrous e!ects upon the marriage relationship. As a church, we want to help protect this sacred relationship- and that does not just begin when the marriage relationship begins, but even before. It begins even as these women wait for their God-given lifetime partnerand we want to be there for these women during this season of preparing for that season. What better way for us as a church to do so other than by helping these single young women overcome their sexual struggle!
Finally, on a micro scale, neglecting and downplaying this ritual will not only stunt the growth of these women, as mentioned earlier, but it will also lead them to look elsewhere for help and answers- and the world is always ready to welcome them with open arms! How then can these women live victorious, pure, and holy lives? If we downplay this ritual and neglect the struggle of these women, we fail them, the very people we were called to love and care for!
On the other hand, while I may not have had the same experience as these young women do, I was transformed even as I was thinking through this ritual and even as I was writing this study. A er this study, I don’t think I can approach discipleship in the same way again and I cannot mentor and disciple in the same, old, traditional way anymore. is process made me see that
discipleship is and should be wholistic. Much of the temptations of the world involve our entire person and all our $ve senses. Yet even so, our discipleship has always been cognitive. While there is nothing wrong with studying the bible and doing so intellectually, it is clearly not enough to bring about wholistic transformation! Furthermore, many of us in the church $nd ourselves in the losing end of the battle against the lure of the world because we do not employ discipleship strategies that engage the entire being. Again, we have become content with the cognitive and stayed there. I have seen how we, as leaders and disciplers, need to get out of our comfort zones. If we really want to transform lives and society, we need to engage more than the mind, we need to engage one’s entire being.
Additionally, I have seen that God has really given us all that we need to follow Him and live a Holy life. He has not only given us a church family to walk closely and intimately with each of us, but He has given us culture and the elements within it. Culture is not inherently bad- it is something we are called to redeem and steward. e Lord put us within our particular culture for a purpose and we are not to shy away from it nor are we to condemn it. He calls us to seek Him and where He is at work within a culture. He calls us to join Him in redeeming itand rituals such as this are one of the ways in which we, as a church, can do so.
Of course, this study is not exhaustive and much more research can be done. One of which is on the role of symbols and rituals in empowering the youth to abstain from sexual activity. As you have seen in this study, ritual and symbol here serve curative purposes rather than preventive ones. But we all know that prevention is better than cure, so, and it would be great to have more research in that area. Additionally, it would be bene$cial to do research on the role of men of how men perceive their role to be in helping women overcome their struggle with sexuality.
352 Maria Angelica B. de Vera
I know that men cannot relate in the same way as women do in the sexual struggle, but they should have a role in protecting their sisters and help build them up in purity and love. Unfortunately, many of them do not know how- and a study on that will help.
So, I invite you, Rev., the life stages committee, and the Simbahan ng Pagkakaisa, Manila to be part of this ritual. Be part of this journey by praying for us. Pray that the Lord will indeed move and transform the lives of these young women. Pray that this will be the beginning of a movement among the young women in our church and eventually in the larger society. Please pray that through the example of the women who are participating in this ritual, more young women will desire to live pure lives. Apart from praying, you could perhaps support us $nancially. We are hoping to raise PHP 2,000 for this, with the money going to the purchase of the Sampaguita plants, leis, along with the printing of the photos.
ank you so much for making time to read this study and go on this journey with us. I pray that you will continue to journey with us either through prayer or giving or perhaps both; and I pray that as you go with us on this journey, you too will be transformed and blessed!
References Cited
Alcoholics Anonymous. (2017). Questions & Answers on Sponsorship. Alcoholics Anonymous World Services, Inc.
Brown, R. (2004). Communicating God’s Message in an Oral Culture. International Journal of Frontier Missions. 21(3), 122-28.
Catanghal, A. (2018, May 2). !e Sweet Little Sampaguita, the Filipinos, and the Malolos ‘Planta’. Bulakenyo.Ph. https:// www.bulakenyo.ph/the-sampaguita-the-filipinos-andthe-planta/
Clark, J. (2023, October 11). Sampaguita Flower Symbolism in Filipino Culture. Lotus Try O.
Editorial Sta!. (2022, September 12). 12 Questions about the 12 steps: What is a Sponsor? American Addiction Centers. https://americanaddictioncenters.org/blog/what-is-asponsor
Exploring National Symbols of the Philippines and the Desirable Filipino Traits !ey Signify (n.d.) Bright Hub Education. https://www.brighthubeducation.com/social-studieshelp/122236-national-symbols-of-the-philippines/ Foliage Friend, J. (n.d.) Sampaguita Flower: Meaning, Symbolism, & Spirtual Signi cance. Foliage Friend.
Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Sexuality. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved February 19, 2024, from https:// www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sexuality
Moon, W. Jay. (2017). Intercultural Discipleship: Learning from Global Approaches to Spiritual Formation. Baker Academic. D01-1872432-8233829
Parrott, L. & Parrott, L. (1998). Relationships. Zondervan.
Philippine National Flower- Sampaguita (n.d.) National Museum.
Samo (2023, May 08). Bulaklak ng Pilipinas: Celebrating the National Flower and Unique Floral Biodiversity. Flowerstore. Ph. https://%owerstore.ph/blog/bulaklak-pilipinas
Santrock, J (2000). Psychology. 6th ed. McGraw- Hill Higher Education.
Tumang, M. [@maktumang]. (2019, February 21). “SAMPAGUITA: A Promise Ful$lled
e Sampagiuta; also known as the Philippine Jasmine, is the national %ower of our beautiful Country- the Philippines. Legend has it that its etymology was derived from the Filipino words “sump akita” which mean “I promise you”. is ornamental %ower is an inherent part of our Landscape since time immemorial. Interestingly, this %ower has a lot to do with the concept of Coming home. You know you are home when its distinct sweet and aromatic frangrance tickles Your olfactory sense. Moreover, the %owers are usually slung and made into leis which are used To welcome dignitaries or are being peddled in front of churches so as to become o!erings. Ergo, It is but $tting that we welcome our Queen with Sampaguitas adorned with Anahaw- our national Leaf. Catriona will wear this Philippine Terno which is a “Callado” (similar to Pina Barong) Embroidered gown with stylized Panuelo and Mariposa sleeves. Welcome home, Catriona!
ank you for the ful$lled promise of making the Filipino people proud! Mabuhay!” [Photograph] . https://www. instagram.com/maktumang?igsh=emdrcGRjeHJudHR4
Chapter 17
Mangalasutra in India
By: S.P., M.R.
Introduction
India is the country wherein the various sorts of culture, context, customs, and traditions we be traced. Contemporary around 29 states are here and each state is having its own culture and tradition which may be quite distinct or identical.
In this chapter, the researcher is going to acquaint the reader with the lady’s marriage symbol that is called “Mangalsutra”. During the marriage ceremony, the bride ties this Mangalsutra around the neck of her groom, and that alludes the marriage has been done successfully.
A Hindu girl named Kalpana was curious about understanding di erent religions and had a deep longing for spiritual connection. One day, she met a Christian missionary named Sarah who shared the gospel of Jesus with her.
As Kalpana listened to Sarah’s stories and teachings, she felt a strong connection to the love and grace that Jesus represented. She decided to accept Jesus Christ as her personal saviour and follow Him. Event though she was a Hindu, she wanted to marry a Christian man but her family did not allow so; therefore, she faced criticism by her own family and many a times even received a beating. Still she decided to be married with the Christian man, and for this reason she was kicked out from her own house, and was not allowed to return home. When she le the father’s home, she went to Sarah’s house (the one who shared gospel with her) and she shared everything that happened to her.
358 Manish Rao and Simon Peter
Sarah then asked, “Do you know any Christian person who can marry you or do you anyone who belongs to a Christian background?” !en Kalpana took Simon’s name with whom she married. Once married, she came to Simon’s house and saw the Pentecostal family culture. Kalpana also cherished her cultural identity and wanted to honour her Hindu traditions.
One of the traditions that held great signi cance for Kalpana was wearing a Mangalsutra, a sacred necklace symbolizing the bond of marriage. Despite her newfound faith, Kalpana felt a deep attachment to this cultural symbol and wished to continue wearing it.
Kalpana shared her desire with her husband, who understood the importance of cultural expression in one’s faith journey. Simon encouraged Kalpana to have open and honest conversations with her mother-in-law. She had a word with her mother-in-law but she reject the suggestion about retaining the mangalsutra due to her faith and cultural practices.
Simon knew it as she comes from a shame and fear culture. With Simon’s guidance, Kalpana explained her decision to follow Jesus while also expressing her desire to wear the Mangalsutra. Simon and Kalpana found a beautiful middle ground where Kalpana could continue wearing the Mangalsutra while embracing her Christian faith. It became a symbol of her commitment to both her cultural heritage and her newfound relationship with Jesus.
Kalpana’s story spread throughout the place where she lived, inspiring others to explore their own spiritual journeys while embracing their cultural roots. It became a testament to the power of understanding, respect, and nding common ground in the midst of cultural and religious diversity.
And so, Kalpana continued to live out her faith, wearing her beloved Mangalsutra as a reminder of her unique journey and the love of Jesus that transcends all boundaries. A er she was fully
known to Christ, she knows that it’s just made up of Gold so now she doesn’t wear it.
Phenomenological Study
e Mangalsutra is a sacred necklace or chain traditionally worn by married Hindu women in India, particularly in Hindu communities across South Asia. It is an important symbol of marriage and marital commitment in Hindu culture, signifying the bond between husband and wife.
As per our understanding of Mangalsutra, it is believed that it is a tradition of India that a married woman should wear thread around her neck so that people may know she is married, if a pastor says you need not to wear it. If she obeys the pastor, then the people may look her down and she will fall in the shame culture according to India a person who got married should wear a sacred thread around her neck or else she would get a new proposal, so as a Christian we should teach them about our faith in Jesus Christ, because a wedding ring serves the same purpose as a Mangalsutra because it’s just of Gold. If that member of a church a new convert says that it is for my husband long age or if I wear this it will protect my husband then we can say them it is not like that, if they want to wear it, we can break the curse or any chanting that made in that thread, I mean we can purify it and wear it or else we will request them to add a small cross in that Mangalsutra.
Meaning and signi cance of Mangalsutra
e word “Mangalsutra” is derived from Sanskrit, with “Mangal” meaning auspicious or fortunate, and “Sutra” meaning thread or string. e Mangalsutra symbolizes the auspiciousness and longevity of the marital relationship. It is believed to protect
360 Manish Rao and Simon Peter
the marriage from evil spirits and bring prosperity, happiness, and well-being to the couple. A Mangalsutra is a symbol of marriage and the wife is meant to wear it all her life indicating the love and commitment the husband and wife have towards each other.
