Solution Manual for Children and their Development, 8th Edition by Robert V. Kail

Solution Manual for Children and their Development, 8th edition Robert V. Kail Chapter 1-15

Chapter 1 The Science of Child Development CHAPTER OVERVIEW .............................................................................................................................. 2 CHAPTER MODULE SUPPLEMENTS Module 1.1: SETTING THE STAGE .............................................................................................. 5 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics Module 1.2: FOUNDATIONAL THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT ................................ 7 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics Module 1.3: THEMES IN CHILD-DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH .............................................. 9 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics Module 1.4: DOING CHILD-DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH..................................................... 10 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics CHAPTER 1 CASE STUDY ...................................................................................................................... 12 CASE STUDY ANSWERS ........................................................................................................................ 14 HANDOUTS ............................................................................................................................................... 15 HANDOUT ANSWERS ............................................................................................................................. 24 Q&A ANSWERS ........................................................................................................................................ 27

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW I.

II.

Module 1.1: Setting the Stage a. Historical Views of Children and Childhood i. Plato ii. Aristotle iii. John Locke 1. Tabula Rasa iv. Jean Jacques Rousseau b. Origins of a New Science i. Charles Darwin 1. Baby Biographies ii. G. Stanley Hall 1. Theories of Child Development iii. Alfred Binet 1. Mental Tests iv. Sigmund Freud 1. Role of Early Experience v. John B. Watson 1. Behaviorism vi. Society for Research in Child Development (SRCD)—1933 1. Research and Advocacy vii. Applying Results of Research 1. Applied Developmental Science Module 1.2: Foundational Theories of Child Development a. Opening i. Theory b. The Biological Perspective i. Maturational Theory 1. Arnold Gesell ii. Ethological Theory 1. Critical Period c. The Psychodynamic Perspective i. Psychodynamic Theory 1. Sigmund Freud 2. Id 3. Ego 4. Superego ii. Erikson‘s Psychosocial Theory 1. Erik Erikson iii. Early Learning Theories 1. Operant Conditioning a. B.F. Skinner b. Reinforcement c. Punishment d. Imitation e. Observational Learning iv. Social Cognitive Theory 1. Albert Bandura 2. Self-Efficacy d. The Cognitive-Developmental Perspective i. Cognitive-Developmental Perspective 2

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III.

IV.

1. Jean Piaget e. The Contextual Perspective i. Culture ii. Lev Vygotsky f. The Big Picture i. Five Major Perspectives Module 1.3: Themes in Child-Development Research a. Continuity of Development i. Continuity-Discontinuity Issue b. Impact of Nature and Nurture i. Nature-Nurture Issue c. The Active Child i. Active-Passive Child Issue d. Links Between Different Domains of Development Module 1.4: Doing Child Development Research a. Measurement in Child Development Research i. Systematic Observation 1. Systematic Observation 2. Naturalistic Observation 3. Variables 4. Structured Observation ii. Sampling Behavior with Tasks iii. Self-Reports 1. Self-Reports 2. Response Bias iv. Physiological Measures v. Evaluating Measures 1. Reliable 2. Valid vi. Representative Sampling 1. Populations 2. Sample b. General Designs for Research i. Research Design ii. Correlational Studies 1. Correlational Study 2. Correlation Coefficient 3. Unrelated Variables—No Correlation 4. Positive Correlation 5. Negative Correlation iii. Experimental Studies 1. Experiment 2. Independent Variable 3. Dependent Variable 4. Field Experiment 5. Quasi-Experiment c. Designs for Studying Age-Related Change i. Longitudinal Design 1. Longitudinal Design 2. Practice Effects 3. Selective Attrition 4. Cohort Effects 3

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a. Cohort ii. Cross-Sectional Design 1. Cross-Sectional Design iii. Longitudinal-Sequential Studies iv. Integrating Findings from Different Studies 1. Meta-Analysis 2. Promoting Openness and Transparency in Research d. Ethical Responsibilities i. Minimize Risk to Research Participants ii. Describe the Research to Potential Participants 1. Informed Consent iii. Avoid Deception iv. Keep Results Anonymous or Confidential e. Communicating Research Results i. Scientific Journals

MODULE 1.1: SETTING THE STAGE LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 1.1 Explain how conceptions of childhood and research on child development have evolved from antiquity to today.

KEY QUESTIONS:   

What ideas did early philosophers have about children and childhood?

How did the modern science of child development emerge?

