(JIA-2018-0085) Evolution of varieties and development of production technology in Egypt wheat- A re by ARC.SCI.EG

in Egypt wheat: A review

Kishk Abdelmageed1, 2, CHANG Xu-hong1, WANG De-mei1, WANG Yan-jie1, YANG Yu-shuang1, ZHAO Guang-cai1, TAO Zhi-qiang1

1 Institute of Crop Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences/Key Laboratory of Crop Physiology and Ecology, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing 100081, P.R.China

2 Field Crops Research Institute, Agricultural Research Cent er, Giza 12619, Eg ypt

Abstract

Wheat was the first crop grown in Egypt, and it remains highly important. Egypt is the largest wheat importer in the world and consumes an extensive amount of bread. It is imperative for wheat scientists to decrease the large gap between production and consumption. Wheat yields in Egypt increased 5.8-fold (6.7 billion kg) between 1961 and 2017 due to variety improvement and the use of better planting methods such as the raised bed method, ideal sowing date, surge flow irrigation, and farm irrigation systems, laser levelling, fertilizers, and intercropping with raised beds. In this paper the development of wheat production techniques and variety evolution over more than five decades in Egypt have been analyzed. In particular, we have focused on the technologies, cultural practices and causes for per unit area yield increase. The main purpose was to study the issues that have arisen during wheat production and to make recommendations for smart agricultural practices. In 1981, the yield was 3 300 kg ha–1 and through the improvement of varieties, expansion of agricultural land and the adoption of modern agricultural techniques yield reached 6 500 kg ha–1 by 2017. The production growth rate was 4.1% annually, and the total grain yield increased 4.3-fold, from 1.9 billion kg in 1981 to about 8.1 billion kg in 2017. The use of new improved varieties, new cultivation techniques and modern irrigation techniques contributed to a 97.0% of the increase in yield per unit area and 1.5% of the increase in yield was due to planting area expansion. Therefore, the increase in total yield mainly depended on the increase in yield per unit area. Wheat production in Egypt has been improved through the development of breeding and cultivation techniques. The use of these new techniques, the popularization of new high-quality seed varieties and the use of the raised bed method instead of the old method of planting in basins have made the largest contributions to increased yield. In the future, wheat yield could be further increased by using the tridimensional uniform sowing mode and the development of wheat varieties that are resistant to rusts, deficit irrigation and abiotic stress, that are highly adaptable to mechanized operation and have high yields. Based on our analysis, we propose the main technical

Received 19 January, 2018 Accepted 29 June, 2018

Correspondence ZHAO Guang-cai, Tel/Fax: +86-10-82108576, E-mail: zhaoguangcai@caas.cn; TAO Zhi-qiang, Tel: +86-1082107635, E-mail: taozhiqiang@caas.cn

doi: 10.1016/S2095-3119(18)62053-2

Abdelmageed et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2018, 17(0): 60345-7

requirements and measures to increase wheat yield in Egypt in the near future.

Keywords: Egypt, wheat production, modern techniques, raised bed, water saving, mechanization

1. Introduction

1.1. Location of cultivated areas, climate, and background

Egypt has a total area of about one million km2 and is situated at the cross roads of three continents, Asia, Africa, and Europe. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Sudan to the south, the Red Sea to the east and Libya to the west. The Sinai Peninsula is a part of Egypt that forms a land bridge to Southwest Asia. The annual rainfall is approximately 50 mm, with higher rainfall, 150 mm, on the north coast. The climate is dry in summer and moderate in winter. Egypt has a cultivated area of 3.6 million hectares, of which approximately 2.7 million hectares are concentrated in the Delta and receive surface irrigation, and 0.88 million hectares are newly reclaimed soils that receive pressurized irrigation (sprinkler and pivot irrigation) (Peter and Sewilam 2016). Cultivated land is divided into old lands, which are located along the Nile Valley and Delta, and new lands (sandy soil) located at the west and east of the Delta, in the Sinai and Oases. The lowest point is the Qattara Depression, and Cathryn mount is the highest. Nile floods, which have deposited layers of silt at a rate of several centimeters per century, built the highly fertile Nile Delta in Egypt. The Delta extends from Giza in the south to El-Manzala and Rashid in the north. The area of the Delta is approximately 24 000 ha (1.5% of the land in Egypt), and there is approximately one million hectares of arable land in the Delta (2.9% of Egypt’s total area), and El-Dakahlia is the largest governorate (267 000 ha) within the Delta while Damietta is the smallest (44 000 ha) (Fathy et al 2017). The soil type in the Delta is heavy clay, which has high organic matter content and a high-water capacity. The land to the south is highly fertile, whereas the north is less fertile due to the movement of salts from the south to north.

