Coastline Development

Britain’s Coastline, UK

SUSTAINABLE SITE PLANNING & LANDSCAPE

Coastline Development K. Vineetha -19171NB003

Sicily Coastline, Itly

CONTENTS Introduction Types of Coastlines Coastal Environment The Ecosystem Perceptive of Coasts What is Coastal development & its Impacts International Guidelines National Guidelines Inferences

The Coastline is the point at which the sea meets the land: the confrontation between the two is what creates & shapes the coasts. Sea & land may react with one another in many different ways, so the result is a complex environment & a very varied one COASTLINES, BY KERRIGAN, MICHAEL

TYPES OF COASTLINES Coastlines formed

of

when

submergence the

rising

sea

ALTHOUGH EVERY COASTLINE IS A UNIQUE CREATION OF OCEAN WAVES ACTING ON DISTINCTIVE LAND MASSES, THEY CAN BE IDENTIFIED IN SEVEN DISTINCT TYPES OF COASTS are

Another group of coastlines are formed by the process of

level

emergence, when submarine landforms are exposed by a

partially drowns a coast or when

falling

part of the crust sinks. This group

includes:

includes

of

sea

level

Barrier-island coasts,

Ria coasts, &

Volcano coasts,

Fiord coasts.

Delta coasts, Fault coasts, & Coral-reef coasts.

https://geography.name/types-of-coastlines/ | 19171NB003

or

a

rising

of

the

crust.

This

group

PORT JACKSON, ALSO REFERRED TO AS SYDNEY HARBOUR

RIA COAST

It

deeply

A ria coast is formed when a rise of sea level or a

dendritic

crustal sinking (or both) brings the shoreline to rest

pattern of drainage that existed before the rise in

against the sides of river valleys previously carved by

sea level that flooded the valley.

streams. Because the new embayments are fed fresh

is

a

Ria,

indented

or

shape

drowned of

the

river ria

valley.

reflects

The

the

water

from

the

streams

the

contained, they become estuaries.

https://geography.name/types-of-coastlines/ | 19171NB003

valleys

formerly

SØRFJORDEN (HARDANGER), NORWAY Sørfjorden

(Hardanger)

with

Sandvinvatnet

FIORD COASTS and

The fiord coast is similar to the ria coast. Steep-

Odda valley can be clearly seen as continuation of

walled fiords are created from submerged glacial

the fjord. Odda sits on the isthmus. Folgefonna on

troughs rather than from submerged stream valleys,

the right hand.

as in the case of ria coasts.

https://geography.name/types-of-coastlines/ | 19171NB003

COAST OF NORTH CAROLINA, U.S

BARRIER-ISLAND COASTS

Satellite image of the Outer Banks, an approximately

The barrier-island coast is associated with a recently

300

barrier

emerged coastal plain. A barrier island is a low ridge

islands are separated from the mainland by a series

of sand, lying a short distance from the coast, that is

of relatively shallow water sounds. Notice how the

created by wave action and increases in height as

ends of the entire barrier chain come closer to the

coastal winds fortify the island with dunes. Behind the

mainland, thus reducing the size of the backbarrier

barrier island is a lagoon—a broad expanse of shallow

open water area.

water in places largely filled with tidal deposits.

km

long

string

of

barrier

islands.

https://geography.name/types-of-coastlines/ | 19171NB003

The

FALSE-COLOR IMAGE OF THE LARGER MISSISSIPPI RIVER DELTA

DELTA COASTS

The Mississippi delta has long branching that grow

The deposit of clay, silt, and sand made by a stream or

far out into The Gulf of Mexico at the ends of its

river where it flows into a body of standing water is

distributaries, giving the impression of a birds foot.

known as a delta. The sediment is deposited because

This image shows the great quantity of suspended

the current is rapidly slowed as it pushes out into the

clay & fine silt being discharged by the river into the

standing

Gulf about 250,000 - 550,000 tons per day.

subdivides into lesser channels called distributaries.

https://geography.name/types-of-coastlines/ | 19171NB003

water.

