Urban design Thesis

Growing Green in the 21st Century How eco-regeneration is achieving socially sustainable development

Growing Green in the 21st Century How eco-regeneration is achieving socially sustainable development.

El Modelo Barcelona de Espacio Público y Diseño Urbano

Masters of Urban Design 2013 Art, City, Society

FACULTAT DE BELLES ARTES BARCELONA, SPAIN

Submitted by

Anthony W. De Lorenzo Brue awdelorenzo@gmail.com

Abstract

T

his study examines the role and impact of integrating landscapes (i.e., green corridors and eco-neighborhoods) within cityscapes as an urban design framework. It describes how public spaces forming natural landscapes incorporating mobility and environmentalism can unify the three dimensions of sustainable urban development (social, economic, and environmental). This paper substantiates how open green public spaces foster social interactions, increase economic activity, and reduce environmental impacts. It analyzes the integration of landscapes and cityscapes, and its impact on three indicating demographics: income level, education level, and home value. Lastly, it establishes a critical link between ecologically diverse urban spaces and the health of its inhabitants. Examining green urban landscapes that incorporate mobility and environmentalism, and how they impact their environment. The findings substantiate that the integration of landscapes and cityscapes is a key unifying element in achieving sustainable urban development’s objectives.

E

ste estudio examina el papel y el impacto de la integración de los paisajes (es decir, corredores verdes y eco-barrios) en paisajes urbanos dentro de un marco de diseño urbano. En él se describe cómo espacio público formando los paisajes naturales que incorporen la movilidad y el ambientalismo pueden unificar las tres dimensiones del desarrollo urbano sostenible (social, económica y ambiental). En este trabajo se corrobora cómo abrir espacios verdes públicos de acogida interacciones sociales , aumentan la actividad económica y reducir los impactos ambientales. Se analiza la integración de los paisajes urbanos y rurales ,y su impacto en la demografía indica tres : el nivel de ingresos , nivel de educación, y el valor de la casa . Por último, se establece un vínculo crítico entre ecológicamente diversos espacios urbanos y la salud de sus habitantes. El examen de los paisajes verdes urbanas que incorporen la movilidad y el ecologismo y cómo afectan a su entorno. Los resultados corroboran que la integración de los paisajes urbanos y rurales es un elemento unificador clave en la consecución de los objetivos de desarrollo urbano sostenible.

Key words; Eco-regeneration, sustainable development, urban mobility, public space, urban design

Acknowledgments, I would like to sincerely thank all of my professors that I had during the year, especially Dr.Antoni Remesar, Dr. Nuria Ricart, and my thesis advisor Dr. Tomeu Vidal. Thank you for your dedication and impassioned teachings. I appreciated your guidance, patience, and refined knowledge the entire year. Thank you Tomeu for taking the time to listen to me, and for all of your advice along the way. I would also like to thank Jordi and Ventura for their particularly inspiring perspectives during the semester finals.

I would also like to thank my friends and family, both here in the US and in Barcelona.

Thank you all for keeping me in your thoughts, and for believing in me. Big hugs to Ana my prima, y toda la familia. Rebecca my girlfriend, thank you for staying close to my heart, and my mom Kathyrn, you mean the world to me. You are all so very dear and beautiful to me. Thank you for your support.

To the students, thank you for helping me to understand cultural differences, and how to overcome them.

Introduction.....................................................................................................................i Research question...........................................................................iv Selected projects..............................................................................vi

Research objectives........................................................................vii Methodology.................................................................................viii

1.0 Review of the Literature; The Impact of Natural Environments on Its Inhabitants.............................................................................................................15

2.0 Barcelona, Spain; La Sagrera, A Green Corridor to Unite a New City Center........................................................................................................................24 2.1 Site Summary;.................................................................................................26 2.1.1 Physical Description...............................................................27 2.1.2 Socio-Economic Data .............................................................28 2.1.3 Geographical Location...........................................................29 2.2 Historical Context..........................................................................................30 2.2.1 San Andreu neighborhood...................................................30 2.3 Barcelona Model, La Sagrera; Integrated Strategies................................31 2.3.1 Social Objectives ...................................................................32 2.3.2 Environmental Objectives....................................................33 2.3.3 Economic Objectives ............................................................34 2.4 Summary; Urban Design the Catalan Way; 21st Century Barcelona......35

3.0 Stockholm, Sweden; Hammarby Sjรถstad, Eco-District..................................43 3.1 Site Summary; ..............................................................................................44 3.1.1. Physical Description.............................................................44 3.1.2. Geographical Location.........................................................48 3.1.3. Socio-Economic Data ...........................................................48 3.2 Historical Context.........................................................................................50 3.2.1. Hammarby Sjรถstad neighborhood.....................................50

5

3.3 Hammarby Sjรถstad; Polluted to Prized, Environmental Technologies Lead the Way............................................................................................51 3.3.1 Environmental Objectives ....................................................51 3.3.2 Economic Objectives..............................................................53 3.3.3 Social Objectives.....................................................................54

3.4 Summary; Swedish Environmentalism, The Fundamental Dimension...............................................................................................55

4.0 New York City, USA; High Line Park, Community Activism and Capital .....................................................................................................................................63

4.1 Site Summary........................................................................................64 4.1.1. Physical Description ............................................................64 4.1.2. Geographical Location.........................................................67 4.1.3. Socio-Economic Data............................................................68

4.2 Historical context ................................................................................68 4.2.1. High Line Park.......................................................................68

4.3 New York, High Land Park; Recycling Post-Industrial obsolete..................................................................................................70 4.3.1. Social Objectives ...................................................................71 4.3.2. Environmental Objectives ...................................................72 4.3.3. Economic Objectives ............................................................72

4.4 Summary; High Land Park; Green Corridor, A Case for Economic Stimulus....................................................................................................73

5.0 Summary of Findings; Reflection and Analysis of Data.............................79 5.1 Economic Summary..................................................................80 5.2 Social Summary.........................................................................82 5.3 Environmental Summary.........................................................86 5.4 Final Statement..........................................................................89 Bibliography.............................................................................................................91

6

Introduction

I

n a rapidly changing globalized world, postindustrial cities are transforming before our eyes― plagued by pollution, social fragmentation, and economic inequality. While our cities grow rapidly, past urbanization has only propagated the gap between the rich and poor, reduced public green space, and confounded the question between “densification” or “sprawl”. The ability to shape a common future and control these changes while answering the problems generated in the 20th century depends upon 21st century interdisciplinary urban transformation models that harmoniously and comprehensively respond to declining social, economic, and environmental conditions. No longer does green public space have to be associated with low density suburban sprawl, as new trends in urban design and mobility are leading to inner-city green corridors that integrate “the right to the city” with “the right to nature.1” Industrial waste lands are being transformed into world class parks. The postindustrial era has produced many obsolete polluted industrial zones that have physically fragmented cities, creating socially and economically depressed districts.

New economic sectors, social theories, and environmental technologies are changing the realm of what is possible through urban design.

This study identifies three 21st century interdisciplinary green growth models that incorporate sustainable urban development objectives and prioritize green public space and green mobility (walking, cycling, and electric). Urban design as an interdisciplinary field requires the balancing of many perspectives. Thus, we will examine these cases from several different traditional disciplines. For this reason this paper has chosen projects that reflect current urban design trends and trajectories. In particular projects that reflect the impact green corridors (linear parks) have on their environments, and the impact that these environments have on their inhabitant’s health. Each of these projects has in common their principle prioritization of accessibility, ecologically diverse green space, and urban mobility. In addition each of the projects is located in advanced post-industrialized nations.

“By 2050, 70 percent of the world’s population will live on two percent of the earth’s surface. City’s impact on the climate is one of our world’s major challenges which imply a pressure on cities to reduce their carbon foot print.”

-Environmental Protection Agency, Sustainable urban development, 2013

In order to provide an accurate picture of how green urban design strategies are being shaped it is important understand the relationship between urban design and sustainable urban development. The relationship between cities and their new green corridors can be traced in part to international development initiatives that support and encourage sustainable urban growth, most of which are formulated to protect the environment2. The European Commission is aggressively supporting these types of projects, and on occasion plays a role in financing the projects that meet their objectives (1).

1 2

i

Lefebvre,H.1968. Le Droit à la ville European Commission on Sustainable Development, 2012

7

It is important to define sustainable urban development, as I will reference it continuously. Sustainable urban development, as it is known now, goes back to 1987 during the Bruntland Commission that reported to the World Commission on Environment and Development. The Bruntland Commission defined sustainable urban development as “Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” This reference refers back mainly to sustainability, but is a good starting point in defining the sustainable aspect of sustainable urban development.

In 1996, Scott Campbell a professor of Urban Planning at the University of Michigan, created the “Planner’s Triangle” with sustainable development as the center. The Planner’s Triangle took into consideration the multiple dimensions of planning and led to what is now known as the three dimensions of sustainable developments.

Campbell’s triangle identified the relationships and conflicts that the dimensions have with one another, and explained sustainable development as the center that cannot be reached directly, only indirectly, and through the resolution of the dimensions conflicts3. The conflicts are defined as;  The development conflict. A combination of the following conflicts, and revolves around socio-environmental divergences, where protecting society may have adverse environmental impacts or vice versa. (For instance, deforestation creates land access and environmental problems, while providing employment for the community.)  The property conflict-Private interests vs public good, is a socio-economic conflict that exists between not only public and private stakeholders, but between the economic classes of society.  The resource conflict- Economy vs ecology conflict, that exists between building up the economy at the expense of the environment or protecting the economy at the expense of the environment.

“The nature of the three axial conflicts is mutual dependence based not only on opposition, but also on collaboration.”

- Pr. S. Campbell, 1996 University of Michigan

Figure 1-Triangle of Campbell, 1996

3

8

Campbell, S. Green Cities, Growing Cities, Just Cities? Urban Planning and the Contradictions of Sustainable Development ©Journal of the American Planning Association, 1996

ii

This paper uses a similar triangle to discuss the interrelated social, environmental and economic dimensions of planning public space. In the past social justice and environmental policy had been linked in interdisciplinary theories4. However the idea of economic justice being interrelated amongst environmentalism and social justice has been insufficiently connected by past theories. Campbell’s triangle explains that sustainable urban development is the sum of its parts, and is achieved only through the indirect resolution of conflicts that connect the three dimensions.

The European Commission objectives outlined below demonstrate how green corridors are meeting many of sustainable urban development objectives.

This paper will substantiate that urban design and green corridors are not only capable but instrumental in meeting these objectives.  Climate change and clean energy  Sustainable transport  Sustainable consumption & production  Conservation and management of natural resources  Public Health  Social inclusion, demography and migration  Global poverty and sustainable development challenges

“The overall aim of the EU sustainable development strategy is to identify and develop actions to enable the EU to achieve a continuous long-term improvement of quality of life through the creation of sustainable communities able to manage and use resources efficiently, able to tap the ecological and social innovation potential of the economy and in the end able to ensure prosperity, environmental protection and social cohesion. The strategy sets overall objectives and concrete actions for seven key priority challenges for the coming period until 2012, many of which are predominantly environmental.”

-José Manuel Durão Barroso, President of the European Commission,2012

4

iii

Wilson, Edward O. The Diversity of Life. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA,1992

9

Research question;

T

his study examines the relationships between urban design and mobility, people and their natural environment, measuring the socio-economic, and environmental impacts of integrating landscapes within cityscapes. The hypothesis is that the integration of natural landscapes (that prioritize mobility and environmental principles) and cityscapes together with urban design is a primary force in achieving and balancing the three dimensions of sustainable urban development (social, economic, environmental).

10

iv

Selected Projects; This thesis examines the urban design perspectives of different nations and of different scales. These 21st century urban transformation projects involve symbolic contemporary urban designs of marginalized post industrial zones , and in particular the use of landscapes as green mobility corridors to simultaneously achieve the union of sustainable development. These descriptive case studies analyze the role and impact of green corridors as an instrument to create healthier communities, improve accessibility, increase mobility, and counter negative environmental impacts. These case studies are symbols on a local and national level, providing best practices for future projects. They each demonstrate this by establishing a link between green public space; public health, quality of life, property values, and education levels.

The case studies present green urban transformation models, starting with : Sant Andreu-La Sagrera in Barcelona, Spain; Hammarby Sjöstad in Stockholm, Sweden; and High Line Park in New York City, U.S.A. These three different scales will be presented in order of size, starting with the largest, and focusing in as we move through the paper.

Barcelona, Spain, El modelo Barcelona, Sant Andreu-La Sagrera-case study,

now in its second phase of construction and projected for completion in 2020 is the largest current urbanization project of the three, projected to serve more than 100,000,000 users a year. The case will focus on the green urban transformation model and linear park that it is built around, highlighting the integration of landscapes and cityscapes to improve accessibility, provide alternative mobility and create a new green city center. In addition, this case study examines how La Sagrera will use landscapes in as an instrument to physically connect new and previously fragmented communities. Lastly, this case will examine current socio-economic conditions, projected objectives, and how green public space will be used to achieve sustainable development.

The Stockholm, Sweden, Hammarby Sjöstad-similarly focuses on the urban transformation of a post-industrial polluted brownfield site. The Hammarby Sjöstad project is nearing completion and is an internationally recognized model for sustainable urban growth. In 2010, this project won the European Green Capitol award. The Swedish transformation model focuses on the prioritization of environmentalism, and how integrating landscapes and cityscapes can achieve sustainable urban development.

Hammarby Sjöstad achieves sustainable development through state of the art environmentalism with an emphasis on water and ecological conservation. This study examines how eco-neighborhoods achieve socio-economic objectives through environmentalism. The focus will be on identifying the project’s original objectives, its impact on socio-economic conditions, and the level of success it has attained environmentally.

The New York City, High Line Park case study addresses the transformation

and historical preservation of an obsolete above ground railway into a contemporary green pedestrian corridor and urban design magnet in the USA. The project is internationally recognized as an innovative urban design concept that emphasizes a new integrated relationship with nature, green mobility, and the city. Construction began in 2006 with the first section opening in 2009, the second section opened in 2011, and a third section is currently being planned. The project highlights the opportunity to transform obsolete post-industrial structures into contemporary green corridors that meet current growth goals. In this case study I identify socioeconomic conditions before the park was built and the impact on the area presenting key demographics, including property value, income level and educational level.

vi

11

Research Objectives; General research objectives include:

 Research, document, and compare the main impacts that green corridors have on their environment  Identify current “international standard” objectives for sustainable urban development, and analyze whether these projects met those criteria  Examine future trends and best practices in the field of Urban Design

Specific research objectives include:

 Determine the benefits for each of three projects and how introducing green public space into dense urban environments has impacted its environment from social, economic, and environmental perspectives.  Examine the success of green strategies to achieve sustainable urban development’s objectives  Present the cost that these projects have in relation to the objectives they achieve  Research and establish a link between introducing green corridors in the city, and the improved health of its inhabitants  Determine what role green public space plays in shaping key socioeconomic factors  Present environmental objectives, strategies, and technologies that were used to create environmentally sustainable development.

Discuss these projects environmental impact.

vii

Methodology This thesis utilizes a descriptive case study perspective, in that I will be integrating a quantitative archival strategy with qualitative document analysis research. The quantitative comparisons and qualitative descriptions of the case studies are used to better present a holistic perspective of each case study. The purpose of this method is to open the topic for further insight and new hypotheses related to current patterns in the field of urban design.

The chosen projects will be presented as such. Site summary, economic, social, and environmental objectives, with a summary examination of each at the end.

Quantitatively, collect statistical information on four leading socio-economic indicators using primary sources such as city databases. Public archives will be my main source of data to create graphs that reflect my findings in a clear and objective way. This research data will seek to demonstrate the socio-economic benefits that urban design can produce when public space, mobility, and cities are integrated, forming green corridors.

Socio-Economic indicators that I have chosen to measure impacts and projections―  Education level: compare current project neighborhoods by identifying the percentage of the city and local population with a university degree.  Property value: compare current neighborhoods with other projects chosen for analysis, determining the effect green corridors have or will have on property value in the area.  Income level: compare current neighborhood statistics with each other and determine how income level is impacted by green public corridors.  Unemployment: determine if green communities have any impact on unemployment and compare neighborhoods.  Population density: examine each of the developments, and neighborhoods and address the role that population density plays in sustainable development Qualitatively. Focus on past studies through a literature review. This will include an analysis of past research including the sociological, physical, and psychological (I will be calling these together “health”) impact of integrating landscapes and cityscapes. In particular I will examine academic journals relating to the field of Urban Design that defend the benefits that natural environments have on their inhabitants, especially in an urban context.

Academic studies are referenced that emphasis this beneficial relationship.

Additionally, I visited all of the sites, photographically documenting and making pertinent observations.

viii

1.0 Review of the Literature The impact of natural environments on its inhabitants

T

he relationship between humans and the gardens they have created goes back thousands of years to Mesopotamia the Garden of Image 1-Parc del Labirint, Barcelona Eden, and the first gardens of ancient Egypt and Persia. Gardens and nature have always played a critical role in creating peace, beauty, and reflection within our cities by providing quiet natural escapes. Artists, poets,and historians have continually been inspired by nature. Nature as expressed through gardens is a calming stress reliever that improves our spirits and focuses our thoughts5. The impact of nature on our mental and psychological wellbeing is well documented and has been linked to a variety of health benefits. Encounters with nature help alleviate mental fatigue by relaxing and focusing the mind6.

The term “health” has a broad range of interpretations and indicators, but the following definition will be used to support the literature.

“Health is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.”

-World Health Organization, 2013

Urban parks through nature encourage social interactions by creating informal communal meeting places. Urban parks create a space to exercise that is connected with living a healthy lifestyle and improving cognitive functions7. Having well designed and managed urban parks available to city inhabitants has been found to reduce depression, and mental illness8. Urban parks and tree lined walkways provide calming and reflective environments that encourage creativity, inquisitiveness, and stimulate the mind (6), and therefore contribute to people’s health.

The constant stimuli of city life can be mentally and physically exhausting, and urban life can desensitize us to our social surroundings9. Living in crowded cities where one has to constantly be aware of traffic, leaves us less likely to interact with others, and be more concerned with safety issues. City living can actually lead to increased memory loss and reduced patience levels, while exposure to natural elements can improve memory and patience(5). The presence of nature is essential to our wellbeing, providing a mental break from the complex demands of urban environments.

5 6

7 8 9 14

Berman, M.G., J. Jonides, and S. Kaplan. The Cognitive Benefits of Interacting with Nature. Psychological Science 19, 2008 Kaplan, R., and S. Kaplan.The Restorative benefits of Nature, Journal of Environmental Psychology,1996

Burls, A. People and Green Spaces: Promoting Public Health and Mental Well-Being Through Ecotherapy. Journal of Public Mental Health 6, 2007 Wolf, K.L., and K. Flora. Mental Health and Function - A Literature Review. In: Green Cities: Good Health Lehrer, J. How the city hurts your brain - And what you can do about it,Boston Globe,2010

14

In fact, a recent American study of people who spent time in ecologically complex parks with diverse plant species scored higher on psychological wellbeing tests than those who spent time in less biodiverse parks10. This and other related research highlight the need for not just “green space” but ecologically complex, biodiverse landscapes, that provide habitat for wildlife and insects.

Green space is simply not enough, these Image 2-Parc de La Villa de Madrid, Barcelona spaces must reflect the complexity of the natural world we live in to be truly effective in lifting our spirits and impacting our mental wellbeing (11). For the purpose of this study, the term “nature” will be defined as: Urban parks that are ecologically complex, biodiverse, built environments where natural organisms manifest themselves as life systems11. Experiencing life in a natural environment that reflects nature’s complex ecosystems allows us to contemplate the world we live in, and our place in it. The presence of life reflects a harmony that humans have with the world in which we live. This quiet contemplation is essential within an urban environment and is central in balancing urbanization. Nature's presence is not only essential to our mental health, but equally as important; essential to our global health. This makes the greening of our cities an important step forward towards a mutually beneficial future. Nature’s ability to impact our psychological well-being demonstrates the importance of integrating our parks with our cities.

Our desire to exist in urban environments has traditionally segregated us from nature.