South Indians believe that the Mangalsutra needs to be tied in 3 knots with each knot carrying a signi$cance loyalty towards the husband, dedication to the family, and devotion to the lord. In some parts of the country, the $rst knot is tied by the husband and the remaining two knots are tied by the groom’s sisters. It is believed that the black beads of a Mangalsutra are blessed with divine powers to protect the married couple. It is also believed that the wife wears a Mangalsutra to shield her husband from bad luck or danger.
Varieties of Mangalasutra
It is believed that Mangalsutra, which is one of the most essential aspects of the Hindu tradition, originated in South India and was adopted by the Northern states. Known for its vast and diverse culture, India has traditions intrinsically intertwined into each state within the country. Weddings are one such tradition that has the Mangalsutras set at the centre of the ceremony. e di!erent states and then di!erent caste and sometimes even the sub-castes all have di!erent customs and traditions. erefore, it is always di&cult to paint the whole country in one colour when there is so much diversity. We will seek to throw more clarity into the di!erent types used across the country, their names and their basic designs.
!aali:
In South India, the name and style of a Mangalsutra change depending on the community and caste. It is usually called a !aali or !irumangalyam, and it has a long yellow thread and a gold pendant representing the Goddess Supreme.
Tanmaniya:
e North Indian version of a Mangalsutra usually has a black beads chain and a gold pendant. e pendant is called the Tanmaniya and it comes in a variety of designs. North Indian weddings usually have a separate ceremony for tying the sacred thread around the bride’s neck.
Bengali:
Bengalis have no tradition of anything like bengali mangalsutra. Married Bengali women wear Shakha Paula bangles mandatorily. Shakha Paula comes from Shankha, meaning conch while the Paula is made of corals. One set of the bangles is worn on each hand by every married woman. While most people associate Mangalsutra with a religious custom, there is also a sound scienti$c justi$cation behind it. Hindu culture emphasises on wearing a Mangalsutra made of pure gold and it is o en advised that the Mangalsutra should be hidden behind the inners. According to Ayurveda – the ancient Indian science – pure gold has a number of healing properties, and the most important of them is improved heart health. Ayurveda reveals that wearing a Mangalsutra close to the heart (touching the skin) attracts cosmic waves from the surroundings and aids heart functioning. It is also considered that these waves help in maintaining a happy, healthy relationship between the husband and wife. e health bene$ts of wearing a Mangalsutra include.
Gujarati:
Gujarati mangalsutra design consists black beads with intricate gold pendant. e Gujarati mangalsutra is a sacred necklace worn by married women, symbolizing marriage and cultural signi$cance. It consists of a pendant with intricate designs, o en featuring religious symbols. Black beads, typically glass, are believed to ward o! evil spirits and bring prosperity to the marriage. e design and style can vary based on regional
362 Manish Rao and Simon Peter preferences and individual choices. !e mangalsutra is an integral part of Gujarati households.
Sikh:
e formal engagement or kurmai is usually a family a!air. e bride’s family goes to the groom’s house carrying gi s that include sweets, clothes and jewellery. e bride’s father or guardian gives the groom a gold ring, a Kada (Gents Bangle) and gold mohre (coins). Later, these coins are strung into a black thread and given to the bride. She wears it around her neck and it is akin to the mangalsutra worn by Hindu women. But amongst Sikhs, the bride wears this thread only during special occasions. Chuda (wedding bangles) are a more important symbol of marriage for Sikhs than anything else.
Sindhi:
For Sindhis, Mangalsutra is still an important part of the marriage. Generally made of gold, they are worn with black and gold beaded chains. e mangalsutra is generally from the groom’s side.
Kashmiri:
Kashmiri Pandits have ‘dejhoor,’ which can be considered in close resemblance to the mangalsutras of the Hindus. ese are the elegantly shaped golden ornament, all most the size of an almond, suspended through both the ears either by a golden chain or coloured thread up to chest from the day of the marriage. e “dejhoor” is suspended through the ears to strike with the women’s chest for wishing the long life of her husband. is yantra, Dejhoor, is dangled from piercings in the upper ear cartilage, always the le ear $rst and then the right, and initially, on the day of Devgoan.
Kerala: e Syrian Christians use Minnu as the auspicious wedding thread – equivalent to mangalsutras of the north. e
Mangalasutra in India | 363 Kerala Hindus also use !aali, in Kerala is also called Ela !aali. e same is also called Elagu !aali sometimes. Ela meaning leaf, Ela aali stands for the !aali in the shape of a leaf or bearing the design of a leaf. e Ela aali generally also comprises of an Om symbol embossed or cut-out on the leaf-shaped gold sheet. e Muslims of the North Kerala do not have any tradition of mangalsutras, whereas the Muslims of South Kerala use the aali as their mangalsutra. What is signi$cant and can only be observed in Kerala is that the mangalsutra that is generally a part of Hindu tradition and culture has found a way into the Christian and Muslim wedding traditions and ritual in Kerala.
Maharashtra: e Mangalsutra holds signi$cant cultural and religious importance in Maharashtra, symbolizing marital status and union. Traditionally, it consists of black beads strung together with gold or black beads interspersed with gold. Each community within Maharashtra may have its variations in design and signi$cance attached to the Mangalsutra. It’s o en considered a sacred symbol of marriage and worn by married women as a mark of their marital status.
Di erent types of Mangalsutra
e Two Strings Mangalsutra
e Two strings of the mangalsutra represent Lord Shiva and Goddess Parvati. is divine couple is considered ideal by many people in the Hindu traditions. By wearing Mangalsutra with two strings, Shiv ji and Maa Parvati reside with the couple. erefore, the couple will have the blessings of the gods, and their marriage will be prosperous.
Black
Beads Mangalsutra
We must have seen the black beads in the Mangalsutra thread. We might wonder why Mangalsutra has black beads
364 Manish Rao and Simon Peter and none of the other colours. is is because black beads have magical bene$ts. ese beads absorb the negativity around them. erefore, women who wear a mangalsutra will always stay surrounded by positivity. ese beads also represent the elements of water and Earth. People also believe that lord Shiva resides in these beads.
Gold Chain and Pendant Mangalsutra
Gold in the Mangalsutra represents Metal, Air as well, as Fire elements. erefore, both the beads and the gold give us the blessings of all $ve elements. Many also believe that the pendant is the abode of Goddess Parvati. e pendant also represents Lord Vishnu. Hence, with his blessings, the couple will experience a marriage with fewer con%icts. ey will also have a sense of mutual appreciation as well as respect for each other.
Red Coral Mangalsutra
Certain Mangal sutras have red coral in them. is is because red is the colour of the planet Mars. e Hindi name for Mars is Mangal, and hence, it contributes to the name Mangalsutra. erefore, the red coral gives us the bene$ts of Mangal. Red is also the colour that Hindu brides usually wear during their weddings. erefore, having a red coral in the wedding Mangalsutra is very auspicious.
e Chain Mangalsutra
Furthermore, the chain is split into seven sections which represent the seven chakras in our body. According to Hindu beliefs, the length of the chain should reach the heart of the bride. is is because it provides balance to the heart chakra of the bride. Each section contains nine beads which symbolise the nine forms of the goddess Shakti.
Design: e design of the Mangalsutra can vary based on regional customs, cultural traditions, and personal preferences.
Mangalasutra in India | 365 Typically, it consists of a black or gold chain adorned with black beads, gold beads, or intricate gold pendants. e black beads are believed to ward o! negative energy and protect the couple from harm.
Mangalsutra designs over time and with cultural upgradation have changed a lot. While the cord of the Mangalsutra today can and is also made of gold wire but in earlier times, it compulsorily has to be a combination of 108 (a lucky number) $ne cotton thread dyed in yellow colour.
Even today, some states in South India follow the old school way for it is widely believed that the ritual of Mangalsutra originated in South India and North states adopted the same. Besides the thread, the pendant that the Mangalsutra entail has also changed a lot. Earlier, the pendant used to be a pair of two gold cup-shaped art pieces but today, the pendant is usually made of diamonds with all sorts of creativeness intact.
Mangalsutra, in Hindu traditions, makes one of the $ve signs of marital status. e other four are toe rings, Kumkum, bangles and a nose ring. Of these $ve, Mangalsutra is the most important.
When it comes about Mangalsutra strings, we must $rst consider how long Mangalsutra string should be. Expert AstroTalk astrologers suggest that the size of Mangalsutra string must be such that that the pendant on it reaches the bride’s Anahat Chakra, meaning Heart Chakra. e presence of the pendant close to the heart can deliver health bene$ts.
If you wonder why there are two strings in a Mangalsutra, it’s simply to signify the union of Lord Shiva and Goddess Shakti and their principles. To lead a successful life, the principles of Shiva and Shakti are merged. Here, Shiva himself is the doer and Shakti allows the strength to his actions. And this is how karma
366 Manish Rao and Simon Peter becomes a karma, thereby achieving the desired Chaitanyaoriented result.
e whole Mangalsutra chain is divided into seven sections. ese sections denote the seven Chakras in our body. Further, the nine beads on the string in each section denote the nine forms of Adi-shakti. is pattern, strung in golden thread, bars the evil vibrations from coming closer to the woman’s body and eliminates them if they do. Also, if you carefully scan the Mangalsutra string, you will notice that the void created in the segment of the two strings of black beads is rectangular. e rectangular shape is said to attract the waves of ichha-shakti in a human. It helps a woman in ful$lling her desires.
Ontological
Critique
e Mangalsutra holds signi$cant ceremonial importance in Hindu weddings. During the wedding ceremony, the groom ties the Mangalsutra around the bride’s neck as a symbol of their marital union and commitment. is ritual, known as “Mangalya Dharana,” is a sacred and solemn moment in the wedding ceremony, symbolizing the bride’s acceptance of her role as a married woman.
Social Signi cance
In addition to its religious and ceremonial signi$cance, the Mangalsutra also carries social and cultural signi$cance within Hindu society. It serves as a visible marker of a woman’s marital status and is o en worn as a daily adornment, indicating her commitment to her husband and her role as a wife within the family and community.
Mangasutra does not only protect the lady in the house from intangible forces but wearing Mangalsutra also allows
various health bene$ts. e pendant in Mangalsutra, when worn in a way that it reaches the bride’s Anahat Chakra, keeps the heart healthy and negative energies at bay. is is due to the healing properties of Gold.
