1. Ecosystem Capital and Services : List several ways natural ecosystems have great economic value (as they provide goods and services vital to human well-being).
2. Type of Uses: Describe the differences between the consumptive and productive uses to which ecosystems may be put.
3. Biomes and Ecosystems Under Pressure: Describe how forests and oceans are examples of ecosystem under pressure, and describe sustainable ways to fill demands for their products.
4. Protection and Restoration: Explain how the public and private management of lands is key to keeping habitats both protected and productive, and describe an example of an ecosystem that needed to be restored to a more healthy state.
Instructional Goals:
1. Natural ecosystems provide a number of goods and services to humans that cannot be replaced.
2. The concept of conservation implies the management and use of goods and resources in a way that the use does not adversely affect the viability of species or ecosystems to renew themselves. The concept of preservation implies that a species or ecosystem will not be used, irrespective of its possible utility to humans. When conservation and preservation either have not happened, or have not been successful, restoration of the ecosystem is necessary to return it to a natural state.
3. Management of ecosystems as sustainable resources requires knowledge that humans do not yet have.
4. Substantial progress has been made toward attaining the information necessary for humans to interact sustainably with the world’s ecosystems.
Concepts and Connections:
Nearly everything can be connected to the material in this chapter. Our climate is dependent upon the movement of energy (heat) through the w ater cycle. Changes in the pattern of heat distribution produce changes in our weather El Niño and La Niña. When unplanned flooding occurs, it is frequently due to changes in the ability of an ecosystem to assist in the cycling of water. Humans are dependent on soil for our food; soil building and erosion control are services provided by ecosystems. For many years it was common to hear that the solution to pollution is dilution. This statement came from the observation that nature provided waste treatment services if we did not overwhelm them. We can learn from nature how to maximize the benefits we can obtain from it. To do this we need to understand the world around us.
Concepts in Context:
Humans are completely dependent on the goods and services provided by nature. Nature maintains the nutrient cycles (Chapter 4), water cycle (Chapter 10), and ecosystem balance (Chapter 5). An ecosystem’s carrying capacity (Chapter 5) for each species determines the quantity of resources we can use. Without biodiversity (Chapter 6) the goods and services would be limited. The variety of niches and habitats (Chapter 3) within an ecosystem (Chapter 5) provide humans with a wide array of species from which we obtain goods and services. The ability to grow food (Chapter 12) depends on soil (Chapter 11). The tools (pesticides) we use to protect our food resources (Chapter 13) primarily come from fossil fuels (Chapter 14). Additionally, fossil fuels have replaced human and animal energy in food production (Chapter 12). Alternative energy (Chapter 16) and nuclear power (Chapter 15) are dependent on ecosystem goods and services. Biotic potential and environmental resistance (Chapter 5) are important for understanding Maximum Sustained Yield. The maintenance of global climate is explained by the hydrologic cycle (Chapter 10). Air pollution (Chapter 19) and water pollution (Chapter 20) adversely impact the goods and services provided by nature. How we handle solid (Chapter 20) and hazardous (Chapter 22) waste can adversely impact the nature’s ability to provide goods and services. Global climate change and ozone depletion (Chapter 18) can also have adverse impacts on the goods and services.
Key Terms and Vocabulary:
Wetlands, deserts, tundra, provisioning services, regulating and cultural services, supporting services, natural resources, public goods, conservation, preservation, consumptive use, productive use, maximum sustainable yield (MSY), carrying capacity, optimal population, total allowable catch (TAC), precautionary principle, commons, restoration ecology, deforestation, silviculture, clear-cutting, selective cutting, shelter-wood cutting, sustained yield, sustainable forest management, Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP), silviculture, sustained yield, sustainable forest management, catch shares, Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Reauthorization Act, coral bleaching, ocean acidification, wilderness, national parks, national wildlife refuges, new forestry, Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP).
Discussion, Activities, and Labs:
1. Ask the class to list the material goods and services obtained from ecosystems. Ask the class to list one to five ways we use each of the material goods or services. Are there resources (goods) we use/need that do not come from nature? Are there ways that we can obtain clean water or air without resources (goods) obtained from nature?
2. Ask the students if they have gone to a national park, wildlife refuge, national or state forest, state park, and so on. List where the students have been. Ask them to list what they liked and did not like about the place. Ask the class to list what benefit those who have never gone to a particular park, refuge, or forest might obtain from the existence of the park, refuge, or fores t (goods and services).
3. Provide groups of five to six students with resources and services obtained from the environment. These can be pieces of paper indicating enough oil to fuel 10 cars for 50 years with each car having fuel efficiency equal to one bus, enough food to feed 20 people for 100 years, enough wood to build 30 houses, and so forth. Various quantities of resources should be given to each group. Have each group determine how many people can be supported, and for how long based upon the available resources. Ask the students to come up with 10 ideas about what can be done to increase the number of people or the length of time that the resources will last. (Fewer people and more efficient use of resources are the main categories for changing the length of resource availability.) Have each group designate a spokesperson and discuss the conclusions of each group as a class.
4. Pick the five most important items to your daily life, (car, stereo, computer, clothing, and food). For each of these items list the goods and services necessary for the existence of that item. Use the Internet and library resources to determine all the components of the item and to discover all the environmental goods and services necessary for each component of the item.
Suggested Lecture Format:
I. Ecosystem Capital
Natural ecosystems provide a number of goods and services to humans that cannot be replaced.
A. Ecosystems as Natural Resources “A natural area will receive protection only if the value a society assigns to services provided in its natural state is higher than the value the society assigns to converting it to a more direct human use.” See also Discussion Topic #1 and #4
1. Valuing Although economics helps us to assign value to services, ecological values are difficult to assign a monetary value.
i. Private Versus Public Lands Both privately and publicly owned lands can be used sustainably; whether or not they are is determined by the current human need for the land.
ii. Domesticated Nature “What we call natural m ay only be an illusion because humankind has so converted and domesticated natural systems that it is difficult to find areas of the world without human impact.”
2. Future Pressures Increases in the number of humans will undoubtedly put more pressure on ecosystems to provide their natural services.
II. Conservation and Production
The concept of conservation implies the management and use of goods and resources in a way that the use does not adversely affect the viability of species or ecosystems to renew themselves. The concept of preservation implies that a species or ecosystem will not be used, irrespective of its possible utility to humans. When conservation and preservation either have not happened, or have not been successful, restoration of the ecosys tem is necessary to return it to a natural state. See Discussion Topic #3
A. Conservation Versus Preservation “Conservation of natural biotas and ecosystems does not imply no use by humans whatsoever rather, the aim of conservation is to manage or regulate use so that it does not exceed the capacity of the species or system to renew itself. The objective of preservation of species and ecosystems is to ensure their continuity, regardless of their potential utility .”
B. Patterns of Human Use of Natural Ecosystems Humans use natural ecosystems in two major ways (consumptive and productive).
1. Consumptive Use People use natural resources to provide for their needs.
2. Productive Use “The exploitation of ecosystem resources for economic gain.”
3. Tenure Tenure refers to the property rights over land or water. Four types of tenure include: 1) private ownership, 2) communal ownership, 3) state ownership 4) open access.
4 Maximum Sustainable Yield “The highest possible rate of use that the system can match with its own rate of replacement and maintenance.” See Figure 7- 5.
i. Optimal Population “Theoretically the optimal population for harvesting MSY is just halfway to the carrying capacity.”
ii. Precautionary Principle When there is uncertainty about the maximum sustainable yield, it is best to err on the side of protection of the natural resource.