Indeed, cities are historically built to separate and protect us from the nature that surrounds us. However, even after 10,000 years of evolution we are still genetically composed practically identically to our ancient ancestors who lived almost entirely immersed in nature 12. Why have we in most cases created such physical barriers with our natural and urban environments, since appreciation of nature is part of our genetic makeup and critical to our health? How can we reassess the role of nature in our cities, and integrate it in a harmonious way that accomplishes the accessibility and mobility demands of today?

In the mid-1980s Harvard biologist E. O. Wilson introduced the “biophilia hypothesis”, which suggests that human beings thrive in nature and suffer in its absence13. His study addressed humans evolutionary affinity for nature, and the benefits we have from being surrounded by it. It is Wilson’s biophilia theory that explains our genetic affinity for nature, and demonstrates the importance of new urban designs that integrate the city with its parks, harvesting its beneficial impact on our wellbeing, and reminding us that humankind evolved alongside nature, not apart from it.

Nature has become a necessity not a luxury; hospitals are now using nature as a healing agent for their patients, coining the term “ecotherapy.” For example, the Ulrich study, “Health Benefits of Gardens in Hospitals” further establishes a link between nature and health by examining the impact that nature had on the recovery of hospital patients. Patients with views of nature recovered faster and used less pain medication.

10 11

12 13

Fuller, R.A., K.N. Irvine, P. Devine-Wright, P.H. Warren, and K.J. Gaston. Psychological Benefits of Greenspace Increase with Biodiversity. Biology Letters 3, 2007

Hartig, T., M. Mang, and G.W. Evans. Restorative Effects of Natural Environment Experiences, 1991 Williams, Nesse. The dawn of Darwinian medicine, Quarterly Review of Biology, 66, 1991 Wilson, E.O. Biophilia,Harvard University Press; Cambridge, MA, 1984

15

The connection between nature and its restorative effects has been made in numerous studies, including the increase in concentration with children who spend more time in nature14. In one study, children were given concentration tests after walks in the park and the results were measured against children who walked through busy downtowns. The results showed that children achieved higher levels of concentration after walking in the park, explaining the benefits of nature on our ability to concentrate. This is due in part because we are able to relax when in the presence of nature, and generally do not have to worry about the dangers of traffic, nor the noise and pollution that comes along with it15.

Green corridors function much like urban parks in that they provide public places for children and adults to enjoy. However, green corridors incorporate mobility accessibility and connectivity, freeing drivers from their vehicles and reconnecting individuals with their natural environment. Mobility is part of our human physiology; we are born to physically move, and if we don’t our health is impacted. “Walkability” and “livability” are terms that we commonly use to describe or measure the cities in which we want to live, directly connecting urban mobility and accessibility with our mental, physical, and social health. Green corridors can invigorate public parks through the mobility of its citizens, functioning similarly to streets, in that they connect physical points on a map, allowing residents to enjoy nature and its benefits while traveling from point to point, either intentionally or unintentionally. People traveling through green corridors will be remarkably more connected to nature and the world around them, giving them a greater sense of purpose and belonging16.

Cities that promote health and well-being, are reevaluating their relationship with the car and fossil dependent fuels. Cars, buses, and trains are in a large part responsible for many of the health symptoms associated with immobility. In a University of Sweden study, commuting and long commutes cause obesity, neck pain, loneliness, divorce, stress, and insomnia. In fact travelers who commuted more than 40 minutes a day were 40% more likely to divorce17. Long commutes by car pollute the environment, and can be socially isolating, creating physical barriers that disconnect travelers from each other18.Traffic also impacts residents who choose to walk, creating hostile pedestrian situations, and demonstrating a level of economic inequality between those who own cars and those who do not. These studies clearly underscore the need to embrace new green mobility methods that focus on all sustainable transportation options including clean renewable energy such as electric and bio-gas.

To create a happier and healthier city, many cities have focused on growing green, creating new mobility models that include the bicycle. Inner city green corridors provide sustainable transportation networks that encourage recreational activities and social interactions by providing an easily accessible and safe travel network.

Green corridors do not restrict range of motion like rigid geometrically aligned sidewalks or streets, allowing the freedom of mobility. This freedom of mobility is important to our physiology and has been linked to feelings of freedom and independence19. Cyclists report feeling connected to the city in a way that is simply

14

15

16

17 18 19

16

Taylor, A.F, F.E. Kuo. Children with Attention Deficits Concentrate Better After Walk in the Park. Journal of Attention Disorders 12, 2009 Health Council of the Netherlands. Nature and Health: The Influence of Nature on Social, Psychological and Physical Well-Being. Health Council of the Netherlands and RMNO, The Hague,2004

Kaplan, S. The Restorative Benefits of Nature: Toward An Integrative Framework. Journal of Environmental Psychology 15,2005 The Guardian newspaper, Secrets to the worlds happiest cities, 2013 O ‘Regan & Buckley, The Psychological effects of commuting in Dublin, DCU, 2003 Bergman & Sager. The Ethics of Mobility, rethinking Place, Exclusion, Freedom, and environment,

not possible in the enclosed confinement of a car, bus or train (18). Their journeys are both sensual and kinesthetic and establish a greater bond between residents and their cities. This bond is created by the use of nature, and is only increased through a green infrastructure that connects people to parks, freeing parks from their past segregation, and reducing auto dependency.

Population Density Past research in the fields of psychology and sociology also correlate the role that population density and affluence have in impacting our psychological wellbeing.

The city and its physical construction impact wellbeing directly, the crowds, noise, and pollution of the city have been connected to an array of mental health problems including depression, anxiety, delinquency, and suicide20. Size and density are particularly important in new developments because of their established psychological relevance. This relationship is important when designing public spaces, as public space can offset many of the negative impacts of urban life.

In a research project conducted by Oliver, “Mental Life and the Metropolis in Suburban America: The Psychological Correlates of Metropolitan Place Characteristics” data from a 1990 census survey that identified 2,191 participants. He established that the two most important determinate in resident’s psychological wellbeing were population density and affluence.

People who live in higher densities report less satisfaction with their neighborhoods in part because they felt less safe. As speculated by early urban theorists, the stress and over-stimulation of dense urban areas takes a psychological toll. For example, densely populated urban neighborhoods are more likely to contain higher levels of social dysfunction, pollution, crime, and physical decay21. Higher density development residents in the study did however report lower levels of depression and loneliness than lower density developments.

Income level when combined with low population density was the most conclusive, as wealthier low population developments showed the highest cases of emotional stress and unhappiness. The findings highlighted the impact that density and affluence have on their inhabitants, and the differences between how happiness was measured, these differences are often large, and vary as much as individual-levels of psychological wellbeing.

Surprisingly, Oliver concluded that while lower density urban environments should provide a greater sense of control and happiness, this was not the case, as more affluent individuals demonstrated higher levels of loneliness, depression and less satisfaction with life. Oliver’s study determined that wealthy low density developments had the highest reported levels of social isolation and suburban psychological malaise22. I will discuss population density of each of the projects chosen, based on Oliver’s research medium/high density development appears to be the most beneficial choice.

20 21 22

2008 Freedman 1975, Halpern 1995, Durkheim 1897 Skogan, W. Disorder and decline Crime and the Spiral of Decay in American Neighborhoods,1990 Oliver, E. Mental Life and the Metropolis in Suburban America: The Psychological Correlates of Metropolitan Place Characteristics, University of Chicago, Department of Political science,2001

17

Physical Health Green corridors contribute to a physically healthier population through their travel and connectivity characteristics. The health benefits of exercise are well established and outlined below by the U.S. Center for Disease Control and Prevention23: Reduce your risk for type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome Reduce your risk of some cancers Strengthen your bones and muscles Improve your mental health and mood Improve your ability to do daily activities and prevent falls, if you’re an older adult • Increase your chances of living longer • • • • •

Outdoor activities have proven to help reduce the symptoms of Alzheimer’s, dementia, stress, and depression24. While the benefits of exercise are numerous and enormous, it is important to understand the relationship between exercise, accessibility, and nature and how access to nature can further enhance the results of exercise through biophilia. Biophila offers benefits that gymnasiums do not, and emphasizes the benefits that natural green corridors have on its users.

Cities that invest in green corridors will not only increase the physical health of their citizenry, but their overall health and wellbeing25. This intervention strategy is directly linked to the health and happiness of individuals, and is a valuable part of any green strategy26 . The physical benefits from walking and cycling are numerous and have long been connected to healthy lifestyles. Exercise, including walkable cities has been linked to longevity among senior citizens. A Tokyo study demonstrated the increased life expectancy of senior citizens that lived near tree lined streets and regularly took walks. The study emphasizes the importance of accessibility to green urban walkable spaces and supports the idea that green corridors support public health in a quantifiable way (23).

Social Cohesion “The other way that metropolitan social environments can shape psychological wellbeing is through altering patterns of social interaction.

A sense of social integration is a key component to subjective wellbeing”

- Pr. Eric Oliver, University of Chicago, 2003

The social impact of a green corridor in terms of facilitating social cohesion is more difficult to establish in that social cohesion is abstract and relatively subjective.

Certainly the accumulation of healthy individuals impacts the communities in which they live in a socially positive way, but can green corridors increase social cohesion?

Public parks provide the place, and increase the likelihood of social encounters, but can they improve social cohesion, and on what level?

23 24

Center for Disease Control, CDC, U.S.A, 2013

25 26

Heerwagen, J.H. & Orians G. Humans, habitats, and aesthetics, 1993

18

Chalfont, G & Rodiek, S. Building Edge: An Ecological Approach to Research and Design of Environments for People with Dementia. Alzheimer’s Care Today 6, 4: 341, 2005 Takano T, Nakamura K, Watanabe M. Urban residential environments and senior citizens’ long evity in megacity areas. The importance of walkable green spaces. Journal of Epidemiological Community Health 2003; 56: 913-918.

By taking a look at the goals of social cohesion we can establish a clearer definition.

The European Council developed a strategy for social cohesion in 2004 that rests on four principles: • The idea of shared responsibility crossing public and private spheres.

• The legal recognition of individual rights must include policy processes that weave together economic growth, human welfare, and sustainable development.

• The active reintegration of vulnerable groups.

• Highlighting positive impacts on the values underlying cohesive societies of responsible implementation of public action27.

Simply facilitating recreational and community activities is not enough to achieve the objectives of social cohesion. Actual participation in public space is an important part of developing an inclusive relationship28. Green corridors may encourage inclusion by creating a symbolic identity with the city, thus building a sense of belonging and pride. This together with community outreach and public participation are indeed fundamental steps towards social cohesion29.

Social cohesion includes not just an element of economic growth for the individual, but an improved level of economic justice enabling citizens to participate in the society around them30. The ability to participate in social functions often involves a financial component that is impacted by individual economic capacity. Many times the poor lack the financial resources to make responsible environmental decisions or enjoy social outings.

Increasing the physical accessibility to and from pedestrian commercial corridors through connectivity and accessibility is a primary objective of green corridors31.

The green corridor empowers individuals to travel from one point of the city without being dependent on a personal vehicle. Green corridors, as in the case of Barcelona’s La Sagrera, also reintegrate the city’s poorest and most vulnerable groups with nature, partially removing the costs associated with private car ownership, maintenance, and insurance. Urban parks have been shown to increase property value, by increasing quality of life32. The social challenges to economic equality lay in reducing economic segregation and environmental racism. This can in part be accomplished by improving accessibility and providing green corridors that promotes all of the principles of social cohesion.

Citizen Participation Fundamental to the success of the public spaces are citizen participation programs that seek to apply democratic principles by activating the local populous and creating consensus through vigorous debate (29). Public space is invigorated through citizen participation by including the interaction of neighbors within the design and planning process, ensuring the satisfaction of the residents who use the space33.

Citizen participation objectives include involving all members of the community to

27 28 29 30 31 32

Council of Europe, 2004

33

Ricart, N & Remesar, A. On the W@terfront- Reflexiones Sobre el Espacio Público,2012

Beumer, C. Social Cohesion in a Sustainable Urban Neighborhood, 2010 Vidal, T. Participación y deseno del espacio public, Universitat de Barcelona, 2007 Council of Europe, 2004 La Sagrera, Alta Velocidad, barcelonasagrera.com, 2013 Crompton, J. The impact of Parks on Property values, a review of empirical evidence, Journal of Leisure research, 2001

19

achieve an end result that serves all members of society, regardless of age, sex, or ethnicity.

Citizen participation also plays a vital role in the unification of public art and cultural heritage, manifesting itself in the form of a healthy public space that is respected and understood. The citizen participation process and concentration on cultural identity has been a major goal of Barcelona, which has enthusiastically highlighted Catalan artists, musicians, and poets in public squares, creating a sense of pride and belonging. The ability to socially identify with your environment through the symbolism associated with public art is imperative in forming a positive image of the neighborhood and the city(32). The citizen participation initiatives have materialized as a physical indicator to the city’s public space, and self-image 34.

Thinking that community participation is critical to the health of public spaces, and green public spaces are critical to the health of its residents, we can establish that green corridors can provide health for not just public spaces but for the residents that use them. The community in which a public park is situated plays an enormous role in the health of their public space. Communities can create place, and place can create community by placemaking methods that involve citizen participation programs35. Green corridors can be designed and developed similarly to urban parks by using this method. These corridors can become places if they are properly designed and implement place making concepts that include grass roots community participation and collaboration (34).

Childhood Development The link between nature and childhood development has also been well researched in various empirical studies. Numerous studies in the UK and the US reflect on the connection between natural environments and childhood socio-emotional development. Healthy socio-emotional, cognitive and motor development have an important impact on health later in life36. Opportunities that promote these forms of development through nature have been declining in many urban cities due to over development. Nature stimulates children’s imagination through its diverse forms, colors, and textures37. In a research study by Sebba 198 adults and 174 children were surveyed. Sebba found that 46% percent of the children preferred an outdoor natural environment to play in, and 97% of adults stated that an outdoor natural environment was the most important place during their childhood38. Sebba corroborates that children exposed to nature at earlier ages form a caring bond with nature that shapes many adults most formative and positive childhood memories.

Image 3-Hammarby Sjöstad, Stockholm

34 35 36

Borja J. Barcelona. Un modelo de transformación urbana,1995 Jacobs, J. The death and life of American cities,1961

Heerwagen, J. Biophilia, health, and well-being. In: Campbell, L., and A. Wiesen (eds.), Re storative Commons: Creating Health and Well-Being Through Urban Landscapes. Gen. Tech. Rep. NRS-P-39. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station,2009

Kong, L. Nature’s dangers, nature’s pleasures: urban children and the natural world. In: Holloway S, Valentine G, editors. Children’s geographies. London: Routledge; 2000: 257-271.

Sebba, R. The landscapes of childhood. The reflection of childhood’s environment in adult memories and in the children’s attitudes,1998

37 38

20

A substantial amount of research has

been done outlining the importance of various forms of play to help cognitive development in children. Three design criterion’s have been identified from this research including; challenging, diversity and variation. These three elements are commonly found in nature and establish a connection between natural environments and childhood cognitive development. Several studies focused specifically on green playing environments and their ability to stimulate constructive and imaginative activity. Taylor Faber conducted a study that involved 250 inner-city children under the age of 14, and their tendencies towards playing in natural urban environments in the city of Chicago. The study showed that children were not only less likely to play in sparse green areas, but the activities that they performed in these sparse green areas were significantly less creative than in areas that included trees and green grasses39. Additionally, Taylor found that 7-12 year old girls living in the city of Chicago who had views of nature performed better on concentration tests.

Playing outdoors increases motor skill development through challenging forms of exercise. Motor skill development has been linked to other forms of social, cognitive, and emotional development. Motor skill development also leads to additional self-confidence and fewer accidents40 A Swedish study in 1997 led by Fjorstof, substantiated that children who spent their afternoons in daycares that had natural playing environments were better coordinated, and had higher levels of balance than children who did not. These higher levels of athleticism increase a child’s confidence, which increases his social aptitude. Natural environments in urban areas do play an important role in creating challenging, diverse, and varied playful environments. The fact that adults so commonly associate their fondest childhood memories to natural environments is inspiration to prioritize natural green spaces for inner city children.

Economic Review “Residences located close to urban parks frequently sell at a premium. The increased home values represent a ‘capitalization’ of a park’s value to proximate homeowners and this phenomenon has been termed ‘the proximate principle’.”

-Crompton, John, The impact of Parks on Property values, a review of empirical evidence, Journal of Leisure research, 2001

In the early formative years of city development and urban parks, from the 1850s through the 1930s, many politicians authorized parks as investments in public resources as investments that essentially "paid for themselves"41. The “proximate principle” was established by an landscape architect named Frederick Law Olmsted (who later designed New Yorks Central park). The principle is that parks increase nearby property value. Crompton building on Olmstead's proximate principle established that properties up to three blocks away benefit from a 10% increase in property value, while properties that bordered the parks may increase as much as 20% in property value42.

39

40 41 42

Faber, A, Wiley A, Kuo FE, Sullivan WC. Growing up in the inner city. Green spaces as spaces to grow. Environment and Behavior,1998; 30: 3-27.

Fjortoft, I. The natural environment as a playground for children. The effect of outdoor activities on motor fitness of pre-school children. Urban Childhood in Trontheim,1997 Crompton, John, The impact of Parks on Property values, a review of empirical evidence,

Crompton, John,The Role of the Proximate Principle in the Emergence of Urban Parks in the United Kingdom and in the United States, Department of Recreation and

Tourism Sciences, Texas A&M University,2005

21

His work contradicts conventional wisdom, in the belief that residential development is the “highest and best use of vacant land for increasing municipal revenues.”

Crompton looked at over 50 parks and 100 studies all around the United States, and established a clear connection in how urban parks as opposed to residential real estate developments increase property value, and are less costly to maintain.

Additionally, Crompton’s work shows the median cost among three different land uses. He compares tax revenues per one million that different communities received from farm/forest/open space uses and from industrial/commercial uses, and the cost of maintaining these developments.

• Farm/forest/open parks per 1 million dollars received, expended $270,000$350,000 to provide public services and maintenance.

• Residential/industrial per 1 million dollars received, expended $1,160,000.00 The results of Crompton’s studies further establish that building residential development at the expense of producing urban parks does not reduce the financial responsibilities of communities. In contrast it is likely to increase them.

In another study (Correll, J. 200543) measured the affect of greenbelts on property values in three different zones of Boulder, Colorado, USA. Correll showed that there was a $4.20 decrease in the price of residential property for every foot (30cm) away from the greenbelt. In fact, Correl showed that average value of properties adjacent to the greenbelt were 32% higher than those located 3,200 (975 M) away.

The evidence clearly indicates that preserving open space can be a less expensive alternative to development. Hence, a number of communities have elected to purchase park and open space land, rather than allow it to be used for residential development, The above literature review demonstrates the projected health impact of residents that live near green corridors and in smart cities that integrate the city with its parks prioritizing mobility and accessibility. The studies examines new urban theories that have redefined urban planning and the way we look at our cities, no longer are we stuck between densification or sprawl. Green corridors have come to the forefront, addressing the future of urbanization. The benefits of nature being integrated into cities will be shown to have a significant environmental, economic, and social impact, but will it resolve the conflicts of Campbell’s triangle and achieve sustainable development?

43 Correll, Mark R., Lillydahl, J., Jane H. and Singell, Larry D. The effect of green

belts on residential property values: Some findings on the political economy of open space. Land Economics 54, 1978

22

Sant Andreu-La Sagrera

“El nuevo modelo debe buscar maximizar la accesibilidad en vez de la movilidad. Para ello, tiene que definir un marco conceptual adecuado, primero para analizar los problemas y después para encontrar las soluciones idóneas.”

-Borja, Jordi, Barcelona, Un modelo de transformación urbana, 1995

23

2.0 Barcelona, Spain; La Sagrera; A green corridor to unite a new city center

I

n the 21st Century, the Barcelona model has evolved and is poised to be remarkably successful in balancing and integrating sustainable urban development’s economic, social, and environmental objectives. The model is now aimed to reduce social inequality and reduce environmental pollution addressing the conflicts associated with sustainable development. It insists that successful city growth integrate both urban design principles on a community scale with sustainable development dimensions on a municipal and global scale. Barcelona, through green urban design has increased the vibrancy of many communities. Indeed, the interdisciplinary urban design approach thrives on a human scale and this integration of scales and municipal strategies has created a potent city model for smart green urban growth.