Gold, when kept closer to the skin, attracts cosmic waves and supports healthy heart and body function. Moreover, the black beads, owing to their piousness, keep negative energy at bay and reduce pain and restlessness in a person. It simply keeps the woman positive and happy.
Wearing a Mangalsutra enhances immune system functioning. e sacred thread, draped in yellow, regularises blood circulation allowing the woman activeness of all sorts.
Modern Adaptations
While the traditional design of the Mangalsutra remains popular, modern variations and adaptations have emerged over time. Some women may opt for more contemporary designs or personalized styles that re%ect their individual taste and preferences. Additionally, the signi$cance of the Mangalsutra continues to evolve in response to changing cultural norms and societal values.
All things considered, the Mangalsutra is a highly revered representation of Hindu marriage and marital devotion, representing the holy tie that unites husband and wife and acting as a material memento of their union and life’s journey together.
Story Behind Mangalsutra
e story of the Mangalsutra is deeply rooted in Hindu mythology and cultural traditions, with various legends and beliefs surrounding its origin and signi$cance. While there are several versions of the story, one of the most well-known
368 Manish Rao and Simon Peter narratives involves the deity Lord Shiva and his wife, the goddess Parvati.
According to Hindu mythology, Parvati, the daughter of the Himalayas, performed intense penance to win the love and a!ection of Lord Shiva, who was known for his ascetic lifestyle and indi!erence towards worldly a!airs. Impressed by Parvati’s devotion and determination, Lord Shiva eventually agreed to marry her, and they became husband and wife.
As the story goes, a er their wedding ceremony, Lord Shiva bestowed upon Parvati a sacred thread made of divine materials, symbolizing their marital union and eternal bond. is thread came to be known as the Mangalsutra, with “Mangal” signifying auspiciousness and “Sutra” referring to a thread or string.
e Mangalsutra served as a powerful symbol of Parvati’s devotion, love, and commitment to Lord Shiva, and it became an integral part of her identity as a married woman. It is said that Parvati wore the Mangalsutra with pride and reverence, and its signi$cance transcended mere ornamentation to represent the sacred bond between husband and wife.
Over time, the tradition of the Mangalsutra evolved within Hindu culture, with variations in design, materials, and customs across di!erent regions and communities. However, its essence as a symbol of marital bliss, prosperity, and protection remained unchanged, and it continues to be cherished by Hindu women as a sacred emblem of their married status and commitment to their spouses.
While the story of the Mangalsutra may be rooted in mythology, its signi$cance extends beyond religious beliefs to encompass cultural values, social customs, and the enduring bond of love and partnership between husband and wife in Hindu society.
is sindoor and Mangalsutra are just a symbol for married women. So that other males will not put wrong eye on that girl. It is expected other males will regard that women as mother. Not to see her in a wrong eye. So, to get social dignity and protect her modesty, women used to wear sindoor on forehead. It is like - the police dress code or identity card used by Indian citizens. ese symbols had relevance when there was child marriage in India. People used to recognize the married girls from others through RED marking on forehead and Mangalsutra. On the death of husband both this RED marking and Mangalsutra were removed. All these symbolisms are not required in current age.
But it’s just a myth, if we look deep in Indian culture it was taught by the Hindu Brahmin Pandit so that they can earn money through this. In today’s context, educated people won’t wear it because they have Marriage certi$cates. But if a missionary (as I am) married and we are going to the locals in India, we need to adopt this culture otherwise they won’t accept us.
Critical Evaluation
While wearing a Mangalsutra is traditionally associated with Hindu culture and marriage customs, there is no religious prohibition against a Christian wearing one. However, whether or not a Christian chooses to wear a Mangalsutra is ultimately a personal decision and may depend on various factors, including individual beliefs, cultural context, and the signi$cance attached to the symbol.
Some Christians may choose to wear a Mangalsutra as a gesture of respect for their spouse’s cultural heritage or as a symbol of their commitment to their marriage within a multicultural
370 Manish Rao and Simon Peter context. Others may prefer not to wear it due to di!erences in religious beliefs or cultural practices.
It’s essential to recognize that the Mangalsutra holds speci$c religious and cultural meanings within Hinduism, and wearing it as a Christian may be perceived di!erently by various individuals and communities. erefore, Christians who are considering wearing a Mangalsutra should carefully consider the implications and sensitivities involved, engage in respectful dialogue with their spouse and family members, and make a decision that aligns with their personal convictions and values.
Depending on the person’s cultural background, personal views, and theological interpretation, wearing a Mangalsutra is a sacred symbol generally worn by married Hindu women and can mean di!erent things to di!erent Christians. Several viewpoints on this technique are as follows.
Cultural Expression
Wearing the Mangalsutra may be viewed by some Christians who live in areas where it has cultural signi$cance as a way to represent one’s culture or show respect for regional customs and traditions. In these situations, wearing a Mangalsutra might be seen as a method to uphold one’s Christian beliefs while honouring and adopting elements of the local culture.
Interfaith Marriage
Wearing the Mangalsutra might represent respect and harmony in a marriage between a Christian and a Hindu partner. It may be seen as an expression of love and support for one’s spouse, recognizing and appreciating the shared cultural and religious background of the two individuals.
Depending on how they understand Christian principles or what their personal convictions are, some Christians may decide to wear the Mangalsutra. Some could think that wearing the Mangalsutra contradicts any fundamental Christian principles or compromises their Christian faith. On the other hand, they could view it as a harmless accessory or cultural symbol.
Ethical Considerations
Wearing the Mangalsutra may give rise to ethical concerns concerning religious syncretism, cultural appropriation, and the authenticity of one’s Christian witness. When deciding whether to wear the Mangalsutra, Christians should think carefully about how their decision may a!ect their connection with God, their Christian community, and society at large.
A Christian’s choice to wear a Mangalsutra depends on their theological understanding and sense of personal conscience. It is up to each person to consider in prayer if wearing the Mangalsutra is consistent with their Christian beliefs, moral principles, and values.
Missiological Transformation
Wrong side of Symbolism
e bad side of this rigid symbolism creates unnecessary social restriction and social exploitation. For example, If there is no sindoor on a woman’s forehead and no mangalasutra on her neck, then people start thinking either her husband is dead OR it is dangerous to husband’s life OR something wrong will happen to their relations. ese are all false fears created by sel$sh priests. So those women su!er from social criticism, and frustration. So they isolate themselves from society. In today’s world, it is not relevant because women are more matured and educated. We
372 Manish Rao and Simon Peter have other methods to convey the marital status (e.g., through Bio-data, social pro$le etc.).
A key component in Hindu religious and cultural traditions is the mangalsutra. Wearing a mangalsutra may be perceived by Christians as borrowing aspects of another religion system. is brings up issues of mutual respect for others’ cultural and religious history as well as the possibility of miscommunication or o!ense among the communities of Hindus and Christians.
Syncretism and Identity
It could be di&cult to tell the di!erence between religious identities and activities when a Christian wear a mangalsutra. e combined practice of many religious rituals and beliefs might produce a feeling of syncretism, which could be interpreted as weakening the individuality of Christian religion and identity. When interacting with cultural symbols from other religious traditions, Christians may $nd it di&cult to stay true to who they are as followers of Christ.
e theological implications of wearing a mangalsutra may be questioned by certain Christians who wonder if it is consistent with Christian beliefs and principles. ey could struggle with things like cultural relativism, idolatry, and the veracity of the Christian message. It may be necessary for Christians to determine if donning a Mangalsutra is a sign of obedient devotion to Christ and the moral precepts of the gospel.
Interfaith Relations
Christians wearing a Mangalsutra may have an impact on interfaith communication and ties. It may promote harmony and collaboration amongst individuals of various religious origins by fostering understanding and acceptance within interfaith families
or communities. Conversely, if handled carelessly and impolitely, it could also result in con%icts or misunderstandings.
Community Acceptance
Christians may encounter criticism or disapproval from Christian groups or peers if they decide to wear a mangalsutra. Concerning their beliefs, motivations, and theological understanding, they can run into di&culties. Within their religious community, Christians may need to handle interactions and conversations with humility, openness, and a desire to have a discussion.
Story of a Christian women who married a Hindu man e story of a Christian lady wearing a mangalsutra can vary depending on individual circumstances and motivations. Here is a $ctional narrative that explores one possible scenario:
Sarah was a devout Christian woman living in a small village in southern India. She was married to Rajesh, a Hindu man from a neighbouring village. Despite coming from di!erent religious backgrounds, Sarah and Rajesh shared a deep love and respect for each other’s faith traditions.
One day, as Sarah and Rajesh were discussing their wedding anniversary, Rajesh presented Sarah with a beautiful mangalsutra, a traditional symbol of marriage in Hindu culture. He explained that he wanted Sarah to wear it as a symbol of their love and commitment to each other, regardless of their religious di!erences.
Sarah was initially hesitant. As a Christian, she had been taught to avoid practices that could be perceived as syncretism or compromise of her faith. However, a er much prayer and re%ection, Sarah decided to accept the mangalsutra as a gesture of love and unity with her husband.
374 Manish Rao and Simon Peter
Wearing the mangalsutra became a meaningful expression of Sarah and Rajesh’s marriage. Whenever Sarah adorned it around her neck, she was reminded of the love they shared and the bond that transcended religious boundaries. e mangalsutra became a symbol of their mutual respect, understanding, and acceptance of each other’s beliefs.
Sarah’s decision to wear the Mangalsutra did not go unnoticed by her Christian community. Some questioned her motives, while others admired her courage and commitment to her marriage. Sarah took the opportunity to share her story with her fellow Christians, emphasizing the importance of love, tolerance, and acceptance in building harmonious relationships.
Over time, Sarah’s example inspired others in her community to re-examine their attitudes towards interfaith relationships and cultural symbols. rough her actions, Sarah demonstrated that love knows no boundaries and that mutual respect and understanding can bridge even the deepest divides.
Cautions
Syncretism
Syncretism refers to the blending of di!erent religious beliefs or practices. Some Christians may view the wearing of the mangalsutra by a Christian as a form of syncretism, where elements of Hindu religious tradition are incorporated into Christian faith and practice. ey may argue that such syncretism compromises the purity of Christian worship and doctrine, potentially leading to confusion or dilution of the gospel message.
Idolatry
In some Christian theological perspectives, there may be concerns about the potential for the mangalsutra to become an object of idolatry, where the symbol itself is revered or worshipped
in India | 375 in a way that detracts from the worship of God alone. Christians may emphasize the biblical prohibition against idol worship and caution against the use of symbols or rituals that could lead to idolatrous practices.