5. Using the Commons A commons refers to a resource that is owned by many people or that can be owned by none. A commons has open access for all users.
i. Tragedy of the Commons Common areas are susceptible to the Tragedy of the Commons. Since the resource is used by many but owned by none it becomes exploited easily. When users note that the resource is becoming overused no-one wants to withdraw their use and lose profits because they know that the others will most likely keep overusing the resource.
ii. Limiting Freedom Private ownership and/or regulating access to the commons can possibly prevent the Tragedy of the Commons from occurring. See Table 7-3
iii. Maine Lobsters In Maine an informal local set of rules amongst fishers has helped keep the state’s lobster populations thriving.
6. Public Policies When MSY, social, and economic factors are taken into account, “public policies can be established and enforced that protect natural resources effectively.”
II. Biomes and Ecosystems Under Pressure
Management of ecosystems as sustainable resources requires knowledge that humans do not yet have.
A. Forest Ecosystems Forests are the most productive ecosystems “In spite of this value, the major threat to the world’s forest is not simply their exploitation, but rather their total destruction.”
1. Forest Resources Assessments The Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010. See Figure 710.
2. Forests as Obstacles Forests are being cleared at high rates because despite their productivity, they are very difficult for humans to use for food.
3. Consequences Clearing a forest has significant consequences for the land and people.
4 Types of Forest Management “The practice of forest management, usually with the objective of producing a specific crop (hardwood, pulp, softwood, wood chips, etc.), is called silviculture.”
i. Clear-Cutting The process of “removing and entire stand at a time.”
ii. Other Methods Selective cutting and shelter-wood cutting can be more sustainable that clear-cutting forests.
5 Sustainable Forestry “Forests are to be managed as ecosystems, with the objectives of maintaining the biodiversity and integrity of the ecosystem, but also to meet the social, economic, cultural, and spiritual needs of present and future generations.”
6 Tropical Forests These forests are being removed at a very high rate and this is of great concern.
i. Reasons for Removal The major reason for tropical forest deforestation is their replacement with pastures for agriculture.
ii. New Trends Logging companies are taking advantage of the desperation of developing nations with rain forests.
iii. Certification “Certification makes it possible for consumers to choose wood products that have been harvested sustainably.”
B. Ocean Ecosystems Oceans cover much of the earth and provide value economic and ecological services.
1. Marine Fisheries “Fisheries provide employment for at least 200 million people and account for more than 15% of the total human consumption of protein.”
i. The Catch The global fish catch in addition to the production by aquaculture equals the total world production of fish for consumption each year.
ii. Aquaculture The farming of organisms who live in the water. This type of farming is not without its own problems.
iii. The Limits “The world fish catch may appear stable, but many species and areas are overfished.” See Figure 7-13.
iv Georges Bank When fishing intensity doubled, economically important fish declined drastically. See Figure 7-14
v. Management Councils “The Magnuson Act established eight regional management councils made up of government officials and industry representatives.”
vi Other Cod Fisheries The Grand Banks experienced a similar crash of the cod population
vii. Fisheries Law Reauthorized In new legislation, called the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Reauthorization Act, the councils were required to set catch limits based on scientific evidence of the size and health of marine populations. viii. Marine Reserves “Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are areas of the coasts and sometimes open oceans that have been closed to all commercial fishing and mineral mining.”
2. International Whaling Whales being overharvested in the open oceans led to the moratorium on commercial whaling. See Table 7-4
i. Whale Stakes Japan, Iceland, and Norway have persisted in killing whales. See Figure 7-16.
ii. Whale Watching “Whale watching has become an important tourist enterpris e in coastal areas.” See Figure 7-17
3. Coral Reefs “Coral reefs are among the most diverse and biologically productive ecosystems in the world.”
4. Mangroves “have the unique ability to take root and grow in shallow marine sediments. There they protect the coasts from damage due to storms and erosion and form a rich refuge and nursery for many marine fish.” “Between 1983 and the present, half of the world’s 45 million acres of mangroves were cut down, with percentages ranging from 40% to nearly 80%.”
Substantial progress has been made toward attaining the information necessary for humans to interact sustainably with the world’s ecosystems.
A. Public and Private Lands in the United States “The United States is unique among the countries of the world in having set aside a major proportion of its landmass for public ownership.” See Figure 7-19 See also Discussion Topic #2
1. Wilderness Preserved lands with the greatest amount of protection.
2. National Parks and National Wildlife Refuges Intended to protect areas of “great scenic or unique ecological significance, protect the wildlife species, and provide public access for recreation and other uses.”
3. National Forests 740 million acres in the United States.
i. Multiple Use “allowed for a combination of extracting resources (grazing, logging, and mining), using the forest for recreation, and protecting watersheds and wildlife.”
ii. New Forestry “Involves cutting trees less frequently, leaving wider buffer zones along streams to reduce erosion and protect fish habitats, leaving dead logs and debris in the forest to replenish the soil, and protecting broad landscapes.”
iii. The Roadless Controversy The Clinton administration produced a moratorium on building new logging roads which the Bush administration tried to replace and the Obama administration intends to uphold.
iv. Fires “The years of 2006 and 2007 set new records for forest fires.”
4. Protecting Nonfederal Lands Voters in local areas decided to pay taxes to keep open spaces for parks.
i. Land Trusts Private land trusts are “non-profit organizations that will accept either outright gifts of land or easements but retain ownership of the parcel.”
B. Ecosystem Restoration “The intent of ecosystem restoration is to repair the damage to specific lands and waters so that normal ecosystem integrity, resilience, and productivity return.”
1. Everglades Restoration “The Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP) is expected to take 36 years and almost $11 billion to complete.” See Figure 7-22
i. Water Release By removing levees and canals “new water flowage is designed to restore the river of grass, thereby restoring the 2.4 million acres of Everglades.”
ii Funding In some cases federal and state funds are used to purchase private property for the purpose of restoring ecosystems.
2. Pending Restorations Examples include: the California Bay Delta, Chesapeake Bay, Platte River Basin, the Upper Mississippi River System, the Galapagos Islands, the Illinois River, the Brazilian Atlantic forest, and Tampa Bay.
C. Finals Thoughts “Other areas that are in trouble include wetlands drained for agriculture and recreation, overgrazed rangelands, and rivers that are overdrawn for irrigation of water.
Review Questions: Possible Answers
1. How did individuals act to help scientists in the Caribbean Sea? Citizen scientists (SCUBA divers) were trained to record which types of fish they see during dives. Scientist were then able to keep track of what is going on in the reef ecosystem.
2. What are some goods and services provided by natural ecosystems?
See Table 7-1. Some examples may include: food, water, erosion control, climate regulation, recreation, aesthetic value, timber, fuel, food and disease regulation, medicine, nutrient cycling, pest regulation, air quality regulation, education, and waste processing.
3. Compare the concept of ecosystem capital with that of natural resources. What do the two reveal about values?
Ecosystem capital includes the goods and services produced by the species within an ecosystem and the interactions between the biotic and abiotic portions of ecosystems. Ecosystems, and biota in them, are expected to produce something of economic value. Within this context, natural resources are only those items in an ecosystem that have a monetary value and things with a monetary value are not a resource. Ecosystem capital does not require that a monetary value is known or exists. All that matters with ecosystem capital is that there is ecological value.