The Barcelona urban model confronts complex urban problems, using green public space as the apparatus to achieve urban growth solutions44.

At the beginning of the 20th Century, Barcelona only had about 60 acres (25 Ha) of public space, most of which was concentrated in Parc de la Ciutadella and MontJuic.

During this time period only 60 additional acres of public space were added. In this same period of time, the population doubled, gaining more than 1,000,000 inhabitants. 25 years later, Barcelona has managed to integrate more than 2,000 acres (809 Ha) of green public space 45, an incredible accomplishment considering the physical and political difficulties associated with a dense metropolis46.

Barcelona with a population density of 16,000/per km2 pays special attention to the social importance of pedestrian movements, accessibility, and their inherent relationship with public space 47. Walking and now bicycling is becoming essential to its citizens healthy circulation throughout the city. The city is equilibrating green urban mobility options such as cycling by restricting vehicle access in the historic center, add constructing new “ramblas” in periphery neighborhoods, all this to create a healthier more satisfied urban population48. The ramblas of Barcelona are a key element to neighborhood regeneration efforts and epitomizes the Catalan urban mobility model. The ramblas of Barcelona intensify and facilitate social and economic activities49. The re-pedestrianization of the old city and continued reevaluation of its “paseos”create a calming socially interactive environment that prioritizes the pedestrian, minimizing the role of vehicles and the noise, danger, and pollution they create (43). This same balance is reversed with the wide boulevards of Paseo de Gracia, Grand Via and Diagonal, giving priority to the vehicle, but balancing it with pedestrian and cyclist mobility. The balance of travel between public and private, vehicle and pedestrian has been a recent recipe for success. These mixed travel corridors are part of the original Barcelona model, theorized and built in the 20th century. Building on their pedestrian oriented historic center tradition the new Barcelona model of the 21st century can be seen on the Paseo Maritimo, Passeig de Sant Joan, Parc de la Trinitat, and Les Glórias.

44 Barcelona Visio’ 2020, Pla’ Estrategic Metroplitana de Barcelona 45 Ajuntament de Barcelona, Barcelona in Progress, 2004 46 Ajuntament de Barcelona, Barcelona in Progress, 2004 47 Diputació de Barcelona l Espacio Público; Ciudad y Ciudania, 2003 48 Capel, H. El Modelo Barcelona: Un Examen Crítico, 2004 49 Hughes, R. Barcelona,1992, Pg. 14-25 Cover: Image 4 & 5 La Sagrera, Image 6 -West 8 Architects

24

2.1 Site Summary Figure 1-La Project Sagrera-Site statistics La Sagrera Total land transformation Land for parks Land for equipment Land for roads Total length

1,638,134 m² 164 acres 66 Ha 489,212 m² 50 Ha (30%) 209,812 m² 21 Ha (13%) 437,558 m² 44 Ha (27%) 3.7 Km

Figure 2 & 3, Source-La Sagrera-Alta Velocidad, 2013

Territory use Territory

Sant Sant Andreu Andreu

Barcelona Barcelona

Residential

40.4%

25.3%

Equipment

10.7%

10.7%

Urban Parks

12.6%

11.7%

Road Network

23.2%

33%

Forest

0%

15.9%

Image 7-La Sagrera, East view

Image 10-La Sagrera, Factory in use

Image 8-La Sagrera, West view construction

Image 11-La Sagrera, Housing development

25 Image 9-Construction 2

Image 13-Sant Andreu-La Sagrera, Source, La Sagrera-Alta Velocidad, 2013

Image 12-Carrer de Sant Adrià, Barcelona

2.1.1 Physical Description The project is currently in the early process of land development and infrastructure only. Concrete columns are being poured to support the new aboveground park and buildings. The rail lines are operational, and will stay that way during construction.

The park will be 3.7 kilometers long, and vary in widths depending on the terrain.

The area is surrounded by high rise residential buildings built in the 70s and 80s, and is home to several historical buildings that will be conserved within the project.

The area is also home to several functioning concrete factories, whose future remains unclear but are likely to be relocated. The difference from one side of the tracks crossing to the other side is pronounced, and considerably less developed.

Images 14-17-Sant Andreu-La Sagrera, 2013 general views of current construction status.

All photographs are original unless otherwise noted

26 Image 18- Projected vision of the park, Source,Infografia amb L' Estacio' en Primer Terme, Barcelona Regional/BSAV

Image 19-Barcelona,Institut Geològic de Catalunya, 2013 2.1.2 Geographic Location Sant Andreu is an inner city district bordering the district of San Martí to the South and Nou Barris to the West. The eastern periphery neighborhoods within the districts of San Andreu and San Martí are disconnected by highways and train lines. These marginalized neighborhoods include Baró de Viver, Bon Pastor, and La Verneda i La Pau. The neighborhoods are some of the least dense and developed in the city. Lower property values, rents, and higher unemployment characterize these neighborhoods. These at times forgotten neighborhoods are some of the last developed and offer a stark contrast to the city’s vibrant Eixample district, and wealthy Northwest quadrants. The project extends across the entire district of Sant Andreu traversing the Northeast quadrant of the city in a South West direction. The project begins at Parc de la Trinitat, and ends at the district of Sant Martí. This new green corridor in intended to unite the ocean and the mountains, and will ultimately redefine Barcelona’s urban profile.

Image 20-Barcelona, Spain, Google , 2013

Image 21-La Sagrera Barcelona, Spain, Google, 2013

27

Population

La Sagrera

Sant Andreu

Barcelona

29,038.00 La Sagrera 29,863/km2 29,038.00 1,000 Km2 29,863/km2

147,538.00 Sant Andreu 22,385/km2 147,538.00 6,600 Km2 22,385/km2

1,638,103.00 Barcelona 15,991/km2 1,638,103.00 162,200 Km2 15,991/km2

Territorial size

1,000 Km2

6,600 Km2

162,200 Km2

Socio-Economic

La Sagrera

Baró de

Sant Andreu

Barcelona

Socio-Economic Education

La Sagrera 18.6%

Sant Andreu 18.1%

Barcelona 26.3%

level1 Education Income level level1

Viver Baró de 5.3% Viver

18.6% €17,029

5.3% €8,514

18.1% €16,501

Income level

€17,029

€8,514

€16,501

2.1.3 Socio-Eonomic Data;

Population Population Density Population Territorial size Density

26.3% €22,407 €22,407

Socio-Economic

La Sagrera

Sant Andreu

Barcelona

Unemployment

6.8%

9.9%

24.9%

$225.508

$456,501

$606,407

Home Value

Figure 4 & 5-Source -Departament d’ Estadística. Ajuntament de Barcelona,2013 1-Education based on residents with a University degree Income Level and home value-Median average

I will examine these statistics in more depth throughout the section summary, however the statistics are clear. Sant Andreu is significantly behind the median average for the rest of the city in terms of education and income level. Parts of Sant Andreu have higher unemployment than the city average, though as a district the percentage is lower than the city as a whole, at least for the year of 2012, in which the data was sampled.

1

2.2 Historical Context

University degrees completed Ajuntamnet de Barcelona, Departament d’ Estadística

The historical context of the project La Sagrera as a new urban center, green corridor,

1

28

University degrees completed Ajuntamnet de Barcelona, Departament d’ Estadística

Image 22 & 23 La Sagrera cerca 1930, Source La Sagrera-Alta Velocidad, 2013

and transportation hub can be traced back to the first trains in Spain. La Sagrera is historically a railway station, and will continue to be. The first train in Spain was built in 1848, serving Barcelona.

Spain’s railways were originally built at an unusually broad track gauge of 1,672 mm. It is commonly believed that this paranoid decision to choose an unique gauge was influenced by Spain’s hostility with France during the 1850s.

This effected connectivity between Spain and the rest of Europe for the entire 20th century. Spain is now recently connected to the European standard high speed rail, all be it late. The first AVE line to link up with the French standard gauge network is the LGV Perpignan-Figueres, which opened on 19, December 2010, and includes a new 8.3-kilometre (5.2 mi) tunnel under the Pyrenees.

The District of Sant Andreu, formerly known as Sant Andreu de Palomar has a historical center and an independent Image 24- Sant Andreu district neighborhoods, Source streak as the site of several uprisings. It -Atles de Barcelona, Ajuntament de Barcelona, 2012 was officially annexed as part of Barcelona in 1897 and has a rich history dating back thousands of years to Roman settlers, who choose the area for its fertile grounds. In the early 20th century the hardworking local populace of the Sant Andreu district combined with heavy industrial investments led to an explosion in jobs and population. The new found wealth from the Americas fueled the textile industry. The flourishing construction and textile industry was further fueled by the invention of Portland cement, and this combination of building technology ushered in a massive new building era. San Andreu along with Barcelona flourished in its industrial prime. The postindustrial history has been equally as dramatic, with the loss of local industries creating the conditions that led to its gradual urban decline.

29

The areas surrounding La Sagrera have never recovered, in part due to the same railroads that had brought it prosperity earlier. The neighborhoods of Bon Pastor, La Verneda, and Baró de Viver have suffered from the railways built in the 1930’s which completely divided the area, separating it physically and psychologically from the rest of the city. La Verneda, Bon Pastor, and Baró de Viver are all areas particularly ripe for growth and urban development due to their low density, and low property values. The empty lots and decrepit buildings provide a significant opportunity to grow the city in a new sustainable and attractive manner.

2.3 Barcelona Model;La Sagrera, Integrated Strategies La Sagrera highlights Barcelona’s new focus on environmentalism and social cohesion, balanced with the potential benefits of new emerging economic sectors such as high-tech. This project is of special importance due its massive scale, high proportion of public space, overall green connectivity, and social equity objectives.

La Sagrera will build on former city director of planning Oriol Bohigas strategy of decentralization by creating a new off center urban center. La Sagrera will seek to increase economic activities across the board by applying a strategy that combines the key ingredients of mixed use high density development, public space, and an international/intercity transportation hub into a low income area.

The gigantic investment in this undeveloped area reflects the city’s new socially balanced approach. La Sagrera’s new densely built mixed use project is placed directly in the city’s poorest, least densely built quadrant of the city, potentially resolving the conflicts associated with achieving sustainable urban development.

The model focuses on regeneration through densification, social and economic justice, and accessibility. Increasing opportunities and mobility circulation for all of the districts residents, including future business and tourist travel.

The economic development of the past has only been partially successful, in part because private financing and the free market continue to play a major role in many urban regeneration projects50. The social equity conflict inherent to development has for instance not been achieved in the Puerto Olympico development that began Barcelona's new rise to international prominence. La Sagrera however appears focused to resolve these conflicts and achieve a new high level of sustainability.

The new linear park prioritizes overall connectivity with other parks, creating a

50

30

Capel, H. El Modelo Barcelona: Un Examen Critico, 2004

green mobility corridor that will unite districts, create jobs, and reinvigorate the real estate market51. The transformation of a polluted post-industrial zone into a new healthy vibrant green city center will benefit the lives of all who live near it with its generous use of green space. The linear park will become a major artery for the cities pedestrian circulation, and is so big that it is nearly the length of New York’s famous Central Park. The new linear park has been called the “New Diagonal” a reference to the hectic bustling boulevard that diagonally crosses the city’s rigid grid now.

La Sagrera is a blend of the traditional Catalan rambla and an urban park, creating a new natural 21st century model. The hybrid rambla/park is 3.7 km long, and transverses two quadrants of the city. La Sagrera will be a new urban center, one that utilizes its green corridor as the physical integrating component to unite social, environmental and economic objectives. La Sagrera however is under construction, in which case we will focus on current objectives and future projections that address social, economic, and environmental objectives. In the following sections I will focus on the holistic Catalan vision of La Sagrera and what it hopes to accomplish.

Examining the social, economic, and environmental objectives of the project, and how the green corridor integrates and facilitates their success through conflict resolution

2.3.1 Social Objectives “With over 30% school drop-out in the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona, it is difficult to aspire to being a balanced society. This must be the objective to tackle. It will be difficult to make much progress without resolving this serious structural problem which has a very marked effect on unemployment levels, economic progress and social cohesion.”

-Barcelona Visio’ 2020, Pla’ Estrategic Metroplitana de Barcelona In this new sustainability-oriented approach to urban regeneration, the concepts of community and neighborhood have become an increasingly important element52. La Sagrera will be situated in the poorest quadrant of the city, impacting directly some of the poorest neighborhoods within the quadrant. The low income post-industrialized neighborhoods of La Verneda, Baró de Viver, Bon Pastor and Sant Martí border La Sagrera to the east, and have been historically physically disconnected by the intersecting railroads. One of the chief social objectives of the project is to release these periphery disconnected neighborhoods from the shadows of mediocrity, and unite the districts of San Andreu and San Martí. Neighborhoods once deteriorating and segregated socially, devoid of basic services including restaurants and bars will be socially reinvigorated through dense housing developments and an array of transportation and commercial services 53. The area currently has the least amount of restaurants, personal offices and hotels in the entire city, creating an socially isolated environment that provides fewer cultural and socially interactive opportunities(49).

The role of social housing is fundamental not only to the La Sagrera design strategy , but is part of the overall strategic vision of the city, and quickly resolves the social

51 52 53

31

Basiana i Vers, X. 1995-2011 Barcelona Transfer- Sant Andreu-La Sagrera, 2012 Colantino & Dixon. Urban Regeneration and Social Sustainability, 2009 Ajuntament de Barcelona,Atles de Barcelona, 2012

equity part of the “property conflict”, private interests vs public good54. The city plans to increase overall housing by 10% in the upcoming years, constructing 100,000 new dwellings with between 35 and 50% dedicated to social housing for the young, elderly, and the poor55. The La Sagrera strategy seeks to increase overall social cohesion by including protected social housing in nearly 30% of the projects housing.

Social housing will guarantee that the new development is diversely populated, and not dominated by the most fortunate members of society. The project will include 812,000 sq./m of new densely built residential space, providing 24,000 new inner city dwelling, a figure that will drastically improve the population density in the area, with as many as 30,000 new residents(51).

The project’s social connectivity goals incorporate overall consolidation of past and current projects, including Glories and 22@ in Poble Nou. The areas of Baró de Viver to the north down to Bon Pastor, La Verneda, and Sant Martí to the south will be socially reconnected by their proximity and accessibility to the new public linear park. The project plans to unite not only these neighborhoods and past projects, but the entire quadrant with the rest of the city.

2.3.2 Environmental Objectives Barcelona is developing advanced methods to reduce pollution, decrease energy consumption, and manage waste and resources, ultimately aspiring to be carbon neutral56. La Sagrera achieves this through a plan to integrate nature within the city as a green corridor, a corridor that promises thousands of trees, and nearly 500,000 sq/m of green surface. The environmental goals of La Sagrera are numerous, and include the overall integration of nature via a green connectivity corridor. Integrating the city’s periphery nature areas with La Sagrera will create a cohesive connected ecological neighborhood, facilitating biodiversity57. The scale of the park reflects the scale of the project, and will prioritize public space by accounting for approximately 30% of the projects footprint, introducing 489,212 m2 of park space.

Energy production, including organic waste processing and biomass will also be implemented as part of the environmental strategy. In addition, natural itineraries on foot or by bike will be integrated into the strategy encouraging interactions with nature, and build on the ever growing city network of bicycle paths. The aim is to apply the concept of a smart city 58. Environmentally the new green corridor will accomplish several objectives simultaneously. The project’s green corridor will incentive local transportation refocused on the pedestrian, reducing the need and overall carbon emissions associated with fossil fuel powered vehicles.

This new means of pedestrian powered sustainable transportation will create an environmentally sustainable model. The city of Barcelona is currently aggressively addressing the issue of traffic, which if left undressed will soon reach unsustainable levels. Air quality within the city is already a significant public health issue.

The project will also mitigate the pollution associated with past train lines by turning the soot polluted lands into an underground train line. In addition, the large green areas and densely built housing units address the environmental many

54

55 56 57 58

Campbell, S. Green Cities, Growing Cities, Just Cities? Urban Planning and the Contradictions of Sustainable Development Journal of the American Planning Association, 1996 Barcelona Sagrera-Alta Velocidad, barcelonasagrera.com, 2013 Ajuntament de Barcelona Atles de Barcelona, 2012 Barcelona Visio’ 2020, Pla’ Estrategic Metroplitana de Barcelona Adicott, L & Aho P. Ecological Neighborhoods, Scaling Environmental Patterns, 1987

33

of the priorities identified in EU’s sustainable development initiatives. The new green corridor will allow for improved ambient air quality by the planting of hundreds of new trees, plants, and flower beds. In addition, the green corridor will filter pollutants associated with storm water runoff before it reaches the ocean.

Plans for efficient water management are also incorporated into the design. The region receives only about 25 inches of rain a year, creating a need to diversify water sources. The irrigation plan is to use 50% ground water and to reuse 30% of all water (61).

All of these factors positively address the need to confront the effects of climate change, by changing development models and increasing the integration of nature.

La Sagrera does this in a meaningful way by creating a new environmental model that does not sacrifice the environment at the expense of the economy and addresses the resource conflict59. The project also mitigates the pollution associated with past train lines by turning the soot polluted lands into an underground train line. In addition the large green areas and densely built housing units address the overall environmental initiatives identified in Agenda 22, and the European Green Capitol criteria including: •

Green urban areas and sustainable land use

•

Nature and biodiversity

•

Ambient air quality

•

Quality of the acoustic environment

•

Sustainable transportation.

The new 96 acres (40 hectares) green corridor has the potential to redefine Barcelona as a new European green capitol, changing the environmental path to one dramatically more sustainable, by creating a city traversing, pedestrian only, green corridor. La Sagrera will firmly position the city for sustainable urban growth by striking a balance between integrating nature and high density development, resolving the second . This massive new prioritization of green public space in the form of a sustainable transportation corridor will set a new bar in sustainable urban regeneration strategies transforming a polluted, low density industrial zone into a vibrant new green community.60

2.3.3 Economic Objectives

Economically the northeast quadrant is the most depressed, least developed quadrant in the entire city, an area desperately in need of investment and poised to provide a real return on investment for developers61. With the city prepared to invest nearly a billion dollars in improved access and circulation, the project is projected to trigger privately financed investments, which have not been previously associated with the area.

The La Sagrera station is projected to be a new thriving center home to 30,000 new

59

60 61

Campbell, S. Green Cities, Growing Cities, Just Cities? Urban Planning and the Contradictions of Sustainable Development Journal of the American Planning Association, 1996 West 8 Architects. West8.nl. La Sagrera, 2013 Ajuntament de Barcelona Atles Barcelona 2012

33

jobs that residents can walk to, thus, breathing an economic vitality into the zone62.

Citizens and businesses are expected to thrive within the new city center, as an area once under served becomes a strategic new urban center. These historically industrial and fragmented districts, will now have an infrastructure that can sustain economic growth for many years to come.

The La Sagrera station will operate as a transportation hub at all levels, including international, national, and intercity travel increasing accessibility to the new city center from the rest of the city, the rest of the country, and the continent. Following the Barcelona model, transportation initiatives will operate on a micro and micro level, bringing in economic opportunities for local residents, and reducing the economic segregation of the past. The station will be outfitted with a new major hotel, encouraging business and tourism to stay and enjoy the area. Sant Andreu and Nou Barris together currently have three hotels, compared to 91 in the wealthier Eixample63. Station traffic will consist of city buses and metro and the station is projected to be primarily used by Barcelona city residents, an important point when considering the project is key to uniting the new city center with local citizens.

Barcelona’s new city center incorporates the transportation infrastructure necessary to not only support its 1.6 million residents, but to support its future residents and projected increase in business activities.

Job creation is a key objective in any economy, especially in a struggling economy.

The project will seek to add new clean economic sectors by adding 380,000 m2 of commercial space including personal offices, anticipating up to 30,000 new jobs.

The types of jobs associated with the station and project itself will revolve around the service industry, however the city is investing in science and technology as future sectors. The recent recession has only highlighted the need for job creation in Barcelona. Unemployment in Barcelona is currently at 25.8%, just below the national average, but well above the EU average 12.1 %64.