Ancient Egyptian civilization (7 000 years ago) was based on agriculture around the Nile River. Cultivation of wheat began to spread beyond the Fertile Crescent in 8 000 BC and reached Egypt by 6 000 BC. Early Egyptians developed bread and the oven, and baking became one of the first large-scale food production industries. About 27.4% of the population is employed in the agricultural sector, and this sector contributes to 14.7% of the national income (FAOSTAT 2017). Egypt imports half of the wheat

consumed and produces half. This gap between wheat production and consumption in Egypt is due to the limited amount of cultivated land and the existence of only one source of water for irrigation, the Nile River. Approximately 81% of water is used by the agricultural sector, and there is little use of modern farming technology. Most small farmers continue to use flood irrigation, and this method leads to loss of water through drainage and evaporation. Scientists have revealed that 45% of water is lost through deep soil drainage, which also results in nitrogen leaching and contamination of ground water by nitrates.

Recently, Egypt has made progress in wheat development. Farmers have reported good results from improved land and water management practices, and new wheat varieties that combine high yield, suitability for mechanization, disease resistance, and high yield quality have been released. The Ministry of Agricultural and Land Reclamation (MALR) has taken active steps to reform the agricultural sector of the economy by liberalizing production, marketing, and investment in agriculture. The aim of MALR is to increase agricultural outputs to ensure sufficient food production to feed the 104 million people in Egypt, to increase the role of the private sector in agricultural investment and to reclaim the desert.

1.2.

Problem and solution statement

Egypt is ranked the third-most populous country on the African continent after Nigeria and Ethiopia. Food security is an important issue for the Egyptian government. Wheat is the main food and the first cereal crop in Egypt. Wheat grains are used as food for humans, and the straw is used as fodder for animals. Mujeeb et al. (2008) reported that wheat provides 40% of the protein and 37% of calories in the Egyptian diet. The average consumption of wheat and wheat products is about 200 kg capita–1 yr–1, one of the highest levels in the world (Kherallah et al. 2003). During the winter season, the wheat crop occupies 47% of the cultivated area (Fig. 1). The total area of Egypt cultivated with wheat is approximately 1.26 million hectares with a yield of approximately 8.1 million tons, but there is still big gap, about 50%, between production and consumption. Egypt imports 9 to 10 million tons (about 38%) of wheat annually from different countries and is the biggest wheat importer in the world according to FAOSTAT (2017). The largest amount of imported wheat comes from Russia, USA, France,

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Ukraine, Romania, Australia, Germany, Canada, Brazil, and Poland (Salem et al. 2015). Fig. 2 presents the trends in wheat production, wheat imports and wheat consumption in Egypt during 1960 to 2017. Since 1960, great efforts have been made to regulate population growth, which steadily declined from an annual rate of 2.8% during the decade from 1974 to 1984, to 2.1% between 1985 to 1995 to 1.9% between 1998 to 2013. Yanni et al. (2016) reported that yield grew at rate of 4.7% per annum between 1980 to 1993, and wheat area increased from 32% in 1980 to 83% in 1991 due to the release of new fine varieties, while average yield increased from 3 300 kg ha–1 in 1981 to 1983 to 5 400 kg ha–1 in 1990 to 1992 to 6 500 kg ha–1 in 2017. However, the total population increased from 28.0 million in 1960 to 82.0 million in 2013 and 104 million in 2016. Since the late 1980s, overpopulation has made Egypt dependent on imports for about 50% of its food supply. Based on current trends, the population will increase faster than wheat yield, so it is necessary to identify ways to improve wheat production. The greatest challenge to increasing production per unit area is the increase in urbanization and construction on the arable lands of the Nile Delta. Since the 2011 revolution,

more than 168 000 hectares of productive lands were transformed into cement structures. When urbanization takes place, externalities such as decreased water availability and drainage tend to affect yields in adjacent fields. Wheat policy is a priority for Egyptian government. So, the government has taken measures to increase wheat production and support producers by encouraging farmers to cultivate wheat and buying wheat from the farmers at a high price. Recently, a great deal of attention has been directed toward increasing wheat productivity per unit land, especially in newly reclaimed soils, to minimize the gap between Egyptian production and consumption (Amal et al. 2011). El-Shabrawi et al. (2015) revealed that the wheat yield per unit area could be increased by breeding high yielding varieties, applying optimum cultural practices and employing agronomic practices that sustain soil fertility through their effect on the physical, chemical, and biological properties of the soil. Therefore, the present investigation was designed to study the evolution and development of wheat production in Egypt in order to make predictions about the best approaches to boost wheat production and decrease the gap between production and consumption in

Fig. 1 The percentage of total cultivated area planted with each crop during the winter season.