4. Compare and contrast the terms conservation and preservation.
“Conservation of natural biotas and ecosystems does not or at least should not imply no use by humans whatsoever, although this may sometimes be temporarily expedient in a management program to allow a certain species to recover its numbers. Rather, the aim of conservation is to manage or regulate use so that it does not exceed the capacity of the species or system to renew itself. The objective of preservation of species and ecosystems is to ensure their continuity, regardless of their potential utility. Thus, a second-growth forest can be conserved (trees can be cut, but at a rate that allows the forest to recover), but an old-growth forest must be preserved (it must not be cut down at all).”
5. Differentiate between consumptive use and productive use. Give examples of each.
“Productive (use) is the exploitation of ecosystem resources for economic gain. Thus products such as timber and fish (and now, bush meat) are harvested and sold for national or international markets.” Consumptive use is “when people harvest natural resources in order to provide for their needs for food, shelter, tools, fuel, and clothing. Thus, people are hunting for game, fishing, or gathering fruits and nuts in order to meet their food needs, or else they are gathering natural products like firewood, forage for animals, or wood and palm leaves to construct shelters or to use as traditional medicines.”
6. What does maximum sustained yield mean? What factors complicate its application?
Maximu m sustained yield (MSY) is the “highest possible rate of use that the system can match with its own rate of replacement or maintenance.” The problem with implementing MSY is that we do not know the highest recruitment rate for a species with a specified ecosystem but we make decisions as if we do know. The optimal population size to obtain MSY is one half of the size that it would be at the carrying capacity. We do not know an ecosystem’s carry capacity for various species. Additionally, the carrying capacity will vary from year to year. When the maximum sustained yield is exceeded, the availability of the resource declines.
7. What is the tragedy of the commons? Give an example of a common pool resource, and describe ways of protecting such resources.
The tragedy of the commons is “where a resource is owned by many people in common or by no one” and the resource is used by each individual to maximize his/her benefit. Resource exploitation is expected when each individual maximizes his/her benefit without regard to the ecosystem’s ability to sustain the level of use. Examples of a common pool resource are federal grasslands, coast and open -ocean fisheries, groundwater, nationally owned woodlands and forests, and the atmosphere. “One arrangement that can mitigate the tragedy is private ownership. Where private ownership is unworkable, the alternative is to regulate access to the commons. Regulation should allow for (1) protection, so that the benefits derived from the commons can be sustained, (2) fairness in access rights, and (3) mutual consent of the regulated.”
8. When are restoration efforts needed? Describe efforts underway to restore the Everglades.
Restoration efforts are needed “to repair damage to specific lands and waters so that normal ecosystem integrity , resilience, and productivity return.” The ecological problems that can be ameliorated by restoration include those resulting from soil erosion, surface strip mining, draining wetlands, coastal damage, agricultural use, deforestation, overgrazing, desertification, and the eutrophication of lakes. “The plan calls for removing
240 miles of levees and canals and creating a system of reservoirs and underground wells to capture water for release during the dry season. The new flowage is designed to restore the river of grass, thereby restoring the 2.4 million acres of Everglades not to original state, but at least to a healthy system.”
9. Describe some of the findings of the most recent FAO Global Forest Resources Assessment. What are the key elements of sustainabl e forest management?
“Major findings of the new assessment are as follows: 1. In 2005, the world’s forest cover was 3.95 billion hectares (9.8 billion acre). 2. Deforestation continues to occur, primarily in the developing countries. 3. Throughout the world, the most important forest product is wood for industrial use; half of the forest lands are designated for ‘production,’ where the wood is harvested for pulp (paper source), lumber, and fuelwood. FRA 2005 reports that there have not been any drastic changes in forest production over the past 15 years, except for the steady increase in plantation forests. 4. Worldwide, about 9% of the forests are protected as national parks or reserves. An additional 65% of the world’s forests have protection as one of their designated functions. 5. The role of forests in climate change was formally acknowledged in November 2001 at a meeting of the signers of the Kyoto Protocol in Marrakech, Morocco. The outcome of this accord is a much more thorough inventory of the role of forests as carbon stores, sources of carbon emissions, and carbon sinks. FRA 2005 estimates that forest ecosystems in 2005 contained 638 Gt (gigatons) of carbon, more than the amount of carbon as CO2 in the atmosphere. Half of this carbon is in living and dead wood, and half in forest soils.”
The key elements of sustainable forest management include: 1. Maintain adequate forest cover to support “the social, economic, and environmental dimensions of forestry,” 2. Conserve biological diversity, 3. Protect forest health and vitality, 4. Manage productive functions of forest resources, 5. Protect functions of forest resources, 6. Address socioeconomic function, and 7. Provide the legal framework to support the other six elements.
10. What is deforestation, and what factors are primarily responsible for deforestation of the tropics?
“Deforestation is the removal of forest and replacement by another land use. Deforestation is caused by a number of factors, all of which come down to the fact that the countries involved are in need of greater economic development and have rapid population growth. The FRA 2000 study concluded that the current major cause of deforestation is conversion to pastures and agriculture.”
11. What is the global pattern of exploitation of fisheries? Compare the yield of capture fisheries with that of aquaculture.
“The harvest has increased remarkably since 1950, when it was just 20 million metric tons. By 2003 it had reached 132 million metric tons. Aquaculture accounted for 41.9 million tons, or 32 % of the world fish supplies that year. Based on the trends shown in the figure, the ‘capture’ fisheries leveled off in the 1990s, and the continued rise in fish production is due to aquaculture.”
12. Compare the objectives of the original Magnuson Act with those of the 2006 Magnuson -Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Reauthorization Act.
The original Magnuson Act extended the limits of jurisdiction over fisheries from 12 miles offshore to 200 miles offshore. It also “established eight regional management councils made up of government officials and industry representatives.” In 2006 the reauthorization kept the regional councils but required them to “set catch limits based on sound scientific advice from the council’s Scientific and Statistical Committee.
13. What is the current status of the large whales? Discuss the controversy over continued whaling by some countries.
In 1986 the International Whaling Commission instituted a moratorium on the hunting of all whale species to allow for recovery. “The moratorium has never been lifted; however, some limited whaling by Japan, Iceland, and Norway continues, as does harvesting by indigenous people in Alaska, the Russian Federation, and Greenland.” Because these countries continue to kill whales despite the moratorium at levels higher than necessary for “science” and ignore the commission’s authority, the controversy continues.
14. How are coral reefs and mangroves being threatened, and how is this destruction linked to other environmental problems?
Coral reefs are being threatened by bleaching (caused by increases in ocean temperature) and exploitation of reefs for fish, shellfish, and other sea life in addition to tropical fish harvesting. Mangroves are being threatened by logging, coas tal land development, and the development of shrimp ponds. The destruction of coral reefs and mangroves are linked to global climate change and the overexploitation of resources.
15. Compare the different levels of protection versus use for the different categories of federal lands in the United States.
Wilderness : “Permanent protection of these undeveloped and unexploited areas so that natural ecological process can operate freely. Permanent structures, roads, motor vehicles, and other mechanized transport are prohibited. Timber harvesting is excluded. Some livestock grazing and mineral development are allowed where such use existed previously; hiking and other similar activities are also allowed.”
National Parks and National Wildlife Refuges: “(T)he intent is to protect areas of great scenic or unique ecological significance, protect important wildlife species, and provide public access for recreation and other uses.”
National Forests: Multiple activities are attempted, such as recreation, timber harvesting, mining, grazing, and protection of watersheds and wildlife.
16. Describe the progression of management of our national forests during the last half century. What are two current issues, and how are they being resolved?
Management of our forests began in the 1950s as a multiple use strategy, “which meant a combination of extracting resources (grazing, logging, and mining), using the forest for recreation, and protecting watersheds and wildlife. Although the intent was to achieve a balance among these uses, multiple use actually emphasized the extractive uses; that is, it was output oriented and served to justify the ongoing exploitation of public lands by private, often favored, interest groups.”