2.4 Summary; Urban Design the Catalan Way; 21st Century Barcelona

B

arcelona has drawn on its lessons from the past which highlighted the need for a more balanced sustainability plan. In the past, economic development and the tourism sector was prioritized, which in part sacrificed social and economic equality.

The Barcelona model is in part a response to the political crisis that preceded it.

This oppressed past has been turned into a strength, launching the city into the 21st Century with a renewed focus on urban design, environmentalism, public space, cultural heritage, social equality, and historical preservation creating a dynamic model for urban growth. Building on a workers’ rights labor movement and Cerdás theories on urbanism, Barcelona embraced a 21st Century socialist spirited urban design model that places special attention to incorporating and empowering the underprivileged areas of the city65. This is supported through the mobility and connectivity of its citizens via green public parks. The 21st century La Sagrera model simultaneously resolves the conflicts associated with sustainable development by growing a dynamic diverse green corridor in the poorest quadrant of the city, aspiring form social equity, improve accessibility, create economic opportunities, and prioritize environmental sustainability.

62 Barcelona Visio’ 2020, Pla’ Estrategic Metroplitana de Barcelona, 2013 63 Ajuntament de Barcelona Atles Barcelona 2012 64 European Commission, Eurostat, 2013 65 Capel, H. El Modelo Barcelona: Un Examen Crítico, 2004 34

La Sagrera creates a holistic socialist vision for the future and is an excellent example of using a green strategy to balance and resolve the conflicts of sustainable development. La Sagrera creates a new model for future urban growth by building a green corridor that runs 3.7 km long and covers 489,212 sq/m, offering the potential to reconnect communities with themselves and with the city, impacting the wellbeing and social cohesion of the citizens living in its proximity.

La Sagrera creates the conditions necessary to build a flourishing community that minimizes social and economic inequalities through its generous appropriation of green public space. The project dedicates 30% of land use to the linear park, a statistic that reflects the balanced approach that La Sagrera is taking in addressing the public good vs private interest property conflict66.

Social Wellbeing and Health. The social benefits are projected to be enormous, transforming a low income low density postindustrial zone, into a vibrant new attractive community, and resolving the development conflict associated with creating social equity(64). The new homes and businesses will create a new accessibility to economic opportunities, and further the demand to live in the area. Young professionals will be attracted to the peace, beauty, and accessibility of the green corridor creating an recognizable economic pulse. The social housing will create a diverse community, that reflects the range of ages, incomes, and cultures in the city of Barcelona.

Barcelona is synonymous with sports, and part of it 2020 strategic plan is to increase amateur sports activities through the medium of social cohesion. Sports and recreation activities will add to the increase in social cohesion through feelings of belonging and inclusion. La Sagrera, with its gigantic green footprint of 40 hectares, and 20 hectares of public amenities will provide more than enough exercise and recreational space for its new neighbors.

Image 27 & 28-Sant Andreu-La Sagrera, Source La Sagrera-Alta Velocidad, West 8 Architects

66

Campbell, S.Green Cities, Growing Cities, Just Cities? Urban Planning and the Contradictions of Sustainable Development Journal of the American Planning Association, 1996

35

The green corridor in Barcelona will have a significant impact on the health and wellbeing of its inhabitants. 180,000 people will be within a 10 minute walk of the park67, 360,000 people will be in a 20 minute walk. The inhabitants of Sant Andreu and bordering districts will be able to travel throughout the districts walking and cycling, reducing the pollution and commuter related stress associated with the vehicle. 360,000 people will be able to experience the benefits of Biophila and exercise on a daily basis, increasing the health and wellbeing of 22.5% percent of the population of the entire city population.

Environmentally, the amount of people using the corridor will reduce vehicle emissions, accidents, and improve air quality. There were 7,911 traffic accidents in the city of Barcelona in 201268. Air quality is a problem in Barcelona, in fact Barcelona is rated as having the 8th worse quality of air in Europe69. The city has over 968,000 vehicles, which is more than half of the population. An average vehicle commuting 6,000 miles a year, emits 4,656 lbs. of carbon dioxide per year70. Creating a healthy environment includes improving or at least maintaining air quality. The specific number of drivers reduced by La Sagrera linear park is unknown, though the 30,000 new homes and jobs located within the project will provide many walk to work opportunities. The new green infrastructure will encourage people to walk and bicycle providing safe passageway, and reducing accidents. Barcelona’s Bicing network which will tie into La Sagrera achieved over “90,000 subscriptions, 2 million hires and reduced CO2 emissions in the city by 960 tonnes during its first six months of operations” according to the Ajuntament. The success of the program and its reduced environmental impact has changed modes of transport in the city. If only 1000 people sold their car and started walking and bicycling to and from work, La Sagrera would eliminate 4,656,000 lbs. of carbon dioxide emissions into the air every year. This is the vision for the future in Barcelona and it is becoming a sustainable one.

67 68 69 70

36

Basiana i Vers, X. 1995-2011 Barcelona Transfer- Sant Andreu-La Sagrera, 2012 Ajuntament de Barcelona. Dades básiques de mobilitat, 2012 European commission, Eurostat.com, 2013 Environmental protection Agency, USA

-

Barcelona Mobility

Sant Andreu is the district with the least public space per inhabitant 3.77 m2 per inhabitant71. The new park will dramatically improve this statistic, while adding tens of thousands of new trees, plant species, and wildlife habitat. Trees store carbon emissions and clean both the air and soil. More specifically each tree cleans Non motorized

Barcelona Mobility

Barcelona Mobility

Barcelona Mobility

Public transportation Private vehicles

Tram 9%

Barcelona Mobility

Tram 9%

Bicycle 2.3%

Bicycle 2.3%

Car 36.6%

Car 36.6%

Non motorized

Bus 7.2%

Public transportation

Bus 7.2%

Private vehicles

Metro 33.5%

Metro 33.5%

Walking 5.1%

Walking 5.1%

Figure 6- Barcelona University Mobility, Source UPC & UB Mobility planning at University Campus Barcelona -UPC & UB, 2011

Figure 7-Barcelona Mobility,Source Dades básiques de mobilitat 2012, Ajuntament de Barcelona

air, removes dust particles, absorbs carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide and other pollutants, which protects the ozone layer, decreasing the effects of climate change.

In 50 years, one tree generates $30,000 in oxygen, recycles $35,000 of water, and removes $60,000 of air pollution72. Central park in NYC for instance has over 25,000 trees. La Sagrera is projected to have over 10,000 trees and plants. In which case, together they will generate $45,000,000 in oxygen, recycle $525,000,000 , and remove $900,000,000 million in pollution in 50 years. In addition each tree can absorb 26 lbs of carbon dioxide per year73. Given this statistic, 10,000 new trees would absorb 390,000 lbs. of carbon dioxide per year. Grass and natural surface area, cleanses air, water and reduces pollution similarly to trees. 232 m2 of natural grass produces enough oxygen for a family of four. La Sagrera with 489,212 m2 of natural surface area and will produce enough oxygen for 2,108 families of four per year or 8,436 people per year74. Trees are proven to increase commercial and residential property values in the United States. Homes on lots with a variety of trees have 6% - 12% higher appraised values. Trees have been linked to the increase the value of your property, by as much as 10% - 20%75 Economically the richest neighborhood in Barcelona also happens to be the greenest, Pedralbes. Sarria’-San Gervasi which borders this area has property values that are double the median value. An average three bedroom home sells for €987.000, compared to the city average €445.300, and San Andreu of €326.200. There is no

71 72 73 74 75

Basiana i Vers, X. 1995-2011 Barcelona Transfer- Sant Andreu-La Sagrera, 2012 USDA Forest Service Pamphlet# R1-92-100, 2012 Plantit2020.org Environmental Protection Agency, 2013 USDA Forest Service Pamphlet# R1-92-100, 2012

37

coincidence that green space increases property value. The percentage of population in Sarria’-Sant Gervasi with a university degree is 47%, compared to 18% in Sant Andreu76. The greenest areas of the Barcelona, are the most educated and valuable within the city. This area of Pedralbes which borders Sarria’-San Gervasi is the greenest in Barcelona and the most affluent can be seen in the images below.

Image 29- Greenest area of Barcelona city, Pedralbes and Sarriά

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Green space sq/m per resident

Home Value per $10,000 Sant Andreu

Income in Euros

Population with university degree

Sarria San-Gervasi

Figure 8-Source -Departament d’ Estadística. Ajuntament de Barcelona,2013

76

38

Ajuntament de Barcelona. Departament d’ Estadística, 2013

Figure 9-Financing for the project, Source-Sant Andreu-La Sagrera-Alta Velocidad

Economically, the Cost of La Sagrera originally was a mind boggling total investment of 2,250 Million Euros 2,250,000,00077. Due to the crisis in Spain the cost has continually been cut down considerably. Most recently the City Council established a maximum cost of 650 million Euros, 150 million less than the previous estimate of 800 million. This figure has been reached by reconsidering parts of the station with elevated costs, although the part of the project concerning the railway has not been modified. The project resolves the final conflict of Campbell's planners triangle, which builds an economy without sacrificing its ecological environment.

La Sagrera’s green corridor will provide the economical spark, while neutralizing many of the environmental impacts of the train station.

La Sagrera financing is supported all by public shareholders which are 37.5% Adif, 12.5 % Renfe Operadora, 25% Generalitat de Catalunya, and 25% Barcelona City Council 78. Representing a total public financing. Determining the exact cost of the green corridor only is difficult. At €650,000,000, and a total of 1,638,134 m², the price becomes € 396.80 per m². The green corridor is 489,212 m², becoming €193,727,952.

The median cost of a new home is Barcelona is currently € 486,000 for 95.8 m², which equals € 5,110 per m². At this cost comparison of € 396.00 to €5,110, La Sagrera appears to be an excellent investment and offering an amazing return on investment.

77 78

Barcelona Sagrera-Alta Velocidad. Barcelonasagrera.com, 2013 Basiana i Vers, X. 1995-2011 Barcelona Transfer- Sant Andreu-La Sagrera, 2012

39

Modelo Barcelona Project: La Sagrera Strategy Economic

    

Create new economic sectors Increase population density Create job growth Increase accessibility Establish new business's

Urban Transformation

Social

Environmental

Urban mobility • • • • •

Create class integration Increase social interactions Create cultural identity and pride Improve quality of life Reduce social injustice

Public space

• • • •

Sustainable transportation Reduce carbon emissions Integrate Nature Improve air quality

Figure 10-Authors interpretation of La Sagrera Strategy

Chapter 2.0 Figure and Image Index----------------------------------------• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

40

Figure 1-Triangle of Campbell Figure 2 & 3, source-La Sagrera-Alta Velocisdad, 2013 Figure 4 & 5 -Source -Departament d’ Estadística. Ajuntament de Barcelona,2013 Figure 6- Barcelona University Mobility, Source UAB & UB Figure 7-Barcelona Mobility,Source Dades básiques de mobilitat 2012, Ajuntament de Barcelona Figure 8-Source -Departament d’ Estadística. Ajuntament de Barcelona,2013 Figure 9-Financing for the project,Source-Sant Andreu-La Sagrera Alta Velocidad Figure 10-Authors interpretation of La Sagrera Strategy Image 1-Parc del Labirint, Barcelona 2013 Image 2-Parc de La Villa de Madrid, Barcelona 2013 Image 3-Hammarby Sjöstad, Sweden, 2013 Image 4 & 5 -Cover, La Sagrera, Image 6 West 8 Architects Image 7-La Sagrera East Image 8-La Sagrera West Image 9-Construction Image 10-La Sagrera Factory Image 11-La Sagrera Housing Image 12-Carrer de Sant Adrià, Barcelona Image 13-Sant Andreu-La Sagrera-Alta Velocidad, 2013 Images 14-17-Sant Andreu-La Sagrera, 2013 general views of current construction status Image 18-Infografia amb L’ Estacio’ en Primer Terme, Barcelona Regional/BSAV Image 19-Institut Geolόgic de Catalunya Image 20,Barcelona, Spain, Google , 2013 Image 21, La Sagrera Barcelona, Spain, Google, 2013 Image 22 & 23 La Sagrera cerca 1930, Source La Sagrera-Alta Velocidad, 2013 Image 24- Sant Andreu district neighborhoods, Source -Atles de Barcelona, Ajuntament de Barcelona, 2012 Image 25 & 26 Sant Andreu-La Sagrera Alta Velocidad, West 8 Architects Image 27 & 28-Sant Andreu-La Sagrera, Source La Sagrera-Alta Velocidad, West 8 Architects Image 29- Greenest area of Barcelona city, Pedralbes and Sarriά,

,

Hammarby Sjรถstad Stockholm, Sweden

Humankind has not woven the web of life.

We are but one thread within it. Whatever we do to the web, we do to ourselves. All things are bound together. All things connect.

-Chief Seattle, 1855

41

3.0 Stockholm, Sweden; Hammarby Sjöstad, Eco-District

S

weden has been a leader in spearheading environmental agendas for the last 30 years, arriving at the conclusion early on that traditional economic development was increasingly environmentally unsustainable. Sweden aggressively addressed the challenges of combating climate change before much of the world, and these philosophies have become a cornerstone of the Stockholm model. In 1972, Sweden organized the first UN conference on the environment which occurred in Stockholm and led to a new international collaboration effort to increase environmental sustainability and combat climate change. Sweden’s 2020 plan intends on the reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 40% in the next 7 years(83).

The plan has been called “realistic” by the Swedish National Institute of Economic Research. Continuing to lead the world in the fields of environmentalism, Sweden has pledged to be the world’s first fossil fuel free economy by 2030 and completely carbon neutral by 2050. Legislation plays an important part in the Stockholm model’s environmental efforts, reflecting this sentiment they implemented a strict environmental code in 1999. This legislation aims to promote healthy and sound environmental policies, protecting quality of life for future generations. In 2011 the Swedish government created a new agency, the Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, which dedicated over 500 million SEK to the agency in its first few years. The government has already designated 22 Billion SEK towards environmental measures between 2013 and 2016 alone(83).

“Sweden has the highest percentage of renewable energy in the EU (over 47 per cent). By 2020, at least half of the country’s energy should be renewable” -City of Stockholm, 2013 In 2012, Swedish greenhouse gas emissions totaled 58.3 million tons of carbon dioxide, compared to 72.7 million tons in 199079 , an impressive reduction of nearly 20% that reflects Sweden’s dedication to achieving its ambitious environmental objectives. In 1991, Sweden introduced the CO2 tax, which is an important political instrument that has contributed significantly to reducing fossil fuel consumption.

Sweden uses taxes as a way to incentivize responsible environmental behavior, taxing vehicles by their carbon emissions, and not their size or value. Achieving these goals required a blend of traditional disciplinary perspectives as well as state of the art technological advancements. The city of Stockholm has taken a “growth from within” approach, avoiding sprawl by developing previously developed land over undeveloped natural lands80. The new district of Hammarby is within city limits, but located on the outskirts, allowing for sustainable transportation initiatives to be effective.

Upon arriving at Hammarby Sjöstad I met with Emilie Zetterström, Communications officer for the project whom guided me on an official tour, and led a group discussion with a visiting group of students from the University of Prague.

Image 1-4-Hammarby Sjöstad, Cover, walkways, housing, and recycling area

42

79 80

Sweden.se/nature/environmental-policy City of Stockholm, Annual report, 2012

3.1 Site Summary

Hammarby Sjรถstad

Hectares

Total land transformation Land for parks

160 Hectares 30 Ha (19%)

Residential Other

90 Ha (56%) 40 Ha (25%) Figure 1-Source, Hammarby Sjรถstad.se

3.1.1 Physical Description The Hammarby project covers approximately 160 hectares, and is located within the city district of Sodermalm. The development sits alongside Hammarby Lake and is an open waterfront development. The plan for the project included the building of 11,500 new condominiums for just over 26,000 new residents, as well as 350,000 m2 of commercial property81. In total it was envisioned that over 35,000 people would live and work in the new city district. The buildings are contemporary low rise, with limited commercial space within the residential complexes.

Many of the new buildings include a large open community courtyard equipped with community gardens and sitting areas. The low rise housing with open courtyards and paths create a unique population density that reduces crowding and increases public space. The project is also home to many pedestrian and biking paths that wind organically through much of the development leading to light rail and commercial corridors.

Image 5-Green corridor aerial view, Source, Hammarby Sjรถstad.se

81

Hammarby Sjรถstad.se, Official website, 2013

43

Image 6-9-Community courtyards

Image 9-11-Main green corridor

Image 12-Site Map, Source, Hammarby Sjรถstad.se

44

r

Image 13-Connecting paths to green corridor

Image 14 & 15- Water filtration gardens

Image 16-18-Urban Forest walkways and playground

Image 19-22-Water walkways, and boat access area

45

3.1.2 Geographical Location Image 23-25-Green mobility ring around the neighborhoods

Image 23-25-Recycling and bicycle parking areas within community courtyards

Image 28 & 29-Residential housing and density example Image 26 & 27-Tram line through main commercial corridor

46

Image 30- Geographical Map of Stockholm, Sweden. Source- City Archives of Stockholm

Stockholm is the capitol of Sweden, and sits on the southern end of the east coast.

The city consists of 14 islands that form the Stockholm archipelago. Stockholm is made up of many waterways, canals and lakes. The waterways make up 30% of the entire city, while another 30% is made up of parks and green spaces82.

The project’s geographical context provides a unique setting for this urban project.

The project has added a new growth ring to the city of Stockholm, which has increased development within the district. The district borders are naturally defined by a curving natural reserve to the south and Hammarby Lake and the Sickla canal to the west. The spine of the new district is a 37.5m wide green promenade which sews together the community courtyards, and provides access to key transportation, and commercial corridors. Pedestrian boardwalks, paths and linear parks provide an organic perimeter to the waterfront development allowing residents access to recreational water activities in the summer.

3.1.3 Socio-Economic Data The socio-economic data from Hammarby shows that Hammarby's residents are better educated, and wealthier than the rest of Stockholm. Unemployment is almost half as low as Stockholm. However property value is lower than the median value for the rest of the city. This creating a high income to property value ratio. The population density is nearly triple to the rest of Stockholm, which in combination with the peripheral location, explain the lower home values.

82

City of Stockholm, Official website, 2013

47

Image 31-34- Country map, City view 1, 2, 3, and Hammarby aerial, Google maps, 2013

Socio-Economic

Sodermalm

Stockholm

Unemployment

3.9%

7.1%

Home Value

$319,000

463,900

Site Summary

Hammarby

Sodermalm

Stockholm

Population

22,000

37,700

829,400

Density

15,000 /Km2

4,200/Km2

4,400/Km2

Territorial size

13,000/Km2

90,000/Km2

187,000/Km2

Socio-Economic

Hammarby

Education level Income level

Sodermalm

72%

63%

$53,707

$41,638

Stockholm 55% $44,501

3.2 Historical Context; Hammarby Sjรถstad Figure 2-Sodermalm is the larger district in which Hammarby is located. Statistics are median average as reported by The Council for Official Statistics-Stockholm Sweden, 2013 . Education level is based on people with a University degree.

48

In the 1800s, the Hammarby area was undeveloped and was a popular destination for local excursions to enjoy nature away from the center of the city. The area was partially destroyed when the Hammarbyleden highway was built, as they filled parts of the local sea bed to make way for the highway. After World War 1, the area was zoned for industry and the steel industry grew in the region with factories including General Motors and the Luma Light factory. The area saw Image 35-Stockholm cerca-1850, Source, the development of a shanty town City Archives of Stockholm that housed the low-income workers supporting the steel industry, which 83 existed until 1992 . Shortly thereafter the city decided to redevelop the area due to housing shortages as well as their Olympic ambitions. The area of Hammarby Sjöstad was envisioned and sold to legislators as an Olympic Village with a new emphasis on ecology and environmental sustainability (88).