Fig. 2 Trends in the production, import, and consumption of wheat in Egypt.

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Egypt in the future.

Most of Egypt’s land has a desert climate, with the winter season being suitable for wheat production, andland, and water are the main elements of sustainable development. Anwar et al. (2016) reported that fresh water resources in Egypt are limited and are currently estimated to be 57.7 billion m3 yr–1, with 55.5, 1.3, and 0.9% coming from the Nile, rainfall and fossil groundwater, respectively. By 2025, the per capita water supply will be approximately 550 m3 yr–1, or 25% of what it was in 1960. Thus, Egypt has already passed the threshold value of water scarcity, 1 000 m3 capita–1 yr–1, and is heading toward the threshold of absolute scarcity, 500 m3 capita–1 yr–1. To confront this fresh water shortage, 12 billion m3 of non-conventional water resources are currently being used to satisfy various water requirements. Egypt could also face crop shortages if it fails to enhance water productivity (i.e., high yield with less water). In addition, temperature fluctuations could prompt a 20% drop in rainfall (El-Ramady et al. 2013). Shortages of cultivated land and water pose a threat to economic development and these shortages will be aggravated in the future due to overpopulation.

2. Evolution of varieties used in Egyptian wheat production

Increased yields have been achieved through the breeding and release of wheat varieties with decreased plant height, rust resistance, water deficit resistance, heat tolerance, salinity resistance, resistance to lodging, high response to nitrogen fertilizers, long spikes, and a large number of tillers and also varieties that are medium or early maturing. Improvement of the wheat crop in Egypt began in 1914 with the release of some domestic varieties by MALR. From 1921 to 1950, some local varieties were selected. The Tomson variety, which was obtained through individual selection, was released, and this followed by the release of new varieties. Rust diseases, especially stem rust, threatened wheat yield in Egypt, so the Wheat Research Department Program (WRDP) began hybrid programs in 1942 to breed rust disease-resistant varieties. The bread wheat varieties released by WRDP are shown in Table 1. Giza139, which has a high yield per hectare (between 1728 and 2142 kg ha–1), was released in 1947 and spread to all governorates between 1950 to 1954. Due to the spread of the varieties released by WRDP between 1958 and 1960, the national yields increased to 2 600 kg ha–1

In 1962, the WRDP introduced Mexican varieties into hybrid programs at the Agricultural Research Center (ARC). These varieties were characterized by short stems, resistance to lodging, high response to nitrogen fertilizers

and the production of a large number of tillers. In 1968, the excellent variety Giza155 was released. The total area planted with this variety reached 416.6 ha, or 80% of the area cultivated with wheat, and the average yield in all governorates increased to 3 240 kg ha–1. In 1970, Egypt imported additional Mexican varieties, which achieved excellent yields under the Egypt environment. In 1973, Indus-65 were planted in addition to Giza 155 and Giza 156, and yield in all governorates reached an average of 3 500 kg ha–1. However, in 1976 the area planted with Mexican varieties decreased; Egyptian farmers were forbidden from planting these varieties because they were susceptible to rust diseases, the fruits were easily shattered at maturity stage, and the yield of rough straw was low.

Egypt replaced the Mexican varieties with the newly released Egyptian varieties and also with durum wheat varieties. With the spread of the new improved varieties and new cultural practices, yield continued to increase; in 1982/1983 the yield increased to 3 600 kg ha–1, in 1988/1989 the yield reached 5 000 kg ha–1 and in 1991/1992 the yield increased to 5 700 kg ha–1. From 1994 to 1996, WRDP released new excellent varieties characterrized by long spikes with more spikelets per spike and increased grain number per spike (up to 140 grains spike–1). In 1999, Egyptian wheat breeders released cultivars characterized by high resistance to stripe rust and high yield (Patpour et al. 2016). The wheat cultivar Gemmeiza 9 was superior to the commercial wheat cultivars Sakha 93, Sids 1, and Gemmeiza 5 and also highly resistant to the three rust diseases (Abdelbacki 2014). From 2010 to 2012, WRDP released varieties with high productivity and rust resistance.

