Transit-Oriented Development & Impact on Modern Infrastructure & Cities
Transit-Oriented Development & Impact on Modern Infra structure & Cities
Harsh Jain
1, Dr. Yogesh
Geskar
2, * 1Amity School of Architecture & Planning, Amity University, Rajasthan
*Author to whom correspondence should be addressed: E-mail: harsh.hj.hj026@gmail.com (Receivedmonthdate,year;Revisedmonthdate,year;acceptedmonthdate,year).
CHAPTER1:-WHATISTRANSITORIENTEDDEVELOPMENT(TOD)?
1.Introduction
After decades of underinvestment in public transport, manynational&localgovernmentstodayarere-focusing on improving public transport to combat the social, economic & health impacts of car traffic congestion on theircities.Thisisapositivetrend,movingawayfromthe urbandevelopmentformthatmanycitiesadoptedfromthe late 20th century & continues in many cities today, in which everlonger&widerroads,separatingbuildings& blocksfromoneanother,makewayformore&morecars. Where public transport investment is taking place, cities are striving to get the most use from of it by building homes, jobs & other services adjacent to this transit infrastructure.
TheTransitOrientedDevelopmentstrategy,builtonthe rich experience of many organizations around the world includingourown,addressesdevelopmentthatmaximizes the benefits of public transit while firmly placing the emphasis back on the user’s people. We call this form of design "transit-oriented development" (TOD),& it marks a key difference from transit- adjacent development, which is simply development located next to transit corridors&stations.TODimplieshighquality,thoughtful planning & design of l& use & built forms to support, facilitate & prioritize not only the use of transit, but the mostbasicmodesoftransport,walking&cycling.
1.1DefiningTransit
Transit is a singular term used commonly to describe shared public transportation service. Available for general public, it is distinct from taxicabs & hired buses which cannot be shared by strangers without prior arrangement.
The word transit refers mainly to public transport modes such as suburban rail, metro/subway rail, light rail/tram & bus rapid transit system (BRTS). Though the word
transit is more commonly used in western countries, it is gaining prominence in Asia to describe mass transportationsystems.InIndia,itisalsoknownaspublic transport. Thus, for instance, suburban rail in Mumbai/Delhicouldalsobetermedtransit.
1.2 Defining Transit Oriented Development (TOD)
Rapid economic growth & urbanization have led to problemofcongestion,trafficjams,loadoninfrastructure, pollution, etc. Along with these, rapidly growing populationhasverylargeeffectonthehousinginthecity. Increasingpopulationhastobeaccommodatedinthecity, so the problems of slums, unauthorized construction & haphazard development of fringe areas are observed in most of the cities. A sustainable strategy is required to maintain the economic growth & alleviate the problems arisingduetothegrowth.
Transit-oriented development (TOD) which concentrates development near & around transit systems to promote transit ridership is one such sustainable development strategy.
Transit Oriented Development is essentially any development, macro or micro that is focused around a transit node, & facilitates complete ease of access to the transitfacilitytherebyinducingpeopletoprefertowalk&
use public transportation over personal modes of transport. It provides convenient & affordable accessibility to the greatest number of people for the lowest total costs. It creates a truly efficient & equitable community.
Over time TOD has come to acquire the meaning of planneddevelopmentaroundanytypeof
Increases "location efficiency" so people can walk, cycle& use publictransport
Boosts public transport ridership & reduces use of privatevehicles
Provides a rich mix of housing, jobs, shopping & recreational choices
Provides value for the public & private sectors, & forbothnew&existingresidents
Affords an accessible & safe living environment for children,adults,&those ofadvancedage &limited mobility
Createsasenseof community &place
1.3 Goal of a Transit Oriented Development (TOD)
o Creating a vibrant, livable, sustainable & comfortable communities
o Creating a compact, walkable, mixed-use community centered around high-quality train, MRTS,BRTSsystems.
o Majorsolutiontotheserious&growingproblemsof climatechange&globalenergysecuritybycreating densewalkablecommunitiesthatgreatlyreducethe need fordriving&energyconsumption.
o This type of living arrangement can reduce driving byupto 85%.
o Reduce/ discourage private vehicle dependency &
induce public transport use through design, policy measures&enforcement.
o Provide easy public transport access to the maximum number of people within walking distance-through densification & enhanced connectivity.
o Toachievethisparadigmshift,TODsofferattractive alternatives to the use of personal modespleasurable walking experiences, very easily accessible & comfortable mass transportation with easy,convenient&comfortableintermodaltransfers for last mile connectivity & other low cost, comfortable, non-motorizedtransportationoptions.
o Inaddition,highestpossiblepopulationdensities(as per local context), enhanced street connectivity, multimodal networks around transit stations & compactmixed-usedevelopmentprovidinghousing, employment,entertainment&civicfunctionswithin walkingdistance ofthetransitsystemoffers:
a. anenhancedlevelofaccessibilitybynon-motorized modes,
b. areducedtriplengthtotheaveragecommuter,&
c. Economic viability of the public transportation systemthroughsubstantialnon-fareboxrevenues.
1.4 Scale of a Transit Oriented Development (TOD)
TOD is the area within the first 400 to 800 meters(1/4 to 1/2 mile) of transit stations - it is not one project, but a compilation of projects. Individually, each project may serve one primary function but as a whole, they create a place.NotallTODsfunctionthesame¬allareofthe same size. The size of the TOD is dependent on the general scale or intensity of development appropriate for that station based on the function of the station & the accessibilityoftheTODfromtheadjacentneighborhoods.
Walking is the most natural, affordable, healthy & clean mode of travel for short distances, & a necessary component of the vast majority of transit trips. As such, walking is a fundamental building block of sustainable transport. Walking is, or can be, the most enjoyable & productive way of getting around, provided that paths & streets are populated & desired services & resources conveniently located. Walking also requires physical effort,&itishighlysensitivetoenvironmentalconditions. The key factors to making walking appealing form the basis for the three performance objectives under this principle:safety, activity&comfort.