Stockholm combined priorities and used the Olympic opportunity as a rationale to build its now renowned environmental model. Although the Olympic bid was ultimately unsuccessful, development was already well underway, and Sweden marched ahead, applying its own Image 36- Hammarby Sjöstad Cerca 1930 Source, Hammarby Sjostad. proactive environmental philosophies, and se was awarded European Green capitol honors in 2010. Hammarby began development in 1995 and was completed in 2012. Due to the success of the project, new phases are currently under construction, and are scheduled to be completed in 201884.

Image 37- Hammarby Sjöstad Cerca 1930. Hammarby Lake Source, Hammarby Sjostad.se

3.3 Project Introduction; Polluted to Prized, Environmental Technologies Lead the Way 83 84

Blomquist, A. Fakta om SL och Lanet. Stockholm, AB Storstockholms Lokaltrafik, 2010 Hammarby Sjöstad.se, Official website,2013

49

“If cities are to flourish, city dwellers must enjoy a clean and healthy urban environment – it is up to city authorities to provide this. The European Green Capital Award promotes ideas such as sustainable mobility, modern waste management, sustainable land use, eco-innovation and other green technologies which local authorities can champion” -Anez Potočnik -European Commissioner for the Environment

Hammarby Sjöstad is Stockholm’s biggest urban development project in many years, and has broken the link between economic growth and increased greenhouse gas emissions85. The experimental project represents a new achievable international standard in sustainable urban development and offers futuristic glimpse of Swedish ecotopia. The integration of sustainable transportation, environmental technologies, mixed land use, and public space was seen early on a key to sustainability.

Hammarby Sjöstad carefully manages its natural resources, and has created a new green district that is situated gracefully within the nature that surrounds it. The Hammarby model aims to balance its complex set of environmental objectives with traditional economic objectives that include new housing and commerce. The new medium density development is a state of the art eco-district utilizing cutting edge technologies and green corridors and business incentives to achieve sustainable development. Parks, walkways, bike paths, and public art adorn the neighborhood, and reflect Sweden’s strong commitment to nature conservancy and quality of life. I will present Hammarby Sjöstad in order of its development priorities, starting with environmental.

3.3.1 Environmental Objectives “The Stockholm model builds upon the principle that environmental aspects have to be integrated everywhere and at all times. Improving our environment, minimizing our environmental impact and reducing our carbon emission levels are issues that need to be handled on a broad scale.

We have set some very ambitious targets, and we all need to be involved to be able to achieve them.”

-Stan Nordin, Mayor of Stockholm The Hammarby Sjöstad model focuses on four chief environmental objectives; waste management, energy reduction, water conservation, and sustainable transportation(89).

Waste Management. In the case of waste management the Hammarby project utilizes waste as a resource, creating products from recycled waste that allows for other natural resources to be saved. The objective of the waste management system is to create energy out of waste, this is done in part by building a convenient system for residents that simplifies recycling. The recycling program like many recycling programs divides recycling into three categories hazardous waste, household waste, and block based waste. The difference between the Hammarby waste recycling

85

50

Poldersman, C. Sustainable Urban Development, The Case of Hammarby Sjöstad, 2006

Image 38-Hammarby Model, Source, Hammarby Sjostad.se

system and many other cities is that the household waste chutes, which are again divided into paper, plastic, and food are connected via an underground vacuum system. The underground system connects to a central station, which allows for the partial daily elimination of trash trucks within the neighborhood. The block based, and hazardous waste recycling is for items that do not fit into the underground system, such as furniture, paint, and electrical waste. The block based recycling is separated into rooms, where residents can leave these items for pick up (85).

Energy Reduction. The energy objectives of the project are for residents to generate 50% of the energy used through waste management 86. Treated waste and wastewater are used in the production of energy to heat and cool homes. The project also uses solar power to help achieve the 50% energy production objective . Heating and cooling typically use the most energy, and in a country like Sweden, heating can be a drain on resources. Hammarby Sjรถstad has its own heating plant that uses the heat created in the waste water management plant to produce district heating. The wastewater once treated at high temperatures is cooled, and is used to cool water in the districts cooling network (84).

The sludge produced from food and sewage waste is transferred into energy via biogas. The bio-gas is in turn used to run city buses. Bio-gas is the most ecologically sensitive fuel available, and is also used to power over 1,000 home stoves in Hammarby87.

Several but not all buildings are outfitted with solar panels to produce enough electricity to power the communal areas, including hallways and courtyards. In one case a building has been outfitted with 390 m2 of solar panels, which produces half of the buildings hot water.

Water Conservation. Hammarby's water conservation objectives also include a 50% reduction in the consumption of water. Water consumption levels in Stockholm are currently at 200 liters a day88. Hammarby through water conserving plumbing fixtures, showers, toilets and faucets have reduced water consumption to 150 liters

86

87 88

Brick, K. Report Summary ,Follow Up of Environmental Impact in Hammarby Sjรถstad. Grontmij AB, Stockholm, 2008 Hammarby Sjรถstad.se, Official website, 2013 City of Stockholm, Annual report 2012

51

per person, 50 liters short of the goal89.

Cleaning wastewater is part of the comprehensive water conservation plan. The treatment of wastewater, as discussed earlier is used for heating and cooling, the treatment of waste water is as a primary objective considering that it produces energy while protecting natural resources simultaneously. Again Hammarby aims to reduce the pollutants of waste water that enters the archipelago of Stockholm by 50% by cleaning wastewater with new chemical and biological technologies. The neighborhood has its own wastewater treatment plant that produces biogas by treating sewage sludge, and ties directly into the heating plant.

Storm water, rain water, and melt water management is also addressed as part of the water conservation plan. Small canals within the neighborhood together with the addition of green permeable surface cleanse and carry the water to larger bodies of water. The opening where the storm water runoff is directed into the main bodies of water is further filtered by plants and gravel. These areas collect any additional pollutants and allow them to absorb slowly into the soil before reaching the Hammarby lake. Green roofs are also used to collect and cleanse rainwater.

Green roofs increase the heat retention of buildings in the winter, and cool them in the summer, which substantially impacts energy savings. Green roofs of course aid in the creation of living green areas that improve air quality, biodiversity, and design aesthetics. Green roofs ironically can be seen in many medieval building in Scandinavia, creating a “back to the future” type architectural element.

Sustainable Transportation. An important objective of the project is centered on sustainable transportation, which has clearly been established as an important means to increase the quality of life for residents90, while simultaneously reducing pollution and carbon emissions. Originally the objective set in 2005 was to increase sustainable transportation means by a total of 80% of all travel in and out of the district91. In 2015, the desired percentage was raised to an incredible 90%. As of now the percentage of travelers traveling by one of these means stands at 80%92, while a third (33%) of those travelers use the electric tram service for daily travel.

Considering that the greater city of Stockholm travels by car 32.5% percent of the time, this project represents an incredible accomplishment (93). The city has also encouraged car sharing, in part by offering a meager .15 street parking spaces per resident. In a survey done in 2012, 18% of Hammarby's residents had car share memberships93, a statistic that reflects the change in mobility occurring within the city.

3.3.2 Economic Objectives The total investment cost of the project totaled nearly 20 billion Swedish Crowns (€2,243,160,000) of which the city paid 4 billion Swedish Crowns94. The public-private partnership began with some difficulty as developers were hesitant to agree to the new strict environmental code95. However the Swedish Environmental Protection

89 90 91 92

93 94 95

52

Blomquist, A. Fakta om SL och Lanet. Stockholm, AB Storstockholms Lokaltrafik, 2010 O ‘Regan & Buckley, DCU. Psychological Effects of Commuting in Dublin, 2003 Poldersman, C. Sustainable Urban Development,The Case of Hammarby Sjöstad, 2006 Brick, K. Report Summary ,Follow Up of Environmental Impact in Hammarby Sjöstad. Grontmij AB, Stockholm, 2008 Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment, National Archives of the UK Foletta, N. Hammarby Sjostad. ITDP Europe, Stockholm, Sweden, 2010 Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment, National Archives of the UK

Agency offered grants to many developers which helped to bridge the divide and allowed the project to proceed96.

The economic objectives of the development were directly connected to the economic benefits of environmentalism, including reduced energy costs, and a concentration on a new sustainable transportation infrastructure. The electric tram now serving 33% of the residents, reduces energy and transportation costs for its residents, allowing residents to reduce expenses, and spend in other sectors supporting the local economy97. Additionally, with so many people using public transportation and not driving, the city is able to gain revenue in ridership. Ridership on the Hammarby tram line has increased from 30,000 in 2003 to 50,000 in 2010, an increase of almost 80%. The cost of ridership is currently €1.5 per trip, which equates for additional revenue of €75,000 per year from Hammarby alone.

The population of Stockholm is projected to pass the 1,000,000 mark by 203098.

The need for housing is also an economic issue. The Hammarby project, like most developments, understands the relationship between new jobs, quality housing and the economy. The projects housing objective of 11,500 homes created homes for 17,000 people, each of which has a gross income median level of $53,000, slightly above the rest of the city99. The project addresses economic sustainability by creating 5,000 new local jobs with its 200,000 m2 (25%) of mixed use commercial space. 5,000 jobs is the equivalent of providing jobs for nearly 30% of the residents.

3.3.3 Social Objectives The advantage in creating an entire city district from nothing in the 21st century lies in the ability to combine and implement all available knowledge concerning healthy social communities. Hammarby is not a social housing development, but was designed to build stronger communities through increased social interactions on both community and district scales. Public space including parks, green corridors, playgrounds, and semiprivate building courtyards, are integrated throughout the development. This in combination with the light rail, and ferry service connect the peripheral district with the heart of Stockholm.

The project included mixed land use, avoiding the low of density purely residential neighborhoods which can create social isolation and depression by restricting social interactions via local cafes and restaurants100.

The population density of the project at 150 residents per hectare is higher than the rest of the city, but lower than the historical center. The density of the project allows for an optimal balance between public and private space, which creates more public space per resident and allows for larger communal courtyards, and more protected nature reserves. The density is highest along the transportation or tram corridor, where buildings are up to seven stories tall. The initial goal for the development was to provide 25 square meters of public green space per person, which has been met101.

96 97

Hammarby Sjöstad.se, Official website, 2013

98 99 100

City of Stockholm, Annual report, 2012

101

Burls, A. People and Green Spaces: Promoting Public Health and Mental Well-Being Through Ecotherapy. Journal of Public Mental Health 6, 2007 The Council for Official Statistics-Statistics Sweden, 2013 Oliver, E. Mental Life and the Metropolis in Suburban America: The Psychological Correlates of Metropolitan Place Characteristics,University of Chicago, Department of Political science, 2001 Foletta, N. Hammarby Sjostad. ITDP Europe, Stockholm, Sweden, 2010

53

The social housing component included a mix of 46% rental and 54% ownership properties, which allows people from different economic classes to access the neighborhood. In addition, the development designated 59 (.5%) apartments with 24-hour care for the elderly, 30 (.25%) apartment units towards assisted living for the elderly, and 400 (3.7%) for student apartments102.

Hammarby Sjöstad understood the importance of attracting families and prioritizing education and has done an excellent job of attracting families. Currently Hammarby Sjöstad is home to 981(16%) children. 741 children are young and in kindergarten and 370 attend one of the schools in the neighborhood (99) The development included 12 per-schools, three primary schools, and two high schools. The district also includes a theater in an old diesel factory, a central library, a retirement home for the elderly, and a chapel. .

Hammarby offers an array of recreational opportunities including paths for walking, jogging, and bicycling in the summer. With its location on the water, swimming and boating opportunities are plentiful. The development includes a sports hall for adults and children alike. Skiing is also available in the winter with its proximity to a hilly nature reserve. The variety of recreational and exercise activities contributes to its residents’ wellbeing through biophilia and the increased of availability to support physical health103.

3.4 Summary; Swedish Environmentalism; The fundamental dimension

T

he Hammarby Sjöstad project represents a successfully balanced strategic plan that centers around the development of new transportation infrastructure. The plan creatively equilibrated transportation, waste collection, and green infrastructure objectives to manage its natural resources and build a sense of pride within the community. The infrastructure works in tandem and contributes to the success of each of the project interrelated objectives. Hammarby Sjöstad was able to produce solutions to all of its concerns by approaching its problems in an comprehensive manner, thus resolving the conflicts associated with sustainable development. The use of public space combined with a medium/high density development allowed for more public space per resident, and created a greener more intimate setting. The scale of the project is particularly successful in this respect. Population density at 15,000 sq/km is triple that of Stockholm, and considerably more efficient than the rest of the city.

The transportation infrastructure is an excellent example of integrating a comprehensive solution to address environmental, economic, and social conflicts. It has reduced noise and pollution, increasing the quality of life and social wellbeing of its residents (102). The walking and biking paths provide healthy travel alternatives throughout the district, again increasing the wellbeing of its residents. The reduction in commuting time and public transportation alternatives combine to build a society not as dependent on the automobile, which has been shown to physically disconnect you from the rest of society and lead to higher stress levels104. The transportation infrastructure which includes the green corridor, together they reduce air, soil, and

102 103

Hammarby Sjöstad.SE, Official website

104

O ‘Regan & Buckley, DCU. Psychological Effects of Commuting in Dublin, 2003

54

Kaplan, S.The Restorative Benefits of Nature: Toward An Integrative Framework. Journal of Environmental Psychology 15, 1995

water emissions, including greenhouse gas and lessen the dependence on fossil fuels105. The clean energy, in turn, addresses climate change initiatives which attain sustainable development objectives outlined by the EU Commission. The reduction in the building of roads also allowed for more trees and green public space, which through biophila and the attention restoration theory nourishes and restores its inhabitant’s health106.

Economically the tram and bike sharing raise revenue for the city, encouraging residents to use public transportation. The city is able to fore go building more roads, and maintenance required of roads, which creates more funds and more green space. Additionally, sustainable transportation though not accident free creates less vehicle accidents, ambulances and hospital visits is sure to positively reduce any city’s budget. Sustainable transportation was only part of the overall mission, but showcases how well transportation alone is able to unify sustainable developments objectives.

-

Stockholm was also proactive in meeting its predicted population increases by providing high quality housing at a time when demand was increasing. The social housing by itself is a very low percentage of overall housing and asks the question did Stockholm do enough to resolve the property conflict? The answer lies in part with Stockholm’s population, which is overall very well educated and employed. However, Eurostat identified nearly 15% of residents of Sweden were at risk of poverty or social exclusion (Spain 25.5%, EU 23%). Of that 15% most are identified as students and elderly107-. This percentage compared to the social

Stockholm Mobility

Hammarby Mobility

Car 33.3%

Car 21% Tram 34%

Walking 28.8% Tram 6.4%

Walking 18%

Figure 3- Hammarby Sjöstad Mobility methods. Authors rendering, Source Foletta, N 2010

Metro 15.3%

Bus 18%

Bus 9.7%

Bicycle 9%

Bike 5%

Figure 4- Stockholm mobility methods . SourceThe Council for Official Statistics-Stockholm, Sweden, 2013

housing constructed, presents a problem for the project, in that the social housing appears to be inadequately addressed. The neighborhood residents are on average wealthier and more educated than the rest of Stockholm’s population, combined with low student and elderly housing, Hammarby has created a certain element of economic segregation. In this aspect Hammarby is only partially successful in resolving the property conflict, however due to its total resolution of the resource

105

Brick, K. Report Summary — Follow Up of Environmental Impact in Hammarby Sjöstad. Grontmij AB, Stockholm, 2008

Kaplan, R & S. Kaplan. The Restorative benefits of Nature, Journal of Environmental Psychology, 1996

106 107

European Commission, Eurostat.com, 2013

55

conflict (economy vs ecology) the projects receives high marks worldwide.

Social Wellbeing and Health. Social equity is achieved in many ways through its harmonization of nature resolving Campbell’s “development conflict”. Each of the new buildings along the main green corridor have a semi-private community courtyard, the courtyard objective for public space was set at 15 m2 per residents108.These courtyards, combined with the green corridor are home to many gardens, benches, playgrounds, and public facilities. They combine to create a collaborative community dynamic, which is evident when visiting the neighborhood. Residents can be seen walking, jogging, and conversing leisurely around the paths that intertwine the neighborhood. The mixed use land use has also contributed significantly to the development of social equity. Along the main transportation corridor, naturally there is a commercial corridor, but this is not unusual or particularly interesting.

Hammarby Sjöstad is largely residential and the neighborhoods are tucked quietly away from the main commercial corridors. However peppered within the residential zones are several cafes and restaurants, which provide a close, quiet, communityoriented gathering place. In my view the zoning is one of the largest successes.

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Green space sq/m per Home Value per 10K resident Hammarby

Income in per thousand

Percentage of population with a university degree

Stockholm

Figure 5- Hammarby/ Stockhom comparison, SourceThe Council for Official Statistics-Stockholm, Sweden, 2013

Hammarby Sjöstad has created an intimate community feeling within the city through its use of higher density (for Stockholm), and land zoning. The density of the project I believe is ideal at 15,000 resident per km2 combining the convenience of urban life with the comforts of more affluent neighborhoods, furthermore, the lower density reduces the noise and pollution synonymous with the city, but is high

108

56

Foletta, N. Hammarby Sjöstad . ITDP Europe, Stockholm Sweden, 2010

enough to reduce the predictable isolation of sparser affluent neighborhoods109.

Environmentally, Hammarby Sjöstad is the home of radical Swedish environmentalism and is a major success. The environment is not protected at the expense of the economy, nor is any social equity lost through environmentalism.

Heating, cooling, waste, transportation and green systems all contribute to the environmental sustainability of the project. Together they form a comprehensive reduction in waste, energy, and carbon emissions. In a recent environmental assessment of the project conducted shortly after its completion, Hammarby’s environmental impact is now known, and provides a clear picture of what future development can achieve. The analysis, written by Karolina Brick, titled “Report Summary, Follow up of Environmental Impact in Hammarby Sjostad110” was completed in 2008 and compared data from 14 developers, including the residents’ behavior, as well as the buildings themselves. The analysis also measured emissions into air soil, water usage, non-renewable waste consumption, acidification, soil overfertilization, radioactive material, and green house CO2 emission equivalents. The environmental impact profile is then compared to a reference neighborhood which is based on technology levels in the 1990s when construction began. Research shows that emissions from air, water, and soil in Hammerby Sjostad has fallen by 32-39%.

Buildings, if measured alone would account for a 40-46% drop in emissions. The index for consumption of non-renewable raw materials has fallen by 28-42% for buildings, building plots and zones. With a further reduction of 30-47% if building were measured alone.

• • • • • • •

Over fertilization decreased by 49-53% Ground level ozone decreased by 33-38% Water consumption decreased by 41-46% The greenhouse effect decreased by 29-37% Acidification decreased by 23-29% Consumption of nonrenewable energy raw materials decreased by 28-42% Radioactive waste has decreased by 27-40%111

The largest reductions occurred in the heating of buildings, the environmental impact of buildings alone dropped by 67-70%, which has largely been attributed to new forms of waste water treatments that involves the production of biogas.

The analysis concludes with CO2 transportation associated emissions, and examines the user ship of transportation by residents. The CO2 emissions are measured in tons, and show that city residents produce 475 kg more carbon emissions per resident from personal transportation than those of Hammarby Sjöstad, resulting in the reduction of 2,373 tons of carbon dioxide per 5000 units (110). Overall, the study showed a decrease across the board in every category. The results of this comparison analysis are promising and highlight the initial objectives as realistic, illuminating the idea a successful environmentally sustainable development.

The reduced pollution has also increased the level of biodiversity and contributed to wellbeing. The biodiversity achieved is promising and amplified considering Hammarby’s location to the water. The project was able to conserve a small forest

109

Oliver, E. Mental Life and the Metropolis in Suburban America: The Psychological Correlates of Metropolitan Place Characteristics, University of Chicago, Department of Political Science, 2001

Brick, K. Report Summary, Follow Up of Environmental Impact in Hammarby Sjöstad. Grontmij AB, Stockholm, 2008

Brick, K. Report Summary, Follow Up of Environmental Impact in Hammarby Sjöstad. Grontmij AB, Stockholm, 2008

110 111

57

located behind the development, which is home to many older trees that provide habitat for small mammals and birds. Biodiversity and the witnessing of ecosystems has been linked to a greater sense of appreciation for our natural world, a higher sense of purpose, along with the restorative health effects that being in nature can provide112.

