Solution Manual for Communicating in Small Groups Principles and Practices, 13th Edition by Steven A

Solution Manual for Communicating in Small Groups Principles and Practices, 13th edition Steven A. Beebe John Masterson Chapter 1-12

Chapter One: Introducing Group Principles and Practices Chapter Summary Chapter 1 provides an introduction to communication in small groups and teams. After defining small group communication, the chapter explores the meaning of human communication. The importance of teams and the characteristics of an effective team and team members are discussed; strategies to enhance team effectiveness are also addressed.

The chapter outlines five advantages and four disadvantages of working in small groups and teams. It is sometimes the case that group work is not necessary, and individual efforts are preferable; a discussion of when and why this might be true is presented. Small group communication needs to be ethical, so some guidelines for achieving that are discussed.

Virtual small group communication became a reality for many people with the advent of the COVID-19 pandemic. Collaboration in virtual and non-virtual environments is compared, and concepts such as asynchronous messaging, synchronous communication, anonymity, deception, and social presence are discussed. Three theories of virtual communication are also considered.

Chapter Objectives After studying this chapter, the students will be able to: 1.1 Define small group communication 1.2 Evaluate teams for effective practices 1.3 Identify the advantages and disadvantages of participating in groups and teams 1.4 Compare primary, secondary, and bona fide groups 1.5 Use methods to make virtual group meetings effective

Chapter Outline 1.1: Communicating in Small Groups 1.1.1: Communication Is about Making Sense 1 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Communication Is Transactional Communication Includes Several Elements Communication May Be Mediated

1.1.2: A Small Group of People 1.1.3: Meeting with a Common Purpose 1.1.4: Feeling a Sense of Belonging 1.1.5: Exerting Influence 1.2: Communicating in Teams r Attributes of Effective Teams ○

Teams Develop Specific and Measurable Goals

○

Teams Develop Clearly Defined Roles, Duties, and Responsibilities

○

Teams Have Clearly Defined Rules and Expectations

○

Teams Are Coordinated and Collaborative

1.2.1: Characteristics of an Effective Team Ideal Teams Characteristics ○

A Clear, Elevating Goal

○

A Results-Driven Structure

○

Competent Team Members

○

Unified Commitment

○

A Collaborative Climate

○

Standards of Excellence

○

External Support and Recognition

○

Principled Leadership

1.3: Advantages and Disadvantages of Communicating in Groups and Teams 1.3.1: Advantages of Working in Groups and Teams More Information Enhanced Creative Problem Solving 2 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Greater Comprehension Enhanced Satisfaction Enhanced Self-Understanding 1.3.2: Disadvantages of Working in Groups and Teams Pressure to Conform One Person May Dominate Uneven Work Distribution Takes More Time 1.3.3: When Not to Collaborate Is Limited Time Is Readily Available When Conflict Is Unmanageable 1.3.4: Ethically Communicating in Small Groups 1.4: Communicating in Different Types of Groups 1.4.1: Primary Groups Family Groups Social Groups 1.4.2: Secondary Groups Problem-Solving Groups Decision-Making Groups Study Groups Therapy Groups Committees Focus Groups 1.4.3: The Bona Fide Group Perspective 1.5: Communicating in Virtual Groups 1.5.1: Differences between Virtual and Non-Virtual Collaboration Time ○

Asynchronous Message 3 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

○

Synchronous Message

○

Social Presence

Varying Degrees of Anonymity Potential for Deception Nonverbal Messages Written Messages Distance 1.5.2: Virtual Group Theories Cues-Filtered-Out Theory Media Richness Theory Social Information-Processing Theory Skilled Collaboration Participating in Virtual Groups ○

Start Early

○

Communicate Often

○

Multitask Skillfully

○

Use Technology Skillfully

○

Don‘t Look at Yourself on Zoom

○

Be Clear

○

Be Flexible

○

Set Deadlines

Leading Virtual Groups ○

Provide the Right Resources

○

Provide Technology Training

○

Provide Good Tech Support

○

Openly Reward and Compliment Team Members

○

Ensure Effective Communication Skill

Discussion Questions 1.

Ask students to summarize the differences between a small group and a team. List their comments on a flip chart or your presentation software.

2.

Discuss students‘ use of virtual communication. Which platform do they use most often?

What are the benefits and disadvantages of virtual communication? How does this apply 4 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

to different types of groups (i.e., informal student teams, classroom discussions, group interviews, friends chatting)?

3.

Discuss the continuum of media-rich and media-lean methods of communication. Ask your students to provide examples of communication at three or four points along this continuum.

4.

One-minute paper: Students submit a single sheet of paper responding to these prompts:

5.

a.

What do I like about working in groups?

b.

What do I dislike about working in groups?

c.

What specifically would I like to learn about group and team work?

Discuss collaboration via social media with your students. In groups, ask them to select a particular social media platform and create a list of advantages and disadvantages concerning collaboration using that platform.

Study Guide Activities 1. Assumptions and Consensus As you participate in small groups, it is useful to understand your assumptions about how groups function and to compare your own assumptions with those of other members in your group.1 Read each of these statements once. Indicate whether you agree (by marking A) or disagree (by marking D) with each statement, and then compare your answers with those of your group members.

1.

______ A primary concern of all group members should be to establish an atmosphere in which all members feel free to express their opinions.

2.

______ In a group with a strong leader, an individual is able to feel more personal security than in a leaderless group.

3.

______ Individuals who are part of working groups should do what they think is right, regardless of what the groups decide to do.

4.

______ It is sometimes necessary to use autocratic methods to obtain democratic objectives.

5.

______ Sometimes, it is necessary to push people in the direction you think is right, even if they object.

6.

______ It is sometimes necessary to ignore the feelings of others in order to reach a group decision.

7.

______ One should not openly criticize or find fault with leaders who are doing their best.

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8.

______ Democracy has no place in a military organization, such as an air task force or an infantry squad, when it is engaged in battle.

9.

______ When everybody in the group has to be considered before making a decision, much time is wasted talking.

10.

______ Almost any job that can be done by a committee can be done better by giving one individual responsibility for the job.

11.

______ By the time most people reach maturity, it is almost impossible for them to increase their skills in group participation.

After you have marked the statements, form small groups and see if you can agree or disagree unanimously with each statement. Try especially to find reasons for differences of opinion. If your group cannot reach agreement or disagreement, you may change the wording in any statement to promote unanimity.

2. Get-Acquainted Scavenger Hunt Your instructor will ask you to find people in your class or group who match as many descriptive prompts as possible. When you meet someone who matches a particular description, write that person‘s name in the corresponding space. Use this as a way of getting better acquainted with people with whom you will be working or studying. 2 1.

Someone with your eye color

____________

2.

Someone born in the same state you were

3.

Someone whose astrological sign is the same as yours

4.

Someone who likes the same sport you do

5.

Someone who likes your favorite food

6.

Someone who has the same number of letters in their name

7.

Someone who feels it is okay to cry in public

____________

8.

Someone who is the youngest in the family

____________

9.

Someone who would like to write a book

10.

Someone who has seen the same movie at least three times

11.

Someone who has traveled outside the United States

12.

Someone who likes to ski

13.

Someone who is an only child

14.

Someone who can speak more than one language

15.

Someone who likes to cook

____________ ____________

____________

____________ ____________

____________ ____________

____________

____________ ____________ ____________

____________ 6

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Experiential Exercises 1. Ice Breaker Activity: Talk to Me Goal The Talk to Me exercise has the primary purpose of students getting to know one another in a small group environment.

Time Students should be given 15 minutes for their conversation.

Procedure Divide students into groups of five. Distribute a snack such as pretzels or M&Ms. Have the students take as many as they would like; however, they should be cautioned not to eat any of them. Then, they should reveal a fact about themselves for each pretzel they took. Group members can then discuss how they form first impressions. They can also share important facts that they learned about their group members.

2. Impression Formation: High Point Goal The High Point activity has a twofold purpose. The students will get to know one another, and the instructor will be able to use this activity to help place students in groups whose members complement one another on various dimensions.

Time Varies The instructor may choose to limit the amount of time for each participant to two to three minutes.

Procedure A High Point in a team/group situation is defined as any positive experience a person remembers while working in a team. Include the number of participants in the group and the result of the project. The project can be recent, past, high school-related, work-related, family-related, or university-related.

This exercise can be repeated once a week or at the beginning of each class meeting, and the topic can be related to the chapter topic. The instructor should take notes on the order in which each student participates (i.e., who speaks first, last, reluctantly, eagerly). The topic chosen should also be noted.

3. Elevator Exercise Goal The purpose is to demonstrate the definition of small groups.

Group Size Five Time Required 7 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Ten to fifteen minutes Procedure Select five students for this role-playing exercise. Provide this scenario: Students are waiting for an elevator; the door opens, and all the students enter. The elevator continues going to the second, third, and fourth floors until it suddenly stops between floors. The students must now decide what to do. Let them talk for up to five minutes about how to resolve this dilemma. (Tell them that cell phone coverage is blocked, but the elevator has the usual features that most elevators would have.)

Follow-Up Discussion The class observes the group experience wherein the members progress from a group of individuals to a group that shares a common goal or purpose. They determine who exerts influence over whom. They decide what form of leadership has evolved. Has a leader emerged, or have the students proceeded to solve this problem democratically?

4. GroupMe Exercise Goal The purpose is to introduce students to the concept of virtual collaboration.

Time Required Thirty to Forty Minutes Procedure Divide students into groups. Ask them to create a GroupMe chat using their phones and begin a new discussion using ONLY GroupMe messaging. Students can remain silently in the classroom or spread out in the halls. Give students the task of brainstorming strategies for succeeding in this small group course and determining how they might attain their desired grade. Again, this should be done in silence to better simulate social media interaction. In addition, ask them to discuss some of the issues they may face. What concerns do they have? What challenges may arise?

Follow-Up Discussion Together as a class, have each group briefly summarize their strategies and express their concerns to allow each group to see both commonalities and differences between small groups.

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Chapter Two: Understanding Small Group Communication Theory Chapter Summary The theory-building process is a fundamental aspect of all human communication. Through theories—both formal and informal—we explain our surroundings, predict probable outcomes of behavior, and control our actions accordingly. The explanatory and predictive functions of theories make them practical, thus providing a rationale for the study of theory in small group communication.

Several theoretical perspectives for studying small group communication are discussed, including systems theory, social exchange theory, symbolic convergence theory, structuration theory, and functional theory. The impact of new technologies on the structuring of group communication is addressed in relationship to structuration theory.

Chapter Objectives After studying this chapter, the students will be able to: 2.1

Explain how people use theory to make sense of themselves and the world

2.2

Create a systemic explanation using theory

2.3

Relate theory to the sense-making function of small group communication

2.4

Differentiate between major theories of group communication

2.5

Apply theory to group communication

Chapter Outline

2.1: The Nature of Theory and the Theory-Building Process 2.1.1: Theory and Self-Concept 2.1.2: Theory and Group Communication

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2.2: Theory as a Practical Approach to Group Communication 2.2.1: Explanatory Function 2.2.2: Predictive Function 

Process Theories



Method Theories

2.3: Communication as Sense-Making in Small Groups 2.3.1: The Complexity of Getting to Know Someone 2.3.2: The Complexity of Small Group Relationships

2.4: Theoretical Perspectives for the Study of Group Communication 2.4.1: Systems Theory 

Openness to Environment



Interdependence



Input Variables



Process Variables



Output Variables



Synergy



Entropy



Equifinality

2.4.2: Social Exchange Theory 2.4.3: Symbolic Convergence Theory 10 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.



Fantasy



Fantasy Theme



Fantasy Chain

2.4.4: Structuration Theory 2.4.5: Functional Theory 

Three Propositions



Satisfy Task Requirements



Observe Constraints



Review Decisions

2.5: A Model of Small Group Communication 2.5.1: Parts of a Descriptive Model 

Communication



Leadership



Goals



Norms



Roles



Cohesiveness



Situation

2.5.2: Tips for Using Theory Discussion Questions 1. As a class, critique the theoretical model of group communication presented in the chapter. What does the model do for us? What does it fail to do?

2. In small groups, ask students to discuss the value of theories. What purpose do they serve? How might they be useful? Do we really need theories, and why? If not, why not?

3. Students should make a list of informal theories they have about an ordinary day (e.g., Professor X is boring; I am afraid of speaking in class). They should then discuss on what 11 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

basis they formulated these theories. How do these theories affect their behavior?

4. As a class or in small groups, ask students to share their attitudes toward committee or group work. How do these attitudes affect behavior in small groups?

5. How does each of the theories discussed in this chapter affect students‘ perception of small group communication? Ask students to please provide specific examples. a.

Systems theory

b.

Social exchange theory

c.

Symbolic convergence theory

d.

Structuration theory

e.

Functional theory

Study Guide Activities In this chapter, a visit to the grocery store was used to demonstrate both the ordinariness and the practicality of theories. Choose another everyday phenomenon—perhaps begin with an explanation of why you‘re enrolled in this course—and then build a systematic explanation.

What predictions can you make based on your theory?

Review the section in this chapter on structuration theory. Then, take a few minutes to reflect on the rules that govern your behavior in groups. Express four or five of these rules as if/then (condition/action) statements (e.g., ―if someone in the group addresses me directly, then it is my responsibility to respond‖). Share and discuss your rules with others in your group. See if others in your group agree with your list. How do these rules contribute to or detract from effective group communication?

1.

Build a Simple Interaction Diagram Figure 2.1 presented a descriptive model that graphically depicts the interrelationships of various group communication concepts. The authors selected this particular graphic format because it is in the form of an observation tool known as an interaction diagram, which is a means of identifying and recording the frequency and direction of group interactions—observing communication networks in groups.

An interaction diagram can reveal 12 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

who is talking to whom and how often. You can identify the most active and the most reticent group members. You can discover patterns in the relationships that form among group members. This is how to make one: 1. Draw a circle for each member of the group, arranging your circles in the same relative positions as those in which the group members are seated (see the interaction diagram below).

2. Refer to the interaction diagram. If Nancy were to open the meeting by asking Phil for the minutes from the last meeting, you would draw an arrow from Nancy‘s circle to Phil‘s, indicating the direction and destination of Nancy‘s communication. Each subsequent remark Nancy makes to Phil would then be indicated by a short crossmark at the base of the arrow.

3. Repeat this process each time someone in the group addresses someone else. If Phil were to direct his reading of the minutes to Nancy, you would put an arrowhead at the other end of the line that connects the two.

4.

Indicate communication addressed to the group as a whole with a line pointing away from the center of the group. Again, note subsequent remarks with crossmarks.