Marriage Symbolism
From a Christian theological perspective, marriage is o en seen as a sacred covenant between a man and a woman, established and blessed by God. Some Christians may argue that the mangalsutra, as a symbol of Hindu marriage traditions, carries theological signi$cance that is incompatible with Christian beliefs about marriage. ey may assert the importance of using Christian symbols and rituals to convey the spiritual signi$cance of marriage within the context of Christian faith.
Witness and Distinctiveness
Christians are called to be witnesses to their faith and to live in a way that re%ects the teachings of Jesus Christ. Some Christians may express concern that wearing the Mangalsutra could compromise their Christian witness and undermine the distinctiveness of their faith identity. ey may advocate for practices and symbols that align with Christian doctrine and values, avoiding those that may cause confusion or compromise their allegiance to Christ.
It’s important to note that perspectives on the theological implications of wearing the mangalsutra can vary widely among Christians, and individuals may hold di!erent opinions based on their theological convictions, cultural context, and personal beliefs. Ultimately, each Christian must prayerfully discern how to navigate matters of faith and practice in a way that is faithful to their understanding of God’s Word and the leading of the Holy Spirit.
376 Manish Rao and Simon Peter
In Christianity, there isn’t a direct equivalent of the Mangalsutra as it is in some other cultures. However, wedding rings are commonly used to symbolize the union between spouses. e exchange of rings during the wedding ceremony represents the commitment, love, and loyalty between the couple. While the symbolism may di!er, the sentiment of lifelong partnership and commitment remains central in Christian marriages, much like in other cultures where the Mangalsutra holds signi$cance. So, in Christian marriages if a person wants to use Mangalsutra in marriage it’s ok to wear it because it symbolizes the union between spouses but they should add a small cross on that Mangalsutra.
References Cited
Yadav Anil, “Ethical Re%ections on Cultural Appropriation in Religious Practices,” Journal of Christian Ethics 15, no. 1 (2021).
John, Smith. “Syncretism in Christian eology: Challenges and Responses.” Journal of Christian Studies 25, no. 3 (2020).
Jones Michael, “Christian Marriage and Hindu Symbols: A eological Analysis,” Interfaith Dialogue Quarterly 12, no. 4 (2021).
Short-term Missions, A Ritual for Growth in Walking with Jesus
By Yin Le
Introduction
During the ree Kingdom period in Ancient China, a saying emerged, “Chicken ribs, %avourless to savour, yet it is also a waste to throw it away.” is proverb conveys the idea that something is of little value, yet one remains reluctant to discard it.
One of the $rst experiences in my ministry that came close to describing a ministry activity like this would be shortterm missions (STM). In a ministry or church that maintains the tradition of sending STM, it may be all exciting and rewarding to begin with. People are eager to give their time, money, and resources. It was once estimated that one million Americans go on mission trips annually at a cost of one billion dollars, and the number only grew a er that (Priest 2008, 631). Being a STM participant may also be perceived as a heroic act with many great stories to be told. However, a er the initial enthusiasm fades, questions arise regarding the validity and e!ectiveness of STMs.
Phenomenological Study
O en the following claim is made about STM. STM is an e!ective way to help raise up long-term missionaries and can have a lasting positive impact on participants’ walk with Jesus. Despite these assertions, little research was conducted to evaluate the impact of STM until the early 21st century (Priest 2008,
380 Yin Le 152). Many claims regarding STM had been based on subjective impression rather than on empirical data (Priest 2008, 319).
Approximately from 1992 to 2005, data collected from 700 U.S. and 120 Canadian Protestant mission agencies indicated that the signi$cant rise in the number of STM participants did not lead to an increase in the number of long-term missionaries (Priest 2008, 460). Moreover, another review of STM research revealed that eleven out of thirteen STM studies found little to no signi$cant positive impact on the lives of STM participants (Priest 2008, 6309). Unfortunately, there were also reports suggesting STM competed for fundings which resulted in longterm missionaries losing their $nancial support (Priest 2008, 901).
STM has faced its share of criticisms over the years. When I was raising support to join my $rst STM project overseas thirteen years ago, the experience was not purely victorious or glorious. One individual responded to my support letter in a very stern tone, saying, “I do not support short-term mission trips. However, if you ever want to become a long-term missionary, I will consider supporting you.”
One may start to scrutinize the legitimacy of STM and question whether claims of its e!ectiveness truly hold up. What once was a promising attempt is now sliding toward becoming merely “Chicken ribs” a er the dust has settled.
An article published in a prominent Chinese missiology journal in recent years describes the sending of STM trips has become increasingly popular and growing. e article a&rmed the positives associated with STM, yet also pointed out the harm it has caused. e author also encourages the readers to engage in discussions on how STM can truly be e!ective and serve as catalyst for long-term missions (Qiu 2002, 83). erefore, it is
essential to reexamine what are reasonable expectations and goals for STM.
Ontological Critique and Critical Evaluation
When I was still a university student, Bible passages like Jonah preaching to Nineveh and Jesus sending out the seventy were used to support that STM could bear much fruit. Such practices in the Bible seemed to be able to address the doubt regarding the substantial $nancial investment in such short-term projects. During my $rst summer STM project to the CC, which had a duration of six weeks, 101 university students prayed to receive Christ surpassing our faith goal of 100. One could describe it as a Jonah moment that in such a short period of time (about four weeks of university campus ministry), many came to faith. e length of your mission trip is not the issue as God can work miraculously in any length of time.
In the subsequent year, however, I participated in the same STM project, but le with a very di!erent outcome. A er graduating from university, I returned to CC for a two-year assignment and found myself asking the question, “Where are those 101 students now?” When a team member and I tried to follow up with those who had made a decision to follow Christ the previous summer, we discovered that not many continued in their faith.
If STM is evaluated only based on the number of decisions made to follow Jesus in comparison to the $nancial resources invested, and if disciples not converts is the end goal, then it becomes challenging to justify these STM trips. Nevertheless, we should not deny that STM le no impact at all because as the Bible reminds us that “there will be more joy in heaven over one sinner who repents.” (Luke 15:10) I am certain that lasting fruits exist despite the discrepancies in the reported numbers.
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ere are alternative perspectives to look at the purpose and value of STM.
In recent years, many have begun to see STM as opportunities for participants to see the world, to gain a Kingdom perspective, and to strengthen their walk with Jesus. Especially in the CC, due to tightened security, evangelism is also hard to carry out during STM trips. Many STM trips are more like vision trips allowing participants to experience cross-cultural living, to hear local missionaries’ stories, to attend local Sunday services, and to meet fellow believers. Some trips are designed for participants to retrace the paths of missionaries who once lived and served in certain areas, serving as a way to remember the history and to mobilize potential missionaries. ere is little to no content related to evangelism and engaging local non-Christian population.
Limited research has been conducted in CC regarding whether STM contributed to an increase in long-term missionaries, or STM helped participants to grow in their faith. From Robert J. Priest’s book, there was no concrete evidence in the North American church to support these conclusions. I am tempted to draw the similar conclusions based on my experiences in the CC.
As Dr. Jay Moon brought up in his Cross-Cultural Discipleship class, when a ritual fails to deliver its intended purpose, one can either abandon the ritual or transform it (Moon, 2024).
Not all baptisms or communions bring every individual closer to Christ, yet it does not imply that the church should discontinue these sacraments. Instead, we should try hard to $nd ways to recapture the intended meaning so that the intended purposes can be achieved.
is may be true for STM as well. ere is an e!ective way to do it and an irresponsible way to do it. How then shall we approach STM? I propose that we see it through the lens of a ritual - a ritual designed for participants to grow in their walk with Jesus yet not neglecting the M (mission) in STM.
Missiological Transformation
Even though Christians can be skeptical when hearing the word ritual, yet rituals can serve as powerful tools for discipleship (Moon 2017, 154). As some Christian missiologists pointed out that many Christian discipleship activities are ritualistic in nature themselves, whether it is a Bible study, a church service, a conference, or a retreat (Moon 2017, 153).
If we start to look at STM not merely as a means of converting people to Christianity but a ritual that can be thoughtfully designed for discipleship opportunities, then STM already presents one of the most identi$able structures of a ritual.
Arnold van Gennep identi$ed three stages in a rite of passage which are separation, transition, and reintegration (Moon 2017, 108). STM participants must leave their home and daily routine (separation) to join others in a new culture, facing new challenges while working toward a common goal (transition including liminality and communitas). When STMs end, participants need to return to their daily routine (reintegration). e nature of STM inherently involves separation, transition, and reintegration.
To maximize the impact of a ritual - in this case, STM - one should consider ways to enhance the experience of each stage.
I suggest that in Christian discipleship activities that are ritualistic - whether Bible studies, church services, conferences, retreats - we o en overlook the process of creating separation
384 Yin Le and facilitating reintegration (Moon 2017, 152-3). Most of our focus tends to be given to the content of these rituals.
Unlike the Israelites in the Old Testament, who would prepare themselves to be ceremonial clean before a festival or gathering, we o en spent little time to set ourselves apart for anything sacred from our daily routines. e distinction between the sacred and the ordinary are blurred. A ritualistic Christian activity should be able to evoke a sense of entering into a sacred space and time to encounter God (Moon 2017, 141). By intentionally creating separation and facilitating reintegration, maybe we can enhance the impact of these ritualistic Christian activities, including STM.
To enhance the sense of separation, one needs to think of how STM participants can truly leave their “old state” behind. ere should be a de$nite “break” (Moon 2017, 176).
Living in a new culture during STMs can be challenging, which provides an ideal opportunity to create liminality. Participants most likely will experience culture shock which involves confusion and struggle. However, it is also an opportunity for communitas that participants can bond with one another as well as their faith. However, it may require understanding and planning for cross-cultural living and missions. Ultimately, a ritual is not to create disorientation but to strengthen one’s faith. Participants should be able to $nd meaning in their struggles, challenges, and even danger and connect them to their faith in Jesus.
Eventually, when one returns, how can someone reintegrate in a way that one is transformed and their faith elevated is also to be considered.
In the next section, I will o!er some practical ways to enhance separation, transition, and reintegration in a STM project. is is not an attempt to give a de$nite answer to what
STMs can accomplish, or to provide a detailed plan for discipling STM participants, or to compile a checklist for STM trips.
ese suggestions also by no means are exhaustive or applicable to all STM projects. Rather, they aim to look at STM as a ritual that creates opportunities for discipleship and to stimulate further discussion on how to do STM well.
Maybe it will also shine some light to reevaluate and reinvent existing ministry activities or ceremonies, such as retreats, conferences, discipleship groups, sending-o! missionaries, etc..