How do child-development scientists use research findings to improve children’s lives?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: What Do You Know About Childhood? Dale Grubb reports great success in introducing students to the course material by creating a ―true/false‖ quiz that emphasizes issues that will be addressed throughout the course. Ask your students to take out a blank piece of paper and record their answers to these questions: True or False: 1. Breast-fed infants are psychologically healthier and better-adjusted than formula-fed infants. (False) 2. Parents should avoid the use of spanking when disciplining their children. (True) 3. By law, children who are younger than 4 and who weigh less than 40 pounds must be secured in child safety restraints (i.e., a ―car seat‖) when riding in an automobile. (True) 4. Until about 4 months, infants behave reflexively rather than through learning. (False) 5. Children can develop secure attachment relationships with more than one adult. (True) 6. People who drink heavily while pregnant may cause permanent harm to their children. (True) 7. People never forget the trauma of their own births. (False) 8. A difficult infant will become a difficult child and a difficult adolescent. (False) 9. At birth, infants cannot see. (False) 10. Play contributes significantly to physical, intellectual, and social development of children. (True) Read through the items slowly the first time, giving students a chance to record their answers, and then provide the correct answers during a second pass through the items. Inevitably, brief discussions will accompany the answers to certain items (e.g., breast-feeding, spanking, birth trauma), and these discussions can serve the dual 4

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purpose of demonstrating the applicability of the information covered in the course as well as getting your students actively involved in class discussion.

Source: Grubb, D., & Kail, R. V. (2004). Instructor‘s resource manual to accompany children and their development (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall.

Questions About Child Development On the first day of class, ask your students to write down a question they have about child development. Emphasize that it can be in any area of development (physical, cognitive, emotional, personality) and in any age range (prenatal development, infancy, middle childhood, and so on).

Make it clear that there are no ―dumb‖ questions; if someone wants to know ―Where do babies come from?‖ that‘s a fine question to ask. You might also encourage your students to add a bit about why they have this question (e.g., ―When my little brother was born, it seemed like always…‖ ―When I was in 6th grade, I was really confused about how…‖). Finally, remind your students that their submissions should remain anonymous.

After collecting the questions and briefly sorting through them, you should be able to quickly spot some emerging themes, either across the areas of development or age ranges already mentioned, or across question types (e.g., gender differences, ―At what age does this happen?‖ types of questions, and so on). You likely won‘t respond to all of them, but select a few to illustrate the breadth and depth of what you‘ll discuss with your students throughout the course. By pointing out that many of their questions have parallels with the types of research questions developmental psychologists ask, your students should gain an appreciation of what they‘re in for this semester, and that the questions they have are legitimate ones to be answered.

If you‘re so inclined, you might tuck the questions away until the end of the semester, then revisit them and ask the students (as a group) if they now know the answers!

Do You Know a Child When You See One? Rather than defining childhood by an age range, ask your students to explain how they determine who is (and who is not) a child. What are the characteristics that ―define‖ childhood? When does childhood end? This exercise is especially helpful in distinguishing between childhood and adolescence, and between various subgroups of children (e.g., infants versus toddlers, toddlers versus preschoolers, and so on).

Emile Students might enjoy reading the book Emile: Or, On Education by Jean Jacques Rousseau either in its entirety or through selected passages and reflecting (in writing or oral discussion) on Rousseau‘s ideas about child-rearing. Rousseau wrote Emile in 1762. Students can consider whether Rousseau‘s ideas are applicable to 21st-century parenting.

My Virtual Child: Introduction My Virtual Child is an exciting resource that students are sure to find both interesting and educational. Instructors are encouraged to utilize My Virtual Child as part of their regular weekly planning. The exercises in My Virtual Child can be assigned to students as written or oral assignments, as extra credit, as essay questions on exams, or just as a supplement to their own reading of the text. With My Virtual Child, students log on to the website where they will be able to create their own virtual child. Students are then responsible for ―raising‖ this child from birth through age 18. Over the course of the entire Virtual Child experience, students will make decisions about everything from nutrition, child care, discipline and guidance, schooling, peer relationships—basically everything that a typical parent or caregiver would do. Additionally, random events (job losses, car accidents, broken bones, continuing education) happen over the course of the child-rearing adventure to round out the ―real-life‖ experience for students. The effects of students‘ decisions are long-lasting, and like real life, students do not see the consequences of their decisions immediately. Outcomes of parenting decisions are illustrated by the ―child‘s‖ test scores, report cards, psychological evaluations, teacher evaluations, peer relationships, and a variety of other possibilities, such as the ―child‘s‖ own comments about your parenting! The ―child‘s‖ own temperament, genetics, and learning styles also play a role in these outcomes, 5

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rounding out a rich experience that students are sure to find intriguing. Instructors can set up the Virtual Child experience to best fit their own course schedule and teaching style.