•Objective A: The pedestrian network issafe& complete
The most basic requirement of urban walk ability is the existence of a safe walking network linking all buildings &destinations,accessibletoallpersons&protectedfrom motor vehicles. This can be achieved using a variety of configurationsofpaths&streets.
• Objective B: The pedestrian realm is active & vibrant
Walking is attractive & safe, & can be highly productive when sidewalks are populated, animated & lined with useful ground-floor activities & services such as storefronts & restaurants. In turn, being closer to passing pedestrians & bicyclistsincreasestheexposure & vitality of local retail. Visually Active Frontage measures the opportunities for visual connection between sidewalks & the interior ground floors of adjacent buildings. All types ofpremisesarerelevant,notonly shops&restaurantsbut also workplaces & residences. Physically Permeable Frontage measures active physical connections through the block frontage via entrances & exits to & from storefronts, building lobbies, courtyard entrances, passageways,&so on.
• Objective C: The pedestrian realm is temperate & comfortable
The willingness to walk can be significantly enhanced with the provision of simple elements that enhance the walking environment such as street trees. Trees, the simplest&mosteffectivewayofprovidingshadeinmost climates. Trees also bring many environmental & psychological benefits. Various forms of shelter, such as arcades&awnings,canalso improvewalkability.
B.)CYCLE
Cyclingisanelegant,emission-free,healthy&affordable transport option that is highly efficient & consumes little space & few resources. It combines the convenience of door-to- door travel, the route & schedule flexibility of walking, & the range & speed of many local transit services. Bicycles & other means of people-powered transport, such as pedicabs, activate streets & greatly increase the area coverage of transit stations. Cyclists, however, are among the most vulnerable road users, & their bicycles are also vulnerable to theft & vandalism. The key factors encouraging cycling is the provision of safe streetconditions,&secure cycleparking &storage.
• Objective A: The cycling network is safe & complete
A safe cycling network connecting all buildings & destinationsthroughtheshortestroutesavailableisabasic TOD requirement. Cycle Network controls for this provision. Various types of cycle ways, including cycle paths,cyclelanesonroads&cycle-friendlystreetscanbe partofthenetwork.
•ObjectiveB:Cycle parking& storageisample&secure
Bicyclesdonottakeupmuchspacebutstillrequiresecure parking & storage. Cycling can be an attractive travel option only to the extent that cycle racks is available at destinations,&thatbicyclescanbesecuredwithinprivate premisesatnight&forlongerperiods.
C.)CONNECT
Short &directpedestrian & cycling routes requirehighly connected network of paths & streets around small, permeableblocks.Thisisprimarilyimportantforwalking & for transit station accessibility, which can be easily discouragedbydetours.Atightnetworkofpaths&streets offering multiple routes to many destinations can also make walking & cycling trips varied & enjoyable. Frequent street corners & narrower right of ways, with slowvehicularspeed&manypedestriansencouragestreet activity & local commerce. An urban fabric that is more permeable to pedestrians & cyclists than to cars also prioritizesnon-motorized &transitmodes.
• Objective A: Walking & cycling routes are short, direct & varied
The simplest proxy for the quality of path connectivity is thedensityofpedestrianintersections,whichisdependent on small blocks. Small Blocks rewards a development
with a small average block size. This combined with the provision of a complete pedestrian network would represent a dense mesh of pedestrian & cycling routes whichwouldofferawidechoice inroutestotaketoone's destination,&access to anynumberofpossible activities alongthe way.
• Objective B: Walking & cycling routes are shorter thanmotorvehicleroutes
Although high pedestrian & cycling connectivity is an important feature of TOD, road connectivity enhancing motor vehicle travel is not. Prioritized Connectivity compares the two categories & rewards higher ratios of non-motorized travel (NMT) path connectivity to caraccessibleroadconnectivity.
D.)TRANSIT
Transit connects & integrates distant parts of the city for pedestrians.Access & proximity to High-capacity public transit service, defined as bus rapid transit (BRT) or rail transit is a prerequisite for TOD Standard recognition. High-capacity public transit plays a critical role, as it allows for highly efficient & equitable urban mobility, & supports dense & compact development patterns. Transit alsocomesinvariousformstosupporttheentirespectrum of urban transport needs, including low & high-capacity vehicles, taxis & motorized rickshaws, bi-articulated buses&trains.
• Objective: High-quality transit is accessible by foot
Themaximumrecommendeddistancetothenearesthighcapacity transit station for a transit-oriented development is defined as 1 kilometer, a 15-to-20-minute walk. Moreover, by building at higher densities closer to the transit station, a development can maximize the number ofpeople&servicesthatcaneasily bereachedby ashort walkingdistance.
E.) MIX
When there is a balanced mix of complementary uses & activities within a local area (e.g., a mix of residences, workplaces&localretailcommerce),manydailytripscan remain short & walk able. Diverse uses peaking at different times keeps local streets animated & safe, encouraging walking & cycling activity, & fostering a vibrant human environment where people want to live. Inbound&outboundcommutingtripsarealsomorelikely to be balanced, resulting in more efficient operations in the transit system. A mix of housing prices allows some workers to live near their jobs & prevents lower-income residents, who are also the most dependent on lower cost public transit, from being displaced to outlying areas & potentially encouraging this group to become dependent
on motor vehicles. Therefore, the two performance objectivesforthisprinciplearetheprovisionofabalanced mix of land uses & a balanced mix of resident income levels.
• Objective A: Trip lengths are reduced by the provision of diverse & complementary uses
Developmentsthatadd tothemixofcomplementaryuses allow for a wider range of daily trips to be walk able. Complementary Uses provides developments that are meant for mix residential & non-residential uses. Accessibility to Food provides the availability of fresh groceries as a "litmus test" indicating an area well served bylocallyoriented®ularlysuppliedgoods&services. Foodisalsoanessentialpartofdailylife,&beingableto walk to buy produce & meals contributes to a higher qualityoflife.