Separation: Leaving Your Home Culture Behind
It is not hard for STM participants to realize that they are about to leave their daily routine and responsibilities behind once they get on a plane (or train in some cases) to their destination.
However, one may still be attached to their “old state” through other means. Here are some ways that help enhance the experience of separation besides STM participants physically leaving their home country for the mission, so that STM participants can have a stronger sense of entering into a time and space that is set apart for something sacred.
Technology - Not Your Best Friend on A STM
Limit the use of internet to disconnect
Technology keeps individuals connected regardless of their location around the globe. With the internet and social media, STM participants can still maintain somewhat connected to home. However, if STM participants can limit their connections to their “old state”, it may help create a sense that they have entered into a space and time that is set apart for a special purpose.
I have observed that some STM participants reply to messages, handle various tasks, and spend a signi$cant amount of time streaming videos during free time. Limiting internet use can help STM participants truly unplug from the outside world while remaining present in the sacred space of their STM experience.
Moreover, limiting the use of internet and social media can also cultivate liminality as STM participants may feel unease when they cannot stream their favourite content, check e-mails, or update their friends on social media.
Limit the use of technology to connect
Technology can also hinder people seeking help from others, as they can rely on Google Map for directions, TripAdvisor for food options, Google Translate for communication, rather than turning to the local people for help. Limiting the use of such technologies forces participants out of their comfort zone and a lifestyle they are used to to adopt a learning posture towards the local people entering into the learning zone.
While technology makes life e&cient and convenient, it can undermine the purpose of STMs, which is to become a learner, to adapt to a new lifestyle, to experience God through challenges and struggles. is does assume that the destination is less technologically advanced compared to one’s home country.
Money and Goods - Not Free to Use
Limit packing to leave our own culture behind
When we go to a di!erent city or country for vacation, we are physically removed from our daily activities and responsibilities. However, the way we choose to pack for vacation o en maintains
a sense of continuity with home. To create a sense of separation, we can be intentional about how and what we pack.
is could be limiting the amount of luggage we bring, even if the airline allows for more. We can limit the number of pairs of shoes, sets of clothes, and socks that participants pack, encouraging participants to experience handwashing or other local ways of doing laundry. It could also mean not bringing a sleeping bag, an in%atable pillow, or a comfortable blanket as we may not know what the living situation will entail.
In addition, not packing familiar snacks or breakfast items like peanut butter, cereal, or instant co!ee can mean that we are saying goodbye to our comfort foods. is may be one of the last ties we need to cut with our home country. For some East Asian countries, this might mean not bringing certain chilli sauces, instant noodles, hot water boilers, or hairdryers. is does not mean that participants can indulge in their home cuisines while on STMs as an alternative. Instead, limiting participants to only eat local cuisines will be bene$cial.
Limit spending to adapt a new lifestyle
Having money provides options to keep a certain lifestyle no matter where one is in the world. One can shop at international chain stores, chain co!ee shops, and eat at Western food brands. One can take a taxi or rent a car instead of using local public transportation. When one is sick, they can choose private hospitals. Sometimes living in our comfort zone or above our comfort zone is easier to achieve in the $eld than our home country due to our purchasing power.
erefore, limiting the amount of money one can spend on food and transportation can be helpful for STM participants to take on the lifestyle of the local people leaving their home culture
388 Yin Le behind. Each participant has the same daily per diem allowance on food, transportation, and ministry expenses.
Send-o! Ceremony
An o&cial send-o! ceremony serves as a signi$cant moment for STM participants, helping them realize their belonging to a larger body of Christ, whether through their church or their para-church ministry.
As they are sent forth, they are to represent their faith community to embark on a mission not merely a cross-cultural experience. e ceremony reminds them of the purpose and meaning of the trip they are about to undertake and a new status they have been given.
is is another opportunity to consider how the three stages of a ritual can be integrated into a send-o! ceremony to enhance its meaning and impact. What are some symbols, smells or physical touch can be used, i.e. laying of hands?
Last weekend, during a conference to challenge graduating university students for full-time ministry, a student shared that he was not seriously considering serving God even he responded to the call and went up to the stage. However, as a sta! laid hands on him and prayed, along with many others, he felt the sense of responsibility transferring to him at that moment and started seriously considering God’s call. A thoughtfully designed sendo! ceremony that connects the ideological and the sensory poles will prepare the team well for the sacred endeavour ahead (Moon 2017, 125).
Others: People prefer to be well-prepared when they travel. With the help of the internet, STM participants can anticipate many “needs” they may encounter, but mostly from a tourist perspective. STM team leaders can help prepare STM participants
embrace uncertainties and unknowns. STM team leaders can provide only essential information to the participants and avoid answering all of their questions before departure. Participants should submit to team leaders’ orders even when they feel unprepared.
Of course we want to avoid putting anyone in unnecessary danger. erefore, the STM team leader plays a crucial role in making sure participants experience inconvenience, ine&ciency, and unknowns without compromising their safety. e team leader is equivalent to a ritual specialist to give instructions, rules and orders.
With these measures in place, STM participants should have a strong sense of entering into a space and a time that is set apart, di!erent from what they are familiar with. ey will take on a new identity and face new challenges as a team.
Transition: Can We Do It? What Is Next?
During the transition stage of a ritual, participants will enter into liminality, which can mean confusion, uncertainty, chaos, challenges, and even danger. Yet, it is also when participants will form communitas to strengthen their bonds with each other and with Jesus (Moon 2017, 108).
Language Learning: the Humble Beginning
Surprisingly, not many STM teams invest time or e!ort into learning the local language. It’s understandable, though, as most STM trips last only eight to fourteen days and have packed schedules (Priest 2008, 119). Is it really worth learning a new language for such a short stay?
Last summer, seven of us traveled to a Southeast Asian country for the $rst time for a three-week STM trip. During
390 Yin Le
the $rst two weeks, we dedicated two to three hours each day to studying the local language in a classroom setting. Since the language bears no resemblance to any language we are familiar with, the learning curve was steep. We started with consonants and vowels, and many were about to give up a er the $rst two days.
As we persevered, some participants discovered some e!ective ways to learn the language. We also discovered sounds that could only be recognized by STM participants who spoke certain CC dialects. Later, some began to catch up, and we bonded over what initially seemed like an impossible task. We also became good friends with our language teachers. We asked them to teach us a local worship song the second week, which was also a fun and e!ective way for beginners to learn a language. is song became the best way for us to make local friends and to bond with local fellow believers.
During debrief, many expressed how language learning helped them engage with the culture and build relationships with local people, even those who initially were resistant to the idea. Learning the language proved to be one of the best uses of our time, allowing us to immerse ourselves in the culture while embracing a challenge as a team. Being able to recognize and read a language—not just mimic its sounds—can deepen your connection to the culture and the people.
Our language learning experience a&rmed the following quote from Moon’s book, Intercultural Discipleship:
A short-term mission trip can be conducted as a positive discipleship ritual by intentionally incorporating each of the three stages of the ritual process structure. To enhance liminality and establish learning relationships, I encourage short-termers to spend the $rst half of the mission trip in language learning. is o en results in communitas,
whereby participants form deeper bonds to their faith and other Christians (both in the host community and among team members). (Moon 2017, 376)
Cultural Learning: You Telling Me My Mom Is Not the Best Cook?
Expand Understanding
As Moon quoting Paul Hiebert in his Intercultural Discipleship, the $rst step to transform someone’s worldview is exposure to di!erent cultures (Moon 2017, 376).
Many STM teams may spend little time learning about the local culture before diving into cross-cultural ministry. Most ministries activities or evangelism methods are prepared from a home culture perspective, which may not guarantee e!ectiveness in the local context and can sometimes lead to embarrassment and confusion. Sometimes, STM participants o en judge local people’s behaviours and responses based on their own cultural norms. Even though they are living and ministering in a crosscultural context, their minds and hearts may remain unchanged. erefore, raising the STM team’s awareness of cultural di!erences as well as providing them a framework of cultural learning can be immensely bene$cial.
Before departure, the STM team leaders received training on topics such as:
Understanding culture
Adjusting to a new culture
Cultural di!erences
Cross-cultural communications
Con%ict resolution
392
e team was also briefed on these topics prior to departure. Lingenfelter and Mayer’s book, Ministering Cross-Culturally, served as reference along with their model of basic values to help the team identify their own value priorities. Hofstede’s book, Cultures and Organizations, was also used as a reference for the team to increase awareness of di!erent cultural values.
It was very helpful for the team to recognize that we tend to be more task-, time-, and crisis-oriented compared to the local culture, which may be more person-, event-, non-crisis-oriented. Being aware of di!erences between high-context and low-context cultures can help avoid misunderstandings and prevent from drawing wrong conclusions.
Understanding these di!erences also improved team dynamics and provided us with categories to better understand one another when con%icts arose.
Discover and Discuss
Rituals sometimes provide opportunity and space for people to share their feelings and learn coping strategies (Moon 2017, 166). It can be helpful for the team to share regularly what they learnt about the local culture and the people. STM participants can share and discuss insights, confusions, and even frustrations about the new culture. Discussions like this can reveal underlying values of ours that are being challenged.
STM leaders can design tasks and goals to guide the team in discovering the local culture, including what to observe and what questions to ask. Craig Ott uses the Iceberg diagram to illustrate the three levels of culture:
Iceberg above the water: what can be seen and observed (clothing, behaviours, traditions)
Iceberg beneath the surface: what is unseen but o en discussed (values, priorities, beliefs)
e bottom of the iceberg: what is assumed and rarely talked about (assumptions about reality, hidden worldviews)
(Ott, 2023)
ese can be helpful categories for team leaders to think of what information is needed in order for the team to have a grasp of the culture.
Other than learning how local people greet each other, their body language, spatial norms and dining etiquette, one can also attempt to learn local proverbs and well-known stories to uncover the underlying values and assumptions of a culture. Some teams even created their own game of cultural scavenger hunt to make it challenging and fun!
Evangelism Strategies: Not One Size Fits All Please
It is surprising how much you can learn once you start asking the right questions and adopt a learning posture while making friends with the local people.