From 2013 to 2016, to achieve high wheat productivity per unit area, the ARC released excellent new varieties characterized by high productivity, tolerance to different environmental stresses, such as heat, salinity, and drought, and resistance to diseases. The wheat research program has seven main stations in the following locations: North Delta (Sakha), Middle Delta (Gemmeiza), East Delta (Ismaelia), West Delta (Nubaria), South Delta (Giza), Middle Egypt (Sids) and Upper Egypt (Shandaweel). Table 2 lists the most important wheat varieties, the regions where each variety is grown and the characteristics of each variety.

3. Old and new cultivation techniques used in Egyptian wheat production

Analysis of old and new wheat cultivation techniques is beneficial for identifying new techniques for increasing wheat yield in the future. Old and new cultivation techniques are illustrated in Fig. 3. The old techniques used for wheat cultivation included, basin cultivation, use of animals,

Table 1 Characteristics of Egyptian bread and durum varieties released between 1947 and 2012

Late Delta

Late North delta

Late South delta

Late

(110 cm)

Late

Early All Egypt

Late Delta, Nubaria, Fayum

Med North Egypt

Early Middle and Upper Egypt

Elmenia

1 1 Med Elmenia, Assuit, Sohag

(120 cm)

and Upper Egypt Long (120 cm)

Elmenia Long (120 cm) 6

Early

Med

Med Middle and upper Egypt and (Toshka, Ewinat)

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Table 2 Excellent bread and durum wheat varieties currently grown in Egypt1)

No. Variety Region

Bread wheat

1 Giza 168 All governorates

Characteristic

Tolerates water deficit, heat tolerant, resistant to rusts, late maturing (165–170 d), medium plant height, white grain color, thin spikes.

2 Gemmeiza 7 South & Middle Delta Resistant to rusts, moderate salinity tolerance

3 Gemmeiza 9 North Egypt, Giza, Fayum, Nubaria

Sensitive to salinity and water deficit, tall plant height, long spikes, late maturing (160 d), resistant to rusts.

4 Gemmeiza 10 North Egypt, Giza, Fayum Resistant to rusts, medium plant height, medium spike length, matures at 154 d, produces a large number of tillers.

5 Gemmiza 11 North governorates Resistant to rusts, early maturing (150 d).

6 Gemmeiza 12 North Egypt and ToshkaEwinat Newly released, resistant to rusts, heat tolerant, medium plant height, long spikes, matures at 150 d.

7 Sakha 93 North governorates Resistant to rusts, tolerates salinity and heat, short plant height, more tillers.

8 Sakha 94 All governorates Resistant to rusts, salinity tolerant, tall plant height, more tillers, medium maturity.

9 Misr1 All governorates, new lands (Toshka- Ewinat)

Resistant to rusts (Ug99) and water deficit, heat tolerant, more tillers, high yield.

10 Misr2 All governorates, new lands (Toshka - Ewinat) Newly released, resistant to rusts (Ug99), heat tolerant, more tillers, high yield.

11 Sids 13 All Egypt; newly released variety Resistant to rusts and water deficit, early maturing (152 d)

12 Sids 14 All Egypt; newly released variety Resistant to rusts and water deficit, early maturing (152 d)

13 Shandaweel 1 All governorates Newly released, resistant to rusts, more tillers, long spikes and big size, early maturing (152 d).

14 Giza 171 All governorates Newly released, resistant to rust diseases, medium plant height, long spikes, early maturing (150 d).

15 Sakha 95 All governorates Newly released, resistant to rusts and high protein content (13.5%).

Durum wheat

1 Sohag 4 Middle Egypt, Toshka, Ewinat Resistant to yellow rust, more tillers, high protein content (13%), high yield, heat tolerant.

2 Benisuif 1 Middle and Upper Egypt, Toshka and Ewinat Resistant to yellow rust, high yield, heat tolerant.

3 Benisuif 4 Middle Egypt, Benisuif and Elmenia High-quality grain and good for macaroni, more tillers.

4 Benisuif 5 Middle and Upper Egypt and Toshka and Ewinat High yield, good for macaroni, high protein content (13%), heat tolerant

5 Benisuif 6 Middle Egypt, Toshka and Ewinat Newly released, high yield, good for macaroni, high protein content (13.5%), more tillers.

6 Benisuif 7 Middle Egypt Newly released, high yield, good for macaroni 1) Source: Wheat Research Department, Field Crops Research Institute, Agricultural Research Center, Egypt.

use of water wheels for irrigation, and use of manual sowing and harvesting tools. The use of new cultivation techniques such as the raised bed method, laser leveling, improved fertilizer application, farm irrigation systems, and land reclamation increased yield. For example, use of the raised bed method increased yield 17% compared with the old method of planting in basins. Also, using raised beds combined with intercropping can increase yield up to 26%. The seed rate was 300 kg ha–1 in 1960–1979 and 144 kg ha–1 in 1980–2016. A comparison of old and new technologies reveals that wheat cultivation in Egypt has evolved to rely on mechanization, and manual and animal labor are no longer used. This mechanization mainly depended on the development of industry and information technology as well as policies introduced by the government to allow farmers and industry to benefit from wheat production.