• Objective B: Lower-income groups have short commutes
Toabsorburbangrowthincompact&denseforms,urban areas must grow vertically (Densification) instead of horizontally (sprawl). In turn, high urban densities oriented towards transit support a transit service of highquality, frequency & connectivity, & help to generate resources for investment in system improvements & expansions. Transit-oriented density results in wellpopulated streets, ensuring that station areas are lively, active, vibrant & safe places where people want to live. Density delivers the customer base that supports a wide range of services & amenities & makes local commerce thrive. As many of the most famous & desirable neighborhoods in the world, high-density living can be highly attractive. The only limits to densification should result from requirements for access to daylight & circulation of fresh air, access to parks & open space, preservation of natural systems, & protection of historic & cultural resources. The performance objective under this principle emphasizes residential & non-residential densitytosupporthigh-qualitytransit&localservices.
• ObjectiveA:Residential&jobdensitiessupporthighquality transit & local services
Land Use Density providesprojects that achieve equalor higher densities when compared to comparable projects. Thepublic&privatesectormustworktogethertoincrease allowable residential & non-residential densities, while remainingsensitivetothelocalcontext.
G.)COMPACT
The basic organizational principle of dense urban development is compactdevelopment.In aCompactcity, or a compact district, the various activities & uses are conveniently located close together, minimizing the time & energy required to reach them & maximizing the potential for interaction. With shorter distances, compact cities require less extensive & costly infrastructure (though higher standards of planning & design are required), & they preserve rural land from development by prioritizing densification & redevelopment of previously developed land.The principal compact can be applied to a neighborhood scale, resulting in spatial integration by good walking & cycling connectivity & orientation toward transit stations.At the scale of a city, beingcompactmeansbeing integratedspatiallybypublic transit systems. The two performance objectives for this principle focus on the proximity of a development to existing urban activity, & short travel time to the major tripgenerators,inthe central®ionaldestinations.
• Objective A: The development is in an existing urban area
Topromotedensification&theefficientuseofpreviously developed vacant lots such as Brown fields, Urban Site providesdevelopmenton sites within or atthe immediate edgeofan urbanized area.
• Objective B: Travelling through the city is convenient
Transit Options encourages a site to provide multi-modal transportincludingdifferenthigh-capacitytransitlines& Para-transit options. Having a number of different transportoptionsmeansthediverseneedsofpassengers& travelerscanbe fulfilled,encouragingmorepeopletouse transitinavirtuouscycle.
H.)SHIFT
When cities are shaped by the above seven principles, personal motor vehicles become largely Unnecessary in day-to-day life. Walking, cycling & the use of highcapacity transit are easy & convenient, & can be supplemented by a variety of intermediary transit modes & rented vehicles that are much less space-intensive. Scarce&valuableurbanspaceresourcescanbereclaimed from unnecessary roads & parking, & can be reallocated to more socially & economically productive uses. The performanceobjectivebelowfocuseson thesebenefits.
• Objective A: The land occupied by motor vehicles is minimized
Low provision of off-street space for motor vehicles parking is provided. Driveway Density measures the frequency of driveways breaching the protected status of
walkways,&providestheminimizationofinterferenceof the pedestrian network. Roadway Area provides the reduction of street space occupied by motor vehicles eitherintheformofroadareaofon-streetparking.
2.2COMPONENTSOFTOD
TheTODcomponentsarethe3 Dsbelow:
Density (For adequate population density for transit ridership)
Diversity (MixedUse,MixedIncomethatuse transit) Design (Safe, Comfortable, Active (24X7) Environment createdbypromotingwalkability&accesstotransit.
The 3 Ds define the density, mix of uses & connectivity required within walking distance of transit stations to encouragetransituse&a24-hourenvironmentaroundthe transitstations.
2.3 WHAT ARE THE MAIN ELEMENTS OFTOD?
1. Walk able design with pedestrian as the highest priority
2. Train station as prominent feature of town center
3. Public square fronting train station
4. A regional node containing a mixture of uses in close proximity (office, residential, retail, civic)
5. High density, walk able district within 10-minute walk circle surrounding train station
6. Collector support transit systems including streetcar, light rail, & buses, etc.
7.Designed toincludetheeasyuse ofbicycles& scooters as daily support transport
8. Large ride-in bicycle parking areas within stations
9. Bike share rental system & bikeway network integrated into stations
10. Reduced & managed parking inside 10-minute walk circle around town center / train station
11. Specialized retail at stations serving commuters & locals including cafes, grocery, dry cleaners.
2.4BENEFITSOFTOD
1. Encourages use of non-motorized transportation
2. Provides a balanced approach to accommodating
3. Creates compact, sustainable urban form
4. Enhances local economic development
5. Promotes more sustainable Infrastructure
6. Increases land values Increases public safety
7. Increases mobility choices
8. Increases disposable household income & increase health benefits.
2.5BARRIERSOFTOD
The governance structures for TOD at specific sites are often overly complex, & no one organization takes the lead. Sometimes the management of TOD sits is in the hands of different private sector organizations.
A lack of statutory regional planning & sometimes any form of regional planning organization makes a coordinatedregionalapproachtoTOD(andtherefore significant impact on regional travel patterns) more difficulttoachieve.
Related to the above, there may sometimes be competition between central & peripheral municipalities in a metropolitan area such as Amsterdam, where peripheral municipalities may wishnottobeidentifiedwithalandusepolicythatis seenprimarily asthatofthecentralmunicipality.
Perception or actual lack of high-quality public transport–thepublictransportservicearrivestoolate at new sites, or is highly radial so does not cater for orbital trips that are an important aspect of regional mobility. This may be compounded by a public transport authority that is not itself that concerned about TOD, preferring to pursue park & ride around suburbanstationsinstead.
Inrelation to thedevelopmentindustry:
There is arather vague definition ofTOD concept& therefore poor understanding of it, so it is perceived bymanydevelopersasrisky(soespeciallyattimesof economiccrisistheyarereluctanttodoit).