The

river

channel

divides

and

SURTSEY ISLAND, ICELAND

VOLCANO COASTS

The

island’s

Volcano coasts arise where volcanic deposits—lava

formation began at 426 feet below sea level. The

and ash—flow from active volcanoes into the ocean.

eruption

Wave action erodes the fresh deposits, creating low

volcanic

eruption

became

that

noticeable

led

to

upon

the

arrival

at

the

surface on November 14, 1963. By the time it ended

cliffs.

on June 5, 1967, an island measuring 0.50 square

composed of fine particles of the extrusive rock.

miles had been created.

https://geography.name/types-of-coastlines/ | 19171NB003

Beaches

are

typically

narrow,

steep,

and

THE GREAT BARRIER REEF, QUEENSLAND, AUSTRALIA

CORAL-REEF COASTS

It is the world's largest coral reef system composed

Coral-reef coasts are unique because the new land

of

islands

is made by organisms—corals and algae. Growing

stretching for over 2,300 kilometres (1,400 mi) over

together, these organisms secrete rock-like deposits

an

of carbonate minerals, called coral reefs. As coral

over

2,900

area

of

individual

reefs

approximately

and

900

344,400

kilometres.

square

colonies

die,

new

ones

accumulating as limestone.

https://geography.name/types-of-coastlines/ | 19171NB003

are

built

on

them,

SAN CLEMENTE ISLAND, CHANNEL ISLANDS OF CALIFORNIA. The

upper

part

of

a

tilted

and

gently

FAULT COASTS arched

Faulting

of

the

coastal

margin

of

a

continent

can

northwestward-trending block of the earth's crust that

leave the shoreline resting against a fault scarp. A

has

more

classic example occurs on the northern coast of Chile,

irregular and much gentler southwestern slope that is

where the Andes Mountains rise from the Peru–Chile

composed primarily of volcanic rock, with the northeast

trench. In central California, near the coastal town of

boundary of the island having a large fault that parallels

Lucia, the continental shelf is very narrow, suggesting

most of the major faults on the California mainland.

that the marine cliffs there are the result of faulting.

a

straight,

steep

northeastern

slope

https://geography.name/types-of-coastlines/ | 19171NB003

and

a

COASTAL ENVIRONMENT Coastal environments are under increasing pressure as a result of their increasing human populations. Coastal areas, including estuaries, bays, shorelines, continental shelves, and the Great Lakes, are used intensively and receive the byproducts of inland human activities, from rivers and atmospheric deposition. this has become a concerns for environmental quality, habitat conservation, living and nonliving resources, and protection of life and property

The overall importance of the coastal ocean extends far beyond its relatively small areal extent. An environment of remarkably high biological productivity, this transition zone between land and open ocean is of considerable importance for recreation, waste disposal and mineral exploitation. Such societal issues as pollution (in its many forms), bioremediation, waste disposal, and risk assessment cannot be addressed adequately until we make substantial advances in our basic understanding of the coastal ocean.

Priorities for Coastal Ecosystem Science (1994)

The following issues have been identified as posing significant threats to the integrity of coastal ecosystems:

MAJOR COASTAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

1. Eutrophication 2. Habitat modification 3. Hydrologic and hydrodynamic disruption 4. Exploitation of resources 5. Toxic effects 6. Introduction of nonindigenous species 7. Global climate change and variability 8. Shoreline erosion and hazardous storms

Priorities for Coastal Ecosystem Science (1994)

9. Pathogens and toxins affecting human health

Giant kelp (Macrocystis) forest, off the coast of southern California

Problems associated with changes in the quantity and quality of inputs to coastal

environments

from

runoff

and

atmospheric

deposition

are

particularly important.

These include Increases in nutrient loading from agriculture and fossil fuel combustion, Habitat losses from eutrophication, Widespread contamination by toxic materials, Changes in the supply of river borne sediment, and alteration of coastal hydrodynamics.

Furthermore, concern is shifting from issues amenable to single-factor risk assessment approaches to those involving multiple-stressors (e.g., combined effects of chemical contaminants and low oxygen) and indirect, cascading, and scale-related effects that require an ecosystem approach.

These

complex,

large-scale

problems

pose

different

challenges

to

environmental policy, management, and science than problems now subject to

regulation,

such

as

point-source

habitat destruction, and oil spills.

Priorities for Coastal Ecosystem Science (1994)

discharges,

coastal

land

use,

direct

Mountainous coastline of the eastern Pacific Ocean, California.