Economically, One of the most impressive parts of Hammarby Sjöstad was its ability to be financed. The project began as an Olympic village which explains in part the financial motivation behind the project. The excitement generated around the Olympics led to an increased interest by the city and the developers. The public private combination of financing is a successful mix, blending the financial interests

CO2 vehicle emissions/apartment/year 1000 800 600 400 200 0

Referent (913)

Hammarby Hamarby (423)

Figure 6- Hammarby and reference district comparison, per apartment per year per personal transport Source- Foletta, N Hammarby Sjostad, 2010

of developers with the environmental interests of the city. The cutting edge design, technological advancements, and most importantly business incentives made it easier to achieve initial investment goals. Developers were promised rental units, which encouraged their investment, and led to higher level of interest in the project from their perspective. The bidding process included more than 40 different contractors, which maintained a healthy level of competition113. The city also offered a two year rent free subsidy in order to attract new businesses, a successful strategy that the district quickly filled with over 100 new businesses(110), today no one lives more than 1 kilometer from a grocery store.

The cost of the project is concerning, but is based on financial life cycles that pays for the project gradually over many years. Considering that the original site was a completely abandoned and a polluted brown-field, the results are impressive. The eco-district has completely reinvented itself, adding millions of dollars of revenue for the city and developers each year. Individual taxes in Sweden are a minimum of

112 113

58

Anon, L. Ecotherapy: The Green Agenda for Mental Health. Mind: For better mental health, London, 2007 Foletta, N. Hammarby Sjöstad . ITDP Europe, Stockholm Sweden, 2010

30% and maximum 57%114. Payroll tax is 32.5%. At 26,000 residents with a median income of $53,000, the taxes would generate $41,757,575.00 annually. A significant revenue increase for the city and country.

Hammarby has become one of the best models in the world for sustainable development by pursuing environmentalism and resolving the conflicts associated with sustainable development. Reducing energy consumption in the energy and transportation sectors, has led to much lower levels of overall greenhouse gas emissions nearly 50% overall, a significant achievement. They have built up their economy not at the expense of the environment, but the opposite. Creating an economy based on environmental principles. The neighborhoods of Hammarby Sjรถstad are filled with higher income and more educated than the rest of the city, highlighting the power of green corridors, and public space to influence property value, and attract more educated wealthy residents. The addition, be it low, of student and elderly housing is sufficiently addressed for the country of Sweden where education is free, and many elderly homes are state run. This eco-topian development has carefully found the proper balance between population density, biodiverse public space, and zoning to build a tightly knit community that promotes inclusion and a sense of pride for its residents.

114 The Council for Official Statistics-Statistics Sweden, 2013

59

Chapter 3.0 Hammarby Sjöstad figure and image index• Figure 1-Source, Hammarby Sjöstad.se • Figure 2-Sodermalm is the larger district in which Hammarby is located. Statistics are median average as reported by The Council for Official Statistics-Stockholm Sweden, 2013 • Figure 3- Hammarby Sjöstad Mobility methods. Authors rendering, Source Foletta, N 2010 • Figure 4- Stockholm mobility methods .

Stockholm, Sweden, 2013

Source-The Council for Official Statistics-

• Figure 5- Hammarby/ Stockhom comparison, Source-The Council for Official StatisticsStockholm, Sweden, 2013 • Figure 6- Hammarby and reference district comparison, per apartment per year per personal transport,Source- Foletta, N Hammarby Sjostad, 2010

Hammarby Sjöstad Image Index • Image 1-4-Hammarby Sjöstad, walkways, housing, and recycling area • Image 5-Green corridor aerial view, Source, Hammarby Sjöstad.se • Image 6-9-Community courtyard • Image 9-11-Main green corridor • Image 12-Site Map, Source, Hammarby Sjöstad.se • Image 13-Connecting paths to green corridor • Image 14 & 15- Water filtration gardens • Image 16-18-Urban Forest walkways and playground • Image 23-25-Green mobility ring around the neighborhoods • Image 23-25-Recycling and bicycle parking areas within community courtyard • Image 26 & 27-Tram line through main commercial corridor • Image 28 & 29-Residential housing and density example • Image 30- Geographical Map of Stockholm, Sweden. Source- City Archives of Stockholm • Image 31-34- Country map, City view 1, 2, 3, and Hammarby aerial, Google maps, 2013 • Image 35-Stockholm cerca-1850, Source, City Archives of Stockholm • Image 36- Hammarby Sjöstad Cerca 1930 Source, Hammarby Sjostad.se

• Image 37- Hammarby Sjöstad Cerca 1930. Hammarby Lake Source, Hammarby Sjostad.se • Image 38-Hammarby Model, Source, Hammarby Sjostad.se

60

High Line Park, New York City,USA

“While the story of the development of the High Line may be one of the most innovative urban reclamation projects in history, the real story lies in the ability of neighbors, elected officials, artists, local business owners, and leaders of burgeoning movements in horticulture and landscape architecture to come together as a community to create something so well integrated with their existing environment. “ -AV Goodell, 2012, MA, Arts and Cultural management

61

4.0 New York City, USA; High Line Park, Community activism, and eco-nomic growth “The “High Line effect” should be viewed more broadly as a holistic approach to urban design that suggests how to transform existing urban landscapes to meet contemporary needs.”

–Charles Birnbaum, President of the Cultural Landscape Foundation,2010

T

he High Line Park is a unique public park hovering 30 feet above street level built on top of an 1930s era abandoned freight rail that narrowly cuts through the lower west side of Manhattan in New York City. The High Line opening in 2009 is symbolic in several senses, in one representing civic activism, and a community persevering over developers greed with passion for its history, nature, and society. The organization “Friends of the High Line” has been instrumental in gathering support from city officials, Image 1-Street level view of aerial park, Chelsea, 2013 partially financing the project, and raising 90% of the funds necessary to maintain the project115. The “Friends of the High Line” organization, building on Jane Jacobs theories of community participation has been completely responsible for articulating and presenting the High Line vision demonstrating the power of civic awareness, bridging the economic-environmental gaps with quality urban design. The project symbolically also represents a new era of green capitalism for the overbuilt dense city, similar to the social and environmental theories that produced Central Park in the 1857. The green capitalism aspect of High Line is signification it its use of the free market as an instrument to achieve environmental goals. The park embraces this new theory, and serves as a excellent reference for other cities. The green capitalism movement is a growing one, that includes green or clean energy jobs and in a similar sense to development of the past, seeks to balance economic and environmental agendas. High Line has been internationally recognized partially because of its unique component of historical preservation and industrial reuse, but equally for its symbolic nature as a model for green capitalism, and new pedestrian oriented city. The project has now scheduled a third and final section, which has recently been completely donated to the city and is under currently under construction.

The High Line is in part inspired by a similar project completed in Paris in 1993. The 3 mile long Promenade Plantée is similar in that it recycles an old railroad line into an “aerial green-way.” The High Line has become a symbol for green urban design in the United States, and is now a catalyst for economic growth in the post-industrial neighborhood of Chelsea, and across the United States116.

115 116

The High Line. Friends of the High Line, Official website, 2012 McGee, P. The High Line Isn’t Just a Sight to See; It’s Also an Economic Dynamo, 2011

Image 2 cover-Completed second phase of High Line park, 2013

62

4.1 Site Summary 4.1.1 Physical description

High Line Park, NYC Total land transformation

10.7 Hectare

Population

Chelsea

Manhattan

New York City

Population

103, 405

1, 619,000

8,336,697

Density

22,479/ km2

27,227.1/km2

10,640/km2

59 km2

1,213 km2

Territorial size 4.6 km2

Figure 1-Site statistics-Source, NYC. GOV, Friends of the High Line

CHELSEA

Image 3-Open space in the city of New York,Source,New York City, Open Space Index. NY4P.org

63

The High Line in its current status is a 1-mile (1.6 km) linear park built on a 1.45mile (2.33 km) section of the elevated former New York Central Railroad. “The Park in the sky” stands 30 feet above ground, situating it at the third stories of most surrounding buildings. The green corridor narrowly slices through 20 blocks of Lower Manhattan, and is largely surrounded by new residential construction projects. The third section is tying directly into a new high end development called the Hudson Yards, which is situated along the Hudson River. The park was fairly crowded when I visited in December. Which is in part due to half of the width being green space growing directly out of the original railroad which has been preserved along the entire park.

The integration with nature as seen below, is particularly dynamic. Pavement and grass, are smoothly integrated, and fade into one another seamlessly. The walking paths are fairly narrow in places, and surprisingly no bicycles are allowed into the park, making this a pedestrian only green corridor. Access to the park is secured through stairs and elevators which are locked at night. The access points

Image 4-8- General views of High Line Park, 2013

64

Image 9-Street level view of an underpass section of High Line Park, 2013 (All Photographs are original)

Image 10-Pavement detail of natural integration, underscoring the symbolic nature of the park

Image 11-Seating area within the park

Image 14-Third section under construction.

Image 12 & 13-One of 7 access points to the park

Image 15-Railroad detail.

Image 16-View of the Hudson river

Image 17-Aerial view of High line with a completed third phase, Source, Friends of the High Line

65

Image 18-Geographic map of Manhattan, Source, U.S Geological survey, 2013

4.1.2 Geographical Location New York is 124.9 meters above sea level, and has a longitude that runs very close to that of Barcelona. New York City is made up of seven "Burroughs" or districts. The City is still largely refereed to as Manhattan only, and for the purpose of this study we will concentrate on Manhattan. The High Line is located in the lower western quadrant on the peninsula of Manhattan, in the city of New York, USA. The project runs parallel to the Hudson River. The pedestrian only green corridor intersect the neighborhoods of Chelsea, The Meat packing district, and ends nearby in the trendy West Village.

4.1.3 SocioEconomic Data Image 19-World Location.

Image 20-New York City aerial view.

Image 21-High line in relation to the Hudson River.

Image 22-is a close up of the park, source Google Maps, 2013

66

The data associated with Chelsea, reveal income, education, and home value is above

Socio-Economic

Chelsea

Harlem

Manhattan

Unemployment

6.9%

18.6%

8.5%

Home Value

$ 2,250,000

$ 825,000

$ 1,595,000

Socio-Economic

Chelsea

Manhattan

New York City

Education level Income level

55.1%

26%

33.7%

$61,307

$41,638

$38,293

Figure 2 -Median average home value, education level, and income level.

Education is based on residents with University degrees.Source, NYC.GOV

average for the City of New York, and stands in stark contrast to that of Harlem which is not located very far away. Property values are triple to that of Harlem, while income level is almost double to that of Manhattan. Harlem is a minority community, that helps to reflect the difference in data. However in the summary we will look at Chelsea in comparison, to the greenest areas of the city.

4.2 Historical Context

Image 23-High Line cerca 1945.

Source-Friends of the High line

The historical context of the project begins in 1847 when the original freight rail was authorized to provide meat and other goods to the over 250 slaughterhouses and factories to the area still called the Meat Packing district. In 1937 the rail line was raised safely above the street after numerous deaths were caused due to the freight and street level traffic. 10th Avenue in fact became known as “Death Avenue” due to the hazard of the freight line. The original elevation of the line eliminated 105 street level crossings and cost over $150 million dollars in 1930, roughly $2 billion dollars today117.

The Freight line gradually became obsolete in part due to the new highway infrastructure built in the 1960s, the High line train ran its last delivery in 1980 carrying a few frozen turkeys. Soon thereafter in the 90’s local property owners who owned the property underneath the freight rail line campaigned for its destruction.

117

The High Line, Friends of the High Line, Official website, 2013

67

Image 24-High Line cerca 1945. Source-Friends of the High line

Local residents however campaigned to save the historic line, reopening it as a functioning freight line. Neither of these futures was in the cards. In 1999 the Friends of the High Line is established by civic minded local residents who campaign for the High Line’s preservation and reuse as a “park in the sky” (i.e., linear park.) The neighborhood originally was a low density, blue collar, industrial neighborhood, but is today a wealthy well educated neighborhood, full of young professionals who rallied around the projects vision, and pushed its cause to city officials and other residents.

In 2001 The Design Trust for Public Space provided a research fellowship to the architect Casey Jones. His research plan centered around “Reclaiming the High Line” a planning phase that took nearly 10 years, and was a collaboration with the “Friends of the High Line” and the City of New York. Shortly after the completion of the research study, a design and idea competition was held which involved 720 teams from 36 different countries. In 2004 the project was awarded to a landscape architecture firm James Corner Field Operations, along with an architecture firm Diller +Scofidio + Renfro, who were an interdisciplinary firm that included horticulture. In 2009 the first section opened, with the second section opening in 2011. The recent history of the project was so appreciated and celebrated, that the city campaigned with the community for a third phase. In 2012 the city receives the title to the third and final section as a total donation from CSX Transportation118.

Image 25 & 26-Street view of High Line rail yards cerca 1945. Source-Friends of the High line

118

68

The High Line, Friends of the High Line, official website, 2013

4.3 New York, High Land Park; Recycling post-industrial obsolete New York city is the most populated city and the financial capital of the United States. The city has been slowly reinventing itself since the 1970s when crime and decay had begun to grip the city. New York is also the creative artistic capitol of the United States with more art galleries than any other city. New leadership and future trends in urban design have been welcomed by the new Mayor Bloomberg119, who has now served for more than 10 years. The city for instance just launched a bike sharing system in 2013.

The High Line park represents a remarkable project that began as a community uprising in opposition to the demolishing of the historic freight line, which led directly to the reinvention of the rail line as a state of the art green corridor. The grass roots movement paid homage to the theories of Jane Jacobs who lived and wrote about the very same neighborhoods, Greenwich Village is blocks away. The community’s ability to turn their vision into reality, emphasizes Image 27-High Line during first phase of the power of public space through citizen construction 2005, Source, Friends of the High participation and environmentalism. line Community members raised their own money to finance almost a third of the project, and demonstrated that capital investments can be raised from within without the help of politicians and developers. This community capitol was then used to promote green space within the neighborhood, and shape the neighborhood in the vision of its residents. The project is very high quality, and located in a wealthy high density neighborhood, where people are most likely to be civic minded120.

Although New York has Central Park which is 340 Ha, residents of NYC have some of the least green space per resident in the USA at 200 sq/ft (18.5 sq/m) per resident121. Central park only makes up 6% of all of New York City (the city has a total of 20% dedicated to park land.122) The neighborhood of Chelsea is 3.2 Km away from Central Park, and with property value so high, had very little hope of any new urban park. The reinvention of the historic above ground freight rail created public space where it otherwise would not have existed.

The High Line Park is also symbolic for the city, representing a new vision that prioritizes pedestrian mobility and leisure. The last 150 years in New York City has seen dramatic growth focused on privatization and the automobile. All of which has increased economic segregation, environmental racism, and social inequality. The High Line park has had such a dramatic economic effect with tourism and business

119 City of New York Parks and Recreation. Mayor Bloomberg announces third phase for the High

Line, 2012

Oliver, E. Mental Life and the Metropolis in Suburban America: The Psychological Correlates of Metropolitan Place Characteristics, University of Chicago, Department of Political science, 2001

120 121 122

NYC.GOV, Center for statistics, 2013 Persquaremile.com.Parkland per person in the United States, 2011

69

development in the area that many other cities are looking to create their own “High Line effect.123” The project implements high tech green roof technology to create a green oasis high above the hustle and bustle of the big city. High line serves as a contemporary model to recycle postindustrial structures into contemporary parks that prioritizes urban mobility and leisure124.

4.3.1 Social objectives The High Line project is a standalone park, and the purest example of urban design of the three projects. Located within an affluent neighborhood of the city, the fair distribution of social equity will be its biggest challenge. Nonetheless, it is a green corridor that has all benefits associated with “biophilia hypothesis” including mental and physical health. High line did not have any identifiable specific social objectives, though the results are more recognizable in the impact that it has had socially. The project for instance does not involve any new social housing, although the linear park does create new public space for 5,000 New York City Housing Association low-income residents that will live right next door125. Not to be overlooked either is the success it had in unifying its community behind its common vision. The “Park in the sky” is home to many free educational and recreation activities, especially for local youth126. The Friends of the High Line Association which is responsible for the parks maintenance, seeks to employ local Youth Corp teens in every department, encouraging childhood development through education, recreation and increased interactions with nature.

The park’s planners inspired by the great Jane Jacobs adopted her “eyes on the streets” theory in hopes of reducing crime. Many of the buildings face the park with windows which keeps a vigilant eye on the park, and increases the feeling of security. Jane Jacobs was a nearby resident of this very neighborhood, and her philosophies are still alive within the city. The community activism that shaped the organization for High Line and led directly to its construction was undoubtedly influenced by the work of Jane Jacobs, clearly visible in the grass roots community support network that campaigned, volunteered, and partially financed the project.

The park emphasizes safety for its citizens in a city that does have a higher than average crime rate. The city’s Department of Parks and Recreation all say “There have been no reports of a major crime -assault, larceny, robbery, worse — since its opening, or more accurately, the number is in: zero.” The park includes extra security, 11 police officers patrol the 3 acre park. That’s compared to 57 who patrol the entire Bronx which has over a thousand acres of park land127. Unfortunately some say that the extra security of the park has come at the expense of other poorer areas of the city, whose parks are considerably more in need. This concern only highlights the possible injustice the park has caused for some residents who feel left behind by the city park. Calling further into question, the parks ability to resolve the property conflict associated with its increased economic segregation due to property value and gentrification128.

123 124

Shevory, K. Cities See the Other Side of the Tracks, New York Times, 2011

125

Birnbaum, C. Huffington Post, The Real High Line Effect -- A Transformational Triumph of Preservation and Design, 2011

Goodsell, AV. Civilizing the Neighborhood: The High Line Park Creates Economic, Social and Environmental Value, 2012

126 127 128

70

The High Line, Friends of the High Line, Official website, 2013 Porpora,K. New York Post,Advocates angered over extra security on the new high line,2012 Campbell, S. Green Cities, Growing Cities, Just Cities? Urban Planning and the Contradictions of Sustainable Development ©Journal of the American Planning Association,1996

4.3.2 Environmental Objectives The Environmental objectives included implementing state of the art green roof technology to conserve water, energy, biodiversity, and fragile ecosystems. The creation of green surface space also mitigates the heat island effect associated with urban paved cities. Cities temperatures exceed those of the surrounding area as the pavement absorbs and releases the heat back into the city. The High Line parks abundant use of plants and grasses create a living roof that absorbs heat, creates shade, oxygen, and provides habitat for insects and birds. The park incorporates more than 210 native plant species, (121) many of which were chosen because they were the first to grow on the line when it was abandoned. The natural elements of the project were designed to reflect the micro climate of the High line. Due to its height, and structural characteristics the plants were chosen to be rugged and drought resistant enough to be able to absorb the winds and temperatures coming from the Hudson River129.

The green roof technology used to build the park consists of several layers to facilitate drainage and decrease storm water runoff by as much as 80% compared to typical paved surfaces (124) . The design incorporates a rain collection system that streams in-between planks to plants and wild flower beds, reducing the water needed to maintain the park, and storm water runoff. In addition the plants and trees are watered via a low impact drip system that efficiently waters the plants with both recycled and new water sources.

Materials used to build the park have been carefully selected, many of which are recycled and were chosen for their sustainability. The hardwood plank decking was in part identified due to its resiliency and durability, and sourced from sustainable forestry methods. The highly durable wood is said to last nearly 100 years, which allows for the minimization of maintenance and replacement needed in the future.

The recycled wood used for the project was recycled Teak wood from old barns, sheds and warehouses in Oregon130. This practice provides the highest return in terms of sustainability, and reflects the historical premise of the project which reused an existing structure to create a new green corridor in the heart of New York City.

The High Line’s utilizes 4,000 state of the art energy-efficient LED lights to illuminate the park and reduce energy costs caused by waste by 80%. LED lights have a life span of 11 years, and are 80% more efficient than traditional incandescent light bulbs131.

4.3.3 Economic Objectives “The High Line’s first and second sections cost $153 million dollars, but have generated an estimated $2 billion in new developments.”