This perception of risk is compounded by the multiparty multi-actor context of TOD sites; there are in reality frequently additional development costs as TOD sites are often under complex ownership & on
contaminatedbrownfieldland.
It only appeals, or thought to appeal, to a certain marketsegmentofhomerenters&owners.
Arealmix ofusesisdifficulttoattractatmanysites.
2.6ROLESINTOD
An important prerequisite forTOD is that the delivery of TOD requires the involvement of many actors: national and/orregionalpublictransportauthorities, organizations involved in land development around transport infrastructure,e.g.,privatedevelopers,localauthorities,& private companiescontractedtoprovidetransitservices.
This complex set of relationships can make TOD challenging because of organizational fragmentation between regional & local authorities on the one hand, & betweenpublicsectoractors&privatesectoractorsonthe other.Inwhatfollows,wewillfirstdescribewhatprevious research has to say about what characterizes ‘successful’ TOD processes & actor relations in TOD planning & delivery.
The motivation for this is that the logics of economic development strongly influence property development & thereforetheshape&locationofurbandevelopment.Any research in this topic area must, therefore, consider the role & motivations of property developers in relation to thatofregional&localgovernment.
Property developers & investors constitute, as already mentioned, a category of key actors involved in the planning & implementation of TOD. The role they take differs across geographical contexts. In countries where urban development is more steered by market forces & private sector actors, for instance Japan, developers & investors take a more leading role than in countries such as, for example, Singapore, where government planning largelydeterminesconditionsforurbandevelopment.
2.7DEVELOPERPERCEPTIONSOFTOD
Developers often perceive TOD to be expensive & risky.
DevelopersperceiveTODtobesomething of aniche market
Developers perceive and/or experience a great number of barriers to the implementation of TOD.
How developers believe barriers can be overcome & their risks reduced.
CHAPTER3:-CASESTUDIES
CASESTUDY1:DelhiMetroRailCorporation(DMRC),India
KEY SITE STATISTICS
TRANSITSERVICE
MRT – Mass Rapid Transit (Commuter Rail)
DEVELOPMENT
392 Kilometers of network length (as of 2024)
10 color-coded lines
256 metro stations
Pink Line is the longest line at 57.49 km
Green Line is the shortest at 27.96 km.
KEYFEATURES
Automatic Train Control (ATC)
Driverless Operations & Modern Facilities
LEED Certification
Solar Powered
BACKGROUND
Launched in 1995, the Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC) represents a transformative effort to alleviate traffic congestion&enhanceurbanmobilitywithinIndia’scapital.AsaniconiccaseofTransit-OrientedDevelopment(TOD), the Delhi Metro initiative was designed to meet the challenges of a rapidly growing population & an overburdened transportation network. The project required strategic planning to accommodate dense urban areas, limited land resources,&integrationwithotherformsofpublictransit.
By establishing an interconnected network of metro lines that seamlessly links with buses, auto-rickshaws, & cycle rickshaws, the DMRC created a cohesive system that provides a flexible&user-friendlytravelexperience.Additionally,mixed-use developments were built near metro stations to promote walkability & make essential amenities easily accessible, further strengtheningtheTODapproach.
TheideafortheDelhiMetrowasconceivedtoaddressthegrowing traffic congestion & pollution in Delhi, driven by rapid urbanization & population growth. DMRC was formed as a joint venture between the Government of India & the Government of Delhi, with E. Sreedharan playing a crucial role as the ManagingDirector,overseeingitsplanning&implementation.
Thefirstlineofthemetro,theRedLine,openedin2002&connectedShahdaratoRohini,spanningabout8kilometers. Thenetworkquicklyexpanded, addingmore lines&stationstocreatea comprehensivesystemcoveringmajorareasof the city, including key transport hubs, business districts, & residential areas. The DMRC was designed to be modern, efficient, & eco-friendly, incorporating advanced technologies like automatic train operation (ATO), intelligent signalingsystems,&energy-efficienttrains.
Over the years,theDelhi Metro hasbecome one of the largest& busiestmetro networks in the world, serving millions ofpassengersdaily,easingtrafficcongestion,&reducingairpollution.Itssuccesshasinspiredsimilarmetroprojectsin otherIndiancities&hassignificantlycontributed toshapingIndia'surbantransportation landscape.
DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
TheoutcomesoftheDMRCinitiativerevealitssubstantialimpactonthecity’surbanfabric&socio-economiclandscape. Trafficcongestion&pollutionlevelsaroundmetrocorridors have markedly decreased, highlighting the effectiveness of TOD in managing urban transport challenges. Property values have risen significantly in areas near metro stations, emphasizing the project’s role in elevating the economic profile of its surroundings.The DMRC’s success underlines key planning insights: transit-oriented models are critical in addressing mobility demands, while mixed-use developmentsaroundtransporthubsplayanessentialrolein fosteringsustainablegrowthinrapidlyurbanizingareas.This modelnotonlyoptimizestransitsystemsbutalsoalignswith broader urban planning objectives, serving as a vital reference for emerging cities aiming to balance mobility & development.
ThedevelopmentoftheDelhiMetroRailCorporation(DMRC)beganintheearly1990stoaddressthecity'sworsening traffic congestion andpollution.After adetailedfeasibility study conducted by RITES, the projectwasapprovedbythe Government ofIndia and theDelhi Government.Thefirstphaseof constructioncommenced in 1998,focusingonthe Red Line between Shahdara and Rohini, covering about 8 kilometers. The system was designed to be modern and efficient, incorporating automated train control systems, intelligent signaling, and energy-efficient trains. The first sectionofthe metro,theRedLine,opened in2002,markingthebeginning ofthe network’sexpansion.