Here is an example of how a completed interaction diagram might look. If you take a few moments to examine the diagram, which incorporates a category system, you will see some patterns. For example, Phil seems to be the most vocal member of the group. Furthermore, most members address their remarks to Phil, which suggests that they perceive Phil to be the group‘s leader. The frequency with which Phil addresses the group as a whole supports this observation. The amount of communication between Phil and Jim indicates a strong relationship there, perhaps that of a leader and his ―lieutenant.‖

The interaction diagram is an easy way to describe graphically the interaction patterns in a group. Also, this method of observation can be used without seriously disrupting the regular workings of the group. By updating the interaction diagram during several meetings, you can observe changes in group interaction.

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Experiential Exercises 1.

Create Your Own Group Communication Model

Goals To familiarize students with the five group communication theories discussed in the text.

To help students understand the practical application of theories.

To aid students in their understanding of the function of communication models.

Group Size Divide class into five groups Time Required 60 minutes Materials Needed Distribute a copy of each of the theories from the textbook, pencils, colored markers, and poster board.

Procedure Have the class count from one to five. Group 1 should be assigned systems theory; group 2—social exchange theory; group 3—symbolic convergence theory; group 4—structuration theory; group 5—functional theory.

1. Groups will then construct a model to illustrate their theory. It is important that students incorporate the variables of small group communication outlined in the model of group communication discussed in Chapter 2. Students may also add any other variables that they deem important. Allow 30 minutes for this portion of the exercise. Allow 20 minutes to create the model.

2. After all groups have completed their models, post the models in front of the classroom.

Each group will explain their model to the rest of the class. Allow class members to ask questions about each model. This phase should last about 30 minutes for all groups. The instructor can give input about each theory.

3. After all groups have finished presenting their models, conduct a general discussion concerning the five different theories of communication and how they will directly apply to their small group experience both in the class and outside of the class.

2.

Theories Are Relative

Goals The purpose of small group communication theory is to explain and predict small group phenomena. This exercise attempts to relate the theories discussed in this chapter (i.e., systems theory, social exchange theory, symbolic convergence theory, structuration theory, and functional theory) to specific group communication situations so that students may more clearly understand how theory explains everyday communication.

Procedures 14 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Divide the class into groups of five members.

2. Have each group discuss the theories identified in this chapter until everyone feels that they understand the central ideas of each one.

3. Then, consider these situations: • An engineering research and development team for an automobile manufacturer • A jury • A group of students working on a class project • A family • The case study in the chapter What characteristics make each situation unique?

4. Relate the theories to the five situations. Do certain theories seem better suited to one than another? Why or why not? What are the strengths and weaknesses of each theory?

5. Relate your findings to the group communication model shown in Figure 2.1, the constellation of variables in small group communication. Which aspects of the model relate most clearly to each situation and theory you have discussed?

6. What conclusions can you derive from these analyses? Report these conclusions to the class.

3.

Understanding Systems Theory Through Metaphors

Goal To have groups generate their own metaphor to better understand systems theory.

Time Required 30 to 40 minutes Procedure Similar to how the book illustrates systems theory using the human body, each group will generate their own metaphor for the theory. Students will complete the phrase ―Systems theory is…‖ with a new analogy that not only gives the theory a comparison, but also explains each component. Encourage students to be sure that, whatever metaphor they choose (car, factory, computer), that they can explain how each component of systems theory fits into their example. One representative from each group will explain their new metaphor to the class so that all groups may hear memorable examples.

Chapter Three: Facilitating Group Development Chapter Summary This chapter examines the needs and goals that influence the formation of groups. Group 15 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

development is described as an interrelationship among sets of group and individual variables: interpersonal needs, individual goals, group goals, interpersonal attraction, and group attraction. In a sense, a group may be seen as always in the process of becoming.

Although there is a relatively well-defined orientation period at the outset of the group‘s life (during which individuals‘ inclusion needs and the testing of relationships are dominant), the group continues to follow a pattern of formation throughout its life. As the group approaches each new meeting and decision, it forms and re-forms around each new task. The cycle is based on the interpersonal needs William Schutz has termed inclusion, control, and affection.

A crucial variable in group formation is the degree to which individual goals correspond with group goals. The chapter urges students to examine their goals, needs, and motivation for group membership. The establishment of mutuality of concern among all group members is strongly encouraged. The reformation of groups as a new member joins is addressed, as the group‘s ―personality‖ adjusts to the new member.

Chapter Objectives After studying this chapter, the students will be able to: 3.1

Relate interpersonal needs to group communication

3.2

Analyze the ways in which people develop and commit to common goals

3.3

Describe sources of attraction between people and groups

3.4

Evaluate how cultural norms influence group interaction

3.5

Discuss the process of group development

Chapter Outline

3.1: Interpersonal Needs 3.1.1: Maslow’s Theory 

Physiological Needs



Safety Needs



Belongingness Need



Esteem Need



Self-Actualization Need

3.1.2: Schutz’s Theory 16 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.



Inclusion



Control



Affection



Repeating Cycles of Group Development

3.2: Goals and Mutuality 3.2.1: Individual Goals 3.2.2: Group Goals 3.2.3: Establishing Mutuality of Concern 

Commitment



Concern for Task



Individual Needs and Goals

3.3: Attraction 3.3.1: Interpersonal Attraction 

Similarity



Complementarity



Proximity, Contact, and Interaction



Physical Attractiveness

3.3.2: Group Attraction 

Group Activities



Group Goals



Group Membership

3.4: Culture and Group Development 3.4.1: Individualism and Collectivism 17 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

3.4.2: High-Context and Low-Context Cultures 3.4.3: High-Contact and Low-Contact Cultures 3.4.4: Homogeneity and Diversity 

Composition: Homogeneous or Diverse?



Is One Better than the Other?

3.5: Group Formation over Time 3.5.1: Four Developmental Stages of Group Formation 

Forming



Storming



Norming



Performing

3.5.2: Old Members/New Members 

Membership Turnover in a Group

3.5.3: Developing Trust Takes Time 

Socializing New Members



Positive Expectations



Structure Online Meetings to Introduce New Members



Dynamic Interrelatedness

Discussion Questions 1. Ask students to think of the groups in which they have been a member. Have students identify some of the different factors that brought members to those groups. Ask students to analyze what effect these factors had on the group.

2. Lead a discussion on the effects of interpersonal needs on group participation. For example, how might the behavior of a person motivated by inclusion needs differ from that of a person motivated by a need for control?

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3. The chapter on group formation is a good time to form ongoing task groups in the class. If you are including ongoing task groups as part of the course, have group members discuss with each other their commitments outside of class, the amount of time they have for group meetings, and their objectives for the course. This step can save the group considerable emotional wear-and-tear later on.

4. Observe a group discussion, perhaps through an online video or a scene from a film (such as jury deliberations or a boardroom meeting). Periodically pause to identify the phase of the group‘s cycle (forming, storming, norming, and performing) in which the group is operating. What are the verbal and nonverbal cues that lead you to this conclusion? Note the group‘s strategies for passing from one phase into the next. Can you observe any differences in the members‘ communicative behavior as the group repeats the cycle?

5. Ask students to share their experiences with online group meetings compared to face-toface meetings. Chances are good that your students have had (and will continue to have) many opportunities to participate in such interactions, via Zoom, Teams, Slack, Google Meet, Google Workspace, Miro, Asana, and so on. How are group processes such as building trust, introducing new members, establishing expectations, and the like, different or the same across the two mediums?

Study Guide Activities 1.

Make a list of the groups with which you are affiliated. Identify the members, activities, and goals of each. Then note your individual goals in regard to each group. Examine the results. What is your primary attraction to each group? Are your individual goals compatible with the group‘s goals? Do you have any hidden agendas? Do your answers to these questions explain any of your attitudes about or behaviors within these groups?

2.

Select two groups in which you are an active member—a study group, a club, or your family, for example. For each group, indicate the importance to you of the various factors in group formation. Use a scale of 1 (―very important‖) to 5 (―not at all important to me‖).

Group 1

Group 2

Interpersonal needs Inclusion Control Affection

_______ _______ _______

_______ _______ _______

Group 1

Group 2 19

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Interpersonal attraction Similarity

_______

Complementarity Proximity

_______

_______

_______

Physical attractiveness

_______ _______

_______

_______

Group attraction Group activities

_______

_______

Group goals

_______

_______

Group membership

_______

_______

Compare your ratings of the two groups. Do you now have a better understanding of the roles these groups play in your life?

After you have joined a group, work to facilitate its passage through developmental stages. At the first meeting of any new group, you may feel anxious. You may be uncertain about who the other members are, what each person‘s role is to be, and what to say to whom. At this stage, share a little information about yourself and encourage others to do the same. Many group leaders ask participants to say a few words about themselves. This strategy breaks the ice and provides some familiarity on which to base further discussion. In short, it reduces people‘s uncertainty and helps them relax.

Experiential Exercises 1.

Group Development in Popular Media

Goals Students should see the stages of group development reflected in popular media groups.

Time 40 to 50 Minutes Procedure In groups, have students discuss famous small groups that they are familiar with, whether they be in movies, television series, online content, and so on. Assign each group one specific stage of group formation as well.

Each group will then use online resources (such as YouTube) to find a short video clip illustrating their famous group in whichever stage they were assigned. For example, one group may have chosen a superhero team in a movie clip that shows them engaging in the storming phase.

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After sufficient time has passed, ask one student from each group to play the clip and briefly discuss why that clip illustrates their phase.

2.

12, More or Less, Angry, More or Less, Men, and Often Women

Goals Contrasting views of groups making important decisions Time 20 to 30 Minutes Procedure Find clips from two movies that feature jury deliberation. Good examples include 12 Angry Men and In the Name of the Father, although My Cousin Vinny, Judgment at Nuremberg, Runaway Jury, We the Jury, The Devil’s Advocate, or others may be suitable. The goal is to find contrasting approaches. For example, a scene in which the jury members are fraught with indecision, pivoting from one potential verdict to another, can be contrasted with a scene in which a seemingly open-and-shut case leads to a quick decision. Perhaps you can contrast a comedic scene with one of considerable tension, or one in which a lone hold-out is contrasted with a faction within the jury. However you approach it, try to find stark contrasts, then ask your students to identify the group development factors at work. Are individual goals pitted against group goals? How does the attractiveness of the group play a role? Which cultural norms, if any, appear to be present? By presenting contrasts, students should be able to form statements such as, ―Well, in this clip X was present, but it was notably absent in that clip‖ or ―Inclusion was handled well in this group, whereas mutuality of concern was evident in this other group.‖

Chapter Four: Preparing to Collaborate Chapter Summary Chapter 4 presents concepts related to successful collaboration within groups. Developing a discussion plan involves many steps that sometimes can be overlooked, such as getting acquainted, sharing expertise, or clarifying the goals of the group from the outset. Having a written agenda typically can keep group discussion on track. There is an art to formulating discussion questions, and not all questions represent the same underlying principle.

Questions of fact, value, policy, and prediction illustrate the different elements groups often must consider. Of course, sometimes discussion takes the form of invective and emotionality, which have little place in effective group communication. Inductive and deductive reasoning are to be promoted, and fallacies such as red herring, attacking the person, slippery slope, or bandwagon are to be avoided. Cogent information triage and sensible evaluation of evidence and arguments are a necessity in this regard.

Chapter Objectives 21 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

After studying this chapter, the students will be able to: 4.1

Apply preparation strategies for group discussion

4.2

Determine well-worded questions for group discussion

4.3

Support an argument using a logical reasoning method

4.4

Analyze the ways evidence is used in group discussions

Chapter Outline

4.1: How to Develop a Discussion Plan 4.1.1: Get Acquainted with Your Group Members 

Share Your Expertise



Share Personal Information



Share Sooner Rather than Later



Share Patiently



Share Virtual Communication Strategies

4.1.2: Clarify the Goals of the Group 

Identify the Goal



Stay Focused on the Goal

4.1.3: Plan How to Gather Information and Analyze Issues 

Be Realistic



Review What You Already Know



Identify What You Don‘t Know



Coordinate the Work



Set Deadlines

4.1.4: Follow a Structured Agenda to Accomplish the Task 22 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.



Always Distribute a Meeting Agenda before You Meet



If Appropriate, Use a Problem-Solving Approach

4.1.5: Share Information with Others 

Share What You Know



Talk about the Information Shared with the Group



Develop Productive Strategies for Sharing Information



Share Information Virtually

4.1.6: Determine How to Present Your Information 

Panel Discussions



Symposium Presentations



Forum Presentations

4.2: How to Formulate Discussion Questions 4.2.1: Questions of Fact 4.2.2: Questions of Prediction 

Develop If-Then Statements



Analyze the Problem



Use Evidence



Evaluate the Quality of the Evidence

4.2.3: Questions of Value 

Attitude



Belief



Value

4.2.4: Questions of Policy

4.3: How to Use Logic and Reasoning Effectively 23 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

4.3.1: Inductive Reasoning 4.3.2: Deductive Reasoning 

Major Premise



Minor Premise



Conclusion

4.3.3: Causal Reasoning

4.4: Using Evidence in Group Discussions 4.4.1: Evaluating Evidence 

Facts



Examples



Opinions



Statistics



Evaluating Internet and ChatGPT Research



Information Triage: Assess the Quality of Information

4.4.2: Developing Critical Analysis Skills 

Avoid Reasoning Fallacies 

Casual Fallacy



Either/Or Fallacy



Bandwagon Fallacy



Hasty Generalization



Attacking the Person



Red Herring



Slippery Slope

Discussion Questions 1. Imagine you are assigned to a committee that is addressing parking problems on campus.

What are some of the strategies that should be considered first? Why are they so important in preparation for the subsequent discussion?

24 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

2. The definitions of fact, prediction, value, and policy questions are deceptively simple. Ask students to bring an editorial piece to class, looking for questions of fact, prediction, value, or policy. Invite them to discuss their findings with the class.

3. How do we know that information found online is credible? What are some of the criteria for evaluating information retrieved from online sources? What is an example of a credible source, and what is an example of a non-credible source?

4. Provide students with a particular topic concerning small group communication. Ask students to give examples of fallacious reasoning using causal, either/or, bandwagon, hasty generalization, attacking the person, slippery slope, and red herring forms of fallacies.

5. Consider these statements: •

The abortion issue is clear; life begins at the moment of conception.

•

Marijuana is a gateway drug to fentanyl, heroin, and cocaine.

•

If you are against the war, you are for terrorism.

•

A woman can never be elected as President of the United States.

•

Automobiles made in the United States are inferior to those made in Germany or Japan.

•

Every college student should join a campus organization.

What reasoning—inductive, deductive, causal—does each statement imply? What evidence might be used to support each statement? What fallacies are apparent in each statement?

Study Guide Activities 1.

Assessing Your Group’s Plan for Success

Use this scale to assess whether your group has developed an effective plan for accomplishing the group‘s task.