“A forestry-management strategy was introduced in the late 1980s called New Forestry. This practice of forestry is directed more toward protecting the ecological health and diversity of forests than toward producing a maximum harvest of logs. The Forest Service began adopting some of these management principles in the early 1990s, and they formed the core of what is now the official management paradigm of the Forest Service: ecosystem management. This paradigm has been adopted by all federal agencies managing public lands.”
17. How do land trusts work, and what roles do they play in preserving natural lands?
A private land trust is “a non-profit organization that will accept either outright gifts of land or easements arrangements in which the landowner gives up development rights into the future, but retains ownership of the parcel. The land trust may also purchase land to protect it from development.”
“Land trusts are proving to be a vital link in the preservation of ecosystem. The land trusts are serving the common desires of landowners and rural dwellers to preserve the sense of place that links the present to the past. At the same time, the undeveloped land remains in its natural state, sustaining natural population and promising to do so into the future.”
1. It is an accepted fact that both consumptive use and productive use of natural ecosystems are necessary for highlevel human development. To what degree should consumptive use hold priority over productive use? Think about more than one resource (lumber, bush meat, etc.).
Opinions of students, and therefore their answers, will vary. Although productive use of environmental resources is necessary to continue the level of economic profit that humans have gained from the environment in the past, the trend in the future will undoubtedly be towards consumptive use, especially as human population numbers increase.
2. Consider the problem presented by Hardin of open access to the commons without regulation. To what degree should the freedom of use of these areas be limited by the authorities? Make use of Table 7-3 when you defend your position.
Answers will vary. It is well established that common areas will be exploited and authorities need to regulate such areas.
3. Consider the benefits and problems associated with coastal and open -ocean aquaculture. Is it a useful practice overall? Justify your answer.
Coastal aquaculture provides food sources for humans without the bycatch that is possible in the open areas of the ocean. However, in order to make suitable spaces for such aquaculture mangroves are being converted. Such mangroves actually provide significantly more environmental and economic benefit to the area than the aquaculture. Also, because pollution levels are highest near the coast, contamination of the populations is common. In open-ocean aquaculture, on the other hand, pollution is not as much of a problem. The problem with open-ocean aquaculture is that production levels are very low.
4. Kofi Annan stated that we are in need of a “new ethic of stewardship.” What principles should this new ethic be built upon?
As in the example of the Billion Tree Campaign, the most important principle for this “new ethic of stewardship” will be acting out of concern for other world citizens. When we consider not only our needs, but those of the others around us and those of future generations we will make much more sustainable environmental decisions.
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THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OF ROBINSON CRUSOËUS
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.
Title: Robinson Crusoëus
Author: Joachim Heinrich Campe
Daniel Defoe
Translator: François Joseph Goffaux
Release date: February 26, 2024 [eBook #73030]
Language: Latin
Original publication: Paris: F.J. Goffaux (self published), 1825
Credits: Aurēliānus Agricola
Important note : If during the Middle Ages Latin evolved independently from its classical archetype, the humanists of the Renaissance strove to restore the original language by drawing from copies of the works of ancient authors. These copies being imperfect, the spelling of certain words was impaired with folk etymology and influenced by improper pronunciation, and the length of the vowels, despite its importance in the classical language, was and still is widely neglected. Only the rise of Indo-European studies, especially after 1850, helped restoring and gradually spread the original forms and sounds of the words. Older works, when they are republished, may also benefit from the most recent spelling, and as such show more useful to students who need to learn from the best standards, or just provide a more pleasurable reading experience to more advanced readers. Therefore, this work is offered to you in the original version, but also in a renewed version, with better spelling if applicable, and long vowels noted with macrons. On the other hand, although the spelling has been modified, vocabulary, grammar and syntax, fortunate or not, which belong to the author, were kept as they were out of respect for the original work.
ROBINSON CRUSOËUS
Quinta editio
Pueris dant crustula blandi
Doctores, elementa velint ut discere prima.
Hor. Sat.1, v. 25.
Parisiis, et typis Augusti Delalain,
Bibliopolæ-Edit., in via Mathurinensium, nº.5. 1825.
LECTORI.
Sæpè animadversum est adolescentulis primum Latinarum litterarum limen ingressis nonnihil, fastidii rerum gravitate afferri. Itaque existimavi, non parùm ætati teneræ esse profuturum, si quis susciperet aliquod ejusmodi opusculum, quod et doceret simul et oblectaret. Atque is mihi visus est, qui finem hunc assequeretur, scriptus apud Anglos de Robinsonis casibus liber, de quo Russœusnoster : Hunc primum leget Æmilius.
Cùm autem Robinsonis Anglici fabularis historia multâ digressione luxuriet, atque in omnibus, quæ ad pueros pertinent, satietati fastidioque sit occurrendum, placuit potissimùm seligere optima ex simili de eodem [vi] Robinsone fabulâ, quam Germanicè scripsit HenricusCampe. Hunc igitur auctorem eò lubentiùs secutus fui, quòd ejus narratio aspersa sit sententiis quibus juvenum animi ad pietatem, constantiam et sobrietatem informentur.
Habes itaque, Lector benevole, libellum nulla sanè aliâ laude commendandum, nisi meo de juventute benè merendi studio. Quo impulsus, in id præcipuè incubui, ut, aptato materiæ stylo, grammaticas, quantùm fieri poterat, regulas inculcarem ; non splendidâ gravique (res enim non ferebat), sed simplici et ad captum legentium accommodatâ oratione. Quatenùs scopum attigerim,
judicabunt, qui exiguum hoc opus legere non dedignabuntur ; sed oro meminerint me tironum gratiâ scripsisse.
II. Robinson pergit iter . — Mala omina. — Navis incensa. — Alia fluctibus jactata. — Advehitur ad insulas Canarias. — Descriptio lociilliusamœnissimi. — Indeprofectus adAmericam naufragium facit.
III. Sera Robinsonis pœnitentia. — Desperatio. — Vitam miserè sustentat.—Habitatinspeluncâ.
IV. ROBINSON reperitpoma eximiæmagnitudinis. — Sibiconficit varia instrumenta. — Funiculos.— Stratum. — Umbellam.— Peram. — Calendarium.
V. Robinson insulam perlustrat. — Magnus terror. — In gaudium vertitur . —Descriptiolamæ. — Unumoccidit.— Sedignecaret. — CarnemmoreTartarorum coquit.
VI. Turbo ingens. — Tempestas, undè magnum Robinsoni beneficium.—Tædiumsolitudinis.—Aranea.
VII. Prædaingens.— Deestresmaximènecessaria.— Votairrita. — Ambulatio.—Natatio.—Resvariæ.
XXI. Robinson et Vendredi, insulâ relictâ, mari se committunt. — Summapericulainquibusversantur .
XXII. Ambo èpericulo se expediunt. — Reversi in insulam, hortum colunt.—Piscantur ;natant ;venantur.—Novumitersuscipiunt.
XXIII. Res multæetmagnæ. — Tempestas. — Fragor tonitruum. — Sonitus ænei tormenti. — Magna navis derelicta. — Vendredi ad illamadnatat.—Ignotaanimalia.—Canis.—Capra.—Ratis.
ERAT Hamburgi, in urbe apud Germanos celeberrimâ, vir quidam, cui nomen Robinson : suscepit ex uxore tres filios.