Over the next two decades, the network grew substantially, with new lines like the Blue Line, Yellow Line, and Violet Line,connecting key areasofDelhiand itssuburbs.The metro'sconstruction faced challengessuch asland acquisition, urban planning integration, and managing existing infrastructure. However, through innovative engineering, such as underground tunnels and elevated tracks, these obstacles were overcome. The DMRC’s success in expanding its networkledtoincreasedridershipandhasbeenamodelforothercitiesinIndia.Theprojectalsocontributedtoimproving air quality, reducing traffic congestion, and enhancing urban mobility. Today, DMRC operates one of the largest metro networksinthe world,continuingto expandandmodernizetomeetthegrowingdemandsofthe city.
1.RedLine (Line1)
Starting Point:RohiniWest
EndingPoint:Shahdara
Connects the northern and eastern parts of Delhi, passing through Connaught Place, Chandni Chowk, and KashmereGate.
2.YellowLine(Line 2)
Starting Point:SamaypurBadli
EndingPoint:HudaCityCentre(Gurugram)
This line connects northern, central, and southern Delhi, passing through important stations like Rajiv Chowk, KhanMarket,andSaket.
The DelhiMetro projectwas conceptualized asearly as the 1980s, but it wasonly in the 1990sthat concrete planswere made.TheIndiangovernment, along withthe GovernmentofDelhi,recognizedthe needfora metro system,&in1995, the DMRC was formally established. The planning & construction were heavily influenced by the successful metro systems of other countries, particularly Japan, where Shri E. Sreedharan, known as the "Metro Man of India," brought expertise&leadershiptotheproject.
The primary goal of starting the DMRC was to transform Delhi’s public transportation landscape, providing a sustainable, efficient, & modern mass transit solution. By reducing traffic congestion, improving air quality, promoting economic development, & enhancing the quality of life for millions of commuters, the Delhi Metro has successfully achieved itsobjectives&continuestoexpandasa crucialpartofthecity’sinfrastructure.
IMPACT, ANALYSIS & PROJECT SCOPE OF DMRC
RITES recommended a rail-based system, comprising a network of underground, elevated & surface corridors, aggregatingto198.5kms,tomeetthetrafficdemanduptotheyear2021.Thewholeproject,estimatedtocostRs.15000 Croreat1996 price levelwasexpected to handle 12.6 million commuter trips.Firstphase of metro has been completed. DMRCwebsiteindicatesanumberofbenefitstometro.Theseare:Timesavingforcommuters,Reliable&safejourney, Reductioninatmosphericpollution,Reductioninaccident,Reducedfuelconsumption,Reducedvehicleoperatingcosts, Increase in theaveragespeedofroadvehicles,etc.
Accessibility: Features include rapid boarding & alighting, & special rides for school children, doctors, religious leaders, & industrialists
Smartcards: 120,000 smartcards have been distributed, with free ridesfor blind people & freedom fighter
BACKGROUND
Launchedin2009,theAhmedabadBusRapidTransitSystem(BRTS)wasdevelopedasastrategicinitiativetointroduce an efficient, bus-based public transport network aimed at enhancing urban mobility.Addressing critical challenges such as optimizing the city’s existing road infrastructure, ensuring high ridership & public acceptance, & seamlessly linking BRT lanes with city planning, the project was designed to transform public transit into a more accessible & appealing choice.Thesystemfeaturesdedicatedbuslanes,modernstations,&frequentservices,therebyminimizingwaitingtimes &promotingareliable&user-friendlytransitexperience.TheBRTSalsoincorporateddesignelementsthatsupportnonmotorized transport, reflecting an inclusive approach to urban mobility that encourages diverse, sustainable transport options.
Janmarg,meaning"ThePeople'sWay,"isdesignedasadedicatedbuscorridor,allowingbusestotravelsmoothlywithout interferencefromregulartraffic.Thesystemfeaturesmodern,low-floorbuses,automatedticketing,&well-designedbus stationstoensuresafety&accessibility.AhmedabadBRTShasbecomeamodelforotherIndiancities,combiningfeatures likeGPS-basedreal-timetracking,integratedsmartcardpayments,&afocusonenvironmentallyfriendlypractices.Over time, it has expanded its network to cover major routes, connecting key commercial, residential, & educational areas, significantlyreducingtraveltimeforcommuters.Despiteinitialchallenges,includinginfrastructureadjustments&public skepticism, Ahmedabad BRTS has been recognized for its role in transforming the city’s public transport landscape, promoting ashiftfromprivatevehiclestoshared,efficient,&greener publictransit.
DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
The BRTS initiative has positively impactedAhmedabad’s urban landscape, notably improving accessibility, reducing traveltimesby20%,&promotingpublictransitoverprivatevehicleuse.ThesuccessoftheBRTShighlightsseveralkey planning insights: frequent & reliable transit services, coupled with designated lanes, are critical components of an effective BRTsystem.Additionally, integrating non-motorized transport infrastructure into the system enhances overall mobility & encourages sustainable urban development. As an example of a thoughtfully implemented public transit project, theAhmedabad BRTS demonstrates the benefits of a well-planned & executed bus-based transport model for citiesfacingrapid urbanization&transportationchallenges.
driven by concerns over increasing traffic congestion, air pollution, & inefficient public transport. The Ahmedabad MunicipalCorporation(AMC),incollaborationwiththe Centre forEnvironmentalPlanning &Technology(CEPT), conducted feasibility studies & urban mobility assessments, drawing insights from successful BRTmodels in citieslike Curitiba(Brazil)&Bogotá(Colombia).
speed & reliability. The initial network plan aimed to connect major arterial roads & densely populated areas, with bus stations positioned at regular intervals for convenientaccess.Akeyfeaturewasthemedian-located bus stops, designed to minimize conflicts with mixed traffic & ensure safer passenger movement. The infrastructure also incorporated signal prioritization, modernticketingsystems,&low-floorbusesforenhanced accessibility.
Constructionofthefirstphasebeganin2007,&theBRTS was launched in 2009, covering an initial stretch of 12.5 kilometers. The system was gradually expanded in multiple phases, responding to growing demand & feedback from users. By adopting a Public-Private Partnership (PPP) model, the city managed to attract investment forfleetprocurement&operations,whiletheAMCfocusedonbuilding&maintainingtheinfrastructure.