–Mayor Bloomberg 2011

The High Line did not have any clearly defined economic goals preconstruction, as the neighborhood is already fairly wealthy and trendy within the city. However, in

129 130

The High Line, Friends of the High Line, official website, 2013

131

Environmental Protection Agency, 2013

Goodsell, AV. Civilizing the Neighborhood: The High Line Park Creates Economic, Social and Environmental Value

71

the city where property speculation is almost a religion and property value is some of the highest in the world, the free market impact has been more dramatic than many imagined. Since the completion of the project 29 new development projects have begun, with more than 2,500 new residential units, and 500,000 sq/ft of commercial space being developed according to the New York City Department of Planning.

The New York City Economic Development Corporation published a study saying that the “Between 2003 and 2011, property values near the park increased 103 percent.132” Other figures have stated as low as 30% which is still a gigantic gain considering typical real estate appreciation in the United States is currently 6.7 percent per year133.

One of the main selling points of the High Line to the city was that the demolishing of the structure would cost nearly as much as the new park did134. The financing of the park was paid for primarily by the City government which contributed 112 million dollars. The Federal government contributed 20 million, while the residents and neighborhood advocates contributed 44 million to the original project. The residents have since raised 200 million to pay for the maintenance of the project.

Mayor Bloomberg pointed out that “All of that commerce more than makes up for the $115 million the city has spent on the park and the deals it has made to encourage developers to build along the High Line without blocking out the sun.”

The project generated 8,000 jobs over the 3 years of construction, and is now credited by including the redevelopment with as many as 12,000 new ongoing jobs. Friends of the High Line recently unveiled a study claiming that the third and final section of the West Side rail yards would generate an extra $174 million for the city135.

4.4 Summary; High Land Park; Green corridor, a case for economic stimulus “Vital cities have marvelous innate abilities for understanding, communicating, contriving, and inventing what is required to combat their difficulties… Lively, diverse, intense cities contain the seeds of their own regeneration, with energy enough to carry over for problems and needs outside themselves.”

-The Death and Life of Great American Cities, Jane Jacobs, 1961

T

he High Line, has created a new green model for economic growth in NYC, and is a symbolic example of what green capitalism can produce together with the free market. However, it is questionable that the site location of the project coincidentally occurred in an affluent neighborhood. The High Line nonetheless through its civic minded community advocacy indeed developed a sustainable model for the future incorporating mobility, public space, and environmentalism.

The park is now a symbol in the United States of postindustrial innovation, and green urban growth, one that resolves past conflicts of building up the economy at

132 133 134 135

72

McGeehan, P. The High Line Isn’t Just a Sight to See; It’s Also an Economic Dynamo, 2011 U.S. Census Bureau,USA, 2013 Shevory, K. New York Times, Cities See the Other Side of the Tracks, 2010 McGeehan, P. The High Line Isn’t Just a Sight to See; It’s Also an Economic Dynamo, 2011

20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Green space as % of neighborhood

Home Value per million Chelsea, NYC

Income in per $10k

Population with university degree

Upper West Side, NYC

Figure 3-Chelsea neighborhood compared to the much greener Upper West Side which borders Central park.

Source statistics, NYC.GOV, Persquaremile.com

the expense of the environment (resource conflict136). High Line Park emphasis’s the benefits of a unified relationship between green corridors, public health and economic prosperity by creating an architecture for humanity (development conflict 131). In which case is accessible to all and does bring about a meaningful increase in social equity for its residents.

The success of the High Line Park lays in its almost magical reawakening. The abandoned train tracks were an eye sore once destined for destruction, when an civic minded community bonded together behind a common vision for a healthier greener urban future. The union of historical preservation and design is one of its most successful characteristics, paying homage to their industrial past as opposed to erasing it. The green design and core environmental principles are its next strongest characteristic and is now world renowned and an overwhelming success by most architectural critics137.

Social wellbeing and health. The location of the new High Line in the wealthy, educated, affluent neighborhood has decreased accessibility to the area because of property and rent increases. In an increasingly economically segregated and gentrified city, the High Line calls into question the social sustainability of the project, and its ability to resolve the property conflict, between private interests and public good. This includes social justice for the poorer areas of the city who either don’t have parks or have inherited dysfunctional ones. The project would have more than likely never been built in a poorer less civic minded neighborhood, in part of course because the richest best educated members of Chelsea were able

136

Campbell, S. Green Cities, Growing Cities, Just Cities? Urban Planning and the Contradictions of Sustainable Development ,Journal of the American Planning Association, 1996

Birnbaum, C. Huffington Post, The Real High Line Effect -- A Transformational Triumph of Preservation and Design, 2012

137

73

to finance, campaign, and articulate the project to city officials. Meanwhile many parks in NYC are dangerously abandoned while the beautiful High Line received over 4,000,000 visitors since 2009, and by some accounts is actually overcrowded.

On one hand the property conflict is not resolved due to rent and property increases, on the other the park is public and accessible to all. In which case, I believe that the park ultimately is sustainable development based on its resolution of the other conflicts, and partial resolution of the property conflict due to its bordering of low income rent controlled buildings, accessibility, proactive youth initiatives, and new economic opportunities that have been created by its growth. To further my point, the new park is easily in walking distance of nearly 400,000 residents, and provides all of the restorative health benefits associated with biodiverse green public space, biophila, and the attention restoration theory 138.

-

Sustainable transportation. In a city where only 11% of its residents report commuting by either walking or bicycling, the High Line is badly needed, but still not enough. Its recent success has led to several other urban design projects within the city that promote pedestrian and bicycle mobility. For instance the Delancey Underground, an underground public space made from a 1.5 acre former old trolley New York Mobility terminal is inspired by the High Line, and is New York Mobility Metro 43% now being considered Metro 43% by the city.

Car 31.4%

The High Line will only be 1.4 miles when the third phase is Bus 13.7% completed, nonetheless, Bus 13.7% it has reawakened the same environmental Walking 10.5% philosophies that led to Walking 10.5% the creation of Central Park; understanding Bike.7% .7% Bike that walking and leisure are important to the livability of a city and reap benefits for public Figure 4-New York City Mobility.Source- The Guardian health. The cities new newspaper"Secrets to the worlds happiest cities", 2013 bike sharing program has enrolled more than 80,000 people in the first year (134). Combining to total more than 8 million miles with 4 million trips a year. In the past two months alone the number of daily trips has hovered between 30,000 and 40,000139. The new green mobility efforts have created healthier individuals who are more in touch with the world around them, and better able to cope with the stresses of the city by synthesizing nature’s restorative benefits and urban mobility. The city has a long way to go in terms of making bicycle travel safer, however the new program along with the High Line, is redefining the way New Yorkers perceive urban mobility.

Car 31.4%

The High Lines promotion of environmental principles that do not diminish economic growth and to the contrary foster it is admirable. Incorporating sustainability concepts including the use of recycled materials and green roof technology is

138

139

74

Kaplan, R & S. Kaplan. The Restorative benefits of Nature, Journal of Environmental Psychology, 1996 Davies, A. 4 Charts That Show How Citi Bike Is Taking Over New York. 2013

extraordinary and present in every detail of the project. Though a smaller scale project, the High Line highlights a new integrated focus on environmental sustainability in the US. The designers implementation of new technologies to achieve a high level of environmental sustainability have reduced energy and water runoff by 80%, but only in comparison to past construction. The excessive use of lights appears overdone, and unnecessary, even though they are LED, solar would seem to be preferable. Nonetheless, the High Line is a significant environmental accomplishment that when applied consistently to future projects, will in time have a greatly reduced environmental impact.

The economic impact of the High Line has been so large that many question whether it is sustainable. Real estate prices jumping 103% in three years is clearly furthering economic segregation and unsustainable140. The High line has also become the poster boy for gentrification, a word that for a long time had a negative connotation of displacing low income residents. While still true, now many cities understand that gentrification and attracting new highly educated professionals is part of any comprehensive urban regeneration effort. The High Line is good news for the elite and tourist economies that it has produced but not for many who have lived and worked in the area for decades. The park has been criticized as a “tool for the Bloomberg administration’s creation of a new, upscale, corporate stretch along the West Side.141” While many new businesses are opening to cater to the wealthy new residents and tourists, many once thriving older historic businesses are closing, in part being driven out by the increasingly high rents142. The fabric of the neighborhood is changing to fast for many to appreciate. While tourists are flocking to the high line in record numbers, they are also raising prices for local goods and services. New restaurants and markets are too expensive for many locals, creating the inequality associated with many tourist economies. Nonetheless, the “High Line Effect” has inspired other cities around the country, including Chicago, Philadelphia and St. Louis, all of whom are working on plans to renovate their aging railroad trestles, tracks and railways into a green corridor143. Though the original idea began in Paris, France with the Promenade Planteé, many US have are quickly seizing the opportunity to turn their obsolete industrial infrastructure into city parks.

Image 28 & 29- Two of the many new business's developed in the immediate area.

140 141 142 143

McGeehan, P. The High Line Isn’t Just a Sight to See; It’s Also an Economic Dynamo, 2011 Levy, A. The New Yorker, Table for two, 2011 Moss, J. New York Times, Disney world on the Hudson, 2012 Shevory, K. New York Times, Cities See the Other Side of the Tracks, 2010

75

Image 30-Recently completed second phase 2009. Source, nycgovparks.org

Image 31-High Line park in Autumn, completed second phase Source stuck in customs/Flickr, 2010

76

Chapter 4.0 High Line Park Figure and Image Index • Figure 2 -Median average home value, education level, and income level.Education is based on residents with University degrees. Source, NYC.GOV • Figure 3-Chelsea neighborhood compared to the much greener Upper West Side which borders Central park.

Source statistics, NYC.GOV, Persquaremile.com • Figure 4-New York City Mobility.Source- The Guardian newspaper "Secrets to the worlds happiest cities", 2013

Image Index--------------------------------------------------------• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Image 1-Street level view of High Line Park, Chelsea, 2013 Image 2-Cover photograph, completed phase 2 Image 3-New York City open Space Index, NY4P.org Image 4-8- General views of High Line Park, 2013 Image 9-Street level view of an underpass section of High Line Park, 2013 Image 10-Pavement detail of natural integration, underscoring the symbolic nature of the park Image 11-Seating area within the park Image 12 & 13-One of 7 access points to the park Image 14-Third section under construction.

Image 15-Railroad detail.

Image 16-View of the Hudson river Image 17-Aerial view of High line with a completed third phase, Source, Friends of the High Line Image 18-Geographic map of Manhattan, Source U.S Geological survey, Image 19-World Location.

Image 20 -New York City aerial view.

Image 21-High line in relation to the Hudson River.

Image 22-is a close up of the park, source Google Maps, 2012 Image 23-High Line cerca 1945. Source-Friends of the High line

• Image 24-High Line cerca 1945. Source-Friends of the High line • Image 25 & 26-Street view of High Line rail yards cerca 1945. SourceFriends of the High line • Image 27-High Line during first phase of construction 2005 SourceFriends of the High line • • Image 28 & 29- Two of the many new business's developed in the

immediate area • Image 30-Recently completed second phase 2009. Source, nycgovparksorg

77

5.0 Summary of Findings

I

n the summary, the review of the data and findings will be presented in a similar order economic, social and environmental. In such a way we are able to get a panoramic view of the studies, and how they compare to each other in key aspects.

The comparison of the three different cities to identify patterns. Spain, Sweden and the US are distinct politically, geographically, and economically, in which case the statistical comparisons include many variables. The following section will examine these cities for commonalities, as well as differences, though the differences can be explained geopolitically in some cases. Green space per resident for instance, has been shown to increase property value by furthering demand. Barcelona (18.1) , and New York (18.5) share a similar green space per resident , where Stockholm is more than triple with 87 m2 per resident. This statistic is an important statistic for perhaps understanding the impacts of green space and thus corridors on it's inhabitants.

100 100% 9090% 8080% 70

70%

60

60%

Stockholm

50%

New York City

40%

Barcelona

50 40 30

30%

20

20%

10 10%

0 m20% Green Space- m2 per resident Figure 1- Green space in meters squared per resident. Source, New York City Open Space Index/The Council for Official Statistics-Statistics Sweden, 2013, Departament d’ Estadística. Ajuntament de Barcelona,2013

78

5.1 Economic Summary • The re-greening of cities can significantly increase property value while simultaneously resolving many environmental and social issues144,145,146,147.

Community capital investments as opposed to private developer capital can be a powerful tool that warrants a closer look in creating future projects in the US and abroad. The economic benefits of green corridors, especially shown in the case of High Line Park, are so dramatic that necessary safe guards need to be taken into account to offset the accessibility factors that arise from the increased economic segregation.

Although the High Line does border rent controlled and subsidized housing, the increase in property value has its limitations. The High Line, when compared to the other projects, stands alone in terms of financing (and scale), and achieves a new level of optimism concerning community financing and its potential. This type of impact is not often possible due to the financial capacity of many citizens however it does help to answer the question, “What more can the community do?” High Line shows us that communities can help shape their environments by organizing and pooling financing

• Local housing markets and the inherent laws of supply and demand may further economic segregation, reducing accessibility for lower income members of society. Site location can significantly offset the laws of supply and demand, making peripheral neighborhood projects imperative to achieving maximum social equitable impact 148,149.

The notion of parks and plazas increasing property value is not a new one, however the notion of green corridors increasing property value is less researched. Reinventing the street to create green pedestrian corridors will in some cases have a dramatic impact on property value, bringing with it new businesses as well as the negative economic consequences of social and economic segregation. Economic segregation is natural150, and clearly visible in all of the cities, in which case, the site location is fundamental to the fair distribution of quality, secure, multi-functional public spaces within cities. The income percentage to property value graph highlights the advantage of green peripheral districts that incorporate center city accessibility and affordable housing, in each of the case studies. Based on impacts from both High Line and Hammarby, it appears that the future of La Sagrera in Barcelona is well poised to have a colossal impact on the district of Sant Andreu and the city of Barcelona.

144 145

McGeehan, P. The High Line Isn’t Just a Sight to See; It’s Also an Economic Dynamo, 2011

146

Brick, K. Report Summary — Follow Up of Environmental Impact in Hammarby Sjöstad.

Grontmij AB, Stockholm,2008

Meen G, Gibb K, Goody J, McGrath T.Economic segregation in England; Causes, consequences and policy,2005

de Barcelona, 1987

Sustainable Development©Journal of the American Planning Association, 1996

Heerwagen, J. Biophilia, health, and well-being. In: Campbell, L., and A. Wiesen (eds.), Restorative Commons: Creating Health and Well-Being Through Urban Landscapes. Gen. Tech.

Rep. NRS-P-39. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service, Northern Research Station, 2009

147

148 Àrees de Nova Centralitat, New Downtowns in Barcelona, Ajuntament 149 Jacobs, Jane. The death and life of American cities,1961 150 Campbell, S. Green Cities, Growing Cities, Just Cities? Urban Planning and the Contradictions of 79

2.5

2

1.5 2009 Before High Line 2013 After High line

1

0.5

0 Property value in millions Chelsea, NYC

Figure 2-Property value in Chelsea New York, before the High Line, and after the High Line. Source, Zillow.com

• The property conflict remains the most difficult conflict to resolve due to increased property values151.

The property conflict that pits private interests vs. public good is satisfied in all three of the case studies, in part by their inherent “public space” characteristics. However, the potential for social and economic inequality is also present in new development, and needs to be carefully examined when considering the relationship between fair urban growth and social equity152. The High Line in particular highlights this struggle, though Hammarby and La Sagrera neutralized much of it with site locations on the city outskirts. A decentralized location, ensures fair distribution of social equity throughout the city, and does not build up one area of the city at the expense of the other.

120

100

80

Barcelona

60

New York City Stockholm

40

20

0

Green Space- m2 per resident

Home Value

Figure 3-Green space per resident in relation to median property value. Source, The Council for Official Statistics, Sweden/Departament d' Estadístca, Barcelona, Spain/Zillow.com(current real estate listings)

151 Stahle, A. More green space in a denser city: Critical relations between user experience and urban form,2009

Campbell, S. Green Cities, Growing Cities, Just Cities? Urban Planning and the Contradictions of Sustainable Development ©Journal of the American Planning Association, 1996

152

80

5.2 Social Summary • Larger projects and mixed use zoning tend to have a greater impact in achieving socio-environmental sustainability, due to their comprehensive ability to address multidimensional concerns and conflicts153,154.

Property value in Sweden is much more in proportion to home value compared to New York, where residents income is only 2.7% percent of their home value.

Highlighting New Yorks growing economic inequality.

The scale and mixed use zoning of projects such as La Sagrera are more able to address issues such as housing in a fair way, while High Line is being flooded with high end housing. By examining the problems associated with High Line in terms of rising property value, one can ascertain that issues of economic accessibility will be resolved by the social strategy of La Sagrera. Though rising property values are good for city revenue, it is important that they do not rise so much that they become either unsustainable or inaccessible or both. The large scale of La Sagrera is positioned to increase social equity, and decrease the economic segregation that has previously affected poorer residents, enabling it to effectively balance economic growth, with social justice, and environmental conservation. Scale is most successful when both human and urban scales work together. Making larger projects that combine scales the most effective. • While education is clearly a significant factor in building social equity and economic accessibility for city residents, subsidized and affordable housing that borders public space also play an important role in the fair distribution of cities.

The correlation between home value and green public space is pronounced, as access to public parks clearly improves property value. However the greener neighborhoods also tend to have a significantly higher percentage of population with university degrees. This of course can be explained by the property value of the area, and the income it requires to live there, it is however significant due to biophilia, and the many health benefits associated with experiences with nature.

Improving cognitive and motor skills as a child can be connected to more educated adults, who by no coincidence live in the greener areas of the city.

As substantiated earlier, unemployment is also lower in the greenest parts of the city, naturally a component of education, however it does establish another characteristic of residents of greener neighborhoods. Segregation based on unemployment remains heavily concentrated in the older industrial areas, nonetheless the positive outcomes associated with the infusion of green corridors can be associated with improved schools and increased economic accessibility.

The fair and equal distribution of well managed high quality parks is also important because it balances social equality in terms of accessibility to safe urban parks while maintaining the ecological system in poorer areas. These socio-environmental goals are simultaneously achieved through green corridors. No longer are the poor given the false choice between jobs and the protection of their environment. The projects chosen demonstrate that the occasionally competing social and environmental goals can be chosen and designed in a complementary way by redeveloping industrial wastelands as opposed to entering either already established poor but vibrant neighborhoods or already affluent ones such as Chelsea.

153

154

Brick, K. Report Summary, Follow Up of Environmental Impact in Hammarby SjĂśstad. Grontmij AB, Stockholm, 2008 Rauch, J. Public Parks:Their effects upon the moral, physical, and sanitary condition of inhabitants of large cities. S.S Griggs and company, 1869

81

Chelsea

New York City

Hammarby

Stockholm

Sant Andreu

Barcelona

0

20

40

60

80

Unemployment % % of population with a University degree Green space per resident sq/m Figure 4- Green space per resident in relation to population with an university degree and unemployment. Source, New York City Open Space Index/The Council for Official StatisticsStatistics Sweden, 2013, Departament d’ Estadística. Ajuntament de Barcelona,2013

82

100

• Hammarby Sjostad has developed an excellent reference district for La Sagrera to aspire to. The achievements in Stockholm represent a bright future for La Sagrera which include increasing socio-economic equality.

The graph below represents a very interesting achievement of Hammarby.

Increasing the percentage of income to home value ratio, is an important step in that it represents not only a sustainable property market that avoids property bubbles, but it improves the quality of life of its residents, by not raising prices so high that only a privileged few can afford them. This does go back to a decentralized location, which balances excessive demand by building on a peripheral site location. Hammarby's high education rate and low unemployment, even compared to the rest of Sweden provide an achievable level of success for La Sagrera, especially when considering the new high-tech industry focus of the nearby 22@.

Income as % of Home Value 14

12

10

8

Income as % of Home Value

6

4

2

0

Sant Andreu 5.6 % Hammarby 13 %

Chelsea 2.7%

Figure 5- Income to property value ratio. Source, New York government. NYC.gov/The Council for Official Statistics-Statistics Sweden, 2013, Departament d’ Estadística. Ajuntament de Barcelona,2013

• Balancing population density and with public space is vital in addressing public health and socio-environmental sustainability155,156,157.