3.1. Raised bed method

The raised bed method is used in developed countries to improve crop productivity (Swelem et al. 2015), and it is also a valuable method for increasing wheat production. The raised bed system was originally developed in Mexico’s Yaqui Valley where more than 90% of farmers have adopted the practice (Meisner et al. 1992), and during the last decade this method has been widely used in wheat growing regions in Mexico. Fig. 4 illustrates the preparation of raised beds, wheat emergence, and growth and harvest. In this system, land is divided into raised beds, each with a width of 120 cm, and the distance between beds is 20 cm. On each bed 6–7 rows of wheat are planted. This method can reduce the amount of seeds planted; typically, 144 kg seeds ha–1 are sown, a 40–50% reduction in the amount of seed required

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compared with conventional planting. However, if the land is affected by weeds, the amount of seeds should be increased by 10%. The raised bed method is also suitable for old land

(black clay soil).

The ARC aimed to increase use of the raised bed cultivation method for growing fine varieties, and this led to increased water productivity and high crop intensification rates. Wheat yields increased when the raised bed method was introduced to some areas, for example, by 25% in the Sharkia governorate and by 17% in the Assuit governorate, and farmers in Sharkia used 20% less irrigation water (Mohammed 2012). Use of the raised bed method combined with a sprinkler system and intercropping (wheat intercropped with sugar beets, tomatoes, cotton, or sugarcane or under young fruit trees) has become the main method of wheat cultivation in Egypt (Ouda et al. 2016). Scientists have reported that there is no reduction in yield when using the raised bed method. In fact, Ouda and Zohry (2016) reported that raised-bed planting significantly improves water distribution and efficiency, increases fertilizer-use efficiency and reduces weed infestation, lodging and seeding rate without sacrificing yield. It also decreases N fertilizer loss due to leaching, which leads to the production of numerous tillers, larger spikes, higher grain weight, and more grains per spike. Zohry and Ouda (2016) showed that grain yield and water productivity increased in wheat grown in raised beds compared with conventionally grown wheat and estimated that the water savings ranged from 20–46%. Ouda and Zohry (2017) also reported that shifting from old cultivation methods to raised beds can reduce irrigated water use by 20% and increase yield by 15%. In Egypt, growing wheat in raised beds can achieve

Ploughing

Land leveling

Sowing

Irrigation

Fertilization Harvest

Fig. 3 Comparison of old (1960–1979, left) and new (1980–2016, right) wheat cultivation technologies.

Raised bed planter (left) and land divided into raised beds (right)

Emergence of wheat on raised beds (left) and wheat growing on raised beds (right)

Growth of wheat on raised beds (left) and harvesting of wheat (right)

Fig. 4 The preparation of raised beds and wheat emergence, growth and harvest.

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a 17% increase in yield that meets 68% of national wheat consumption. It also decreases the time to harvest and increases the farmer’s net yield. Average yields obtained from raised bed cultivation were 6500–10000 kg ha–1 higher than those obtained with basin cultivation when using certified seeds of high yielding varieties (Ouda et al. 2016).

3.2. Ideal sowing time

Due to climate change, the timing of sowing is critical; sowing at the wrong time can reduce wheat yield by up to 10–30%. For example, sowing too late can reduce the number of spikelets per spike. Studies conducted in the past three decades have demonstrated that identifying the optimum sowing date can increase crop productivity and reduce the negative effects of adverse conditions. The optimal sowing time in North Egypt is from the 15th to the 30th of November. In the south, sowing is done during the first two weeks of November; however, the optimal sowing time is from the 5th until the 25th of November. Because the temperature in South Egypt is very high and the temperature in North Egypt is moderate, sowing earlier or later these dates impacts growth and accordingly, reduces the yield. Moreover, the risk of aphid infestation increases (Hassanein 2012).

3.3.

Surge flow irrigation technique

Surge flow is the intermittent application of water to furrows (Ismail et al. 2004). Surge irrigation reduces the amount of water applied to wheat and maize plots (Ismail and Depeweg 2005). Grain yields for both wheat and maize crops were significantly increased (by 7.0 and 7.8%, respectively) under surge irrigation compared with flood irrigation (Mattar et al. 2017).