1 = No

2 = Sometimes No

3 = Uncertain

4 = Sometimes Yes

5 = Yes

1.

______We spent time getting acquainted with each group member before we started to organize our work.

2.

______We exchanged phone numbers and email addresses.

3.

______We developed a written goal statement and shared the goal with all group 25 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

members.

4.

______We developed a plan for gathering the information we need to achieve our goal.

5.

______We analyzed our information before we started developing a solution to our problem or made a collective decision.

6.

______We developed a step-by-step structured plan for how we would organize our work.

7.

______We shared the information we gathered with all group members.

8.

______We evaluated the logic and reasoning of group members when formulating our solutions or when making decisions.

9.

______We explicitly offered positive verbal and nonverbal support for the contributions of group members.

10.

______We discussed and made decisions as to how we would share our group‘s recommendations with others.

Plainly, scores can range from 10 to 50. Tally your total score and then compare it to that of your group members. If all of you scored 50…huzzah! Either you‘re all members of an extremely high-functioning group, or you‘re all succumbing to the same illusions and misperceptions of effective group functioning. Assuming there‘s not perfect unanimity, consider using points of disagreement (such as responses to particular items that show a wide divergence of endorsement) to discuss how group planning and communication might be improved.

2.

Identifying Questions of Fact, Prediction, Value, and Policy



After reading this narrative, formulate the main discussion question and indicate whether it is a question of fact, of prediction, of value, or of policy. Identify at least one question of fact and at least one question of value suggested by the narrative.

A new liberal divorce law has come up for discussion in the State senate.

Senator Gonzalez, who introduced the bill, has lobbied hard for it because she has found evidence to suggest that rather than deterring divorce, complications in the current law only result in lengthy delays and higher fees for divorce lawyers. Senator Williams also supports the new law; he was recently divorced and experienced much frustration and irritation during the process. Senator Schwartz, in contrast, is happily married and quite conservative; he leads opposition to the new law.

3.

Critical Thinking and Analysis: Identifying Reasoning Fallacies



Working with your group members, determine whether there is a flaw in the analysis or logic of each statement presented here. If there is fallacious reasoning, identify which reasoning fallacy is illustrated.

1.

Everyone in our city drinks fluoridated water. Therefore, it‘s safe to drink fluoridated water.

26 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

2.

Your idea can‘t be a good one. You grew up in a small town in the rural area of Nebraska, where it would be impossible to get a good education.

3.

We either increase tuition or tell 10 percent of the faculty that they‘re fired; those are the only ways to balance the budget.

4.

Each year the El Niño weather pattern is active, the economy improves; clearly, El Niño has an effect on stock prices.

5.

Of course, eating a good breakfast makes you smarter. My nephew Clyde eats a good breakfast every morning, and he has an IQ of over 130.

6.

A recent survey found that 52 percent of respondents approved of modifying a résumé to make credentials appear better than they actually are; therefore, it would be appropriate for you to modify your résumé credentials.

7.

The school board should either add a new class period at the end of the school day or leave the schedule the way it is now.

8.

Everyone knows a talk show host is primarily an entertainer and therefore couldn‘t make a meaningful comment about the proposal to salvage Social Security.

9.

The university should plan for more parking spaces because, when I arrive on campus, I often can‘t find a good place to park.

10.

Even though we are discussing whether to raise admissions standards at our university, I think you will all agree that the real reason we don‘t have high-quality students is that many of them lack good oral communication skills.

Experiential Exercises 1.

NASA Moon Survival Task

Goals To illustrate the process that groups go through in analyzing a problem.

To illustrate the principle that, many times, groups arrive at a better solution to a problem than individuals.

To become more aware of the difficulties involved in establishing priorities.

Group Size Groups of five to seven people Time Required Approximately 60 minutes Materials Needed Each participant will need a copy of the case study (found online via many sources; search for ―NASA Moon Survival Task‖).

A room for the groups to discuss the case study Procedure 27 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Instruct participants to read the NASA Moon Survival Task and rank-order the items listed from 1–15.

2. Form groups of five to seven people.

3. Instruct the groups to discuss the problem and try to reach a consensus.

4. After the groups have reached a consensus, and if time is available, ask the groups to agree on which member of the crew will carry each of the items. (Allow approximately 15 minutes for this phase.)

5. Ask the group participants to compare their personal ranking (pre-consensus) and the group rankings (post-consensus) with the answers given by NASA experts. Distribute a copy of the answer sheet (which typically accompanies the online resource) to each participant.

6. Distribute a copy of the Directions for Scoring (which typically accompanies the online resource). Ask students to follow the directions and compute their individual scores and a group score.

Suggestions 1. Conclude the discussion by talking about the process each group used to reach a consensus.

2. A representative from each group could summarize the methods used to reach a consensus in their group.

3. It is advisable to precede the exercises with a brief discussion of techniques for reaching a consensus.

4. This exercise also illustrates that groups usually arrive at better solutions than individuals.

28 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

2.

Ice Cream Reasoning

Goals For students to distinguish between inductive and deductive reasoning.

Time 15–20 minutes Procedure Form small groups, and ask each group collectively to decide on what the best flavor of ice cream is. Using their personal devices for some quick research, have them generate both an inductive and deductive reason for why their flavor is the best. Each group will present these arguments to the class after all groups have completed the task. The class will then offer feedback as to whether each reasoning was accurate.

Chapter Five: Relating to Others in Groups Chapter Summary Chapter 5 presents several concepts that should help students understand the dynamics of relating to others in small groups—specifically, the concepts of roles, norms, status, power, trust, and culture. Self-concept formation is included to help students understand how roles are initially developed in small groups. A list of task, maintenance, and individual roles is included.

The discussions of group norms are designed to help students identify what norms are, how they are developed, and how norms operate in their own groups. Students are also given some principles that should help them identify why groups conform to certain norms. The status of group members is discussed from the perspective of identifying how status differences affect communication patterns. The effects of power are presented to help students understand how the ability to control or influence has an impact on group relationships and problem-solving. A discussion of how trusting relationships are formed in face-to-face groups and virtual teams is included.

The chapter concludes with information about cultural differences using the previously mentioned cultural concepts of individualism/collectivism, high context/low context, and high contact/low contact. Such differences can affect conversational style and perceptions of time.

Chapter Objectives After studying this chapter, the students will be able to: 5.1

Determine the impact of your roles and identities on your social interactions

5.2

Analyze the influence of norms on the actions of a group and its individual members 29 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

5.3

Predict group interactions based on status

5.4

Outline the path of power from its origin to its impact on a group

5.5

Evaluate the level of trust among group members

5.6

Analyze how group relationships change over time

Chapter Outline

5.1: Roles 5.1.1: Self-Concept and Group Roles 

Other‘s Perceptions



Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity



Culture of Origin



Affiliations



Self-Observation

5.1.2: Diversity of Roles in Small Groups 

What Roles Do You Fill?



Different Roles at Different Times



Emergent Team Roles





The solution seeker



The problem analyst



The procedural facilitator



The complainer



The indifferent

Informal and Formal Roles

5.2: Norms 5.2.1: How Do Norms Develop?

5.2.2: Identifying Group Norms 

How Can I Recognize Group Norms?

5.2.3: Conforming to Group Norms 30 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.



Norms and Culture

5.2.4: Establishing Ground Rules 

Ground Rules in Teams



How Does a Team Develop Ground Rules?

5.3: Status 5.3.1: Privileges Accorded to High-Status Group Members 5.3.2: Effects of Status Differences 

Status Differences in Online Groups



Observing Status Differences to Predict Group Dynamics

5.4: Power 5.4.1: Power Bases 

Legitimate Power



Referent Power



Expert Power



Reward Power



Coercive Power

5.4.2: Effects of Power on Group Process 5.4.3: Power and Gender 5.4.4: Status and Power across Cultures

5.5: Trust 5.5.1: Developing Trusting Relationships 

Trust Defined



Trust and Risk

5.5.2: Trust in Face-to-Face and Virtual Teams 31 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

5.6: The Development of Group Relationships over Time 5.6.1: Communication and Gender 5.6.2: Conversational Style 5.6.3: Perception of Time 

Time Orientations



Time Expectations

Discussion Questions 1. Discuss the concept of time using monochronic and polychronic time. Do your students endorse one perspective or the other in their daily lives? Do they think this endorsement is influenced by their current cultural context, or perhaps by the cultural values they were exposed to while growing up?

2. Ask students to determine who assumes the task, maintenance, and individual roles within their class project groups. Have them include this analysis as part of their progress report for the semester group project.

3. Ask students to collaborate and determine which task and maintenance roles they believe are most important and why.

4. Discuss the concept of trust. How does one gain other person‘s trust?

5. Discuss cultural differences in conversational styles. How can this affect group work? How should group discussions be modified to be more inclusive of different styles?

6. Ask students to share experiences in which status and power differences have affected their interactions with others (e.g., teachers, police officers, peers).

Study Guide Activities 1.

Group Role Inventory

When you see yourself differently from the way others see you, or when your expectations of people cloud your perceptions of them, there is a potential for uncertainty, confusion, frustration, and conflict in a group. An inventory was designed to help members become more aware of the roles they play and of how others perceive those roles. Completing the questionnaire can be time-consuming but worth the effort, especially when a group is having difficulty establishing norms.

32 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Objectives: To become aware of the roles you play in your group and how others perceive your roles Materials: Group role inventory sheet Time: 45 minutes Procedure: 1.

Complete the group role inventory sheet.

2.

Review the list and check the role you would like to have performed but did not perform.

3.

Review the list again and highlight (using an asterisk or checkmark) the role you performed but would rather not have performed.

4.

Discuss the results with your group.

Group Role Inventory Sheet Who in your group, including yourself, is most likely to engage in these behaviors: 1.

Take initiative, propose ideas, and get things started?

2.

Sit back and wait passively for others to lead?

3.

Express feelings most freely, frankly, and openly?

4.

Keep feelings hidden, reserved, and unexpressed?

5.

Show understanding of other members‘ feelings?

6.

Be wrapped up in personal concerns and not very responsive to others?

7.

Interrupt others when they are speaking?

8.

Daydream, become lost in private thoughts during group sessions, and be ―far away‖?

9.

Give you a feeling of encouragement, warmth, friendly interest, and support?

10.

Converse privately with someone else while another member is speaking to the group?

11.

Talk of trivial things, engage in superficial chit-chat?

12.

Criticize, put people on their guard?

13.

Feel superior to other members?

14.

Be listened to by everyone while speaking?

15.

Act inferior to other members?

16.

Contribute good ideas?

17.

Contradict, disagree, argue, raise objections?

18.

Sulk or withdraw when displeased with the group?

19.

Be the one you would like to have on your side if a conflict arose in the group?

20.

Agree or conform with whatever is said?

33 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

21.

Be missed, if absent, more than any other member?

2.

Categorizing Group Roles

When observing and evaluating group interactions, a simple way to catalog group roles is to list group members down the left-hand side of the page (leaving space below each name for notes) and then to enter next to each name the task, maintenance, or individual roles you observe that person enacting. Knowing which roles are enacted (and which are not) can be helpful to the group. For example, learning that no one in the group is focusing on group task roles can help the group change direction and become more task-oriented.

3.

One-Minute Papers

A way to collect good open-ended information about a group or meeting is to take a few minutes at the conclusion of the meeting and ask group members to write responses to one or more open-ended questions. For example: 1.

What is the most important thing that occurred at today‘s meeting?

2.

Are there things you wished had happened at today‘s meeting that didn’t happen? If so, what are they?

3.

If you could change one thing about our group or team, what would it be?

One-minute papers can be collected and summarized by the group leader or observer. Such feedback can lend support for what is working well in the group and provide a corrective impetus when needed.

4.

After-Meeting Reaction Sheets

Often, it is helpful to ask group members individually to react to and/or rate meetings at their conclusion. Information received can be summarized and introduced at the next group or team meeting to help improve meeting quality.

You can construct after-meeting ratings using quick and easy scales. For example, you can provide a statement and ask group members to indicate the extent to which they agree or disagree. For example: I feel satisfied with the decisions reached during this meeting.

1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Moderately Neither Moderately Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree nor Agree

Some areas to focus on when crafting items include the productiveness of the meeting, the quality of participants‘ interactions, the expression of emotion during discussion, the timeliness and organization of the group, the relevance of agenda items, and so on.

34 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Experiential Exercises 1.

Johari Window Exercise

Goal To help students realize the impressions they have on others and others have of them.

Procedure 1. Form groups of five people.

2. Select five or six adjectives from the list provided that best describe your personality as you see it.

3. Select three or four adjectives that describe the personality of each person in your group and write them on separate sheets of paper. Distribute them to the appropriate group members.

4. Complete square 1 (known to self and known to others) with adjectives from the list that both you and at least one group member of your group selected to describe your personality.

5. Complete square 2 (not known to self but known to others) with those adjectives others in your group used to describe you but you did not use to describe yourself.

6. Complete square 3 (known to self but not to others) with adjectives you have used to describe yourself but no one else used it to describe you.

Adjectives able

accepting

adaptable

bold

brave

calm

caring

confident dependable dignified energetic extraverted idealistic

independent

loving mature

ingenious

intelligent

introverted

cheerful

clever

complex

friendly giving happy helpful kind

knowledgeable

logical

modest nervous observant organized patient powerful proud quiet

reflective

relaxed

religious

responsive

sensible

sentimental

shy

spontaneous

silly

searching

self-assertive

sympathetic

tense

wise witty

35 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

self-conscious

trustworthy

warm

2.

Understanding Group Roles

Goals To give students a clear understanding of the concept of group roles.

To give students practical experience in identifying group roles through observing a group while conducting a meeting.

Group Size One class group volunteers to have an open meeting Time Required Approximately 20 minutes for the meeting and 20 minutes for class discussion Materials Needed List of task, maintenance, and individual roles distributed to each student Physical Setting This is an exercise in which one group volunteers to conduct one of their meetings or a roleplay situation in front of the class.

Procedure 36 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

1. The volunteer group will conduct their meeting as naturally as possible.

2. Explain to students that they will be observing and labeling the different roles group members are demonstrating as the meeting progresses.

3. At the conclusion of the meeting, discuss the members‘ roles and how they were determined. Note that each group member takes on multiple roles as the meeting progresses.

3.

Fluidity of Roles

Goals For students to note the frequency with which people engage in different group roles.

Time Required 15 minutes Procedure Select a short video clip that follows a small group through a meeting of some sort. Have each student keep track of how many group roles they see enacted throughout the clip and what those roles were.

After the video concludes, ask students to please discuss with their group mates what they saw and generate a master list of all the roles that were present. Solicit examples, allowing each group to discuss some of their findings.