Many STM teams may seek resources (booklets, videos, etc.) from local missionaries for evangelism. However, if the team or at least the team leader is trained in cross-cultural evangelism, they may $nd it possible to develop their own strategies to engage with local people.
rough daily conversations with locals, the team might identify some excluded middle issues that Islam, Buddhism, or folk religions struggle to address. e team may discover some needs the local people have. ey can then brainstorm as a team to determine if there is a Bible story, proverb, or parable that can
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help address those issues and share it with their local friends in the next meeting.
e team can also evaluate how to present the gospel to their local friends. Should it be pure verbal, or would visual aids like drawing be more e!ective? In the process, the team may also realize that certain vocabularies are needed in order to convey the message clearly. en, they enter into a generative cycle of learning the language, learning the culture and developing an evangelism method.
e team is not simply told what to do but actively engaged in the process of discovering new ideas and strategies to share the gospel. is is not an easy task, and some may not even know where to start. However, it compels participants to think deeper about their own faith and how it interacts with people from a di!erent culture.
We all have our own blind spots and set way of thinking. Yet, through this trial-and-error process, one can learn to rely on one another and God more. Most likely, each person will learn something new and beautiful about their faith, strengthening their love for Jesus. Perhaps local missionaries could then join to provide insights and help.
Discover Discipleship in the Ordinary
A er the STM trip, some of the team members reunited for a pottery session. I was surprised by how much I learnt about discipleship through pottery. No wonder the Bible says God is the potter and we are His clay.
is led me to wonder what would happen if STM participants engage in similar cra s in their cultural setting, perhaps rice farming, carpet making, or making a traditional dish or dessert.
ese activities should not be viewed merely as tourist attractions. What if we invite our local friends to participate or even ask them to be our teacher, looking for connections between these cultural experiences and discipleship (using a centered-set approach)? Could there be opportunities for conversations that guide them towards spiritual truth and eventually knowing Jesus?
During the pottery session, I learnt that some preparation is necessary for the clay before it can be molded as air bubbles - cannot be seen by the naked eye - must be eliminated. Once I molded the clay into the shape I desired, it then will be put into the oven. However, the temperature of the oven cannot increase too rapidly or it will shatter.
Even when all the right steps are followed, the $nal product may still fail because there could be defects in the clay itself to begin with. Despite doing everything correctly and devotedly, some factors remain beyond our control. I’m sure these lessons resonate with our experiences in evangelism and discipleship.
If we truly immerse ourselves in a new culture and learn about their traditions and way of living, I am eager to see what connections we can draw between the local cultural elements and the gospel. As it is written, “ ey should seek God, and perhaps feel their way toward him and $nd him. Yet he is actually not far from each one of us.” (Acts 17:27, ESV)
It Is An Adventure!
A er our formal ministry time in Southeast Asia - language and cultural learning, evangelism on campus, meeting local workers and believers - we spent the $nal days exploring other parts of the country.
One of our activities involved climbing a relatively challenging hill. When we were there, it was still the rainy season. We decided to seize a brief window of opportunity when the rain stopped, but to our surprise, our taxi driver struggled to $nd the
entrance, as it was not a well-developed area or a popular tourist attraction. One car arrived early, while our second car got lost for quite a while. e road was muddy, and by the time we reached the foot of the hill, our shoes were already covered in mud. To make matters worse, it started raining again before we started the hike, and it was already getting dark. I still didn’t understand why we decided to hike up anyway without even bringing a %ashlight. Fortunately, we made it to the top and back safe.
Before leaving for the mountain, we had not arranged our return transportation, and we did not know it was almost impossible to get a taxi there. However, our taxi driver was kind enough to come back with a van to drive all of us back. is unexpected adventure became a highlight for everyone. We didn’t anticipate hiking in the dark and the heavy rain, but it o!ered just the right mix of excitement, uncertainty, and risk.
While safety is a top concern for STM trips, engaging in a bit of adventure is also a very helpful way for participants to bond and form communitas. is hike at the very end of our STM was a memorable closure for all of us. Without any prior planning, this experience also turned out to be a valuable opportunity for participants to re%ect on their spiritual walk with Jesus.
We questioned whether we should proceed, especially since someone had warned us not to go due to the rain. We doubted if we could make it to the top and back down as the rain intensi$ed. In the end, we needed each other to look out for the loose steps and o!ered support when others struggled. When we reached the top, everyone agreed that all the fears and struggles on the way up was totally worth it. We drew a lot of parallels to our spiritual journey as well from the hike. One participant even pondered what is truly important in life on the way down.
Doing something adventurous or slightly dangerous during STMs can de$nitely help bonding among participants,
create unforgettable memories, and encourage re%ection on their walk with God. Occasionally, stepping outside of our comfort zones and breaking the norms can lead to profound experiences.
Now, You Are in Charge!
ere are many opportunities in a STM trip for participants to take the next step of faith, whether it’s someone’s $rst time facilitating a Bible study, leading a prayer meeting, sharing the gospel in a di!erent language, being discipled, discipling others, or planning a team activity.
Challenging yet feasible tasks are helpful ways for participants to experience liminality as well as grow in their faith.
We Are Fam, Now!
STM participants are not only co-workers but also brothers and sisters in Christ. Sharing life stories with one another is a wonderful way to connect on a deeper level, thus forming communitas.
In each session, one person shares their life story focusing on signi$cant experiences and moments they feel comfortable sharing. A erward, other participants can ask questions to learn more about this person. At the end, the team will pray to bless the individual who shared.
is is a great opportunity to bond with each other and learn about God’s work in each other’s lives. We can learn about each other’s upbringings and see how God works di!erently in each person’s journey.
However, the team leader should exercise discretion because sharing life stories can take a considerable amount of time.
One More ing: Belonging and Purpose
Dr. Jay Moon proposed a fourth worldview alongside guiltinnocent, honor-shame, and fear-power cultures. A STM trip is a perfect setting to disciples or even non-Christians from an indi!erent/ belonging-purpose oriented culture. (Moon, 2024)
A STM is for a group of individuals united by a common goal, learning new things, enduring discomfort and pain, overcoming challenges while forming a close community to accomplish something meaningful for Jesus. In the end, as many participants have shared, they are o en the ones who most bene$ted. erefore, a STM trip is a great opportunity for discipleship if planned well.
Reintegration: I Am Back but Di erent!
e fun will eventually come to an end. We must face the bittersweet reality of returning home, saying goodbye to the team, the friends we’ve made, the missionaries we admire, and the new cuisines we’ve come to love.
Debrief: It was only this summer that I realized not all STM trips dedicate a signi$cant amount of time for debrie$ng and re%ection. One team that traveled to Central Asia for three weeks spent just half a day debrie$ng their experiences. Another team that went to Southeast Asia allocated only three hours to evaluate their trip.
It could be valuable for the team to spend quality time on personal re%ection and group sharing. It not only concludes the trip well but also prepares the team for reentry, signifying the beginning of reintegration. Having re%ection questions prepared in advance will be helpful. e questions we used are as follows:
Re!ect on cross-cultural experiences
What stereotypes did you have about this country/people before you arrived? What do you think of these stereotypes now?
Have you noticed any ethnocentrism in you during this trip?
Did you experience any culture shock that a!ected you physically, emotionally, and spiritually?
Have you experienced any con%ict between your own culture and the local culture?
What did you enjoy the most during this trip? (the team, local people, ministry), and why?
What did you $nd most challenging or unpleasant, and why?
What did you appreciate about the local people and culture, and why?
Re!ect on faith
How have you experienced God during this trip?
What steps of faith have you taken during this trip?
Have you experienced personal growth during this trip?
Has your understanding of God been expanded or renewed?
Re!ect on ministry
How would you describe the local people, and why?
Have you found any entry ways to share Jesus with them?
What do you think of the language learning experience, and why?
What do you think of cross-cultural ministry? Do you think this could be something God calls you to in the future? Why?
For debrief, it would be helpful for the team to visit a di!erent city and experience a change of pace—somewhere more relaxing and familiar to home. It also creates separation from intense ministry, providing a calm and relaxing space for re%ection and serving as a reward for all their hard work. Including lessons on re-entry and reverse culture shock can also prepare participants for reintegration.
Not So Touristy Yet
How can we not $nd time to shop for souvenirs for our supporters and families? But, at the same time, balancing quality time for re%ection and fun during debrief requires discernment. One moment, the team is burdened by the needs of the local people (most places we send to are less economically developed), but in an instant, the team can revert to a consumeristic mindset. To address this issue, perhaps the team leader can limit the time and options for souvenir shopping while encouraging participants to practise discipline till the end of the trip.
Homebound, Now What?
Once the team returns home, arranging time to share their experiences at church and fellowship can be a great way to both testify what God has done and celebrate the team’s accomplishment.
is past summer, my church sent out four STM teams. At the church’s fall retreat, a total of $ve hours over two nights was dedicated to allow STM teams to share their experiences. e congregation learnt about God’s work beyond their local communities, while the STM participants took on greater responsibility in planning and organizing their sharing sessions. It pushed them even further to re%ect on and articulate their STM
experiences. It is also a testament to the congregation that they can also take a step of faith by going on a STM trip to experience God in a new context. It was a very focused and unhurried time, and no programs were scheduled a erward. e team was sent o! and has now well received back.
Unfortunately, most of the time, STM teams and long-term missionaries are not given enough time to give a thorough report of their experience and God’s work around the globe. Yet, this can be a valuable asset for the church to educate and encourage the congregation to look beyond their own needs and areas of in%uence.
To Be Continued…
Even though the STM trip has come to an end, it can be the beginning for STM participants to become mobilizers, enter into committed discipleship relationships, and take on leadership roles in the church or fellowship, if they have not done so already. In this way, the STM experience becomes a stepping stone for their continued growth in walking with Jesus.
Conclusion
A tremendous amount of resources have been poured into STMs around the world. e goal of this chapter is not to provide the readers another list of activities to $ll your STM schedule, or to justify the necessity of STM trips; rather, it is to stir up thoughts on how by seeing STM as a ritual, we can e!ectively help STM participants grow in their relationship with Jesus by connecting the mind and the heart, the cognitive and the emotive, the abstract teachings and concrete experiences.
Understanding STM as a ritual with stages of separation, transition, and reintegration gives a framework for STM organizers to thoughtfully plan their STM activities with purpose, helping avoid simply piling up activities and hoping they will work.
As you plan for the next STM trip, consider how to enhance the experience at each stage. Maybe there are aspects we have overlooked or can improve to help STM participants experience a stronger sense of separation and liminality. We can be more intentional to help participants to form communitas through bonding with one another, with the local people, and most importantly bonding with Jesus.