Population density plays an important role in shaping our environment, including the health and neighborhood satisfaction of its inhabitants, meaning that green corridors simultaneously create architecture for humanity, while reducing environmental impacts. Green corridors, as in the case of La Sagrera, neutralize much of the noise and pollution associated with traffic, as well as the overcrowding associated with

155

Oliver, E. Mental Life and the Metropolis in Suburban America: The Psychological Correlates of Metropolitan Place Characteristics, University of Chicago, Department of Political science, 2001

Stahle, A. More green space in a denser city: Critical relations between user experience and urban form, 2009

Donald, David, United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) Analytical Review of the Interaction between Urban Growth Trends and Environmental Changes,2009

156 157

83

120

100

80

Barcelona

60

New York City Stockholm

40

20

0

Green Space- sq/m per Home Value per 10K resident

Population density 1000 per Km2

Figure 6-Population density in relation to green space per resident and home value. Source, New York government. NYC.gov/The Council for Official Statistics-Statistics Sweden, 2013, Departament d’ Estadística. Ajuntament de Barcelona,2013

high density. The density objectives of La Sagrera are balanced based on its 30% allotment of green space. However, La Sagrera neighborhood is crowded by many definitions at 29,863 per Km2158, and almost double the city average of 16,000 per Km2. In one sense you want as many people to be able to live near and benefit from the park as possible, in another you do not want to overcrowd it. Hammarby at 15,000 per Km2 is very similar to the median average for Barcelona. I suggest that 15,000 per Km2 is an ideal density in that it builds and supports socio-economic structures, while balancing isolation with the benefits of solitary reflection.

Population density can also increase street safety and contribute to the public trust, by increasing the amount of citizen surveillance and social interactions in their neighborhoods. Thriving commercial spaces, such as bars and cafes add to this dynamic in creating a social buzz that isn’t as present in many Anglo-Saxon cities due to their quiet residential characteristics159. The compact city as opposed to sprawl is successful in its multi-functionality of public spaces160, a concept that highlights the advantages of green corridors in offsetting high urban density levels with public space.

Compact cities are proven to have less of an environmental impact than sprawling suburbs in terms of per capita emissions. Mainly due to the increased travel and energy use needed to sustain these communities. However compact cities increase and centralize the pollution and stress placed on an environment. Water sources surrounding cities are notoriously more polluted than suburban and rural water sources. This impact can be partially neutralized as in the case of Hammarby through new environmental technologies while mainlining an urban population density that offsets increased energy demands.

158 159 160 84

Ajuntament de Barcelona, Estadisticas Barcelona, 2013.

Jacobs, J. The death and life of American cities,1961 Borja, J. Un modelo de transformación urbana, Barcelona,1995

• Green corridors attract educated young professionals and families due to their increased recreational, leisure, and cultural opportunities161,162.

Green corridors tend to attract young singles, and families due to their recreational and cultural opportunities. In this way areas have become reverse diversified, bringing the young and educated professionals into former low income neighborhoods.

However, the ills associated with gentrification concerning the displacement of the poor, can be offset by a proportional percentage of student and elderly housing.

La Sagrera with its unique urban vision, exemplifies these strides towards socioenvironmental justice in its large allotment of public space and affordable housing.

5.3 Environmental Summary • Green corridors inherently help to resolve the “resource conflict” associated with sustainable development through its many environmental advantages.

Green corridors through their infusion of nature into the city, resolve the resource conflict by protecting and conserving valuable natural resources such as water and fossil fuel more responsibly. They reduce fuel dependency and pollution by incentivizing green mobility. Additionally, green corridors resolve the boundary conflict between the developed city and the undeveloped wilderness, further resolving the resource conflict through a new green infrastructure. Environmentalism and green corridors together represent a significant departure from the environmental ills of advanced industrialized nations, and together can address the serious environmental problems of the future which include, climate change, water scarcity, and peak oil.

• The joint impact of “biophilia” and recreation in an urban context is more effective as a green corridor than a park due to its integration, functionality, accessibility, and connectivity characteristics163.

The physical characteristics of green corridors; integration, functionality, accessibility, and connectivity, are its strongest qualities. The health benefits of nature “biophilia” combined with these physical characteristics lead to a more effective and potent use of green public space. One that increases quality of life by improving the environment.

Green infrastructure as in the case of La Sagrera can redefine urban mobility and accessibility, dramatically transforming our cities impact on the environment. The ability to successfully address all of these issues comprehensively and categorically makes green corridors a unique tool for urban design, and an important direction for equitable urban growth164,165

161 162 163 164

Barcelona Visio’ 2020, Pla’ Estrategic Metroplitana de Barcelona Shevory, K. New York Times, Cities See the Other Side of the Tracks, 2010 Hartig, T., M. Mang, and G.W. Evans. 1991. Restorative Effects of Natural Environment Experiences. Environment and Behavior 23

Ulrich, R.S. Health Benefits of Gardens in Hospitals. In: Plants for People, Proceedings of the International Exhibition Floriade, 2002

Health Council of the Netherlands. Nature and Health: The Influence of Nature on Social, Psychological and Physical Well-Being. Health Council of the Netherlands and RMNO, The Hague, 2004

165

85

• Urban design can change people’s behavior and result in a higher level of environmental stewardship166,167.

Urban design can change people’s behavior. Many of the environmental achievements and objectives of the three studies are due to the design and provision of sustainable transportation infrastructure. Behavioral changes are necessary to plan and encourage pro-environmental behavior by residents. This behavior can be strongly influenced by the restructuring of spatial qualities, which include mixed use commercial zoning within cities. The pedestrian nature of these studies highlights this notion, and the problems that can be solved using green strategies to achieve equitable and sustainable urban growth.

25

20

15

Home value by city per 50K Emissions per capita per ton by city

10

5

0

NYC

Barcelona

Stockholm

Reference district; Hammarby

Figure 7-Home value in relation to emissions per person-Source, New York City government NYC.gov/ The Council for Official Statistics-Statistics Sweden, 2013, Departament d’ Estadística. Ajuntament de Barcelona,2013

166 Brick, K. Report Summary, Follow Up of Environmental Impact in Hammarby Sjöstad. Grontmij

AB, Stockholm, 2008

167 Rauch, J. Public Parks:Their effects upon the moral, physical, and sanitary condition of inhabitants of large cities. S.S Griggs and company, 1869

86

• Higher incomes along with property value can lead to increased wasteful habits by its residents as demonstrated in the higher emissions by wealthier communities. This can be countered by environmental technologies, as in the case of Hammarby.

This graph demonstrates the link between the wealthy communities that green corridors create, and the environmental problems being solved. Property value, i.e.., income, affects people’s behavior in producing more emissions and waste.

Hammarby has broken this link through urban design that changes people’s behavior and attitude about the environment. The Hammarby model serves as potential for La Sagrera to aspire to, and based on current water usage, Barcelona already well on its way to achieving. As seen below, Barcelona at a median level uses less water than the Hammarby model does. Impressive indeed considering water is our most valuable resource.

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

NYC

Stockholm

Barcelona

Water usage per person per day by city

Reference district; Hammarby

Income level in thousands

Figure 8-Home value in relation to emissions per person-Source, New York City government NYC. gov/The Council for Official Statistics-Statistics Sweden, 2013, Vázquez, D. El Pais. El área de Barcelona reduce en un 25% el gasto de agua desde el 2000, 2013

87

5.4 Final Statement

I

n total, this paper has identified best practices and future trends in the field of urban design. Examining closely how green corridors are achieving international standards for sustainable development. This paper has also examined the relationship between green mobility and nature, accounting for traditional economic perspectives, and the conflict resolution needed to achieve sustainable development.

Future patterns for urban design will focus on the greening of cities by integrating cities with their parks to create pedestrian and cycling mobility corridors.

There is a complicated series of interactions between economic development and socio-environmental sustainability.

These interactions are affected by population density, education, unemployment, and property value.

These factors all play into the health and success of green corridors, which have to be carefully examined in terms of location and necessity.

One thing is clear, green corridors resolve the conflicts associated with sustainable development, and help to satisfy many of the environmental concerns of the future.

Resource management and population growth will continue to be the pressing issues of our time. How efficiently we meet these goals, will depend on individual city characteristics and needs. Different cities have different problems, however solving common problems will depend on these cities to address their unique problems in different ways. This paper has determined the benefits for each of three projects and how introducing green public space into dense urban environments has impacted its environment from social, economic, and environmental perspectives, including health and well-being. Though complicated to predict green corridors do have the potential to shape key socio-economic factors, all be it on occasion through gentrification. However I found the information to be convoluted in many ways by so many factors when comparing cities from different nations. Nonetheless, each project has a particular strength, that can be used to assess, and propose future projects.

The theories of garden cities are not new, and the lineage of green corridors can be traced back to these original theories . However the evolution of garden cities and green rings has led to the green corridor. Past theories and new technologies combined with the necessity to combat future problems are critical when developing solutions to future and current problems. The key concept to green corridors are their ability to redistribute the city on a human scale, one that incorporates urban mobility, and deemphasizes auto dependence. The value of a study such as this serves as a model in identifying and examining current and future potential of green corridors. Reshaping our advanced postindustrial civilizations to create a new vision for the future. One seen through the lens of urban design, and one that solves the problems of current and future generations.

88

Chapter 5.0 Figure index •

Figure 1- Green space in meters squared per resident. Source, New York City Open Space Index/The Council for Official Statistics-Statistics Sweden, 2013, Departament d’ Estadística.

Ajuntament de Barcelona,2013

•

Figure 2-Property value in Chelsea New York, before the High Line, and after the High Line.

Source, Zillow.com

•

Figure 3-Green space per resident in relation to median property value. Source, The Council for Official Statistics, Sweden/Departament d' Estadistca, Barcelona, Spain/ Zillow.com(current real estate listings)

•

Figure 4- Green space per resident in relation to population with an university degree and unemployment. Source, New York City Open Space Index/The Council for Official StatisticsStatistics Sweden, 2013, Departament d’ Estadística. Ajuntament de Barcelona,2013

•

Figure 5- Income to property value ratio. Source, New York government. NYC.gov/The Council for Official Statistics-Statistics Sweden, 2013, Departament d’ Estadística. Ajuntament de Barcelona,2013

•

Figure 6- Population density in relation to green space per resident and home value. Source, New York government. NYC.gov/The Council for Official Statistics-Statistics Sweden, 2013, Departament d’ Estadística. Ajuntament de Barcelona,2013

•

Figure 7-Home value in relation to emissions per person-Source, New York City government NYC.gov/The Council for Official Statistics-Statistics Sweden, 2013, Departament d’ Estadística.

Ajuntament de Barcelona,2013

•

Figure 8-Home value in relation to emissions per person-Source, New York City government NYC.gov/The Council for Official Statistics-Statistics Sweden, 2013 Vázquez, D. El Pais. El área de Barcelona reduce en un 25% el gasto de agua desde el 2000, 2013

89

Bibliography o o

o

o o o o o

o o

o o

o

o o

o

o

o

o o o

o o o o

o o

o

90

Addicott, Aho et al (OIKOS) Ecological Neighborhoods, Scaling Environmental Patterns, 1987 Anon L. Ecotherapy: The Green Agenda for Mental Health. Mind: For better mental health, London,2007 Àrees de Nova Centralitat, New Dowtowns in Barcelona, Ajuntament de Barcelona, 1987 Atles Barcelona 2012, Ajuntament de Barcelona Barcelona in Progress, Ajuntament de Barcelona, 2004 Barcelona Sagrera-Alta Velocidad.com Barcelona Visio’ 2020, Pla’ Estrategic Metroplitana de Barcelona Bergman & Sager. The Ethics of Mobility, rethinking Place, Exclusion, Freedom, and environment, 2008 Basiana i Vers Xavier,1995-2011 Barcelona Transfer-Sant Andreu-La Sagrera Berman, M.G., J. Jonides, and S. Kaplan.The Cognitive Benefits of Interacting with Nature, Journal of Psychological Science, 2008 Beumer, Carijn. Social Cohesion in a Sustainable Urban Neighborhood,, 2010 Birnbaum, C. The Real High Line Effect -- A Transformational Triumph of Preservation and Design, Huffington Post, 2012 Blomquist, Anna. Fakta om SL och Lanet. Stockholm, AB Storstockholms Lokaltrafik, 2010 Borja, J. Un modelo de transformación urbana, Barcelona,1995 Brick, Karolina. Report Summary — Follow Up of Environmental Impact in Hammarby Sjöstad. Grontmij AB, Stockholm,2008 Burls, A. People and Green Spaces: Promoting Public Health and Mental Well-Being Through Ecotherapy. Journal of Public Mental Health 6,2007 Campbell, L., and A. Wiesen. Restorative Commons: Creating Health and Well-Being Through Urban Landscapes. Gen. Tech. Rep. NRS-P-39. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Re search ,2013 Campbell, S. Green Cities, Growing Cities, Just Cities? Urban Planning and the Contradictions of Sustainable Development. Journal of the American Planning Association, 1996 Capel, H. 2004. El Modelo Barcelona: Un Examen Crítico Center for Disease control, CDC, U.S.A Chalfont, G.E., and S. Rodiek. Building Edge: An Ecological Approach to Re search and Design of Environments for People with Dementia. Alzheimer’s Care Today 6, 2005 City of Stockholm, Annual report, 2012 City of Stockholm-Official website Colantino,Dixon, Urban Regeneration and Social Sustainability,2009 Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment, National Archives of the UK, 2013 Council of Europe, hub.coe.int, 2004 Correll, Mark R., Lillydahl, J., Jane H. and Singell, Larry D. The effect of green belts on residential property values: Some findings on the political economy of open space. Land Economics 54, 1978 Crompton, John, The impact of Parks on Property values, a review of

o

o o

o o o o o

o

o o o

o o o

o

o

O o o o

o

o

o o o

o o

o

o

empirical evidence, Journal of Leisure research, 2001 Crompton, John,The Role of the Proximate Principle in the Emergence of Urban Parks in the United Kingdom and in the United States, Department of Recreation, Park and Tourism Sciences, Texas A&M University,2005 Dades básiques de mobilitat 2012, Ajuntament de Barcelona Davies, Alex, 4 Charts That Show How Citi Bike Is Taking Over New York, 2013 Departament d’ Estadística. Ajuntament de Barcelona,2013 El Espacio Público; Ciudad y Ciudania, Diputació de Barcelona, 2003 Environmental Protection Agency,USA, 2013 European Commission, Eurostat.com, 2013 Faber Taylor A, Wiley A, Kuo FE, Sullivan WC. Growing up in the inner city. Green spaces as spaces to grow, Environment and Behavior, 1998 Fjortoft I. The natural environment as a playground for children. The effect of outdoor activities on motor development, 2007 Foletta N. Hammarby Sjöstad . ITDP Europe, Stockholm Sweden, 2010 Freedman 1975, Halpern 1995, Durkheim 1897 Fuller, R.A., K.N. Irvine, P. Devine-Wright, P.H. Warren, and K.J. Gaston.

Psychological Benefits of Greenspace Increase with Biodiversity. Biology Letters 3, 2007 Goodsell, AV. Civilizing the Neighborhood: The High Line Park Creates Economic, Social and Environmental Value,2012 Hammarby Sjöstad.SE, official website, 2013 Hartig, T., M. Mang, and G.W. Evans. Restorative Effects of Natural Environment Experiences. Environment and Behavior 23, 1991 Harvey, David, Rebel cities From the Right to the City to the Urban Revolution, London-New York, 2012 Health Council of the Netherlands. Nature and Health: The Influence of Nature on Social,Psychological and Physical Well-Being. The Hague,2004 Heerwagen, J. Biophilia, health, and well-being, 2009 Hughes R, Barcelona. Pg. 14-25, 1992 Jacobs, Jane. The death and life of American cities,1961 Kaplan, R., and S. Kaplan. The Restorative benefits of Nature, Journal of Environmental Psychology,1996 Kaplan, S. The Restorative Benefits of Nature: Toward An Integrative Frame work. Journal of Environmental Psychology 15, 1995 Kong L. Nature’s dangers, nature’s pleasures: urban children and the natural world. In: Holloway S,Valentine G, editors. Chidren’s geographies. London: Routledge; 2000 La Sagrera-Alta Velocidad, www.lasagrera-altalvelocidad.com, 2013 Lefebvre,H. Le Droit à la ville,1968 Lehrer, J. How the city hurts your brain - And what you can do about it.

Boston Globe,2009 Levy, Ariel. Table for two. The New Yorker, 2011 McGeehan, Patrick. The High Line Isn’t Just a Sight to See; It’s Also an Economic Dynamo,2011 Meen G, Gibb K, Goody J, McGrath T .Economic segregation in England; Causes, consequences and policy, 2005 Moss, J. Disney world on the Hudson, New York Times, 2012

91

o o o

o

o o o

o

o

o

o o

o

o

o o

o

o o o o o

o o

o

o

o o

o o

o

92

NYC.gov, Department of City Planning, Demographic statistics, 2013 New Yorkers for Parks, Open Space Index, Ny4P.org, 2013 O ‘Regan & Buckley. Psychological Effects of Commuting in Dublin, DCU, 2009 Oliver, E. Mental Life and the Metropolis in Suburban America: The Psychological Correlates of Metropolitan Place Characteristics, University of Chicago, Department of Political science, 2001 Persquaremile.com.Parkland per person in the United States, 2011 Plantit2020.org, 2013 Poldersman, C. Sustainable Urban Development, The Case of Hammarby Sjöstad, 2006 Porpora,Kenny. Advocates angered over extra security on the new high line, 2012 Rauch, J. Public Parks:Their effects upon the moral, physical, and sanitary condition of inhabitants of large cities. S.S Griggs and company, 1869 Ricart, Remesar. On the W@terfront- Reflexiones Sobre el Espacio Público, CentrePolis, 2012 Rogers, H. The greening of capitlaism?,International Socialist Review, 2009 Sebba R. The landscapes of childhood. The reflection of childhood’s environment in adult memories and in the children’s attitudes. 2010 Shevory, Kristina. Cities See the Other Side of the Tracks, New York Times ,2010 Stahle, A. More green space in a denser city: Critical relations between user experience and urban form,2009 Sweden.se/nature/environmental-policy, 2013 Takano T, Nakamura K, Watanabe M. Urban residential environments and senior citizens’ longevity in megacity areas. The importance of walkable

green spaces. Journal of Epidemiological Community Health,56, 2003 Taylor, A.F., and F.E. Kuo. Children with Attention Deficits Concentrate Better After Walk in the Park. Journal of Attention Disorders 12,2009 The Council for Official Statistics-Statistics Sweden, 2013 The Guardian newspaper, Secrets to the worlds happiest cities, 2013 The High Line, Friends of the High Line, official website, 2013 U.S. Census Bureau, USA,2013 Ulrich, R.S. Health Benefits of Gardens in Hospitals. In: Plants for People, Proceedings of the International Exhibition Floriade, 2002 USDA Forest Service Pamphlet# R1-92-100, 2012 Universitat Polytechnica de Catalunya, http://www.upc.edu/sostenible, Mo bility planning at university campus: Barcelona -UPC & UB, 2011 Vázquez García D. El Pais, El área de Barcelona reduce en un 25% el gasto de agua desde el 2000, 2013 Vidal, Tomeu. Participación y deseno del espacio public, Universitat de Barcelona, 2005 West 8 Architects, La Sagrera, Green Corridor. 2013 Williams and Nesse, The dawn of Darwinian medicine, Quarterly Review of Biology, 66, 1991 Wilson E.O. 1984. Biophilia.Harvard University Press; Cambridge, MA Wilson, Edward O. 1992. The Diverisity of Life. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. Wolf, K.L., and K. Flora 2010. Mental Health and Function - A Literature Review. In: Green Cities: Good Health

Growing Green in the 21st Century How eco-regeneration is achieving sustainable development.

El Modelo Barcelona de Espacio Público y Diseño Urbano

Masters of Urban Design 2013 Art, City, Society

FACULTAT DE BELLES ARTES BARCELONA, SPAIN

Submitted by

Anthony W. De Lorenzo Brue awdelorenzo@gmail.com 93