After the discussion, show the class your own list of identified roles to illustrate how many were present and how any group member can transition from role to role.

Chapter Six: Improving Group Climate Chapter Summary Chapter 6 explores the difference between behaviors that contribute to a trusting, open communication environment and those that tend to erect barriers to free and open communication. Defensive and supportive behaviors, evaluative versus descriptive communication styles, strategy versus spontaneity, certainty versus provisionalism, and confirming and disconfirming responses are considered, among other seeming dichotomies.

Cohesiveness is defined as the degree of attraction that members feel toward one another and toward the group. A number of contributing factors are discussed: defensive and supportive climates, group cohesiveness, communication networks, group size, and productivity. A positive group climate, in which there is free and open communication and a strong cohesive bond among members, is essential for a group to reach its maximum effectiveness.

37 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Chapter Objectives After studying this chapter, the students will be able to: 6.1

Compare defensive and supportive group climates

6.2

Observe group climate for responsiveness

6.3

Analyze groups for factors that aid or limit cohesiveness

6.4

Describe how group size influences group climate

6.5

Relate group climate to productivity

Chapter Outline

6.1: Defensive versus Supportive Climates 6.1.1: Evaluation versus Description 6.1.2: Control versus Problem Orientation 6.1.3: Strategy versus Spontaneity 6.1.4: Neutrality versus Empathy 6.1.5: Superiority versus Equality 6.1.6: Certainty versus Provisionalism

6.2: Interpersonal Confirmation and Disconfirmation 6.2.1: Disconfirming Responses 

Impervious Response



Interrupting Response



Irrelevant Response



Tangential Response



Impersonal Response



Incoherent Response



Incongruous Response 38 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

6.2.2: Confirming Responses 

Direct acknowledgment



Agreement about content



Supportive response



Clarifying response



Expression of positive feeling

6.3: Group Cohesiveness 6.3.1: Diversity and Building a Cohesive Team 6.3.2: Individual Benefits and Cohesiveness 6.3.3: Task Effectiveness and Cohesiveness 6.3.4: Communication and Cohesiveness 6.3.5: Cohesiveness in Virtual Teams

6.4: Networks and Group Size 6.4.1: Group Size 6.4.2: Communication Networks 

Distribution of Communication within Groups



Communication Addressed to the Leader



Patterns in Face-to-Face Groups



Conclusions about Networks



Real-Life Applications

6.5: Group Climate and Productivity 6.5.1: Trust, Conflict, and Efficacy 6.5.2: Adopting the Group’s Goal Increases Productivity Discussion Questions 1. Ask students to describe defensive climates in which they interact or have interacted.

39 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Most students will have examples from their college experience. Ask them to describe the impact that such a climate has on productivity.

2. Emphasize the prevalence of defensive communication by asking students to consider whether they use at least one of these behaviors at some time: •

Superiority: You‘re just a kid; what could you possibly know about life? You couldn‘t possibly understand; you‘re too old.

•

Strategy: Scripting important conversations to avoid revealing sensitive information to someone else (i.e., in terminating a relationship, in calling in sick for work).

•

Control: Look, either you‘ll do this for me, or you don‘t love me. Which one is it?

•

Evaluation: You obviously don‘t care. You‘re a jerk!

•

Neutrality: It sounds to me like you‘ve got a personal problem! We don‘t have a conflict to discuss because I don‘t have a problem; you do.

•

Certainty: You always do that. You never consider anyone but yourself.

3. Have students review the case study, ―Avoiding Defensiveness‖ presented at the end of the chapter. Then ask them what could have been done in this situation to achieve more effective results.

4. Ask students to create an interaction diagram modeled on Figure 6-2 as they work in their groups. They should include the diagram as part of the progress report for the group project.

5. How do your students feel when they are interrupted, or when their comments are ignored? Has this happened during meetings? How does this affect decision-making?

6. Have your students been in any group where there was a high level of cohesiveness and trust? What factors contributed to this positive group climate?

7. How do communication networks affect group climate and individual satisfaction?

8. What is the relationship between group size and group climate?

9. Have students assess and record language for a week. Which words or phrases create reactions in them? Students should analyze responses as being confirming or disconfirming. How did the disconfirming responses make them feel? What was their reaction to confirming responses?

Study Guide Activities 1.

Confirmation/Disconfirmation



Stage a discussion in which members of your group attempt to use all of the disconfirming responses listed in this chapter (e.g., impervious response, irrelevant response). Choose a familiar topic about which everyone has something to say. Have observers keep a 40 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

record of the number and type of disconfirming responses and the reactions (especially nonverbal reactions) to them. Now repeat the discussion, covering as many of the same topics as possible, but this time concentrate on using only confirming responses. Again, have observers keep records. When you have completed both rounds of discussion, have group members discuss their reactions and ask observers to please report their findings.

2.

Interaction Diagram with Categories Interaction diagrams keep track of who talks to whom and how often. The  addition of a category system, such as group roles or defensive/supportive or confirming/disconfirming categories, can help you maintain a more complete record of group and team interactions.

This figure shows an example of how a completed interaction diagram might look. If you examine the diagram, which incorporates a category system, you will see some patterns. For example, Phil seems to be the most vocal member of the group.

Furthermore, most members address their remarks to Phil, which suggests that they perceive Phil to be the group‘s leader. The frequency with which Phil addresses the group as a whole supports this observation. The amount of communication between Phil and Jim indicates a strong relationship there, perhaps that of a leader and a ―lieutenant.‖

The interaction diagram is an easy way to describe and display the interaction patterns in a group. Also, this method of observation can be used without seriously disrupting the regular workings of a group. By updating the interaction diagram during several meetings, you can observe changes in group interaction. The addition of a category system to the interaction diagram renders this a most powerful descriptive tool.

3.

Assessing Your Group’s Cohesiveness: The Seashore Index

3

Invite each member of your group to complete the venerable Seashore Index of Group Cohesiveness. After each person has completed the questionnaire, compare results and use 41 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

these impressions to assess and discuss cohesiveness in your group and its implications.

Check one response for each question.

1.

Do you feel that you are really a part of your work group? ________ Really a part of my work group ________ Included in most ways ________ Included in some ways but not in others ________ Don‘t work with any one group of people ________ Not ascertained

2.

If you had a chance to do the same kind of work for the same pay (or reward or grade) in another group, how would you feel about moving? ________ Would very much want to move ________ Would rather move than stay where I am ________ Would make no difference to me ________ Would want very much to stay where I am ________ Not ascertained

3.

How does your work group compare with other similar groups on each of these points?

a. The way the members get along together b. The way the members stick together c. The way the members help each other

4.

Better than most

About the same as most

Not as good as most

Not ascertained

________

________

________

________

________

________

________

________

________

________

________

________

Interaction Diagrams

Observe several groups and prepare interaction diagrams for each. What do these diagrams indicate about the group? Share and discuss your results with the groups you observed.

Experiential Exercises 1.

Role-Playing Disconfirming and Confirming Responses 42 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Goals To give students a clear understanding of the concept of confirming responses.

To illustrate the effects of disconfirming and confirming responses on group climate. To give students practical experience in using confirming responses in a role-playing situation.

Group Size Unlimited number; four to six people per group Time Required Approximately 40 minutes Materials Needed 3 x 5 note cards containing seven disconfirming responses and five confirming responses that are in the text. Each card should be labeled as disconfirming or confirming (for example: Disconfirming: Impervious Response). Shuffle the cards well.

Physical Setting This is a role-playing exercise, so the front of the room should be cleared for student viewing of the group role-plays.

Procedure 1. Explain to participants that an understanding of the various ways in which disconfirming and confirming responses affect group climate will enhance their chances of learning constructive and confirming methods of responding during group discussions. In turn, this will allow them to contribute more productively to any group of which they are a part.

Explain that in this exercise, students will assume a role in an informal group discussion that will be enacted during class.

2. Divide students into groups and allow each group to decide on a subject that may be discussed easily with little preparation. For example, a group may pretend to be planning a party for some school organization or discussing how to deal with a problem that has arisen in student housing.

3. After all groups have decided on a subject, the facilitator will go to each group and ask each participant to draw a card from the stack of 3 x 5 cards with disconfirming and confirming responses. All students should keep the response category they have chosen a secret. You should ask students to please return the cards they have chosen so that you may proceed to the next group and let them choose from the stack. (Students may want to review responses in the text so that they will be familiar with the type of response they will be using during their role-play.) Allow about 10 minutes for this phase.

4. After each person has chosen a card, explain that each group will participate in a 4- to 5minute discussion. Each group member will make statements during the role-playing situation that should make it clear to observing class members what kind of response the person is demonstrating. A participant agreeing about content, for example, may say things during the discussion such as: ―That was a very good suggestion, Winston! I really agree with you.‖ 5. At the end of each group discussion, all students will try to guess what kind of response 43 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

each group member was using. After each group finishes its role-play, the class members may discuss how they drew conclusions about what roles were being played, and how certain roles enhanced or detracted from the group discussion.

After all groups have finished, as a class, you may discuss how group members felt as the discussion was going on. For example, were members able to talk more freely when there were confirming responses? How did the disconfirming responses make them feel?

Was the group more productive when the responses were confirming?

2.

Group Size, Cohesion, and Productivity

Goal To show how group size affects group productivity and cohesion.

Group Size Group sizes will vary throughout the exercise, as explained in the procedure section of this exercise.

Time Required Approximately 40 minutes Materials Needed A clear quart jar of M&M® candies or hard candies. The facilitator should know how many candies are contained in the jar.

Procedure 1. Begin by explaining to students that they will be given a chance to ―win‖ the jar of candies that has been placed in clear view. The student(s) who come closest to estimating the correct number of candies will receive the jar of candies as a prize. The candies will be shared equally by all winners.

2. First, allow all students in the room to estimate individually the number of candies in the jar. The facilitator should record all estimates.

3. Next, ask each participant to choose a partner. Have the partners work together to again estimate the number of candies in the jar and record the estimates.

4. Now, have each pair choose another already established pair in order to make a third estimate of the number of candies in the jar. Allow a few minutes for the groups of four to discuss their choices. Record the estimates.

5. Have each quartet pick another foursome and allow the new eight-member groups to estimate how many candies are in the jar. Record the estimates.

6. Finally, have the eight-member groups choose another eight-member group to form sixteen-member groups. Let groups discuss and then come to a consensus as to the number of candies in the jar. Record the estimate.

44 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

7. Now tell your students the true number of candies in the jar and present the jar of candies to the winners. Then hold a discussion about the students‘ reactions to the exercise, emphasizing the effect of group size on cohesion and productivity. Some questions may be discussed: a. Which size group appeared to be the most productive? The least? Why? b. What size groups gave the closest estimates to the number of candies in the jar? c. How did you react to the different-sized groups? Which one were you the most comfortable in? The least? Why? d. Among the groups you belonged to, which was the most cohesive? How could you tell? e. What were your main frustrations during the exercise?

Chapter Seven: Enhancing Communication Skills in Groups Chapter Summary Chapter 7 provides an introduction to verbal dynamics, listening, and nonverbal communication theories and research as they pertain to small group communication. The chapter gives students an understanding and appreciation of the role of communicative behaviors in small group deliberations. Barriers to communicating include bypassing, untrue generalizations, and fact-inference confusion. ―You‘re hearing me, but you‘re not listening‖ may be a good summary of some of the difficulties people have when responding to the messages of others. Various listening styles (analytical, critical, relational) are discussed, as are obstacles to effective listening and remedies for those difficulties. ―Do you see what I‘m saying?‖ applies to nonverbal communication. Students sometimes discount the communicative value of non-speech channels, although they can convey a wealth of information. You may want to dispel some of the misconceptions many students have about ―body language‖ and ―people reading.‖ Applications of nonverbal communication research to small group communication are organized around several classic research areas: (1) posture, movement, and gesture; (2) eye contact; (3) facial expressions; (4) vocal cues; (5) personal space and territory; (6) seating arrangements; (7) personal appearance; and (8) the communication environment.

Chapter Objectives 45 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

After studying this chapter, the students will be able to: 7.1.

Analyze words for common barriers to communication

7.2.

Evaluate listening behaviors in a small group environment

7.3.

Apply research findings about nonverbal communication to groups

7.4.

Interpret nonverbal communication in a group context

Chapter Outline

7.1: Verbal Dynamics and Avoiding Communication Barriers 7.1.1: Bypassing 

Correcting Bypassing



Feedback

7.1.2: Allness (Untrue Generalization) 

Allness Statements



Correcting Allness

7.1.3: Fact–Inference Confusion 

Correcting Fact–Inference Confusion

7.2: Listening 7.2.1: Listening Styles 

Relational Listening Style



Analytical Listening Style



Critical Listening Style



Task-Oriented Listening Style

7.2.2: Obstacles to Effective Listening 

Prejudging the Communicator or the Communication



Rehearsing a Response

7.2.3: A Guide to Active Listening 46 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.



Stop



Look



Listen



Ask Appropriate Questions



Paraphrase Feelings

7.3: Applying Nonverbal Communication Research to Groups 7.3.1: The Importance of Nonverbal Communication 7.3.2: Posture, Movement, and Gestures 

Emblems



Illustrators



Affect display



Regulators



Adaptors

7.3.3: Eye Contact 

Cognitive Function



Monitoring Function



Regulatory Function



Expressive Function



Eye Contact and Zoom Fatigue

7.3.4: Facial Expressions 7.3.5: Vocal Cues 7.3.6: Seating Arrangement 

Seating Arrangement and Interaction Patterns



Seating Arrangement and Leadership Emergence



Seating Arrangement and Stress



Seating Arrangement and Gender

7.3.7: Personal Space 47 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.



Intimate Zone



Personal Zone



Social Zone



Public Zone

7.4: Interpreting Nonverbal Communication 7.4.1: Look for Cues in Context 7.4.2: Recognize Differences 7.4.3: Identify Cues that Communicate Liking, Power, and Responsiveness 7.4.4: Develop the Skill of Perception Checking Discussion Questions 1. After analyzing the four different listening styles, have students choose the style(s) that they prefer. Have them join their semester project groups and discuss how their listening style would benefit the group as a whole. Which roles would be most appropriate for that listening style?

2. Nonverbal communication can play a substantial role in affecting the climate of a small group‘s deliberations. Ask students to share personal examples that illustrate the importance of nonverbal group dynamics.

3. If students are working on a semester group project that will take weeks to complete, ask them to keep a journal, noting the effect that various nonverbal communication cues had on the group. For example, did the posture, appearance, or seating arrangement affect the status or leadership potential of certain group members? Include information in a group progress report portfolio.

4. Discuss Ed Hall‘s notions of intimate space from an intercultural perspective. In the United States, we have an 18-inch bubble around us. How does this differ in other cultures? How does it feel to have your intimate space violated?