Like other rituals, STM is not the silver bullet for e!ective discipleship. We must continually evaluate whether our practices remain e!ective. We shall not settle for what worked in the past, or this may lead us to preserve the form only but lose the meaning. We need to be alert in renewing the meaning of a ritual to ensure it accomplishes its intended purpose.
ere is another ancient Chinese proverb: “Dripping water can penetrate rock”. While a single drop of water may seem insigni$cant, consistent dripping over time can create a dent and eventually wear away the rock. Let us begin by implementing some changes to enhance the e!ectiveness of your STM trips. Over time, these e!orts will yield signi$cant results. As the Bible says, “Paul planted, Apollos watered, but God provided the growth.” (1 Corinthians 3:6)
Moon, W. Jay. Intercultural Discipleship (Encountering Mission): Learning from Global Approaches to Spiritual Formation. Baker Academic, 2017. Kindle.
Moon, W. Jay. 2024. “Cross-Cultural Discipleship” FL, CM, May, 2024
Ott, Craig. 2023. “Cross-Cultural Survival” FL, CM, March, 2023
Priest, Robert J., ed. E ective Engagement in Short-Term Missions: Doing it Right!. Vol. 16. William Carey Publishing, 2008. Kindle.
Qiu, Feng. 2022. “Contemporary Chinese Church Short-term Missions Re%ection”, Journal of Chinese Mission 1: (83-97).
Chapter 19
“Next Steps in Practicing Intercultural Discipleship”
By Darrell L. Whiteman
A familiar phrase we o en hear is “Practice makes perfect.” ere may be some truth in this statement, but perhaps a more accurate statement might be, “Practice makes permanent.” I believe that each of us as followers of Jesus should be discipling at least one other person and there should also be someone discipling us, regardless of how long we have been walking with Jesus. Jay Moon has gathered together a wonderful collection of essays in this book that are creative attempts to practice the art of discipling others, and doing so across cultural barriers. Some of these articles are polished and ready for “primetime.” Others will need more re$ning and are a work in progress, but they are all helpful steps on the road of discovering how we can walk with others and point them in the direction of centering their lives on the kingdom of God, obeying Christ’s commands and undergoing a transformation of their worldview so that they, “…will be able to know the will of God—what is good and is pleasing to him and is perfect” (Romans 12:2 Good News Bible).
e challenges of contextualization and discipleship
In my teaching and training around the world I have observed two issues that give me pause and are cause for great concern. ese issues are evidence that there is a serious gap between our theological identi$cation as Christians and the way in which we practice our faith as followers of Jesus. I have noticed these two “gaps” in the Christian church everywhere.
e $rst issue of concern is the form of Christianity that fails to connect deeply with people in their local culture and therefore
406 Darrell L. Whiteman does not transform their worldview, even though they identify as Christians. is results in a form of nominal Christianity where people are “Christians in name only,” as a Solomon Islander once sheepishly confessed to me. When Christianity fails to connect deeply with the culture, it sends a message to many in Global South cultures that Christianity is a foreign religion, and is therefore more easily dismissed as irrelevant, or worst, as a tool of Western imperialism (Whiteman 2023). How can we respond to this accusation that Christianity is a foreign religion and doesn’t belong in our society? One important antidote to this perceived foreignness of Christianity is the process whereby the gospel connects and responds to the deep issues that people struggle with every day. We call that process “contextualization.” In this collection of essays, we have some wonderful examples of beginning attempts to contextualize the gospel in speci$c cultural contexts.
e second issue of concern or “gap” that I see everywhere is the lack of discipleship altogether. When I ask pastors and church workers if they are discipling others, I o en receive a laundry list of excuses—I’m too busy, too scared, don’t have time, the church doesn’t pay me to do that, evangelism and “saving souls” is more important than discipling people, and on and on it goes. When I move past these excuses and probe deeper to discover the reasons that they are not discipling others, and if pastors are more open and honest about why they are not discipling others, then I o en hear something like this: “I don’t know how to disciple others, because no one ever discipled me.” How many pastors and church leaders have never been discipled themselves, so of course they don’t know how to disciple others?
e problem becomes even more acute when we consider discipling people whose culture, religion, and worldview are so di!erent from our own. Discipleship takes time, requires life-onlife, and so discipling across cultures is even more challenging,
and perhaps the very reason so little cross-cultural discipling is occurring today. I celebrate this rich collection of essays as examples of practicing intercultural discipleship in India, Nigeria, Ghana, Philippines and elsewhere in Asia and Southeast Asia.
From le& brain cerebral discipleship to right brain experiential discipleship
What is signi$cant about these essays is that the authors are attempting to move beyond the merely cognitive and cerebral— le side of our brain—in their approach to discipleship. ey are exploring the many multisensory approaches, employing a wider range of our emotions, imagination, creativity and the right side of our brain which engages sights, sounds, and smells as they advocate using songs, dance, proverbs, music, drama, rituals, symbols and ceremonies in their models of intercultural discipleship. Too o en our approach to discipleship from the Global North amounts to little more than $lling in the blanks of a Discipleship Workbook, but as Danyal Qal notes in “Redeeming Filipino Rice Planting Rituals” discipleship is “journeying with people and pointing them to God.”
Sometimes our idea of pointing people to God is to get them to cognitively agree with our theological beliefs and doctrines. Mark Burrows writes about his previous discipleship training before he was introduced to the rich tapestry of the power of symbols and ceremonies in dealing with excluded middle issues and everyday concerns that we seldom feel free to talk about in church. He describes how he, “primarily focused on discipling believers to trust the right theological ideas and principles,” which has been the dominant form of discipleship e!orts among evangelical Christians from the Global North. Burrows continues, “Now, I have come to see that even though concepts of high spirituality are important, they must be translated into a contextualized and meaningful application that addresses the
408 Darrell L. Whiteman excluded-middle issues of our audience.” I would add, this is done best by using indigenous forms of symbols, rituals, proverbs, and other genres that already exist in the culture. Ernest Perbi-Asare in his paper on using the arts for discipling Akan Christians in Ghana struggling with infertility issues agrees. He notes, “that many cognitive styles of discipleship hardly ever hit their target without the use of arts...including symbols, rituals, proverbs, [and] stories among others.” We also need to be more aware of God’s prevenient grace at work in other cultures, even before people ever hear of Jesus, and also become more open to the mystery of how God is working in cultures, long before we arrive on the scene. e Apostle Paul reminds us of God’s prevenient grace in his address to the Areopagus in Athens (Acts 17). In other words, we must relinquish our need for certainty in exchange for our quest for understanding. We have the promise from Scripture that God has le God’s witness in every culture, among every people group, at every period of human history (Romans 1:20); therefore, we should be looking for evidence of where the Spirit of God is already at work, and then build on that discovery.
Dealing with excluded middle issues
Another contribution of these essays is that they draw our attention to what Paul Hiebert called “excluded middle” issues (1982), which we o en are not free to talk about in church, and yet these are the concerns that people live with every day. We may quickly say “Christ is the Answer” but we fail to ask, “What is the Question?” Some of the questions people frequently ask, which are discussed in these papers, are how to deal with issues such as infertility, tragedy, misfortune, insecurity, shame, guidance for the future, protection, and provision of a good harvest, among other concerns. ese excluded middle issues were o en addressed through the beliefs and practices of their folk religion that dealt with the unseen spiritual dimensions of
their world. Indigenous rituals and ceremonies were created to help people deal as best they could with their everyday problems and tragedies. Unfortunately, in much of our mission activity our evangelism and discipleship e!orts o en focus only on the high-religion issues such as eternal salvation, what happens when we die, ultimate reality, the creation of the cosmos, systematic theology, and doctrines. We may provide “answers” to questions people are not o en asking while neglecting those every day gutwrenching issues—leaving people to then resort to folk religion for answers to their intimate issues and concerns. Biblically inspired and culturally relevant rituals are needed, therefore, to $ll the gap of what is missing in discipling people cross-culturally. e essays in this book attempt to do exactly that.
ose of us from the Global North are o en hesitant to engage these excluded middle issues because we tend to dismiss the realm of folk religion as simply superstition that people can overcome with rational thought and Westernized education. Hiebert, et al, in Understanding Folk Religion: A Christian Response to Popular Beliefs and Practices (1999, 2024) address this problem, and their book is still the “gold standard” for engaging folk religion and excluded middle issues with a biblical response. Nevertheless, many of us are still hesitant to use this missiological approach in facing these issues. For example, Euniki Phaltual (2023) demonstrates how transformed existing Indian cultural symbols and rituals can be used e!ectively in Christian discipleship and empower disciples in their pilgrimage of spiritual growth. She notes, however, that, “Many cross-cultural missionaries and church elders are so apprehensive and suspicious, regarding the use of Indian religious and cultural symbols and rituals that they miss out on the opportunities that these symbols a!ord, in not only presenting the biblical values in the most comprehensive manner, but also in assuring that these values remain deeply embedded in the worldview of the people, and are passed on to future generations”(2023:416). With bold con$dence in the
410 Darrell L. Whiteman
gospel and a good dose of epistemological humility, we need to explore how indigenous symbols and rituals can be redeemed and used to disciple others. e essays in this book demonstrate how this can be done in intercultural discipleship.
A word of explanation and caution about the use of rituals is important here. Danya Qal’s article on redeeming Filipino Rice Planting Rituals that are used to help farmers reap a good harvest is a good example of what Australian missiological anthropologist Alan Tippett (1967, 1980) referred to as a functional substitute. In this case, Filipino rice farmers traditionally employed rituals to gain control over natural and spiritual forces beyond human control in order to insure a successful harvest. When discipleship deals with these real-life issues instead of ignoring them, it can indeed transform a people’s worldview. In this case it is a transformation from trying to control the supernatural world to achieve what one needs for survival, to giving full allegiance to God as the creator and sustainer of life and putting complete trust in God. A ritual that is a functional substitute can be used to participate with God in God’s creation of a good rice harvest, as Danya Qal’s article suggests. In contrast, a pagan ritual is one that attempts to manipulate and control the supernatural in order to guarantee a good harvest. When discipleship deals with these kinds of excluded middle issues, we are able to move from manipulation of the supernatural to participation with God in God’s creation. e caution is that we must not view the Christian use of redeemed indigenous rituals in discipleship as a form of “Christian magic” in order to get what we want from God. When this happens, we are in danger of attempting to manipulate God instead of participating with God in creation.