3.4.

Laser leveling technique

Wheat fields must be leveled to allow water to flow easily. The laser leveling technique is used to level land with a slight grade for drainage. Abdelraouf (2014) reported that leveling land and uniformly applying water contributed to increased crop production and reduced farm water run-off. Moreover, land leveling significantly increases water use efficiency under different soil and climatic conditions (Jat et al. 2011). Abdelraouf (2014) also reported that use of the laser levelling technique reduces the use of irrigation water by 25% and enhances the effectiveness of salt leaching.

3.5.

Farm irrigation techniques

There are two main categories of irrigation systems: traditional and non-traditional. The main difference between

these two types is that in traditional irrigation the soil surface is used as a conveyer of water from the point of entry into the field to the point of application. Traditional irrigation methods include basin irrigation, border irrigation, furrow irrigation and strip irrigation systems. In modern or non-traditional irrigation, other methods are implemented to convey water from the water source or the point of entry in the field to the point of application. These methods include the use of pipes and then emitters in a drip irrigation system or pipes and then sprinklers or sprayers in a sprinkler irrigation system. New irrigation techniques using PVC tubes and electricity are shown in Fig. 5. Fig. 6 illustrates the difference between furrow and flat irrigation in the Delta. Fig. 7 illustrates the traditional irrigation system, waste lands and open MESKA (MESKA is a big open canal, that when covered after installing the PVC tube can be used for cultivation. These areas with covered MESKA are called waste lands).

Al-Ghobari et al (2013) determined that the relationship between grain yield and the amount of irrigation water applied is economically more important than the relationship between grain yield and evapotranspiration, thus reducing the amount of irrigation is important. Egypt’s quota from Nile River is 57.7 billion m3, and approximately 80% of this amount is directed to agricultural uses. Wheat production potential in Egypt is assessed only under irrigated conditions, with an irrigation water application efficiency of 50%. Wheat is currently irrigated five times in the north and six times in south with an irrigation frequency of 20–25 days. The wheat irrigation quota is 2 640 m3 ha–1 in the north and about 3 500 m3 ha–1 in the south because surface evaporation in the south is higher than that in the north. Having an on-farm irrigation system can save significant amounts of water that can be used to reclaim the targeted areas listed in the 2030 strategic plan. Using buried Marwa (small canals that convey water from MESKA to plants in the field) raises water conveyance efficiency and increases the cultivated area, increasing the value of crop production per land. Finally, application of on-farm irrigation systems can improve water use efficiency from 50–80%.

3.6. Fertilizer application

Organic fertilizers Natural fertilizers include animal manure and compost. Application of these organic fertilizers is crucial when cultivating new lands (40 m3 ha–1) because they increase the water capacity of sandy soils. Natural compost decreases the amount of chemical fertilizers required by 30 kg ha–1

Chemical fertilizers Nitrogen fertilizer increases the number of spikelets per spike when added before floret initiation. Nitrogen types: urea (46.5% N), ammonium nitrate (33.5% N), ammonium sulphate (20.6% N), calcium

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nitrate (15.5% N). Phosphate types: Mono superphosphate (15% P2O5), Concentrated superphosphate (37% P2O5).

Potassium types: Potassium sulphate (48 to 50% K2O), Potassium chloride (50 to 60% K2O).

Compound fertilizers N, P, K, Fe, Mn, Zn, and/or Cu in different formulations for either soil or foliar application. These micronutrients may be in either mineral or chelate form.

Nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium Clay soil: urea is only added to clay soil (150 kg ha–1) and is used in combination with one of the other nitrogen fertilizers. The nitrogen fertilizers are added over three stages. The first application is during the sowing stage, the second application is combined with the 2nd irrigation 20–25 days after sowing, and the third application is 20–25 days after that. For sandy soil, however, nitrogen fertilizers are applied more frequently, 8–10 times, on an alternating basis (every 8–10 days during irrigation). Urea is not added since it evaporates quickly, and sandy soil does not have the capacity to absorb nutrients. Super phosphate calcium (300 kg ha–1) is added at the sowing stage for all types of soil. Potassium fertilizer (100 kg ha–1) is the most important for grain quality and is added at the sowing stage for all soil types. Gas of ammonia nitrogen fertilizer is added below the level of the soil surface one time before sowing. After ammonia is injected at the recommended rate, the land is left undisturbed for 4 days and then wheat is sown, and the land is irrigated. The advantages of ammonia gas include the reduction in labor and the uniform distribution of plants on the field, leading to homogenous plant growth and an increase in yield by about 14% compared with other fertilization methods.