5. Discuss with students the concept of territoriality. How does one ―mark‖ a given space in the classroom, at a meeting, or on public transportation?

Study Guide Activities 1.

Assessing Group Communication Skills

48 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.



Rate your group‘s communication skill by indicating your level of agreement with each descriptive statement about group communication.

1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Moderately Neither Moderately Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree nor Agree

Verbal Dynamics 1.

Group members usually communicate clearly with other members in the group.

2.

Group members communicate an appropriate amount of information to others in the group.

3.

There are few misunderstandings between or among group members.

4.

When misunderstandings occur, group members usually clarify what they mean and ensure that accurate communication has occurred.

5.

Group members communicate using appropriate methods, such as use of technology or other means of communicating.

6.

Group members communicate at appropriate times with other group members.

Listening Skills 7.

I know my preferred listening style (relational, analytical, critical, and task-oriented).

8.

I know other group members‘ preferred listening styles (relational, analytical, critical, and task-oriented).

9.

Group members appropriately adapt their communication to others‘ listening style.

10.

Group members generally listen effectively to one another.

11. Group members appropriately and accurately paraphrase the messages of others to check their understanding of the messages.

Nonverbal Communication Skills 12. Group members communicate interest in and support of other group members by using appropriate gestures.

13. Group members communicate interest in and support of other group members by using appropriate facial expressions.

14. Group members communicate interest in and support of other group members by using appropriate vocal cues.

15. Group members use appropriate space and distance when communicating with other group members.

16.

Group members‘ seating arrangement facilitates open, interactive communication.

49 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

17. Group discussion occurs in a pleasant and appropriate room with adequate light, furniture, and furniture arrangement.

18. Group members usually accurately ―read‖ and interpret nonverbal messages of other group members.

Overall Communication Skill 19.

Overall, group members communicate accurately with other group members.

20.

Overall, group members communicate appropriately with other group members.

After completing the questionnaire, share your assessments with other group members to compare perceptions about the effectiveness and appropriateness of communication skills used in your group.

2.

Redesign Your Meeting Room



Working with a group of other students, discuss how you would redesign your classroom.

Or, if you‘re working on a small group project and you have a regular meeting place, discuss how you would redesign that space for maximum meeting effectiveness. As you brainstorm suggestions, consider the architecture, lighting, colors, furniture, sounds, and any other features that would enhance the room‘s functional design for group deliberations.

3.

Nonverbal Group Observation



Record a video of any small group working on a project or a case study. Replay the video with the sound turned off so you can focus on the group members‘ behaviors rather than their words. 

Notice group members‘ use of emblems, illustrators, affect displays, regulators, and adaptors.



Observe how nonverbal cues regulate the flow of communication.



How do body posture and movement communicate members‘ status and attitudes?



Try to identify the four functions of eye contact in the group.



Do group members communicate much emotion with their faces?



Note the relationships among territorial behavior, seating arrangements, leadership, status, and verbal interaction in the group.



If this is a group you are ordinarily a member of, and it met in a special room for video recording, do you detect any changes in nonverbal behavior that may be a result of the change in environment?

50 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Experiential Exercises 1.

Vocal Cues and Emotion

Goal To familiarize students with Paul Ekman and Wally Friesen‘s nonverbal category system.

Group Size Small groups consisting of five people Time Required 20 minutes Materials Needed Nonverbal Observation Sheet. The grid is in Appendix B. Procedure 1. Several of your students have probably heard ―I love you‖ said to them in a way that meant anything but the connotation of those words. Words are the meat and potatoes of oral communication, but paralanguage adds the spice. ―I love you‖ could be the prelude to a breakup, a response made out of fear, a drunken slur between friends, a statement of empathy, or the expression of a genuine sentiment. Vocal cues, such as inflection, tone, speech rate, or pitch, convey much of the meaning behind words.

2. Your students can demonstrate this with a simple exercise. Ask students to stand at the front of the class in pairs and tell them that their job is to communicate different emotional states to one another. (You might have one pair demonstrate this for the rest of the class, or use different pairs of people for different sets of emotions, or have partners within a pair trade-off.) Here are the rules. First, the students must stand back-to-back, facing away from one another. Second, the person communicating the emotion is allowed to use only one statement: ―These pretzels are making me thirsty.‖ Hearing this phrase only, it is the partner‘s job to guess which emotion is being conveyed from this set: anger excitement dejection disgust joy concern affection protection pleasure sadness fear sympathy love frustration hate 3. Given the restrictions of the rules, students often are surprised to find that they guess any of the emotions correctly; in fact, they‘ll probably identify a significant number of them. That‘s because the vocal expression of emotion is found in paralinguistic cues rather than the actual speech content. Studies of content-free filtered speech demonstrate that nervousness, anger, sadness, and happiness are the easiest emotions to detect from vocal cues alone, whereas surprise, fear, and love are much more difficult. Have students keep track of the number and type of emotions successfully communicated, and use this as a basis for discussing paralanguage.

51 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

2.

Fact or Inference

Goal To determine the differences between fact and inference.

Group size Have students work individually to analyze a story. Then ask students to meet with their semester project groups.

Time Required 30 minutes Procedure Please read this story and assume that all the information presented is accurate. You can refer to the story whenever you wish. Next, read the statements presented after the story. If the statement is true (verified by information in the story as factual), circle T for true. If the statement is false (contrary to the information in the story), circle F for false. If you are unable to determine whether the statements are true or false (an inference), circle the ?.

After you have completed this exercise individually, meet in a small group and reach a consensus about the correct answers. Your instructor will supply the correct answers to help you sort fact from inference.

As you step onto your front porch from your living room, you observe a delivery truck approaching along the street. You see your next-door neighbor is backing her car from the garage onto the street in the path of the approaching truck.

You see the truck swerve, climb over the curb, and come to a stop against a tree, which crumples one of its front fenders.

1. Your neighbor was backing her car onto the street in the path of an approaching truck. T F ?

2. The delivery truck was traveling at a reasonable speed. T F ?

3. The only damage resulting from the incident was to the truck‘s fender. T F ?

4. You saw the truck swerve and climb over the curbing. T F ?

5. Your neighbor across the street was backing her car out of the garage. T F ?

6. The truck suffered no damage. T F ?

7. You saw the truck approaching as you stepped onto your front porch from the living room. T F ?

8. The man who drove the delivery truck swerved and ran his truck up over the curb. T F ?

9. The delivery truck driver swerved in order to miss a child playing in the street. T F ?

3.

No Gestures

Goal 52 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

To exemplify how important gestures are in a conversation.

Group Size Place students in their semester project groups.

Time Required 30 minutes: 10–15-minute meeting, 15–20 minute discussion Procedure Students have 10–15 minutes to discuss a topic in preparation for their semester project; however, they cannot use any gestures whatsoever. No facial expressions, head nods, arm or body movement, and no eye contact.

Discussion 1. What were the results of this ―verbal only‖ discussion?

2. How did it feel not using any gestures whatsoever?

3. How did the conversation flow?

Chapter Eight: Managing Conflict Chapter Summary Some degree of conflict will be present in most group discussions. It‘s misconceptions about conflict that sometimes derail a group‘s pursuits and cloud group discussions. Therefore, a focus on conflict management, rather than conflict resolution, is in order. Conflict does not always need to be dysfunctional, nor is it always resolved. Although it is true that conflict can be disruptive, students should understand that it serves a useful purpose in group deliberations.

Conflict often progresses through stages, such as persuasion, seduction, and perhaps verbal or physical aggression. It‘s useful to identify three types of conflict management: pseudoconflict, simple conflict, and ego conflict. Diversity within a group can sometimes lead to conflicting goals, statements, attitudes, and the like. Avoidance, accommodation, competition, compromise, and collaboration each have advantages and disadvantages as styles of conflict management.

Groupthink and its mechanisms have been amply documented by empirical social psychologists. In the arena of small group communication, groupthink can be a disruptive influence, thwarting the attainment of group goals. As such, recognizing the signs of groupthink, as well as potential remedies, is a must.

Chapter Objectives After studying this chapter, the students will be able to: 8.1

Describe the elements of conflict 53 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

8.2

Apply strategies for managing different kinds of conflict

8.3

Identify and describe five conflict management styles

8.4

Implement solutions for groups that engage in groupthink

8.5

Use conflict management skills to enhance the quality of group discussions

8.6

Apply strategies for reaching consensus

Chapter Outline

8.1: Conflict Defined 8.1.1: Stages of Conflict 

Persuasion



Seduction



Verbal Aggression



Physical Aggression

8.1.2: Misconceptions about Conflict 

Conflict Should Be Avoided at All Costs



All Conflict Occurs Due to Lack of Understanding



All Conflict Can Be Resolved

8.2: Conflict Types 8.2.1: Pseudo-Conflict 8.2.2: Simple Conflict 

Managing Simple Conflict

8.2.3: Ego Conflict 8.2.4: Conflict in Diverse Groups 

Surface-Level Diversity



Deep-Level Diversity

8.3: Conflict Management Styles 54 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

8.3.1: Avoidance 

Disadvantages of Avoidance



Advantages of Avoidance



Avoidance in Virtual Groups

8.3.2: Accommodation 

Disadvantages of Accommodation



Advantages of Accommodation

8.3.3: Competition 

Disadvantages of Competition



Advantages of Competition

8.3.4: Compromise 

Disadvantages of Compromise



Advantages of Compromise

8.3.5: Collaboration 

Disadvantages of Competition



Advantages of Competition

8.4: Groupthink 8.4.1: Signs of Groupthink 

Critical Thinking Is Not Encouraged or Rewarded



Members Believe Their Group Can Do No Wrong



Members Are Too Concerned about Justifying Their Actions



Members Apply Pressure to Those Who Do Not Support the Group



Members Often Believe They Have Reached a True Consensus



Members Are Too Concerned about Reinforcing the Leader‘s Beliefs

8.4.2: Suggestions for Reducing Groupthink 

Encourage Critical, Independent Thinking



Be Sensitive to Status Differences that May Affect Decision Making 55 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.



Invite Someone from Outside the Group to Evaluate the Group‘s DecisionMaking Process



Assign a Group Member to Play the Role of Devil‘s Advocate



Ask Group Members to Subdivide into Small Groups to Consider Potential Problems with the Suggested Solutions

8.5: Conflict Management Skills 8.5.1: Manage Emotions 

Emotion Management Strategies

8.5.2: Clearly Describe What Is Upsetting You 8.5.3: Separate the People from the Problem 8.5.4: Focus on Shared Interests 8.5.5: Generate Many Options to Solve Problems 8.5.6: Base Decisions on Objective Criteria

8.6: Conflict Management through Consensus 8.6.1: Orient the Group Toward Its Goal 

Use Metadiscussional Phrases



Keep the Focus on the Group‘s Goal Instead of on Specific Strategies to Achieve the Goal



Display Known Facts for All Group Members to See



Do Not Wait Until the Very End of the Deliberations to Suggest Solutions

8.6.2: Be Other-Oriented 

Give Your Idea to the Group



Do Not Assume that Someone Must Win and Someone Must Lose



Use Group-Oriented Rather Than Self-Oriented Pronouns



Avoid Opinionated Statements that Indicate a Closed Mind



Clarify Misunderstandings



Emphasize Areas of Agreement

56 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

8.6.3: Promote Honest Interaction and Dialogue 

Do Not Change Your Mind Too Quickly Just to Avoid Conflict



Avoid Easy Techniques to Prematurely Reduce Conflict



Involve Everyone in the Discussion; Frequently Contribute to the Group



Use a Variety of Methods to Reach Agreement



Expand the Number of Ideas and Alternatives

Discussion Questions 1. Ask students if they think multiple types of conflict can occur simultaneously. If so, what is an example of two types of conflict taking place at the same time?

2. Ask students to name some groups who experience groupthink. After generating suggestions, also ask students to revisit symbolic convergence theory (Chapter 2). Do these groups seem to be people who have a collective consciousness formed by the sharing of fantasies? You might stress that groupthink is not necessarily the outcome of symbolic convergence. Common student suggestions include: 

religious, political, or other cults



abortion clinic bombers



animal-rights activists



conservatives or liberals



religious fundamentalists



the Ku Klux Klan and similar hate groups



skinheads or other extremist organizations



college Greek organizations

3. Ask students to please locate any one of these articles (or make them available through your classroom management software, library, or other resources): Akhmad, M., Chang, S., & Deguchi, H. (2021). Closed-mindedness and insulation in groupthink: Their effects and the devil‘s advocacy as a preventive measure. Journal of Computational Social Science, 4, 455-478.

DiPierro, K., Lee, H., Pain, K. J., Durning, S. J., & Choi, J. J. (2022). Groupthink among health professional teams in patient care: A scoping review. Medical Teacher, 44(3), 309-318.

Grube, D. C., & Killick, A. (2023). Groupthink, polythink, and the challenges of decision-making in cabinet government. Parliamentary Affairs, 76(1), 211-231.

Günther, P. (2020). Groupthink bias in international adjudication. Journal of International Dispute Settlement, 11(1), 91-126.

Lee, T. C. (2020). Groupthink, qualitative comparative analysis, and the 1989 Tiananmen Square disaster.

Small Group Research, 51(4), 435-463.

57 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Li, V. (2024). Groupthink tendencies in top management teams and financial reporting fraud. Accounting and Business Research, 54(3), 255-277.

Morehead, G., Ference, R., & Neck, C. (1991). Group decision fiascos continue: Space shuttle Challenger and a revised groupthink framework. Human Relations, 44(6), 539–550.

Have students read their chosen article and identify the symptoms of (and possible solutions to) groupthink that the authors discussed in the specific cases examined.

4. Ask students whether they feel consensus should be the goal of every group discussion.

Are there situations in which groups need not strive for consensus?

Study Guide Activities 1.

Agree–Disagree Statements about Conflict

Read each statement and indicate whether you agree (A) or disagree (D) with it.

1.

______ Most people find an argument interesting and exciting.

2.

______ In most conflicts, someone must win and someone must lose. That‘s the way conflict is.

3.

______ The best way to handle a conflict is simply to let everyone cool off.

4.

______ Most people get upset with a person who disagrees with them.

5.

______ Most hidden agendas are probably best kept hidden to ensure a positive social climate.

6.

______ If people spend enough time together, they will find something to disagree about and will eventually become upset with one another.

7.

______ Conflicts can be solved if people just take the time to listen to one another.

8.

______ Conflict hinders a group‘s work.

9.

______ If you disagree with someone in a group, it is usually better to keep quiet than to get the group off-track with your personal difference of opinion.

10.

______ When a group cannot reach a decision, members should abide by the decision of the group leader if he or she is qualified and competent.

11.