Maximus natu, armorum studiosior quàm librorum, tractare à teneris gladios, or[2]dine militari pueros instruere, aures vicinorum repetito tympani sonitu obtundere ; vixque adolescens factus, è fictis certaminibus ad vera procurrens, militiæ nomen suum dedit.
Cùm ille didicisset per aliquot menses stare et sequi, vertere corpus ad sinistram dexteramve, exarsit bellum Turcas inter et Germanos, in quo cùm multa egregiè fecisset, cecidit adverso confossus vulnere.
Alter, qui litteras in gymnasio discebat, ut causas in foro ageret, sæpè principatum inter æquales in solitis concertationibus obtinebat. Nec parva erat parentum magistrorumque de juvene exspectatio ; sed cùm fortè in feriis septembralibus corpore adhuc calido aquam
frigidam imprudentiùs bibisset, in morbum incidit, et intra paucos dies exstinctus est.
Jam nullus supererat præter minimum natu, qui Crusoe appellabatur. Itaque suam in eo spem omnem ambo parentes collocaverunt, quippe qui ipsis esset uni[3]cus. Nihil eo carius in terris habebant ; sed amor eorum non erat rectæ rationi consentaneus.
Cùm enim debuissent certam ei vivendi disciplinam tradere, multaque utilia simul et jucunda eum docere, quæ ipsum olim bonum et beatum effecissent, omnia filiolo indulserunt ; qui cùm ludere quàm studere mallet, totam illam ætatem ; quæ bonis artibus vacare poterat, in otio et nugis consumpsit.
Pater optabat ut ille mercaturæ se addiceret : quâquidem proximè ab agriculturâ nihil melius, nihil fructuosius, nihil homine libero dignius. Hoc verò minimè filio placuit ; se malle ait orbem terrarum peragrare, ut multas res novas audire, multas videre posset.
Jam annum ætatis decimum septimum attigerat, plurimùm verò temporis triverat in otio. Quotidiè autem patrem urgebat, ut ab ipso peregrinandi licentiam impetraret, quam ille nolebat concedere. [4]Quâdam die, cùm more suo præter portum cursitaret, incidit in unum ex æqualibus, navarchi cujusdam filium, qui in eo erat ut cum patre Londinumnavigaret.
Interrogavit eum sodalis an adjungere se socium itineris vellet : « Libenter, ait Crusoeus ; vereor autem ut parentes id mihi concedant. — Hui ! respondet alter, sine veniâ proficiscendum est. Post tres hebdomades reduces erimus : parentibus verò nuntiandum
curabis, quònam terrarum migraveris. — Careo autem pecuniâ, ait Crusoeus. Nihil refert, alter excipit, siquidem hoc tibi constabit gratis. »
Robinsonnoster, re paululum deliberatâ, ilico manum cum altero jungens, « Euge, ô bone, exclamat ! ibo tecum ; sed confestim navem conscendamus. » Tum mandat cuidam, ut horis aliquot elapsis patrem conveniat, moneatque filium, ad Angliam invisendam profectum, mox rediturum esse. Quibus peractis, ambo sodales navem conscendunt. [5]
Nec multò post nautæ solvunt anchoras, velaque vento intendunt. Navis agi incipit ; navarchusque, tribus explosis tormentis bellicis, urbi valedicit. Stabat Robinson in stegâ, et vix præconceptam ex optato diù itinere lætitiam capiebat.
Cœlum serenum erat, ventusque adeò secundus, ut brevì Hamburgum è conspectu abeuntium se subduxerit. Posterâ die, jam eò devenerant ubi Albis in mare effluit, et nunc altum tenent. Quantâ verò Robinson admiratione stupuit, cùm maris immensitatem intuens, suprà se nihil præter cœlum, atque nihil ante, pone, circa se nisi aquam conspexit !
Fuit per biduum aer serenus, ventusque bellè flavit navigantibus ; tertio autem die cœlum nubibus tegi, ventusque vehementior esse cœpit. Ac primò fulgura emicant, quasi totum flammis cœlum arderet. Deindè ingruunt tenebræ veluti in altissimâ nocte : tonitrua cum ingenti fragore resonare, imber de cœlo ruere torrenti [6]similis, mare intumescens fluctus ciere. Navis modò ad nubes tolli, modò præceps ferri in profundum. Quantus funium
strepitus ! quantus in navi tumultus ! quod nactus erat, quisque complectebatur, ne dejiceretur ipse.
Robinson, insuetus maris adolescens, cùm jactationem maris ferre non posset, nauseâ correptus est, et tam malè se habuit, ut exspiranti similis videretur.
« Bone Deus ! exclamant nautæ pallidi desperantesque, periimus ! abrepti sunt mali, navis aquâ undequaque completur. » His auditis, Robinson, qui in cubili nautico sedebat, membris fluentibus, retrò collapsus est. Cæteri ad antlias accurrere, ut navem, si fieri possit, supra aquam retineant. Navarchus interim tormenta iterùm iterùmque explosit, ut navibus, si quæ fortè non longè abessent, si[7]gnificaret se magno in discrimine versari. Robinson, qui hujus fragoris causam ignorabat, ratus omnia periisse, denuò exanimatus est.
Et jam pro se quisque aquam exhaurire ; sed in infimo navis tabulato crescebat aquæ altitudo.
Nihil præter mortem erat in exspectatione. Projiciuntur quidem ad navem sublevandam tormenta, dolia, mercium sarcinæ ; sed nihil hæc omnia proficiunt.
Intereà navis alia, audito sonitu tormentorum, quæ ad significandum discrimen explosa fuerunt, scapham emiserat ad servandos saltem navigantes ; sed æstus fluctuum obstabat, quominus accederet. Attamen propiùs ita demum subiit, ut iis, qui in navi essent, funis projiceretur. Cujus ope scapha tandem attracta
est, et in eam quisque desiliit, ut saluti consuleret. Robinson, qui jacebat defuncto similis, à quibusdam nautis, quos adolescentuli miserebat, in eamdem conjectus [8]est. Vix paululum à navi recesserant, cùm illa ante oculos fluctibus obruta est. Et nunc feliciùs contigit, ut tempestas paulatim sedaretur : aliter cymba, tot hominibus onerata ipsa quoque fluctibus absorpta fuisset. Tandem, post multa pericula, pervenit ad navem, quam omnes excepti sunt.
Navis illa Londinumtendebat. Quatuor elapsis diebus, ad ostium Thamesispervenit, quintâ verò in portu jecit anchoras. Mox quisque in terram descendit, lætus quòd è periculo evasisset. Vix Robinson pedem è nave extulerat, cùm eum incessit cupido visendæ immensæ urbis Londini. Quidquid erat in oculis spectantem ita detinuit, ut præteriti immemor de futuro quidem minimè curaret. Tandem suus eum stomachus admonuit, Londinihaud secùs ac alibi terrarum cibis opus esse. Itaque adiit præfectum ejus navis quæ ipsum advexerat, rogavitque ut liceret ipsius mensæ assidere. Ille verò lu[9]benter juvenem excepit ; atque inter prandendum ab hospite quærit, quo consilio et quid facturus hùc venerit ? Tum Robinson ingenuè professus est, se animi recreandi causâ hoc iter suscepisse, atque insciis parentibus ; jam autem se esse omninò inopem. « Insciis parentibus tuis ? clamat nauta exterritus : bone Deus ! utinàm hoc ego priùs rescivissem ! nunquam sanè à me impetrâsses, ut ego te in navem meam admitterem. » Robinson, demissis oculis, vultuque rubore suffuso, siluit. Nec desiit bonus nauta monere adolescentem, quàm graviter peccavisset, addiditque illum nunquam aliquâ ex parte beatum esse posse, donec à suis veniam oravisset. Robinson commotus multùm flevit : « Sed quid agam nunc ? » rogat ille cum singultu.