PVC tube buried in MESKA (left and right)

PVC tubes (conveyor irrigation water instead of MESKA) (left) and placing the PVC tube (right)

Buried tube (left) and gate pipe (right)

New irrigation conveyor (left) and irrigation-gate pipe (right)

Water level control (left) and source of electricity (right)

Fig. 5 New cultivation techniques using PVC tubes and electricity. MESKA is the big open canal that when covered after placing the PVC tube can be used for cultivation. This area is called waste land.

Fig. 6 Furrow (left) and flat irrigation (right) in the Delta.

Fig. 7 Traditional and non-traditional irrigation.

Waste land (left) and traditional irrigation (right)

Open MESKA

3.7. Planting modes

Planting mode plays a crucial role in productivity, and the farmer selects the mode depending on soil type and the preceding crop as follows:

The Affir method (sowing dry seed in dry land) is divided into broadcasting method and drill method (planter). Most farmers prefer the broadcasting method because it saves time and a drill is not required. This method is suitable for saline, alkaline and light soils but is not suitable for lands with a large number of weeds. Experts recommend the drill method, which is convenient for mechanization, cost saving, improves wheat population structure and yield, and increases the utilization efficiency of light, water, fertilizer and other resources (Tao et al. 2017), but only 27% of the growers currently practice drill sowing.

In the Hiraty method (sowing dry seed in wet land), after ploughing, irrigating and sowing at field capacity the seeds are covered, and the land is leveled and divided into basins. This method suitable for lands with weeds, lands that are not level, and heavy loamy soils found on the north coast of Egypt.

The Dibbling method is used when sowing wheat seeds in no tillage beds (old beds) previously used to grow lateharvest cotton and maize. This method suitable for late wheat sowing times.

4. Prospective technologies for wheat cultivation in Egypt

Modern agricultural efforts are now aimed at identifying an efficient wheat production technology based on cultivating fine varieties. The following techniques may be used in the future cultivation of Egyptian wheat to optimize performance and yield productivity.

4.1. Tridimensional uniform sowing mode

Wheat tridimensional uniform sowing technology is a watersaving, high-yield and high-efficiency technology, and high yields and reductions in the amount of irrigation water have been achieved in North China. For example, when this method was used in a demonstration field in Qianying village, HuJiachi township, Shenzhou City, Hengshui City, Hebei Province in June 2015, with only one irrigation (50 m3) during the entire growth period, yield increased by 10 179 kg ha–1 (10.3%) compared with that obtained with conventional drilling production (Zhao 2016). In addition, this method improves drought resistance and water retention and ensures that an adequate number of seedlings emerge and survive. Tridimensional uniform sowing is

completed by tridimensional uniform sowing machine (a joint development of the Institute of Crop Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences and Deyou Nongfeng Mechanical Technology Co. Ltd., China) (Fig.8 left), including fertilization, rotary tillage, sowing, compacting, covering soil and recompacting (ICSAAS 2016). After fertilization and rotary tillage, fertilizer is evenly distributed in loose soil, then the seeds are evenly spread in the soil. The soil is compacted once to move the seed into the soil, then the seeds, which are evenly distributed in the compacted soil, are covered with a fine layer of the soil, and the soil is compacted a second time. Once this process is completed, the seed is located underneath loose soil and surrounded by compacted soil containing fertilizer, and the top of the seed is covered by a layer of soil. Thus each seed has a tridimensional and balanced growth environment. The upper layer of soil not only prevents air leakage but also reduces water evaporation. The uniform distribution of the plant population (Fig. 8 right) can effectively increase the amount of light intercepted and the light utilized per unit leaf area. This helps the leaves produce more photosynthate, leading to a significant increase in the number of spikes (P<0.05), kernel number per ear and kernel weight, and thus grain yield (Tao et al. 2017).

There are several benefits of tridimensional uniform sowing. (1) No ridges and rows exist after emergence; (2) plant growth is strong, and the number of panicles per unit area is increased compared with the number obtained using the drilling mode; (3) light is evenly distributed and fully utilized; (4) yield is improved. Tridimensional uniform sowing technology, if used for wheat production in Egypt, would be beneficial for improving response to water deficit and increasing the tiller number of bread and durum wheat. In addition, the tridimensional uniform sowing machine can complete all six processes in one operation, so this method

Fig. 8 Tridimensional uniform sowing machine (left) and emergence after sowing (right).