______ To compromise is to take the easy way out of conflict.

12.

______ Some people produce more conflict and tension than others. These people should be restricted from decision-making groups.

58 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

After you have indicated your choices, divide into small groups and try to agree or disagree unanimously with each statement. Try, in particular, to find reasons for differences of opinion.

If your group cannot reach a unanimous decision on a given statement, you may change the wording in the statement to promote consensus. Assign one group member to observe your group interactions. After your group has attempted to reach consensus, the observer should report how effectively the group used the guidelines suggested in this chapter.

Experiential Exercises 1.

How Do I Act in Conflicts?

This collection of proverbs reflects traditional wisdom for resolving conflicts. Please read each one carefully, then indicate the extent to which each proverb applies to your actions during a conflict.

1 2 3 4 5 Very Somewhat Neither Somewhat Very Atypical Atypical Atypical Typical Typical nor Typical

1. _____It is easier to refrain from entering than to retreat from a quarrel.

2. _____If you cannot make a person think as you do, make that person do as you think.

3. _____Soft words win a hard heart.

4. _____You scratch my back, I‘ll scratch yours.

5. _____Come now, and let us reason together.

6. _____When two quarrel, the person who keeps silent first is the most praiseworthy.

7. _____Might overcomes right.

8. _____Smooth words make smooth ways.

9. _____Better half a loaf than no bread at all.

10. _____Truth lies in knowledge, not in majority opinion.

11. _____The person who fights and runs away lives to fight another day.

12. _____A person hath conquered well that hath made enemies flee.

13. _____Kill your enemies with kindness.

14. _____A fair exchange brings no quarrel.

15. _____No person has the final answer, but every person has a piece to contribute.

16. _____Stay away from people who disagree with you.

17. _____Fields are won by those who believe in winning.

18. _____Kind words are worth much and cost little.

19. _____Tit for tat is fair play.

59 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

20. _____Only the person who is willing to give up a monopoly on truth can ever profit from the truths that others hold.

21. _____Avoid quarrelsome people; they will only make your life miserable.

22. _____A person who will not flee will make others flee.

23. _____Soft words ensure harmony.

24. _____One gift for another makes good friends.

25. _____Bring your conflicts into the open and face them directly; only then will the best solution be discovered.

26. _____The best way of handling conflicts is to avoid them.

27. _____Put your foot down where you mean to stand.

28. _____Gentleness will triumph over anger.

29. _____Getting part of what you want is better than not getting anything at all.

30. _____Frankness, honesty, and trust will move mountains.

31. _____There is nothing so important that you have to fight for it.

32. _____There are two kinds of people in the world: winners and losers.

33. _____When someone hits you with a stone, hit that person with a piece of cotton.

34. _____When both give in halfway, a fair settlement is achieved.

35. _____By digging and digging, the truth is discovered.

Scoring: Add scores for each conflict management style. The highest score is your primary conflict management style; the next highest score is your secondary style.

Avoidance

Competition

Accommodation

Compromise

Collaboration

1. ________

2._______

3.________

4._________

5.________

6. _________

7. ______

8. ________

9. ________

10. ________

11. ________

12.________

13. _______

14. ________

15. _________

16. ________

17. _______

18. _______

19. ________

20. _________

21. ________

22. _______

23. _______

24. ________

25. _________

26. ________

27. _______

28. ________

29. ________

30. _________

31. ________

32. _______

33. ________

34. ________

35. _________

Total

Total

Total

Total

Total

60 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

_____

2.

_____

_____

_____

_____

Gaming the System

Goal To allow students to use various conflict management styles to affect cooperation.

Group Size Small groups consisting of four people Time Required Approximately 30 minutes Procedure Game theorists have amply demonstrated how relatively simple situations can reveal strategies for competition, cooperation, and conflict resolution. Some of the better-known simulations are the Prisoner‘s Dilemma, the Trucking Game, and Largest Number.

Briefly, the Prisoner‘s Dilemma pits two accomplices in a crime against one another. Their individual decisions to either cooperate or compete—essentially to resolve conflict or maintain it—can result in collective losses. Under some circumstances, the prisoners‘ decisions will cause them to be set free, whereas under other circumstances, both will serve hard time.

The Trucking Game (developed by social psychologists Mort Deutsch and Bob Krauss) requires players to decide whether to resolve conflicts through cooperation or to incur losses as they try to navigate a truckload of goods through one of two routes.

In Largest Number, a small group (4 people, perhaps) is told that a substantial pot of money ($1,000, perhaps) is on offer. A prize will be given to the person who selects the largest number in the group, and that prize is the $1,000 divided by the number selected. For example, if a person picks ―100,‖ reasoning that the other group members will choose smaller numbers, they will win $1,000/100… or, not very much money. Selecting 10,000 is a great strategy… to win a pittance. Should more than one group member choose the same largest number, the pot will be divided equally between those people. So, two people both choosing ―100‖ would each win $500. The twist is that group members can make their decisions individually or after consultation with the others; essentially, a negotiation. As they collaborate, it usually dawns on group members that the optimal collective strategy is to all pick ―1.‖ That way, all four group members would tie for the largest number, the rules state that the pot would then be divided equally, and each person would receive $250; a tidy payday for some smart group communication! The twist on the twist, though, is that one group member sometimes has a great notion. After agreeing to collaborate and all choose ―1,‖ as the members formally are writing their selections on a slip of paper to submit to the judge, the defector surreptitiously writes ―2.‖ That person now has the largest number, the rules state that the prize is $1,000 divided by that number, so that person pockets $500 while the other group members seethe.

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You can find details of these and other games/social dilemmas online. Consider structuring an exercise around one or more of these games to point out that having fun can illustrate much deeper group principles.

3.

Groupthink No More!

Goal Students to offer advice for avoiding groupthink.

Time Required 10–15 minutes Procedure In their groups, provide students with a video example of groupthink taking place, whether it be popular media, a real-life event, or otherwise. Allow each group time to create a prescription that would help the group in the video deal with and eliminate groupthink in their interaction. After they are finished, allow one student from each group to migrate to another group to share their prescription.

As an added bonus, locate the video of physicist Richard Feynman testifying before a committee regarding the space shuttle Challenger disaster. One of the key contributors to that tragedy was that NASA scientists had received communiques from vendors that O-rings used to seal fuel thrusters failed under certain conditions. Apparently, ―mindguards‖ (a groupthink term) at NASA kept this information from reaching the appropriate managers, supervisors, and necessary officials, leading to the failure of the rings during the launch of the craft. Professor Feynman elegantly demonstrates the simplicity of identifying the problem with nothing more than a glass of cold water. It‘s definitely worth a look if you discuss the Challenger incident as an example of this deleterious group phenomenon.

Chapter Nine: Leading Groups Chapter Summary Chapter 9 provides information and suggestions to become a more effective group member and leader. The chapter begins with a discussion of three approaches to the study of leadership: trait, functional, and situational.

The Trait approach is considered impractical for improving leadership behaviors because traits that are useful in one situation may not be useful in other leadership positions. However, trait characteristics are interesting from a historical perspective. In addition, a discussion on traits may lead a discussion regarding ―whether leaders are born or made.‖ In the Functional approach, leadership is seen as sets of behaviors or ―functional roles‖ which may be distributed among all group members. The functional approach has the greatest practicality for all group members, not just designated leaders. The Situational perspectives on leadership discuss adapting one‘s leadership style to the context of the situational variables.

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Transformational leadership is considered as a system for building team vision and a process to view the group as a complex interrelationship that changes with each meeting.

Transformational leadership has been defined as having four I‘s: idealized leadership, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individual consideration.

The Minnesota Studies on emergent leadership in leaderless groups reveal that leaders emerge through a ―method of residues.‖ Also included is a discussion of gender and leadership, along with suggestions to lower gender barriers.

Chapter Objectives After studying this chapter, the students will be able to: 9.1

Explain why the functional perspective on leadership is more useful than the trait perspective

9.2

Anticipate how leadership style and situation will interact

9.3

Apply a transformational style to small group leadership

9.4

Recognize and influence leadership emergence in a leaderless group discussion

Chapter Outline 9.1: Trait and Functional Perspectives on Leadership 9.1.1: Task Leadership 

Initiating



Coordinating



Summarizing



Elaborating

9.1.2: Process Leadership 

Releasing Tension



Gatekeeping



Encouraging



Mediating

9.2: Situational Perspective of Leadership 9.2.1: Leadership Style 

Authoritarian (autocratic)



Democratic 63 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.



Laissez-faire



Leadership Behavior in Different Social Climates

9.2.2: Hersey's Situational Leadership Model 

Telling



Selling



Participating



Delegating

9.2.3: Shared Leadership in Teams 9.3: Transformational Leadership 9.3.1: Critical Skills of Transformational Leadership 9.3.2: Transformational Cultures 9.4: Emergent Leadership in Small Groups 9.4.1: The Minnesota Studies 9.4.2: Leadership and Gender Discussion Questions 1. Ask students to list qualities or characteristics of effective leaders. Which of these qualities are innate and which are learned? Are some people born leaders? How do they know? Use intelligence as an example. Although it is true that smarter people often make better leaders, it could be that their ―smarts‖ come via heredity (a distinct possibility that bolsters the ―born with‖ view), but it‘s equally true that their smarts come from environmental advantages (such as better schools, more books in the home, attentive parenting, and other factors that suggest a ―learned‖ view). The answer, of course, like most complex behaviors, is ―it‘s both.‖ Discuss these considerations with your students.

2. Determine different contexts in which various styles of leadership might be useful. Is one style seemingly more common than others? If so, why might that be the case?

3. Discuss the concept of emergent leadership that resulted from the Minnesota Studies, particularly the ―method of residues.‖ Why were both quiet and talkative members eliminated? Who finally emerges as a leader?

4. Do females and males lead differently? As is often the case, social psychologists can shed empirical light on the matter. Please consider consulting these (or many other available) meta-analyses for more details when leading a discussion on this topic: Badura, K. L., Grijalva, E., Newman, D. A., Yan, T. T., & Jeon, G. (2018). Gender and leadership emergence: A meta-analysis and explanatory model. Personnel Psychology, 71(3), 335-367.

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Eagly, A. H., & Johnson, B. T. (1990). Gender and leadership style: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 108(2), 233-254.

Eagly, A. H., & Karau, S. J. (1991). Gender and the emergence of leaders: A meta-analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(5), 685-702.

Eagly, A. H., Karau, S. J., & Makhijani, M. G. (1995). Gender and the effectiveness of leaders: A metaanalysis. Psychological Bulletin, 117(1), 125-138.

Eagly, A. H., Makhijani, M. G., & Klonsky, B. G. (1992). Gender and the evaluation of leaders: A metaanalysis. Psychological Bulletin, 111(1), 3-18.

Paustian-Underdahl, S. C., Walker, L. S., & Woehr, D. J. (2014). Gender and perceptions of leadership effectiveness: A meta-analysis of contextual moderators. Journal of Applied Psychology, 99(6), 11291143.

5. The chapter concludes with a quotation by Lao Tsu that is 2,500 years old. Interpret the meaning of this quotation.

Study Guide Activities 1.

Practice Applying and Assessing Your Skills



Functional leadership roles help groups move toward their goals by addressing task as well as process concerns (group building and group maintenance). Begin this exercise by writing these roles on index cards, one role per card. Distribute the cards randomly and anonymously throughout your group.

Spend 15‒20 minutes discussing an ongoing project or a topic assigned by your instructor, during which you assume the role written on your index card. After 20 minutes, reshuffle and redistribute the role cards. Assume your new role and continue the discussion for another 15‒20 minutes.

Now, discuss the following questions in your groups:

2.



Can you identify who was enacting each role?



Whose roles were most consistent with their natural behavior?



Whose roles were the most ―out of character‖?



With people assuming these assigned roles, did the group seem to function better or worse than usual? Why?



Were some roles difficult or impossible to enact in this situation? Why?



Who in your group is naturally the most task-oriented? The most process-oriented?

Task Process Leadership Questionnaire

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

These items describe aspects of leadership behavior. Respond to each item according to the way you would most likely act if you were the leader of a work group. Circle one letter for each item to indicate when you would most likely behave in the described way: Always (A), Frequently (F), Occasionally (O), Seldom (S), or Never (N)

A F O S N 1. I would most likely act as the spokesperson of the group.

A F O S N 2. I would encourage overtime work.

A F O S N 3. I would allow members complete freedom in their work.

A F O S N 4. I would encourage the use of uniform procedures.

A F O S N 5. I would permit members to use their own judgment in solving problems.

A F O S N 6. I would stress being ahead of competing groups.

A F O S N 7. I would speak as a representative of the group.

A F O S N 8. I would needle members for greater effort.

A F O S N 9. I would try out my ideas in the group.

A F O S N 10. I would let the members do their work the way they think best.

A F O S N 11. I would be working hard for a promotion.

A F O S N 12. I would tolerate postponement and uncertainty.

A F O S N 13. I would speak for the group if visitors were present.

A F O S N 14. I would keep the work moving at a rapid pace.

A F O S N 15. I would turn the members loose on a job and let them go to it.

A F O S N 16. I would settle conflicts when they occur in the group.

A F O S N 17. I would get swamped by details.

A F O S N 18. I would represent the group at outside meetings.

A F O S N 19. I would be reluctant to allow the members any freedom of action.

A F O S N 20. I would decide what should be done and how it should be done.

A F O S N 21. I would push for increased production.

A F O S N 22. I would let some members have authority which I could keep.

A F O S N 23. Things would usually turn out as I had predicted.

A F O S N 24. I would allow the group a high degree of initiative.

A F O S N 25. I would assign group members to particular tasks.

A F O S N 26. I would be willing to make changes.

A F O S N 27. I would ask the members to work harder.

A F O S N 28. I would trust the group members to exercise good judgment.

A F O S N 29. I would schedule the work to be done.

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A F O S N 30. I would refuse to explain my actions.

A F O S N 31. I would persuade others that my ideas are to their advantage.

A F O S N 32. I would permit the group to set its own pace.

A F O S N 33. I would urge the group to beat its previous record.

A F O S N 34. I would act without consulting the group.

A F O S N 35. I would ask that group members follow standard rules and regulations.

To Score the Questionnaire a.

Circle the item number for items 8, 12, 17, 18, 19, 30, 34, and 35.

b.

Write the number 1 in front of a circled item number if you responded S (seldom) or N (never) to that item.

c.

Also, write a number 1 in front of item numbers not circled if you responded A (always) or F (frequently).

d.

Circle the number 1s that you have written in front of these items: 3, 5, 8, 10, 15, 18, 19, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 34, and 35.

e.

Count the circled number 1s. This is your score for concern for people. Record the score in the appropriate space below.

f.