Over the years, the development process involved continuous improvements based on user feedback & evolving urban needs. Technologies such as GPS tracking, real-time information displays, & integrated smart card ticketing systems wereintroducedtoenhancethecommuterexperience.ThesuccessoftheAhmedabadBRTShasinspiredsimilarprojects in otherIndiancities,establishingitasabenchmarkforurban transitdevelopmentin thecountry.
TRANSIT ROUTES
1. Route1(A):
StartingPoint:Bopal
EndingPoint:Randal
This route connects the southern & northern parts of the city, passing through SG Highway, Prahlad Nagar,&Vastral.
2. Route2(B):
StartingPoint:Sarkhej
EndingPoint:Kalupur
Thisrouterunsthroughkeycommercialareas like Mithakhali,Navrangpura,& connectsthewestern partsofAhmedabadtothecitycenter.
3. Route3(C):
StartingPoint:Motera
EndingPoint:Naroda
Serving both industrial & residential areas, this route connects the northern & eastern parts of Ahmedabad,withstopsnearSardarVallabhbhaiPatelStadium&NarodaPatiya.
The implementation of Ahmedabad BRTS aimed to serve as a model for other Indian cities, demonstrating the effectivenessofbusrapidtransitasacost-effective,scalable solutionforurban transportation challenges.
The future goals of theAhmedabad Bus Rapid Transit System (BRTS), or Janmarg, focus on expanding the network, improving service quality, & integrating with broader urban mobility plans. The system aims to build on its success by addressingtheevolvingneedsofthecity&supportingsustainable urbangrowth. FutureGoals:
By focusing on these goals, the Ahmedabad BRTS aims to remain a pioneering model of urban mobility in India, settingthestandard forsustainable&efficientpublictransportationsystemsinrapidlygrowing cities.
CASESTUDY3:TEITORAPIDTRANSITAUTHORITY
KEYSITESTATISTICS
TRANSIT SERVICE
TTMS - The Tokyo Metro System
DEVELOPMENT
356.1 Kilometers of network length (as of 2024)
Operator – Teito Rapid Transit Authority (TRTA)
2700 train cars
180 Stations
9 Long Routes, Toei Subway operates 4 additional lines, bringing the total number of subway lines in Tokyo to 13 when combined.
KEY FEATURES
Automated Train Operation (ATO) systems
Energy-efficient regenerative braking
(TRTA),TOKYO,JAPAN
Comfort features like air conditioning & multilingual information displays
BACKGROUND
Tokyo,oneoftheworld’smostpopulouscities,haslongbeenrecognizedforitsadvancedpublic transitinfrastructure& exemplary urban planning strategies. With the pressures of rapid urbanization, Tokyo embraced Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) to create an extensive & efficient network of trains & metro lines that seamlessly integrates with high-density residential, commercial, & mixed-use developments. The privatization of railways was a crucial factor in this transformation, enabling a highly coordinated approach to land use that prioritized accessibility, quality of life, & sustainable urbangrowth.Through this integratedmodel,Tokyohas managedto accommodate itsexpandingpopulation while minimizinglandwastage,promoting efficienttransit, &maintaininghigh standardsofurbanlivability.
The Tokyo Metro system, one of the busiest & most extensiveintheworld,hasarichhistory&playsavitalrole in the daily life of Japan's capital. Its origins date back to 1927 with the opening of the Ginza Line, Asia's first underground railway. The early development was influenced by European subways & was initially a private venture. However, growth was slow before World War II due to economic challenges. Following the war, Tokyo's rapid population growth necessitated a massive expansion of the metro network. From the 1950s to the 1980s, new lines like the Marunouchi, Hibiya,Tozai, & Chiyoda were constructed, significantly increasing the system’s reach.
The 1964 Tokyo Olympics were a turning point, highlightingthe needforacomprehensivetransportinfrastructure.
In the 1990s & beyond, the Tokyo Metro underwent modernization, incorporating advanced technologies such as AutomatedTrainOperation(ATO)&real-timeinformationsystems.Theprivatizationofoperationsin2004underTokyo MetroCo.,Ltd.,furtherenhanceditsefficiency.Today,theTokyoMetrocomprises9lines,stretchingover195kilometers & serving millions of passengersdaily. It is known for its punctuality, cleanliness, & seamless integration with theToei Subway&JapanRailways(JR),makingitamodelofurbantransportation.Despitechallengeslikeovercrowdingduring peak hours, the system continues to innovate, focusing on expanding capacity, improving accessibility, & adopting sustainable practices. With bilingual signage, smart ticketing, & a commitment to modernization, the Tokyo Metro remains a crucial part of the city’s infrastructure, embodying Japan's dedication to urban planning & technological excellence.
DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
The results of Tokyo’s TOD approach are significant, with the city achieving a balance between dense development & livability. Real estate development around transit hubs has been essential in financing the transit infrastructure, with a land redevelopment strategy recovering 36% of the mass transit costs. The establishment of a dedicated urban railway reserve fund & the strategic involvement of the government in land rearrangement & zoning have further supported the city’sTOD goals.As a result, Tokyo has successfully reduced car dependency, improved air quality, & alleviated traffic congestion. Key planning insights from Tokyo’s model include the importance of seamless connectivity & robust government involvement in land use regulation.Tokyo’s approach serves as a pioneering example of how urban transit & land use can be harmonized to achieve a sustainable, accessible, & high-quality urban environment in a rapidly urbanizingmetropolis.
The development of the Tokyo Metro system began in 1927 with the opening of the Ginza Line, Japan's first subway, which was created to address growing traffic congestion in the rapidly expanding city. The system expanded gradually over thenextfew decades, with key lineslike the Marunouchi Line (1954),Hibiya Line (1961), & Tozai Line (1964) being introduced tomeetthe demandsofTokyo’spost-warpopulationboom.The1964Tokyo Olympicshighlightedthe needforimprovedpublic transit, acceleratingtheexpansionofthenetwork.