In

GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE AND VARIABILITY

addition

to

contemporary

pressures

from

influences,

coastal

ecosystems are susceptible to global climate change.

Global sea level rise could accelerate from a variety of factors, rising by as much as three to 10 meters.

Local sea level changes (from subsidence of coastal areas from freshwater withdrawal, erosion, movements of Earth's crust, and thermal expansion of seawater could add to global effects).

Regardless

of

their

source,

sea

level

rises

cause

significant

shoreline

inundation, overstepping of barrier islands, loss of intertidal wetlands, and increased salinization of coastal embayments.

Priorities for Coastal Ecosystem Science (1994)

human

OUR IMPACT ON THE OCEAN

Aerial view of rock islands, Palau.

26% PERCENTAGE OF CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS WHICH GET ABSORBED BY OCEANS EVERY YEAR

Other effects are the potential for increased tropical storm intensity and frequency; changes in

precipitation

changes

in

patterns

seawater

and

temperature

river range

flow; and

seasonality; alteration of coastal currents and upwelling,

which

affect

temperature,

nutrient

supply, and larval transport; and modification of intermediate-scale

weather

patterns

affect winds, currents, and rainfall.

Priorities for Coastal Ecosystem Science (1994)

that

THE COASTAL ZONE PRESENTS RISKS AS WELL AS BENEFITS TO

SHORELINE EROSION AND HAZARDOUS STORMS

THOSE WHO POPULATE OR VISIT THE SHORE AND THOSE WHO WORK OR RECREATE IN COASTAL AREAS. Beaches buffer coastal land and habitats from assault by the ocean and lakes, providing the most effective means of preventing coastal erosion and habitat destruction.

The principal source of sediment to the coastline is from rivers and streams thus, changes in land use and stream hydrology can affect the supply of sediments to beaches and, consequently, shoreline erosion.

SHORELINE EROSION IS ALSO INFLUENCED BY COASTAL PROCESSES RESULTING IN OFFSHORE AND ALONGSHORE TRANSPORT OF SEDIMENTS. Changing patterns in coastal storm climate can change the direction of sediment

transport

by

altering

the

intensity

and

direction

of

waves

incident to a beach.

Shoreline

erosion

and

hazardous

storms

are

affected

in

a

complex

manner by land-use decisions and climate change and, conversely, can greatly affect coastal environmental quality. Studies of global climate change and improvements in the predictability of climate variability (see previous section) are crucial for predicting and mitigating the impacts Priorities for Coastal Ecosystem Science (1994)

of shoreline erosion and hazardous storms.

The emerging and widespread environmental threats discussed above pose new challenges to environmental policy, management, and science, requiring different approaches discharges

than of

those

industrial

used or

for

past

municipal

coastal

effluents,

problems, coastal

such

land

as

use,

point-source

direct

habitat

destruction, and oil spills.

These issues have not been eliminated, although some of their effects are relatively well understood, and significant advances have been made in their management in several developed countries.

Concern

is

approaches

shifting

from

involving

issues

multiple-

amenable stressor

to

(e.g.,

single-factor combined

risk

assessment

effects

of

to

chemical

contaminant and low oxygen) risk assessments and indirect, cascading, and scalerelated effects on living resources.

Understanding such coastal problems requires approaches that focus on ecosystems,

THE ECOSYSTEM PERSPECTIVE

populations of organisms, and communities of species.

There is now greater concern about the response of ecosystems to the effects of exploitation

of

resources,

nutrient

enrichment

(as

opposed

to

direct

organic

loadings), and the indirect effects of human activities on coastal habitats.

The development of initiatives to solve these problems will require more flexibility from

the

scientific

community,

universities,

and

funding

agencies

to

promote Priorities for Coastal Ecosystem Science (1994)

interdisciplinary science.

WHAT IS A COASTAL DEVELOPMENT

IMPACTS FROM COASTAL DEVELOPMENT:

Construction projects (piers, channels, airstrips, dikes, land reclamation, etc.) — Can kill corals directly.

Degradation of coral reefs — Can result in lost tourism revenue in countries that depend on reef-based tourism and reduce fish populations.