Count the uncircled number 1s. This is your score for concern for task. Record the score in the appropriate space below.

People _________ Task _________ 4.

Task Process Leadership-Style Profile Sheet



To determine your style of leadership, mark your score on the concern for task dimension (T) on the left-hand arrow below. Next, move to the right-hand arrow and mark your score on the concern for people dimension (P). Draw a straight line that connects the P and T scores. The point at which that line crosses the shared leadership arrow indicates your score on that dimension.

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Shared leadership results from balancing concern for task and concern for people.

5.

Practice Applying and Assessing Your Skills



Consider the stages of group formation that are described in Chapter 3. Identify which leadership functions might be the most appropriate at each stage of development.

Experiential Exercises 1.

Mask-Making Exercise

Goals To demonstrate authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire leadership styles. To determine the results of production under each style.

To increase awareness as to the effect of leadership styles on group members.

Group size Divide the class into three groups.

Time required 60 minutes Materials 68 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Three paper bags, markers, crayons, ribbon, yarn, feathers, glitter, three sets of scissors, crepe paper streamers, hot glue gun Procedure 1. The facilitator gives students numbers: 1, 2, 3, thus dividing the class into three equal groups.

2. One participant is selected to be the observer, and one participant from each group is selected to be the leader. They are given instructions from the facilitator as to the leadership style they are to assume. The facilitator briefs the leaders on their roles. They may not divulge their leadership style to the group. Autocratic, democratic, or laissez-faire styles should be self-explanatory to the facilitator. If not, please consult social psychologist Kurt Lewin‘s original research on the matter, or any of the numerous resources available online that discuss these common styles.

3. The materials are set up in the center of the room. The facilitator announces that the groups have 15 minutes for the task that will be judged by the class on the basis of creativity, beauty, and functionality. Group 1 receives autocratic instructions, Group 2 receives democratic instructions, and Group 3 receives laissez-faire instructions.

4. At the end of the design phase, the groups rate their leader using a Likert scale of 1–5 (1 being the lowest and 5 the highest) in three areas: satisfaction with leadership, satisfaction with their own participation, satisfaction with the product. This is to be tallied by an observer.

5. Groups model their masks, and the facilitator calls for a vote tally for each mask on the relevant dimensions of creativity, beauty, and function.

6. After voting, groups discuss their feelings about the leadership style under which they worked. Group observers report back to the class the results of the group discussion.

Then, ask the leaders about their satisfaction level and finally group participants.

The results can be compared to: Lewin, K., & Lippitt, R. (1938). An experimental approach to the study of autocracy and democracy: A preliminary note. Sociometry, 1, 292–300.

Debriefing •

Discussion should include how leadership style affects group performance in complex ways.

•

Did leadership style affect group members‘ satisfaction with participation?

•

How does having a brief amount of time affect leadership style?

Chapter Ten: Making Decisions and Solving Problems Chapter Summary Decision making and problem solving are often the primary focus of many small groups, but how best to go about those tasks? A six-step decision-making process is proposed, along with 69 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

specific suggestions for general strategies (i.e., by an expert, by consensus, by majority rule).

The advantages and disadvantages of all these approaches are considered.

Problem-solving can sometimes be… well, problematic, so isolating the elements of the problem at hand and overcoming barriers (such as lack of structure or lack of resources) is essential. A descriptive approach might be used, but so too might a functional or prescriptive strategy.

Orientation, conflict, emergence, and reinforcement describe the phases of group discussion, which generally is a necessary task for decision making. Different models (dialectical, spiraling, punctuated equilibrium, multisequence) try to capture group processes in the abstract, but typically the functional approach produces the greatest yield for advancing a group‘s goals.

Chapter Objectives After studying this chapter, the students will be able to: 10.1

Describe how a group makes a decision

10.2

Describe how a group solves a problem

10.3

Identify and apply the descriptive approach to problem solving and decision-making groups

10.4

Identify and apply the functional approach to group problem solving and decision making

10.5

Assess situations for cultural differences in groups and teams

Chapter Outline 10.1: Group Decision Making 10.1.1: Making Effective Group Decisions 

Analyze the Decision to Be Made



Involve All Members in Seeking Information



Identify and Clarify the Goals of the Decision



Identify Multiple Decision Options



Rationally Evaluate the Positive and Negative Consequences of Decision Alternatives



After Analyzing the Data and Options, Make a Decision

10.1.2: Methods of Group Decision Making 70 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.



Decision by an Expert within the Group



Decision by an Expert outside the Group



Averaging Individual Rankings or Ratings



Random Choice



Majority Rule



Decision by Minority



Decision by Consensus



Making Decisions in Virtual Groups

10.2: Group Problem Solving 10.2.1: Problem Solving Defined 

Three Elements of a Problem

10.2.2: Barriers to Group Problem Solving 10.3: The Descriptive Approach to Problem Solving 10.3.1: Group Phases 

Orientation



Conflict



Emergence



Reinforcement

10.3.2: Dialectical Theory 10.3.3: Spiraling Model 10.3.4: Punctuated Equilibrium Model 10.3.5: Multisequence Model 

Task-Process Activities



Relational Activities



Topical Focus Activities 71 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

10.4: The Functional Approach to Problem Solving 10.4.1: The Key Functions of Effective Problem Solving 

Develop an accurate understanding of the problem



Develop requirements for an acceptable choice



Develop many alternatives to solve the problem



Assess the positive features of the alternatives or options for solving the problem



Assess the negative features of the alternatives or options for solving the problem

10.4.2: Communication Functions 

Analysis Function



Idea-Generated Function



Evaluation Function



Personal-Sensitivity Function

10.5: Cultural Assumptions 10.5.1: Collectivism and Individualism 10.5.2: Gender 10.5.3: Strategies to Bridge Cultural Differences Discussion Questions 1. Discuss the steps involved in group decision making. Why is it considered a ―predictable pattern‖ for effective group decision making?

2. Discuss each of the methods of group decision making and provide an original example of an instance in which each method might be an appropriate way to make a decision.

3. The descriptive approach to problem solving describes four phases a group experiences while solving problems. Describe each of these four phases. Then discuss the variations that indicate that these phases may not be linear.

4. What are some of the strategies for overcoming cultural differences in small group interactions? Discuss how you have used them in your own group experience.

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Study Guide Activities 1.

Hurricane Preparedness

Imagine that you are a newly transplanted resident of a coastal city during hurricane season.

Although you have idly watched local meteorologists track Hurricane Abner‘s destructive course through the Caribbean for several days, you have not given any serious thought to the possibility that the storm might directly affect you. However, at about 7:00 this morning, the storm suddenly veered northward, and it is now on course for a direct hit. The National Hurricane Center in Miami has posted a hurricane warning for your community. Forecasters predict landfall in approximately 9‒12 hours. Having taken no advance precautions, you are stunned by the amount of work you now have to do to secure your three-bedroom suburban home, which is about half a mile from the beach. You have enough food in the house for two days. You also have one candle and a transistor radio with one weak battery; you have no other hurricane supplies. Your task is to rank a set of items in terms of their importance for ensuring your survival and the safety of your property, with number 1 being the first thing you should do, 2 the second, and so on.

Work individually. After you have made your individual rankings, work in a small group and again rank these items according to their importance. Your group‘s task is to reach a consensus. ______ Put gas in the car ______ Trim the bushes and trees ______ Fill the bathtub with water ______ Install shutters for the windows ______ Buy enough food for a week ______ Buy batteries and candles ______ Bring patio furniture indoors ______ Buy dry ice ______ Invite friends over for a hurricane party ______ Drain the swimming pool ______ Listen to the TV/radio before doing anything ______ Have an evacuation plan ______ Stock up on charcoal and charcoal lighter for the barbecue grill 2.

Stranded in the Desert

You are a member of a geology club that is on a field trip to study unusual formations in the New Mexico desert. It is the last week in July. You have been driving over old trails, far from any road, in order to see unique formations. At about 10:30 a.m., your club‘s specially equipped minibus overturns, rolls into a 20-foot ravine, and burns. The driver and the club‘s professional adviser are killed; the rest of you are uninjured.

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You know that the nearest ranch is approximately 45 miles east of where you are. There is no closer habitation. When your club does not report to its motel that evening, you will be missed. Several people know generally where you are but will not be able to pinpoint your whereabouts.

The area around you is rugged and dry. There is a shallow waterhole nearby, but the water is contaminated by worms, animal feces and urine, and several dead rats. Before you left, you heard a weather report that the temperature would reach 105°F, making the surface temperature 116°F. All of you are dressed in lightweight summer clothing and all have hats and sunglasses.

In escaping from the minibus, each group member salvaged a couple of items; there are 12 items in all. Assume that your small group comprises members of the geology club and that you all have agreed to stick together. Your group‘s task is to rank the salvaged items according to their importance to your survival, starting with 1 for the most important through 12 for the least important. ______ Magnetic compass ______ Heavy-duty, light blue canvas (20 square feet) ______ Book: Plants of the Desert ______ Rearview mirror ______ Large knife ______ Flashlight ______ One jacket per person ______ One transparent plastic ground cloth (6 feet by 4 feet) per person ______ 38 caliber loaded pistol ______ One 2-quart plastic canteen of water per person ______ Accurate map of the area ______ Large box of kitchen matches

Work individually. After you have made your individual rankings, work in a small group and again rank these items according to their importance. Your group‘s task is to reach a consensus.

Experiential Exercises 1.

Types of Problems

Goals To help students understand that different types of problems often require different approaches to problem solving.

Group Size 74 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Varies; assemble small groups based on convenience Time Required As much as you‘d like Procedure Sometimes the kinds of problems you have to solve determine the way you try to solve them.

There are basically three classes of problems: arrangement, inducing structure, and transformation.

Arrangement Problems Arrangement problems are those in which it is necessary to rearrange the information you have. Anagrams, a type of puzzle in which letters must be rearranged to form a familiar word, are a good example of this problem type. What common word, for example, could be made from the letters bemnur? (The answer is ―number.‖) Or try this: How could you rearrange the letters in new door to make one word? (The answer is ―one word.‖) Jigsaw puzzles are also arrangement problems, as are puzzles or tasks that require you to put certain pictures or events in order. When an investigator of a crime tries to recreate the sequence of events, it is also a problem of arrangement.

Discuss with your group a practical problem that meets the theoretical requirements of an arrangement problem. For example, a small group might be faced with a logistics problem of getting people or materials situated in such a way as to produce a result (e.g., planning a party or meeting a delivery deadline). Does knowing the problem type spark solutions and suggestions from the group that might be more effective?

Problems of Inducing Structure If you have ever faced a puzzle that involved finding the next number or letter in a sequence, you have been trying to induce (reason from specific examples to a general solution) structure. What is the next letter in this sequence?

S M T W T F __ This is not only a good example of inducing structure; it‘s also a good example of insight.

When you realize that the letters are the first letters of the days of the week, ―S‖ becomes an easy answer.

Small groups are sometimes faced with what seem like insurmountable problems; the members can‘t figure out a pattern, system, or structure that defines the problem and thereby suggests a solution. Discuss with your group problems that take this form in daily life. A group project for a class, for example, might have these characteristics; a structure needs to be induced (―you do this, you do that, make sure this is done before that‘s done‖) in order for problem-solving to be effective.

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Transformation Problems In a transformation problem, one has to carry out a sequence or series of transformations, or changes, to solve the problem. An example would be the familiar ―Tower of Hanoi‖ puzzle or the hobbits and orcs dilemma (examples of these problems and their solutions can be found from abundant online sources).

How might a small group tackle a transformation problem? In what ways is a transformation problem similar to or different from structural or arrangement problems? Are there some steps a group must go through that are common to all types? How does applying the wrong strategy to a problem affect both group communication and group decision making?

2. Functional Fixedness Goals To illustrate how mind-sets can sometimes limit creative solutions to a problem.

Group Size Varies; assemble small groups based on convenience Time Required As much as you‘d like Materials Common household items (see Procedure) Procedure Functional fixedness is a term drawn from cognitive psychology. It describes an inability to see other uses for a common object, thereby limiting problem solving. For example, if a hammer is only seen for its obvious function—driving nails or hitting stuff—it limits people‘s ability to see its use as a paperweight, a doorstop, a household decoration, the bob of a pendulum, and so on.

To demonstrate functional fixedness, gather a number of household items, such as an egg carton, baby food jar, nail, paper clip, baking cup, empty toilet paper roll, piece of string, paper napkin, clothes pin, safety pin, Band-Aid, and cotton ball. You may wish to have several of each item depending on how many students are in your class.

Arrange students in small groups and have each group choose several items. Their task is to brainstorm as many new uses for their items as possible in the time allowed. For 4–5 items, allow 10‒15 minutes. Have each group report their results to the class.

The subsequent discussion should allow you to reinforce ideas about the nature of creativity and the meaning of functional fixedness. If a person suggests using a baby food jar to store small items such as buttons, this is still fixating on the function of the jar as a container. A 76 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

more creative suggestion would be to break the jar and use a piece for cutting, or to draw around it to make a circle.

3. A Non-Quiz Quiz Goals To spark idea generation in problem solving.

Group Size Varies; assemble small groups based on convenience Time Required As much as you‘d like Procedure Tell your students that you want them to take out a sheet of paper because there is a quiz.

After all the groaning has stopped, have them write down all the uses they can think of for some item, such as Kitty Litter or rice. At the end of 5 minutes, ask them to get into small groups and see how many uses the groups can come up with for whatever item you have chosen.

Have the students present their collaborative list to the class. Make sure that you tell them they need not repeat an item that another group has already presented. Find out how many items they originally came up with versus the number of items that the group named. It is interesting to discover how many items have similarities within the group. This finding can lead in to discussing how effective solutions to problems often begin with effective idea generation.

4. What Is It? Goals To spark idea generation in problem solving Group Size Varies; assemble small groups based on convenience Time Required As much as you‘d like Procedure Draw a circle on the blackboard or via your classroom projection system. Allow students 5 minutes to list all the things they can think of that your picture could represent. Use a plate and a wedding ring as examples, and urge them to think divergently. Sample responses may include, for example: Total eclipse of the sun 77 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Top view of a baldheaded person Floor plan for an igloo Port hole at night The end of a gun as seen by a victim Belly button Bucket of tar from the top To expand the process and have a little classroom fun, form small groups of five students each and repeat the process: One student draws a shape while the other four generate ideas; the next student takes a turn drawing, and so on. After about 20 or 30 minutes, all students will have had a chance at both drawing and guessing. Discuss how a fun activity such as this might spark a group to improve their communication skills and produce better solutions to a problem.

Chapter Eleven: Using Problem-Solving Techniques Chapter Summary Chapter 11 provides students with several specific suggestions for solving problems in small groups. A brief summary of the differences between descriptive and prescriptive approaches to group problem solving is presented, including the assumptions underlying each general approach.