12 Kishk Abdelmageed et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2018, 17(0): 60345-7

is simple and saves labor and costs; for example, this method saved 1 050 CNY per hectare in China (Zhao 2016). Farmers in Egypt would be more receptive to using the tridimensional uniform sowing technology because (1) most farmers in Egypt prefer the broadcasting method, and the tridimensional uniform sowing machine broadcasts wheat seeds uniformly; (2) tridimensional uniform sowing is simple and saves labor and costs; (3) tridimensional uniform sowing technology can increase the yield of wheat populations in a way that matches the improvement of varieties used in Egyptian wheat production, i.e., the breeding and release of wheat varieties that produce a large number of tillers has led to increased yields.

4.2. Agricultural machinery

One of the factors limiting wheat production in Egypt is low farm mechanization. Recently, Egypt began to manufacture new machines for sowing wheat. The government has provided subsidies to farmers for purchases of new machines for preparing land, sowing, fertilizing, and harvesting.

4.3. Nano-fertilizers

Nano-fertilization is a novel ecofriendly agricultural production technology based on nanoparticles. The application of nanoparticles improves carbon balance in crops, helps plants to survive different stresses and also accelerates plant growth and increases crop productivity. Nanoparticles easily enter the stomata via gas uptake. Abdelazim et al. (2017) revealed that nanoparticles enhance the antioxidant system, increasing superoxidase enzyme levels and reducing the levels of free radicals. Hasaneen and Omer (2016) reported that applying nano-fertilizers to wheat plants enhanced the harvest index and other crop parameters, such as shoot length, spike length, 1 000-grain weight and grain yield.

4.4. Breeding for hybrid wheat

Currently heterosis is used on a large scale to increase yields. In the first generation, yields can increase by about 30%. Soil types and plant density also affect the yield of hybrids. High plant density decreases vigor and in some cases no increase in vigor is seen. In Australia, scientists have released hybrid wheat varieties that have high yields when grown under salt stress. In Egypt some progress has been made in producing hybrid wheat varieties, and these hybrids may help to achieve the goal of producing enough wheat to make Egypt self-sufficient.

4.5. Further studies are needed to promote wheat production technology in Egypt

In the future several areas need attention. (1) Using agricultural machinery in all wheat cultivation steps from sowing to harvest and storage. (2) More promotion of irrigation practices such as irrigating at night and using software to adjust irrigation scheduling. (3) Further scientific and applied research regarding wheat production technology. (4) Improving new varieties to sow in lands with low productivity, i.e., saline and alkaline soil. (5) Breeding for short growing seasons. (6) Breeding for low agricultural inputs, i.e., low water, low fertilizer. (7) In-depth study of growth and development, i.e., morpho-anatomical and phenological responses, plant water relations, accumulation of compatible osmolytes, photosynthesis, assimilate partitioning, cell membrane thermostability, hormonal changes, secondary metabolites, oxidative stress and antioxidants, stress proteins, drought and heat stress sensing and signaling. (8) Increasing the efficiency of agricultural mechanization, including expanding the use of modern methods for wheat storage, control of birds, insects and rodents in storage areas, cleaning and disinfection before receiving new crops, and working to increase the efficiency of mills and bakeries to reduce loss during the milling phase

5. Conclusion

Improvement of Egyptian wheat productivity is the most important way to minimize the gap between production and consumption and can be achieved through the use of modern agricultural practices, promising wheat cultivars, water-saving agricultural practices, expansion of new lands and improved field irrigation efficiency. This paper has highlighted the evolution of wheat production in Egypt with the goal of improving wheat cultivation techniques and varieties under Egyptian conditions. Specific technologies include the use of raised beds to enhance seedling establishment and increase grain yield and water savings, sowing at the ideal time in the north and south, using surge flow irrigation, laser leveling, and improving water management, farm irrigation, fertilization application, and planting modes. The focus of further studies should be on new cultivation techniques, the use of nano-fertilizers, breeding hybrid wheat varieties (using conventional breeding strategies) and precision agriculture technologies such as information water management. In addition, a thorough understanding of the causes and impacts (i.e., morphology, physiology, molecules, hormones, and secondary metabolites) of technical and environmental factors, such as biological and abiotic stress, on wheat

Kishk Abdelmageed et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2018, 17(0): 60345-7

during the entire growth period is needed. Reducing wheat imports to 6 billion kg will depend on substantial increases in crop productivity and coordination among the state agencies to implement the most important solutions for rationalizing consumption, reducing loss and boosting wheat production in Egypt.

Acknowledgements

This study was supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2016YFD0300407), the earmarked fund for the China Agriculture Research System (CARS-03), and the Talented Young Scientist Program (TYSP) in China.

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Section editor LI Shao-kun Managing editor WANG Ning