Throughout the 1990s & 2000s, Tokyo Metro focused on modernization, incorporating new technologies such as automated train operation, energy-efficient trains, & IC card ticketing to streamline operations & improve accessibility. In 2004, the system was privatized, forming Tokyo Metro Co., Ltd., which allowed for continued investment & efficiency improvements. The Fukutoshin Line (2008) was the latest major addition, designed to ease congestiononexistingroutes&connectkeyurbanareas.Today,theTokyoMetrooperates9lines&servesasoneofthe world’s largest & most efficient metro systems, continuing to expand & innovate to meet the needs of a growing urban population.
Indianmetropolitancitiestypicallyfeaturecomplexgrowthpatternsthathaveevolvedovercenturies,resultinginoldcity centers with infrastructure that predates the invention of automobiles and modern transport systems. Despite this, these citycentersremainvitalhubsofeconomicactivity.Additionally,Indiancitiesarecharacterizedbydiverseneighborhoods, varying densities, and mixed land uses. Over the past two decades, rapid population growth, combined with economic expansion and automobile-based suburbanization, has led to urban sprawl, resulting in significant transportation challengessuchascongestion,delays,andpollution.
To address these issues, Mass Rapid Transit Systems (MRTS) offer a promising solution. MRTS, such as metro rail systems,arenon-polluting,energy-efficient,andsuperiortoothertransportmodesintermsofcarryingcapacity.Theyare faster,safer,smoother,andrequirelessspacecomparedtootherformsoftransportation(DMRC,PuneMetroDPR,2008).
However, metro systems are relatively new in India.The first rapid transit system, the Kolkata Metro, was launched in 1984,followedbytheDelhiMetroin2002,theBangaloreMetroin2011,andtheChennaiMassRapidTransitSystemin 2014 (Sources: KMRC, DMRC, BMRCL, Chennai Metrorail). In 2009, the Indian government decided to invest ₹2000 billion (US$30.6 billion) in metro rail projects across eight cities within the next decade (Times of India, 2009). There are also plans to extend metro systems to all Indian cities with populations exceeding two million, based on recommendationsfromthe workinggroup onurbantransportin thePlanningCommission(TimesofIndia,2011).
Most of India's cities were planned long before metro rail systems were considered, making it challenging to integrate such projects into existing Master Plans. The efficiency of a public transport system relies on reaching certain demand thresholds,butinIndia,metrosystemshaveoftenattractedfewerpassengersthananticipated.Theytendtocapturemore passengersfrombuses,withlimited successinshifting commutersfromcarstometrosystems(Hayashi,2007).
Given that many Indian cities were already densely populated and planned before metro systems were introduced, and considering the relatively low ridership in some metro systems, the question arises: How can future metro systems in citieswithpopulationsabove twomillion encouragehighertransitridership?
One potential solution isTransit-Oriented Development (TOD), a modern urban planning approach that emphasizes the creation of high-density, mixed-use developments around transit stations. TOD can promote better connectivity, reduce dependency on cars, and enhance metro ridership. This report will examine whether TOD can be effectively applied in theIndiancontexttoachievehigherdevelopmentdensitiesandencouragegreateruse ofmetrotransitsystems.
IDENTIFIED ZONES IN INDIA FOR TRANSIT ORIENTED DEVELOPMENT
GuruTeghBahadurNagar(GTBNagar),locatedinSouthCentralMumbai,isalsoknownasKoliwadaVillage,whichis home to the largest fishing community in the city. The area is served by the GTB Nagar railway station on the Harbor Line of Mumbai’s suburban railway network, as well as the nearby Monorail. GTB Nagar is predominantly residential andhasthefourth-highestprojectedridershipforthecity’stransitsystem.
The region is characterized by a significant number of dilapidated old buildings, most of which are in need of redevelopment.Theareaalsofeaturesslums,occupyingaconsiderableportionofthespace aroundtheMonorailstation. GTB Nagar is centrally located within Mumbai’s Monorail corridor and is in close proximity to both theWadala Depot andtheHarborLineGTBNagarrailwaystation,makingitastrategiclocationfortransitdevelopment.
Transport Infrastructure Challenges: The site faces problems such as poor road alignment, bottlenecks, and lack of pedestrian-friendlystreets,whichresultincongestion.Enhancingpedestrianpathwaysandcreatingsafer,walkablestreets willbe crucialinincreasingfoottraffic tothe Monorailstation andimprovingtransitridership.
DevelopmentProcess:
1) Grid Pattern for Movement: Implementing a grid layout for both pedestrian and vehicular movement will help addressroadalignmentissues,reducebottlenecks,and alleviatecongestion inthearea.
2) Public Spaces and Plazas: The area surrounding the Monorail station should be designed for free public movement,incorporatingplazastoencouragesocialandeconomic activity.
3) Commercial Development: Commercial spaces should be strategically placed around the station to limit unnecessarytraffic intothe neighborhood,while providingeasyaccesstothetransitsystem.
6) GreenSpaces:Greenspacesareavitalpartofcommunitywell-beingandshouldbeincorporatedintothedesign of theneighborhoodtoimprovequalityoflifeandlivability.
ProposedDevelopment Plan:
The development of the GTB Nagar area will be carried out in phases, with the site divided into four sections based on the existingroadnetwork:
1) Phase 1: The first phase will focus on acquiring half of the land occupied by slums, followed by the development of the requiredinfrastructure.
3) Phase 3: In the second phase, the remaining slum land in the third section will be acquired and redeveloped following the samepatternasthe previousphases.
4) Phase 4: The final section of land will be acquired and developed in the third phase. By the end of this phase, the entire area will be fully redeveloped, with improved infrastructureandupgradedplots.
This phased approach ensures a systematic transformation of the area around GTB Nagar Monorail station, with a focus on enhancing connectivity, walkability, and sustainable development to boost transit ridership.