The philosopher John Dewey mused about the necessity of having a reflective thinker consider five amorphous key questions, such as ―What is the ‗felt difficulty‘ or concern?‖ or ―Where is it located, and how is it defined?‖ The purpose of reflective thinking, like other prescriptive problem-solving approaches, is to provide some structure for discussion.

Reflective thinking is a traditional problem-solving approach.

There is a need to balance group structure and group interaction. Without structure, chaos ensues; without interaction… well, then how is a group a group, rather than just a pack of isolated individuals? Finding a balance between these considerations is an important task.

Effective strategies exist for examining the components of tackling a problem, such as is/is not analysis, a journalist‘s six questions, force-field analysis, and so on. Similar strategies exist for establishing criteria, generating possible solutions, evaluating options, and testing and implementing solutions.

Chapter Objectives After studying this chapter, the students will be able to: 78 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

11.1

Create a basic agenda to address group problems using reflective thinking

11.2

Determine the structure and interactive methods needed to help groups work together

11.3

Formulate a solution using the reflective thinking process

11.4

Solve problems using question-oriented approaches

11.5

Evaluate your group decision-making skills

Chapter Outline 11.1: Prescriptive Problem-Solving Strategies 11.1.1: The Origin of Prescriptive Problem-Solving Strategies 11.2: Balancing Group Structure and Group Interaction 11.2.1: Groups Need Structure 11.2.2: Groups Need Interaction 11.3: How to Use Reflective Thinking for Group Problem Solving 11.3.1: Step 1. Identify and Define the Problem 

Is/Not Is Analysis



Journalist‘s Six Questions



Pareto Chart



SWOT Analysis

11.3.2: Step 2. Analyze the Problem 

Force-Field Analysis



Cause-and-Effect (Fishbone) Diagram



PROMOD Technique

11.3.3: How to Establish Criteria 

When to Apply Criteria in Search of a Solution

11.3.4: Step 3. Generate Possible Solutions 79 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

11.3.5: Step 4. Evaluate Options and Select Solutions 

Analyze the Pros and Cons



Average Rankings

11.3.6: Step 5. Test and Implement the Solution 

Make a Prototype



Develop a Pilot Program



Putting a Solution into Effect



Tools for Implementing a Solution

11.3.7: Tips for Using Reflective Thinking in Your Group or Team 11.4: Question-Oriented Approaches to Problem Solving 11.4.1: Ideal-Solution Format 11.4.2: Single-Question Format 11.4.3: Tips for Using Question-Oriented Approaches 11.5: Beyond Technique 11.5.1: Adapt to the Group's Needs 11.5.2: A Case Study Discussion Questions 1. Divide students into small groups. Assign groups one of the case studies in previous chapters (e.g., NASA Moon Survival Task; Hurricane Preparedness) and ask group members to select and follow one of the prescriptive approaches. Have one group member act as an observer. At the conclusion of the discussion, ask group members how helpful the selected prescriptive problem-solving approach was. Also, ask the group observers to note whether the discussion groups implemented the problem-solving approaches properly and discuss the scores.

2. Discuss the recommended tools for defining a problem. Combine the use of the journalist‘s six questions with the fishbone diagram to define a problem. Draw on the board or your classroom presentation software as you receive students‘ feedback.

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3. Ask students to analyze a problem using social psychologist Kurt Lewin‘s Force-Field Analysis using Figure 11-5. After discussing different analyses, use one volunteer‘s analysis as an example for the class. Get class input for additional driving and restraining forces.

4.

A committee is formed to analyze low attendance at school football games.

Analyze the problem and come up with possible solutions using the traditional method of reflective thinking.

5.

Create a PERT diagram as part of the next progress report for your semester group project. Include group names and each of the steps indicated to develop the action chart, creating tasks and timelines as accurately as possible to accomplish the group project.

Study Guide Activities 1.

Using Interaction Process Analysis



Sociologist Robert Bales significantly advanced the study of communication in small groups by developing a method of describing and analyzing the interaction that occurs in groups. Bales identified 4 major categories of interaction and further specified 12 subcategories of comments group members typically make during group discussions. Two of Bales‘s major categories focus on social/emotional aspects of group conversation; the other two categories describe talk that focuses on completing the task. His categories are listed below.4

Positive Reactions 1.

Shows solidarity, raises others‘ status, gives help, rewards

2.

Shows tension release, jokes, laughs, shows satisfaction

3.

Shows agreement, shows passive acceptance, understands, concurs, complies

Attempted Answers 4.

Gives suggestion, direction, implying autonomy for others

5.

Gives opinion, evaluation, analysis, expresses feeling, wish

6.

Gives information, orientation, repeats, clarifies, confirms

Questions 7.

Asks for information, orientation, repetition, confirmation 81 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

8.

Asks for opinion, evaluation, analysis, expression of feeling

9.

Asks for suggestions, direction, possible ways of action

Negative Reactions 10.

Disagrees, shows passive rejection, formality, withholds help

11.

Shows tension, asks for help, withdraws out of field

12.

Shows antagonism, deflates others‘ status, defends or asserts self



Although it takes extensive training to gain maximum benefit from Bales‘s Interaction Process Analysis, communication researchers and educators Alvin Goldberg and Carl Larson suggest that you can develop a simple version of Bales‘s categories to describe group interaction.5 On the left side of a sheet of paper, list the 12 subcategories of comments. Next, draw vertical lines to create a column for each group member. As you listen to a group discussion, simply make a mark to code each piece of conversation made by each group member. If, for example, Felix makes a comment that indicates friendly support for a person or an idea, you would make a mark in Felix‘s column on line 1 for ―shows solidarity.‖ If Carmelita disagrees with Felix‘s idea, you would make a mark in her column on line 10 (―disagrees‖). You continue to code the group members‘ comments until the end of the conversation. The key to using this method of analyzing group talk is to make sure you understand each of the 12 subcategories of interaction and can code them accurately. Each comment can be coded only once in only one category, so you have to make quick decisions as to how to code a group member‘s comments.

When you‘re finished, you can total the number of marks you‘ve made for each person.

With total numbers in hand, you can then calculate the percentage of time each individual made comments. You can also total the number of types of comments the group members made by adding the number of marks on each row. Calculate the percentage of time group members made comments from each subcategory. The resulting percentage for each of the 12 lines will let you see whether the group was more concerned with the task or more concerned with social/emotional issues. You can also see which of the 12 interaction categories was used most and least during the discussion. You can more accurately assess people‘s comments if you record a group discussion and then watch the video while completing your analysis of the group; if necessary, you can watch the video more than once. Group communication scholar Joann Keyton points out that the Bales Interaction Process Analysis system is an efficient way to analyze a group‘s behavior because it offers a descriptive, quantitative measure based on what group members say.6

2.

Earthquake

• According to the Worst-Case Scenario Survival Handbook, there are certain things you should do during an earthquake.7 Individually rank order each suggestion from most important to least important. Then work with a small group to compare and revise your answers based on the collective musings of the group.

• ______ If you are driving, stop, but carefully.

• ______ Check food and water supplies.

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• ______ Check for gas leaks and damaged electrical wires.

• ______ Put on a pair of thick-soled shoes.

• ______ Be prepared for aftershocks.

• ______ If you are indoors, stay indoors.

• ______ Check for injuries and administer first aid.

• ______ Get out in the open if you are inside.

• ______ If you are in a mountainous area, watch out for landslides.

Experiential Exercises 1.

Tools Of Definition

Goals For student groups to become experts on a particular tool for defining a problem, Time 20 to 30 minutes Procedure Assign each group a method of ―defining the problem‖ (e.g., Journalist‘s Six Questions, SWOT analysis, Is/Not Is Analysis). Give the students a chance to discuss their method and generate an example of how they might use their particular method to tackle an issue that they experience in their own groups. Have each group present their example and steps to the class.

Chapter Twelve: Enhancing Creativity in Groups Chapter Summary This chapter is dedicated to the study of creativity. It not only identifies reasons for studying creativity but also looks at the predictable steps teams may take to generate creative ideas.

By discrediting myths about group and team creativity, students are given insight into their 83 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

own creative powers. Some of the barriers to creative thinking are discussed.

Brainstorming, which is designed to help groups generate many creative ideas for solving a problem, is fully discussed. Nominal-group technique as well as alternate creative techniques that groups may use to generate ideas are also explained.

Chapter Objectives After studying this chapter, the students will be able to: 12.1

Define creativity

12.2

Identify challenges to group creativity

12.3

Apply principles that enhance group creativity

12.4

Use five creativity techniques when collaborating in groups

Chapter Outline 12.1: Defining Creativity 12.1.1: Why Study Creativity?

12.1.2: Myths about Creativity 12.2: Barriers to Group Creativity 

Evaluating Ideas Too Quickly



Poor Physical Surroundings



Too Many People



Poor Use of Time



Stinking Thinking

12.3: Principles of Group Creativity 12.3.1: Creative Groups Appropriately Define and Analyze the Problem 12.3.2: Creative Groups Promote a Climate of Freedom 12.3.3: Creative Groups Listen to Minority Points of View 12.3.4: Creative Groups See Things and Themselves Differently 12.4.5: Creative Groups Selectively Increase Group Structure 84 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

12.4: Techniques for Enhancing Group Creativity 12.4.1: Brainstorming 

How to Use Brainstorming in Groups

12.4.2: Using the Nominal-Group Technique 

How to Use the Nominal-Group Technique

12.4.3: The Delphi Technique 

How to Use the Delphi Technique



Electronic Brainstorming



How to Use Electronic Brainstorming

12.4.4: The Affinity Technique 

How to Use the Affinity Technique



Tips for Using Creative Techniques in Your Group

Discussion Questions 1. What are some of the misconceptions about creativity? How can a person become a more creative group member?

2. Whom do you consider to be a creative person? Explain your answer.

3. Give each student a sheet of paper with this sentence: FINISHED FILES ARE THE RESULT OF YEARS OF SCIENTIFIC STUDY COMBINED WITH THE EXPERIENCE OF YEARS. Now count the Fs in that sentence. Count them only once. Do not go back and count them again. Then provide the answer: There are six Fs in the sentence. Most people typically find three of them. If you spotted four, you are above average. If you discovered five, you can turn your nose up at anybody. If you caught six, you should be celebrated. Most people forget the OFs because we tend to see them as Vs instead of Fs.

Study Guide Activities 1.

Creativity Exercise

Solving this problem requires creativity. Students should divide into groups of three. Each group‘s assignment is to connect all nine dots 85 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

with only four straight and connected lines without lifting the pen or pencil from the page.

When you have finished the activity, discuss how the experience illustrates the definition of creativity. Solutions to the 9-dot problem can be found online from abundant sources.

2. Practice Applying and Assessing Your Skills Imagine that your City Council is concerned that sales taxes in your community have had a sudden decline. Apply the six-stage model of creative problem solving to identify solutions and ways the solution could be accepted by your community.

The president of your university has appointed you to a task force to identify strategies to keep your campus community safe. Apply the six-stage model of problem solving to identify solutions and ways the solution could be accepted by faculty, students, and members of the community.

3. Practice Applying and Assessing Your Skills Which of the three myths about creativity are you most likely to believe? Review the description of myths about creativity. Using a scale of 1 (strongly disagree) to 10 (strongly agree), rate your own belief as to your range of disagreement or agreement with each myth.

If you tend to agree with one or more of the myths, what additional evidence would you need to more completely disagree with the myth?

4. Practice Applying and Assessing Your Skills Review the description of the barriers to group and team creativity. Provide an example from your own group and team experience when you have witnessed one or more of the barriers inhibit group creativity.

5. Practice Applying and Assessing Your Skills Reflect on a group or team experience in which your group was having difficulty identifying creative approaches to making a decision, solving a problem, or identifying a possible action to take. Rank order the five group creativity principles from 5 (most used) to 1 (least used).

Based on your analysis and reflection, what specific action could your group have taken to enhance its creativity? Or, if your group was highly creative, which creative principles did your group apply?

6. Case Study Exercise After reading the Case Study ―Clipping Negative Thinking,‖ form groups of five to seven people and select one of the creative idea-generation techniques discussed in this chapter.

Take on the roles of managers at The Paperclip Company and see how many ideas you can generate. Alternative suggestion: Each group uses a different idea-generation technique (e.g., nominal-group technique, Delphi technique, affinity technique); all groups have the same amount of time. At the end of the idea-generation process, see which groups have developed the most ideas. Discuss how the specific idea-generation technique you were required to use influenced your group‘s creativity.

Experiential Exercise 86 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

1.

Which Creativity Technique Works Best?

Goals To give the class experience working with each of the creative techniques recommended in the chapter.

To discover which process is most successful, and to consider which process is most enjoyable.

Group size Five groups of five (semester project groups suggested).

Time Required 60 minutes Materials needed Post-It notes Procedure 1. Divide students into five groups of five.

2. Assign each group a creative technique: Brainstorming, Nominal Group Technique, Electronic Brainstorming, Affinity Technique, Delphi Technique 3. The groups assigned Electronic Brainstorming and Delphi Technique should have electronic devices to communicate with.

4. Provide Post-it Notes for the Affinity group.

5. Provide a situation in which students have to generate creative, fun ideas. For example: Your group has been asked to develop fun Halloween activities hosted on the college campus for neighborhood children.

6. Give the groups 15–20 minutes to generate as many creative ideas as possible.

7. Have each group report to the class the number of ideas proposed, and share the ideas with the class.

2. Reliving the Past Please revisit Chapter 10 of this Manual and consider using the Experiential Exercises Functional Fixedness, A Non-Quiz Quiz, or What Is It? if you haven‘t already done so in class. These exercises had utility in sparking problem solving, but can also be used profitably in a discussion of creativity.

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1 2

3 4 5

Developed by Alvin Goldberg, University of Denver.

D. W. Johnson, Reaching Out: Interpersonal Effectiveness and Self-Actualization (Allyn & Bacon, 2000).

S. Seashore, Group Cohesiveness in the Industrial Work Group (University of Michigan Institute for Social Research, 1954).

Robert Bales, Interaction Process Analysis: A Method for the Study of Small Groups (Addison-Wesley, 1950) 59.

A. A. Goldberg and C. E. Larson, Group Communication: Discussion Processes and Applications (Prentice Hall, 1975) 99–100.

6

J. Keyton, ―Observing Group Interaction,‖ in R. Y. Hirokawa, R. S. Cathcart, L. A. Samovar, and L. D. Henman, eds., Small Group Communication Theory and Practice: An Anthology (Roxbury, 2002) 256–66.

7

J. Piven and D. Borgenicht, The Worst-Case Scenario Survival Handbook (Chronicle Books, 1999) 120.

88 Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.