« Quid ages ? respondet alter : primam quamlibet navem, quæ hinc Hamburgumtendit, sine morâ conscendes ; tunc re[10]versus ad tuos peccati veniam piè rogabis, pollicitus te nunquam posteà in simili culpâ fore. — Sed planè careo pecuniâ, ait Robinson. En quatuor guineas, excepit nauta, quas ego tibi commodabo, licèt ipse parvo, quod mihi superest, ægrè caream. His tu adjutus ad portum te confer ; sit Deus tibi magis propitius redeunti quàm nobis fuit navigantibus. » His dictis, manum benevolè junxit, atque faustum iter ipsi precatus est. Abiit Robinson.
Dùm ille portum peteret, varia secum in animo volvebat : « Quomodò mei reducem me excipient ? Castigabunt sanè propter tale delictum. Sodales verò, et tam multi alii me irridebunt, quòd tam citò redierim. » Sic diù dubitans quidnam consilii caperet, ad portum pergit ; sed ibi audiit, summâ quidem cum voluptate, nullam adesse navem, quæ Hamburgum tenderet. Qui autem hâc de re eum certiorem fecerat, unus è præfectis [11]earum navium erat, quæ ad Guineanproficiscuntur.
Cùm Robinsoninter confabulandum dixisset, se non dolere quòd nulla sibi Hamburgum redeundi adesset opportunitas, quia mirâ flagrabat cupiditate peregrinandi, præfectus navis ei auctor fuit itineris ad Guineam faciendi. Quo audito, primùm Robinson obstupuit. Sed cùm præfectus itineris ei declaravisset, iter hoc fore jucundissimum, seque ut haberet ipse quîcum versaretur, gratìs eum excepturum, ac prætereà rem eam esse undè quæstum ille non mediocrem faceret, tum verò tanta eum invasit cupiditas proficiscendi, ut subitò è memoriâ exciderit quidquid bonus nauta Hamburgensis eum admonuerat.
Sed re paululum consideratâ, « Equidem, ait Robinson, quatuor tantummodò guineas habeo. Ecquid ego commercii cum hâc exiguâ re eo loco faciam, quò tu proficisceris ? — Sex insuper guineas ego tibi commodabo, respondit præfectus. [12]Nec majore pecuniâ tibi opus est ad emendum unde multas in Guineâ opes consequaris. Quoties ab exiguis initiis res maximæ profectæ sunt !
« Sed quid ego his emam ? Robinsoninterrogat. — Meras nugas, respondit præfectus ; vitres, torques, cultros, forfices, secures, tænias, etc., quibus nigri Africæ incolæ tantopere gaudent, ut tibi vim auri eborisque centies majorem pro iis daturi sint. »
Nec jam diutiùs sibi Robinson temperare potuit ; sed oblitus parentum, amicorum, patriæ, exclamat : « En ego tibi comes itineris præsto sum. — Agedum, » respondit præfectus, dextrisque junctis rem paciscuntur.
Robinson itaque decem guineis dives ad urbem properat, comparat varias merces, uti navarchus præceperat, comparatasque in navem transportandas curat. Paucis diebus elapsis, vento favente, præfectus navis anchoras solvi, atque vela ventis dari jussit. [13]
CAPUT SECUNDUM.
Robinson pergit iter . — Mala omina. — Navis incensa. — Alia fluctibusjactata. — Advehitur adinsulasCanarias. — Descriptio loci illiusamœnissimi.—IndeprofectusadAmericam naufragiumfacit.
NOVUM hoc Robinsonis iter faustissimum initium habuit. Jamque incolumes fretum Calesiumtransierant, et in ipso Atlantico mari versabantur : tum verò per plurimos dies continuos vento reflante navis Americam versùs abrepta est.
At ecce vespere quodam gubernator declaravit se flammas relucentes à longinquo conspicere ; cùmque inspectâ tabulâ nauticâ intelligeret vel ad centum milliaria nihil terrarum esse, conjectabat hunc [14]ignem nihil aliud esse nisi navem incendio flagrantem.
Vix hæc dixerat, cùm in auras tolli visa est navis, terribili cum fragore, et mox tota undis obruta est. Cùm nox supervenisset, nihil ampliùs cerni poterat. Primâ autem luce apparent duæ scaphæ, cum fluctibus colluctantes, quæ remis pertinaciùs everberabant mare, ut ad navem accederent. Extemplò præfectus vexillum nauticum explicuit, significans se ad opem illis ferendam paratum esse. Navis ipsa omnibus velis ad eos tendit, atque intra dimidium horæ ad miseros pervenit.
Sexaginta erant, viri, mulieres et pueri, qui omnes nave excepti sunt. Erat res omninò miserabilis, cùm infelices illi faucibus mortis se ereptos viderent. Alii enim flere præ gaudio, alii clamare, quasi periculum nunc primùm immineret ; illi exsultare saltu lymphatico, hi verò pallidi manus torquere. Nonnulli stare muti et stupentibus similes. Nemo quòque inter nau[15]tas tam ferreus, quin his conspectis commotus ipse lacrymaretur.
Cùm eis paulatim rediisset animus, unus narravit quid miseris accidisset :
« Navis incensa magna quædam navis erat mercatoria Francorum, quæ ad insulam Martinicam tendebat. Exarserat ignis in cubiculo gubernatoris, flammâ tam velociter grassante, ut nulla ejus exstinguendæ spes adforet. Vix per tempus licebat se in cymbas recipere, et ab incensâ nave paululùm discedere, cùm, flammâ cameram, in quâ pulvis tormentarius sepositus est, corripiente, discerpta navis dissiluit. »
Dum hæc narrarentur, sedebat in angulo Robinson silens, pallidusque, similis homini quem malefacti remordet conscientia. « Bone Deus ! ait ille secum, si cum hominibus illis, inter quos sunt profectò quidam longè quàm ego meliores, tam malè agitur, heu ! quid mihi ex[16]spectandum, qui sic erga parentes peccaverim ? »
Cùm illi cibo aliquo refecti fuissent, tum unus qui dignitate cæteris præstare videbatur, præfectum adiit, crumenamque aureis nummis plenam porrigens, « Ego inquit, miseram illam navem instruxi ; hoc solum eripui, oroque ut pignus grati pro salute animi accipias. »
Tum verò fuit res spectaculo digna, certamen ambos inter viros, uter hinc gratior, inde honestior foret.
« Absit sanè, respondet præfectus, ut munus tuum accipiam. Cùm ego vobis opem tuli, nihil aliud egi quàm quod à naturâ homini erga hominem præscriptum est, scilicet ut homo homini, quicumque sit, consulat, ob eam causam quòd is homo sit. »
Frustrà ille præfectum urgere, ut oblatum munus acciperet ; perseveranter negavit, rogans, ut rem planè dimitteret. [17]Tum deliberatur, quònam servati homines essent vehendi. Duplex erat causa cur ad Guineam non ducerentur. Primò quidem minimè opus erat longum iter in eam regionem facere, nihil ibi negotii habentibus.
Nec deinde tanta aderat in nave ciborum copia, undè tot navigantes in itinere victitarent.
Præfectus tandem statuit, omissâ propriâ utilitate, centum et ampliùs milliaribus à viâ rectâ deflectere, eosque in Terram Novam transportare, ubi sperabat fore, ut sese offerret opportunitas in Galliam cum piscatoribus asellorum redeundi. Eò igitur cursum direxit ; cùmque advenisset, naves Gallicas nactus est, quæ miseros receperunt. His peractis, iter suum ad Guineamprosecutus est.