2) DELHI – KARKARDOOMA METRO STATION
Background:
InspiteofDelhi'srecentinvestmentsinPublicTransportSystemswhichincludeaworldclassMetroSystemandaplanned BRTNetwork,Delhihasbeenunabletodeliverefficient,comfortableandaffordablemobilityoptionstoitscitizens.The current lack of connectivity (in particular to Metro stations), abundant subsidized parking options as well as a lack of safety forwalkers, cyclistsand women inthe cityhasresulted inpublictransportationbeing relegated tosecond or even lastchoiceoftravel.Thishasconsequentiallyresultedintheever-increasingnumberofprivatevehiclesplyinginthecity. The problem has reached a state where it is feared that it might have an irreversible damage on our city fabric, its environment (twenty-one people die of respiratory diseases in the Capital every day and vehicular emissions contribute to 70%oftheair pollutioninDelhi),thesocialstructureand muchmore.
The city has avery long history of auto-centric planning which prioritized segregated land uses, low density sprawl and largeunwalkableblocksizes.Thesupplyofextrawideroadswithheavilyencroachedfootpaths/cycletracks,discourage non-motorized travelmodesand ensurethatthe citizenis auto-dependent.Theresulthasbeen an exponentialgrowth in private motor vehicle ownership, and a corresponding increase in pollution and congestion, with loss of man-hours and increase in urban poverty (ref: National Urban Transport Policy). Major arterials of the city are currently down to 10 km/hr. average speed in peak hours, which essentially means that we have hit gridlock. This trend has been aggravated throughtherampantconstructionofflyoversandgrade separatedinterchangeswithincitylimits. Congestionisstillasit is, and such infrastructure has actually caused a reverse modal shift, by making travel more difficult for walkers and publictransportusers,consequentlyadding themtotheprivate-vehicleusingpopulationandhence morecongestion!
In this alarming situation, it is imperative that a rapid paradigm shift is undertaken in order to move people away from private vehicles towards the use of public transportation. The objective of achieve this paradigm shift is to offer more attractive alternativestotheuseofpersonalmodeslowcost, comfortable,non-motorizedtransport, pleasurablewalking - experiences and very easily accessible and comfortable mass transportation with easy, convenient and comfortable intermodal transfers for last mile connectivity. The city needs to restructure and redefine how it works, lives and finds meansofrecreation.Thisispossible throughTransitOrientedDevelopment(TOD).
TOD is not just about higher density. Good urban design can help Delhi transition from being a "rape-city" to a "safecity" by creating a better public-private interface that makes for more eyes on the street. By eliminating setbacks along main building facades and mandating transparent fences where setbacks are allowed, the policy ensures that there is an activeinterfacebetweenactivitiesinsidethe buildings&on thestreet.
KARKARDOOMA METRO STATION
DDA (Delhi Development Authority) have launched a pilot mission for redevelopment of the area around the karkardooma metro station. Before planning and implementation, consultations were conducted for prioritizing of civic amenities:-
All of the above transit systems were developed in response to population growth, demand for rapid transportation and reduction of traffic congestion.All of the above strategies recommend policies for promoting development along transit routesonanongoingbasis.
3. Comprehensive, consensus-based land use changes for neighborhood and commercialdistricts for strategic growth, sustainabledevelopmentand transit-orienteddevelopment
4. Creating transit corridors bases on development potential, operational feasibility, transit connectivity and public involvement
5. MakingtheTransitOriented Plana partof theComprehensiveLandUse Plan
6. The definition of Transportation Infrastructure to include roads, bicycle paths, public transport, rail transport, air transportandwaterwaystransport
7. Creating a range of sustainable transportation modes which are safe, secure, sustainable and efficient for business andleisuretrips
8. Public Transport oriented approach by integrating land use and transport planning for compact and efficient urban development
9. Planning and investing in infrastructure ahead of time to create high quality urban spaces and accommodate future populationgrowth
10. Planning for a30-minuteorlesscommutetimewithmixeduse,denseandcompacturbanenvironment
CHAPTER6:CONCLUSION
Rapideconomicgrowthandurbanizationhaveledtovariousurbanchallenges,includingcongestion, traffic jams, overburdened infrastructure, and pollution. The varying sizes and types of building blocks, as well as the width and type of streets across different city areas, contribute to these issues. Thelimitedroadcapacity,coupledwiththeincreasingnumberofautomobilesandpopulationgrowth, has resulted in congestion, delays, and rising pollution levels. To maintain economic growth and mitigate these challenges, a sustainable strategy is crucial.
The study concluded that key components of Transit-Oriented Development (TOD), such as design, density, anddiversity,arealreadypresent in areas surrounding transit stations. Theseareas benefit from a mix of land uses, diverse income levels, and a 24-hour environment, supported by a network of streets and high population densities. The introduction of transit systems in cities with
populations of over 2 million ensures that these areas already exhibit the necessary density and diversity for TOD. However, while these components exist, accessibility to transit and multimodal connectivity remain significant challenges.
In the Indian context, TOD strategies focus on promoting high-density development around transit stations, improving transportation infrastructure, and enhancing traffic management and pedestrian safety. However, these strategies do not provide immediate solutions to boost transit ridership orshiftpeoplefromprivatevehiclestopublictransportation.Assuch,thesestrategiesmay not alleviate congestion in the short term. Additionally, long-term solutions for continuously increasing transit ridership are not yet fully addressed.
Case studies show that TOD promotes the use of non-motorized transportation and fosters sustainable, compact urban growth, contributing to local economic development and improved infrastructure. Locations near transit hubs experience higher land values, while TOD helps create vibrant, active spaces throughout the day and night, improving pedestrian safety and security. In the U.S., TOD strategies have focused on catalyzing development along transit corridors, with ongoingimplementationandspecifictargetstoincreasedevelopmentandtransitridership.InIndia, rapid transit systems are still emerging, and strategies to densify development, encourage compact growth, and enhance transit accessibility are just beginning to take shape.