Coastal construction

—

Can

cause

chronic

sedimentation,

sewage

effluent, industrial discharge, and changes in water flow and runoff, which More

than

2.5

billion

people

(40%

of

the

world’s population) live within 100 km of the coast, adding increased pressure to coastal ecosystems.

Coastal

development

linked

to

human settlements, industry, aquaculture, and infrastructure near

shore

can

cause

ecosystems,

severe

impacts

particularly

on

coral

reefs. Coastal development impacts may be direct (e.g., land filling, dredging, coral and sand mining for construction) or indirect (e.g., increased runoff of sediment and pollutants).

can adversely affect coral growth rates and metabolic activities as well as directly kill corals.

Removal of reefs

—

Can

result

in

beach

erosion,

land

retreat,

and

sedimentation.

Sedimentation

—

Can

smother

reefs

or

increase

turbidity

in

coastal

waters, thus reducing light needed for coral growth and survival.

Pollutants changes

— Can lead to increases in coral disease and mortality, cause

in

coral

community

structure,

and

impede

coral

growth,

reproduction, and larval settlement (e.g., nutrient runoff can lead to algal blooms that stifle coral growth).

Mining of coral for construction materials

— can lead to long-term

economic losses in terms of lost benefits for fisheries, coastal protection, reefresilience.org/stressors/coastal-development/ | 19171NB003

tourism, food security, and biodiversity

Many large towns and cities around the world have grown up around natural harbours - including most of the world's biggest cities.

YOKOHAMA HARBOUR,

ZÁKINTHOS, GREECE.

CALIFORNIA SUR, MEXICO.

Hong Kong, Singapore, Manila, and

Tourists sunbathing on a beach used by

Recreational snorkellers harassing a whale

Honolulu, for example, once had thriving

loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta) for

shark (Rhincodon typus), Baja

coral reefs. But these have been destroyed

nesting, some with beach umbrellas which

by human pressures, largely from coastal

can hurt turtle nests.

JAPAN.

development. https://wwf.panda.org/our_work/oceans/problems/tourism/megacity

Each year a large percentage of holiday-makers head to coastlines around the world, where they have an enormous impact on marine ecosystems.

GREAT BARRIER REEF,

IFALIK, MICRONESIA.

NAPLES, ITALY.

AUSTRALIA. Green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas) with a plastic bag, in Moore Reef

Fishermen with a catch of tuna fish

The Mediterranean is the world's leading tourist destination - and mass tourism is one of the main causes of ecological loss in the region.

https://wwf.panda.org/our_work/oceans/problems/tourism/megacity, ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA, https://theculturetrip.com/europe

GUIDELINES FOR COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT INDIAN AND INTERNATIONAL

INDIAN

INTERNATIONAL

The Ministry of Environment, Forest and

The World Bank, gives out guidelines for

Climate Change has constituted the

Integrated Coastal Zone Managemennt,

National Coastal Zone Management

which are published in Environmentally

Authority under the Environmental

Sustainable Development Studies and

Protection Act 1986.

Monographs Series.

They issue guidelines which are to be

All the developed and developing

followed for the development in the

countries take these as base guidelines

coastal zones all across India.

and prepare their own guidelines.

https://www.reefresilience.org/pdf/Post_Lundin_1996.pdf, https://www.mondaq.com/india/environmental-law

INFERENCE

Coastal

environments

shorelines

to

the

and

ecosystems

edge

of

the

(from

estuaries

continental

and

shelf)

are

increasingly likely to be modified by changes in the delivery of

materials

from

diffuse

sources

via

rivers

and

the

atmosphere, widespread habitat modification resulting from human

activities,

and

the

over

exploitation

of

living

and

nonliving resources.

These

problems

environmental

pose

policy,

a

different

set

management,

of

and

challenges science

to

than

traditional concerns of point source discharge, coastal land use, and spills of hazardous materials.

Demographic

factors,

especially

migration,

are

major

considerations in how people use coastal regions.

Understanding how population issues can be integrated into coastal

management

managers, sustainable K. VINEETHA | 19171NB003

and

will

help

communities

strategies

for

policymakers,

design

using

and

more

program

viable

safeguarding

world’s coasts and the resources they provide.

and the

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SOURCES