Tum navis celerrimo cursu, aquas secat ; quâ navigandi velocitate Robinson noster mirè delectatus est. Post aliquot dies, ecce magnam navem conspiciunt, ad se ten[18]dentem. Mox verò audiunt sonitum tormentorum periculi instantis indicem, et animadvertunt navem esse duobus malis orbatam. Cùm ad eam propiùs accessissent, qui in eâ vehebantur, sublatis manibus, miserabiliter exclamant : « Servate infelices quibus omnibus pereundum est, nisi vos eorum miserebit. »
Tum ex iis quæsitum est quid mali accidisset ; quidam verò ex illis sic orsus est :
« Angli sumus, ex insulâ Jamaica, sacchari vecturam inde deportaturi. Ibi dum navis staret anchoris alligata, præfectus cum gubernatore in terram descendit, ad merces aliquas insuper emendas.
« Intereà exorta est tempestas, tanto turbine, ut, fune disrupto, navis ex portu in altum propelleretur. Tempestas ista tres dies noctesque sæviit : tum malis omnibus amissis, centum et plura milliaria abrepti sumus. Accedit ad hanc nostram calamitatem, quòd nemo nostrorum artis nauticæ peritus sit : novem jam [19]integras hebdomades hinc et inde jactati, victum omnem consumpsimus, et nostri plerique jacent fame exhausti. »
Bonus itaque præfectus statim cymbam exponi jussit, assumptâque secum idoneâ ciborum copiâ, ipse cum Robinsone ad navem accedit. Erat sanè lugenda prorsùs omnium conditio qui in illâ vehebantur : universi inediâ quasi consumpti ; nonnulli vix poterant pedibus stare.
Cùm autem cubiculum nauticum intrâssent, horrendum visu ! jacebant humi mater, filius et servula, qui omnes fame enecti videbantur. Mox autem deprehensum est, reliquias in eis animæ vitalis superesse. Postquam enim nonnullæ succi è carne expressi guttæ in os cujusque instillatæ sunt, lucem oculis quærere cœperunt.
Mater præ nimiâ virium imbecillitate nihil quidquam absorbere poterat ; cùm autem innuisset, ut tantummodò filio suo consuleretur, mox illa exspiravit.
[20]
Inter hæc duo reliqui animam receperant ; atque ut erant ætate robustiores, præfecti diligentiâ feliciùs servati sunt. Cùm autem juvenis, oculis in matrem conjectis, mortuam esse intellexisset, tantus eum invasit dolor, ut deficientibus iterùm viribus ægrè ad vitam revocari posset. Vicit tamen cura, atque ille cum servâ quoque è faucibus mortis ereptus est. Deinde præfectus navem omni genere alimentorum instruxit, malos à fabris suis reficiendos curavit, ignarisque maris peritum nautam dedit, qui navem regeret ; atque ad terram proximam ipse tendit, ut novam cibariorum comparationem faceret. Hæc erat insula Madeira, una è Canariis. Robinsonunà cum præfecto in terram descendit, atque ibi lætissimo fortunatæ illius insulæ adspectu satiari non potuit. Scilicet terra partim in planitiem porrecta, partim in colliculos molliter assurgens, vernantem frugiferarum arborum copiam explicat. Cœli admodum jucunda temperies : nullus [21]enim hìc hiemis rigor ; ita vim omnem frigoris retundunt clementiores solis radii mollesque favoniorum animæ, quarum flabellis regio tota circumquàque ventilatur. Erant in oculis, quàm longè patebat prospectus, segetes in agris benè pinguibus diffusæ, juga montium continuis vitibus consita. Ut arridebant Robinsoni nostro pendentes racemi ! Ô quales ille hausit delicias, cùm præfectus ære dato impetravit, ut juveni liceret uvis pro libidine satiari. Postquam ibi aliquantùm temporis moratus esset navis reficiendæ causâ, anchoram solvit.
Per plures continuos dies felicissimo cursu usi sunt.
At ecce repentè vehemens tempestas ab austro oritur. Spumabant fluctus, et in immensam surgebant altitudinem. Navis tamen stetit invicta ; sed cùm sex dies continuos atrox tempestas
sæviisset, illa tam longè à viâ dejecta est, ut nec præfectus, nec gubernator ampliùs intelligerent, quo[22]nam in loco versarentur. Arbitrabantur tamen se ab insulis, quæ Caraïbæ vocantur, non multum distare. Septimo autem die, cùm primùm illucesceret, è nautis quidam, ingenti omnium lætitiâ, terram inclamat. Tum omnes in stegam conscendere, visuri quænam sit terra illa ad quam appulsuri sunt. Sed nunc lætitia in summum terrorem mutata est. Ecce enim navis impingitur : quo ictu qui stabant in stegâ excussi omnes planè corruerunt.
Scilicet navis in syrtem tam vehementi impetu allisa erat, ut hæreret quasi affixa. Confestìm verò fluctus spumantes tantam vim aquæ in stegam profuderunt, ut omnibus in cubiculo fuerit confugiendum, ne ipsi abriperentur.
Tum flebilis nautarum oriri clamor ; tum ejulatus hinc Deum orantium, inde clamantium : alii desperantes sibi crines avellere, quidam jacere semianimi.
Hos inter Robinsonerat exspiranti similis ; ac repentè exclamant navem dehiscere. [23]Itaque in stegam omnes accurrere, et demissam quàm celerrimè in scapham omnes desilire. Tanta autem erat multitudo inconsultè ruentium, ut vix scapha palmæ latitudine undas superaret. Cùm verò terra procul obesset, cuncti de orâ unquàm assequendâ, sæviente adeò tempestate, desperabant.
At ecce ingens fluctus ad scapham volvi, montis instar : quo omnes conspecto obstupescere, remosque dimittere. Nunc, nunc instat periculum. Et jam aquæ mons scapham assequitur subvertitque ; tum universi hauriuntur. [24]
CAPUT TERTIUM.
Sera Robinsonis pœnitentia. — Desperatio. — Vitam miserè sustentat.—Habitatinspeluncâ.
FELICI fato contigit, ut ingens ille fluctus qui Robinsonem absorpserat, idem vi magnâ reciprocans, hominem in vado exspueret. Hic cùm præter exspectationem in sicco versaretur, tum extremis viribus usus est, ut summam in oram adscenderet ; cùmque eò pervenisset, cœpit circumspicere. Eheu ! qualia oculis obversantur ! scapha, navis, socii, omnia demersa. Nihil omninò reliquum præter avulsas tabulas, quæ fluctuantes ad terram ferebantur. Unus ipse, unus mortem effugerat. Gaudio igitur et terrore trepidans, [25]in genua procubuit, manibusque sublatis, lacrymis perfusus, Deo pro salutis miraculo gratias egit. Cùm verò nihil præter arbusta aut arbores deprehenderet, nec ulla vestigia, unde intelligere posset hanc regionem ab hominibus incoli, jam gravissimum illi videbatur vitam sic in solitudine degere. Venit quoque in mentem esse fortè vagantes belluas, aut feros homines ; tùm multò majori horrore perculsus est. Itaque primum præ timore nec stare ausus, nec progredi, circumspectare omnia, et vel minimo strepitu expavescere. Sed mox quâ ardebat sitis torporem istum excussit ; quam cùm diutiùs tolerare non posset, fontem aut rivum indagare cœpit, et sic vestiganti occurrit manans per herbas rivulus :
quem ille secutus, invenit fontem liquidissimum, quo valdè recreatus est.