Building on anthropological and missiological foundations
e intercultural discipleship practices outlined in these essays are building on the foundations for cross-cultural
discipleship developed initially by Matt Zahniser and followed by Jay Moon, both of whom draw on the seminal work of anthropologist Victor Turner (1967, 1995) in his work on rituals and symbols, and the research of Arnold Van Gennep (1960) on rites of passage. Zahniser pioneered the use of symbols, ceremonies, and rituals as a way of discipling people to become more like Jesus in his book Symbol and Ceremony: Making Disciples across Cultures (1997). e goal of discipleship is to become more like Christ, for the sake of others, but the challenge is even greater when we disciple people in cultures that are di!erent from our own. Twenty years later Jay Moon built on Zahniser’s work and published Intercultural Discipleship: Learning from Global Approaches to Spiritual Formation (2017). Now Moon’s students are putting these models and theories into practice. When we do so, we discover many hidden treasures in culture and hidden treasures in Scripture. ese cultural and biblical treasures were there all the time, waiting to be discovered, but not until we asked the right questions, or viewed and interpreted Scripture from a di!erent worldview, were the true treasures revealed.
Too o en evangelical Christians are wary of using rituals, preferring the cognitive over the emotional and intuitive, and are afraid that too much contextualization will be the slippery slope that leads to syncretism. I remember once teaching a large group of Nigerian pastors on how we can connect the gospel to the deeper parts of the Nigerians’ culture and worldview so that true transformation could occur. I used the word “contextualization” to describe the process as a way to encourage Nigerians to do this. One of the pastors practically leaped out of his seat and said, “We’ve been taught that contextualization is dangerous, and that it can lead to syncretism.” I remember responding that in fact, the opposite is true. Appropriate contextualization done by cultural insiders is the best hedge against syncretism, not the slippery slope that leads to it, because it increases the likelihood that indigenous believers will understand the meaning behind
412 Darrell L. Whiteman the forms used in following Jesus. An exciting element of these papers is that they were able to overcome the hesitancy to practice intercultural discipleship by using rituals, and symbols and then redeeming them for kingdom purposes. Many of the authors in these papers have used Paul Hiebert’s (1987) process model of “critical contextualization” that is done in community, using Scripture as a guide to determine what rituals and ceremonies can be used for kingdom purposes and which cannot without undergoing signi$cant change and adaptation. Practicing critical contextualization guards against syncretism while enabling one’s pilgrimage of following Jesus to become more deeply rooted in the lives and cultures of disciples of Jesus.
In the beginning: Jesus’ instructions to his disciples.
Our mandate from Jesus to make disciples of others is what motivated the original disciples and is the foundation on which we must develop our approach to living out the gospel and making disciple-makers. ere are $ve recorded occasions (Acts 1:8; John 20:21; Luke 24:45-48; Mark 16:15; Matthew 28:1820) where Jesus commissions his disciples to preach the gospel and make disciples everywhere. He tells them to initially wait in Jerusalem until they have been $lled with the power of the Holy Spirit because he knows that without the presence of the Holy Spirit, they will accomplish nothing. e same is true for us. He also tells the disciples in John 20:21 that he is sending them in the same way that the Father had sent him, that is, incarnationally. In other words, his disciples are to connect with and relate to the people among whom they are living by entering into their lives, in the same way that God entered into the lives of human beings in the person of Jesus from Nazareth in Roman-occupied Palestine. How o en have we failed to carry out our mission e!orts without following the incarnational model that Jesus gave us? We don’t have historical records of where all of those
remaining 11 disciples went or how they went, but we do know that on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2) they were $lled with the Holy Spirit, and from there they spread out beyond Jerusalem. One of my favorite disciples is “Doubting omas” who wanted some empirical proof before he was ready to believe the unbelievable tale that Jesus was indeed alive a er his execution. Once he had that empirical proof by seeing the risen Lord, he confessed, “My Lord and my God” (John 20:28) and went to India and began making disciples until he was martyred in 72 CE on a hill that today is called Saint omas Mount in Chennai. omas took seriously the incarnational approach to discipleship, and we must do the same as we live out the gospel and practice intercultural discipleship among others who are di!erent from ourselves.
Where do we go from here?
In conclusion, I want to applaud these essays in moving us from cognitive and cerebral approaches to discipleship to employing the full range of symbols and ceremonies in our intercultural discipleship. We need to put into practice the many wonderful ideas and suggestions developed in these essays. Let me suggest some “next steps” that we can take in practicing intercultural discipleship.
1. Several of the papers have developed plans and models for using symbols, ceremonies, and rituals as functional substitutes for discipling others, but they have not yet implemented them. Give them a try and record the results. Discipleship is o en an iterative process where we learn by trial and error.
2. A er implementing these discipleship models, make adjustments a er receiving feedback from the participants. For example, did they understand what you were trying to do, or were they le confused? Did
414 Darrell L. Whiteman
they experience your approach as gentle and sensitive or overbearing and critical? A er assessing this feedback, then try it again. Maintain the posture and attitude of a learner and be con$dent that the Holy Spirit is going before you.
3. Be willing to take risks as you trust the Holy Spirit to guide you and empower those you are discipling. Be creative and willing to try new and di!erent ways of discipling people instead of getting stuck in familiar “tried and trusted” forms of discipleship from our own culture.
4. Don’t be afraid of failure. Sometimes “success” is overrated. We o en learn more from failure than from success in many areas of life. e same is true in practicing intercultural discipleship. For example, if we think that discipling others is to get them to agree with what we are advocating, then our eagerness or aggressiveness as the messenger may drown out the message. Remember, trust in the message depends on trust in the messenger. If we pay attention, we can learn from our initial approaches that were not successful, and improve the next time.
5. Improve your “ethnographic skills” to delve deeper into the culture and learn more about the worldview of those with whom you are practicing discipleship. We certainly don’t all need to become anthropologists to better understand the cultural context in which we are discipling others. However, “participant observation” is a time-honored approach to understanding others where we participate with them in life’s activities and observe and record what we see. Taking notes of what we observed and experienced in our interaction with others enables us to record and re%ect on our attempts
at intercultural discipleship. I discuss this in more detail in chapter 12, “Discovering Cultural Di!erences” in Crossing Cultures with the Gospel: Anthropological Wisdom for E!ective Christian Witness (2024).
6. Go with con$dence that God has gone before you, and look for where the Holy Spirit is already at work. For example, where are their cultural ideals similar to the Ten Commandments, or where is their evidence already of their patterns of concern and care for others. Where are “fruits of the Spirit” such as love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, humility and self-control already evident in their culture? ese are examples of God’s prevenient grace at work. e problem is that most of us aren’t able to live up to our own cultural ideals without the Spirit of Jesus within us. We can’t do it on our own, hence discipleship becomes all the more important if the gospel is going to have its transformative impact among people and their culture. ese suggested steps will get us started and the more we practice the art of discipleship across cultures, the more we will learn how we can become more e!ective in doing so. We will discover how the Holy Spirit goes before us in preparing others to receive our approach to discipling them. e more we practice, the more we will become con$dent in how God is providing opportunities for us to disciple others and empowering us in the process. is approach to practicing intercultural discipleship may indeed become permanent to the glory of God. May it be so.
References Cited
Hiebert, Paul G. 1982. “ e Flaw of the Excluded Middle.” Missiology 10:35-47.
_______. 1987. “Critical Contextualization.” International Bulletin of Missionary Research 11 (3):104-111
Hiebert, Paul G., R. Daniel Shaw, and Tite Tie´nou. 1999, 2024. Understanding Folk Religion: A Christian Response to Popular Beliefs and Practices, 25th Anniversary Edition. American Society of Missiology Series, No. 67. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock.
Moon, W. Jay. 2017. Intercultural Discipleship: Learning from Global Approaches Spiritual Formation. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic.
Phaltual, Eunniki. “ e role of existing cultural symbols and rituals in Indian Christian Discipleship.” In Leave the Farm and Follow Me: Festschri in Honour of Rev. Dr. Graham Whit eld Houghton, edited by Richard Howell, pp. 407422. Farrukh Nagar, India: Caleb Institute.
Tippett, Alan R. 1967. Solomon Islands Christianity: A Study in Growth and Obstruction. South Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library.
_______. 1980. Oral Tradition and Ethnohistory: !e Transmission of Information and Social Values in Early Christian Fiji 1835-1905. Canberra: St. Mark’s Library
Turner, Victor. 1967. !e Forest of Symbols: Aspects of Ndembu Rituals. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
_______. 1995. !e Ritual Process: Structure and Anti-structure. New York: Aldine De Gruyter.
Van Gennep, Arnold. 1960. Rites of Passage. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Whiteman, Darrell L. 2024. Crossing Cultures with the Gospel: Anthropological Wisdom for E ective Christian Witness. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic.
________. 2023. “Why is Christianity Perceived as a Foreign Religion?” In Leave the Farm and Follow Me: Festschri in Honour of Rev. Dr. Graham Whit eld Houghton, edited by Richard Howell, pp. 385-406. Farrukh Nagar, India: Caleb Institute.
Zahniser, A. H. Mathias. 1997. Symbol and Ceremony: Making Disciples across Cultures. Monrovia, CA: MARC.
Author bio
Darrell Whiteman is a missiological anthropologist in semi-retirement who is passionate about helping people in diverse cultures connect the gospel and biblical values to the deepest part of their worldviews. is training has taken him around the world for over 50 years. He is the founder of Global Development whose mission is to enable missionaries, pastors, and lay people to better distinguish the universal message of the gospel from their local interpretation and practice of living out the gospel within their communities. With nine years of mission experience in Central Africa and Melanesia, he served as professor of cultural anthropology at Asbury eological Seminary for twenty-one years and with TMS-Global, for nine years. e author and editor of seven books, he served as the editor of the Journal Missiology (1989-2002) and is the past president of the American Society of Missiology and the International Association for Mission Studies.
About First Fruits Press
Under the auspices of B. L. Fisher Library, First Fruits Press is an online publishing arm of Asbury Teological Seminary. Te goal is to make academic material freely available to scholars worldwide, and to share rare and valuable resources that would not otherwise be available for research. First Fruits publishes in fve distinct areas: heritage materials, academic books, papers, books, and journals.
In the Journals section, back issues of The Asbury Journal will be digitized and so made available to a global audience. At the same time, we are excited to be working with several facultymembersondevelopingprofessional,peer-reviewed,onlinejournalsthatwouldbe made freely available.
Much of this endeavor is made possible by the recent gift of the Kabis III scanner, one of the best available. The scanner can produce more than 2,900 pages an hour and features a special book cradle that is specifcally designed to protect rare and fragile materials. The materials it produces will be available in ebook format, easy to download and search.
First Fruits Press will enable the library to share scholarly resources throughout the world, provide faculty with a platform to share their own work and engage scholars without the difculties often encountered by print publishing. All the material will be freely available for online users, while those who wish to purchase a print copy for their libraries will be able to do so. First Fruits Press is just one way the B. L. Fisher Library is fulflling the global vision of Asbury Theological Seminary to spread scriptural holiness throughout the world.