Nec illum fames tunc maximè urgebat ; quippe cui angor terrorque omnem cibi appetitum exemerant. Sed erant adeò ex[26]haustæ illius vires, ut multò magis requiescere optaret. Attamen caput erat locum invenire, in quo tutus pernoctaret. Nulla domus, nullum tugurium, nullum specus erat in conspectu. Sic diù consilii inops flevit. Tandem aves imitari, hospitiumque in arbore quærere statuit. Ac brevì unam prospexit tam densam opacamque, ut commodè insidere dorsumque acclinare posset : hanc adscendit reptando, pièque Deum precatus, cùm se composuisset, statim obdormivit. Inter somnum, illius menti, ut erat curarum æstu jactata, rerum earum, quæ pridiè vigilanti acciderant, recursabant imagines. Videre sibi videbatur motum et agitationem fluctuum navem haurientium, nautarumque ejulatus exaudire. Sibi in animo fingebat parentes luctu ac mœrore confectos, qui filii vicem dolentes, manibus ad cœlum sublatis, flebant, et omne prorsùs solatium aversabantur. Tunc altâ voce exclamat, inter somniandum : « Adsum, adsum, parentes [27]carissimi ! » Dumque amplexu matrem petit, decidit ex arbore. Sed fortè quod ipsi faustum fuit, sedem in loco non ita sublimi posuerat, solumque tam denso gramine vestitum erat, ut ille casu non ita gravi decideret. Iterum arborem suam conscendit, in quâ manibus retinens surculos circâ eminentes, ad ortum solis remansit.
Primâ luce cœpit cogitare, quâ ratione victum sibi pararet. Omnes verò arbores quas hactenus conspexerat, erant ex earum genere quas campêche vocamus ; atque illæ folia quidem, sed fructus ferunt omninò nullos.
Nec satis illi liquebat, quid sibi faciendum esset. Ex arbore tamen descendit. Cùm autem pridiè nihil omnino comedisset, cœpit fame sævissimâ laborare : itaque huc illuc per aliquot millia passuum discurrit ; sed discurrendo nihil invenit, nisi arbores steriles et gramina.
Tunc summo angore excruciatus famem [28]et ultima sibimet ominabatur : « Pereundum mihi erit fame ! » exclamat, miserabiliter ejulans. Desperanti verò necessitas satis animi viriumque adjecit, ut se ad littus maris conferret, investigaretque diligentiùs, si quid fortè alimenti inveniret. Sed sua eum spes fefellit. Hìc verò debilitatus fractusque procubuit, facie in terram demissâ, flentemque miserè pœnituit, quòd non fuisset fluctibus et ipse obrutus. Et jam statuerat in hoc miserabili rerum articulo exspectare, dum lenta fames morte omnium teterrimâ consumeret vitam, cùm fortè conversus, ecce conspexit nonnullas in arenâ squamas ostrearum. Avidus itaque eò accurrere, circumspicere, scrutari, num fortè plenas quasdam reperiret, repertisque exsultare.
Ac primò quidem illas non sine difficultate aperuit ; sed inserto plano eodemque acuto silice perfecit, ut triginta circiter haustis ventrem paululùm placaret. [29]Cùm nunc certior esset, se posse quamvis miserè sustentare vitam, jam maximè sollicitus erat, quò se à feris hominibus aut bestiis tutum reciperet.
Tum in montem summum, ægrè, ut erat satis excelsus, adscendit, unde quàm latissimè circumspicere poterat. Sed quantus eum terror invasit, cùm vidisset se esse in insulâ, neque ullam omninò, quàm longè aciem oculorum intendere posset, terram apparere, præter tres parvas insulas, quæ, spatio aliquot milliarium interjecto, ex æquore eminebant !
« Heu ! me miserum ! exclamat, manibus ad cœlum miserabiliter sublatis. Me ne ab hominum commercio ita sejunctum esse, ut mihi in hâc solitudine vivendum sit velut feræ bestiæ ! Heu ! parentes optimi, nunquam igitur ego vos revisam ! Nunquam licebit culpæ meæ veniam exorare ! »
Et sic dolens descendit de monte, cir[30]cumspiciens, ubi posset in tuto se collocare. Diù autem frustrà indagavit ; tandem ad locum editorem pervenit, ex adversâ parte, instar parietis, præruptum. Cùm accuratiùs exploraret, locum invenit leviter excavatum, satis angusto aditu. Hìc si uncum, si scalprum, aut alia quævis instrumenta habuisset, facili negotio cavum in saxo excisum per fragmenta habitaculo idoneum fecisset. Sed cùm hæc omnia desideraret, huic inopiæ medendum erat.
Cùm diù multùmque deliberâsset, sic secum statuit : « Arbores, quas hìc video, salicibus patriis similes sunt, quæ, si transferantur, novas facilè radices agunt. Eruam igitur manibus satis magnam earum copiam, quæ, ante cavum denso ordine consitæ, erunt pro munimento ; cùm illæ radices egerint, ibi licebit clauso et securo mihi quasi in domo dormire. » [31]
Tunc felici hoc invento lætus, ad opus statim se accinxit. Sed quanto majore gaudio exsultavit, cùm huic loco proximum fontem liquidissimum prospexisset è monte exsilientem ! Eò statim properavit, quia, cùm huc illuc fervente sole discurrisset, multùm æstuabat.
Posteà verò cœpit manibus et multo sudore teneras aliquot arbores exstirpare, quas eò transtulit, ubi sedem sibi destinaverat, atque ibi quòque cavum fodere manibus oportuit, in quo arbores
insereret : hoc verò multum temporis requirente, vesper advenit, vix quinque aut sex numero arboribus consitis. Fame compulsus, oram maris rursùs petiit, ut novas conquireret ostreas. Sed cùm æstus rediisset, totum littus occupaverant undæ : ægrè igitur unam aut alteram reperit, et sic malè pastus cubitum ire coactus est. Reversus est igitur ad arborem suam, ibi pernoctaturus, donec hospitium sibi [32]tutum confecisset. Ne autem hâc nocte idem ipsi accideret quod superiori, genualibus se ei ramo religavit, ad quem dorsum priùs acclinaverat, cùmque summo rerum creatori se commendâsset, tranquillè obdormivit. [33]
HAC nocte Robinsonnon decidit ex arbore ; sed placidè usque ad ortum solis quievit.
Primâ luce, littus petiit, ut, collectis ibi ostreis, ad opus inchoatum reverteretur. Cùm eò aliâ viâ tenderet, eunti contigit invenire arborem quæ poma inusitatæ magnitudinis ferebat. Etsi eorum indolem ignorabat, sperans tamen ea fore quibus vesci posset, unam ex iis decussit. Erat autem nux oblonga nec minor capite [34]pueruli, quæ vulgò in Americæ insulis vocatur cocossa. Erat nucleus quasi medulla et succus qui saporem olei ex dulci amygdalâ expressi referebat, atque in medio lac exquisitum.
Cùm stomachum latrantem una non placaret, secundam, tertiam quoque decussit, quibus abundè satiatus, tamen littus maris petiit ; cùmque mare reddidisset terras paulò ante salo mersas, nonnullas passim in sicco ostreas reperit. Magnam quoque et planam in littore concham invenit, quâ pro spathâ usus est ; atque illud ipsi non mediocri fuit adjumento. Nec multò post plantam deprehendit fibroso caule, qualis est apud nos lini aut cannabis.