Part 1—Introduction: For the introduction to My Virtual Child, instructors should help students log onto the website to create their virtual child. Students will be asked a series of questions about themselves that will be used to determine the physical, temperamental, and cognitive characteristics of their virtual child. Students will complete a physical characteristics survey, will be asked questions about their own temperament as a child, and also answer questions about how they performed in school in comparison to other children. At the end of these questionnaires, students will ―give birth‖ to a boy or a girl whom the student gets to name. The students will then raise this child, with a virtual partner, from birth to age 18. The student will be given information about the pregnancy, the labor and delivery, their ―child‘s‖ Apgar score, and then be asked to make decisions (such as breast versus bottle feeding) relating to the child‘s first 3 months of life.

MODULE 1.2: FOUNDATIONAL THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 1.2 Summarize the foundational theories of child development.

KEY QUESTIONS:     

What are the major tenets of the biological perspective?

How do psychodynamic theories account for development?

What is the focus of learning theories?

How do cognitive-developmental theories explain changes in children’s thinking?

What are the main elements of the contextual approach?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: What Is a Theory? You don‘t have to search very far to find a loquacious type eager to tell you, ―You know…my theory on that is…‖ These folks can be found abundantly at family gatherings, on a neighboring barstool, or on a crowded bus, exactly at the time you wish you‘d chosen a different seat! But most of the time when people say ―I‘ve got a theory,‖ they really don‘t. They might have a conjecture, they could have a poorly formed hypothesis, or maybe they‘ve just got an observation they‘re itching to share. To be a theory, in the sense that developmentalists and other scientists use the term, requires that some hallmarks be in place.

Use this common occurrence as a way of introducing students to the qualities that make a scientific theory an actual theory, and set the stage for discussing how theory development and refinement take place, the types of theories developmental psychologists tend to endorse (i.e., all-encompassing explanations for the totality of human behavior, à la Freud or Erikson, versus focused, limited theories to explain a specific realm of development), and the perspectives discussed in the chapter (biological, learning, psychodynamic, and so on).

You might also foreshadow a later discussion of research methods used to test hypotheses generated from theories.

Supporting Evidence for Maturational Theory According to maturational theory, child development reflects a specific and prearranged scheme or plan within the body. Maturational theorists, such as Arnold Gesell, argued that development is largely determined by biological forces and that experience matters little. Consequently, Gesell argued that human development was quite predictable. (You may wish to mention that Gesell generated comprehensive norms of development that were utilized extensively by medical and child development 6

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professionals during the first half of this century.) From their personal experiences with infants and young children, ask your students to share observations that support Gesell‘s notion that development is predictable and biologically determined.

From Ducklings to Infants Ethological theory views development from an evolutionary perspective, meaning that many behaviors are adaptive (i.e., they have survival value). Although human infants do not exhibit imprinting, ask your students to consider behaviors or abilities of infants that have survival value. Do critical periods exist for any aspects of human development?

Intrapsychic Conflict Ask for three volunteers to role-play the components of personality, as described by Sigmund Freud. Inform the rest of the students that it will be their job to determine which component each volunteer is portraying. Present the volunteers with a specific situation (e.g., deciding what to do tonight, seeing an attractive person, finding a lost wallet) and ask them to select which component of personality they are comfortable portraying (making sure that each volunteer understands the function of the component chosen—id, ego, or superego). After a few minutes of role-playing, it should be obvious to the class the role that each volunteer is portraying. Ask members of the class to suggest additional actions that each component of the Freudian personality might take.

Eriksonian Parenting Tips Using Handout 1-1, ask your students to work in small groups in an effort to determine what parents should do to encourage a positive or healthy resolution to each of the first four psychosocial crises. Record the parenting tips generated by the groups on the board or using your presentation software. This discussion will provide ample opportunity to supplement the text‘s coverage of Erik Erikson‘s ideas and will facilitate comparisons to Sigmund Freud‘s stages of psychosexual development.

Identifying Positive and Negative Reinforcement Negative reinforcement is usually a difficult concept for students to grasp; they often conclude that it is synonymous with punishment. To aid their comprehension of this construct, ask your students to complete Handout 1-2, either individually or in small groups.

“Children See, Children Do” How do children learn simply by watching others? Albert Bandura‘s social cognitive theory can be made clearer by asking your students about the cognitive processes involved in observational learning. This discussion should cover the concept of a model (or modeling), as well as the four steps involved in observational learning: 1. Attention: If one is to learn by watching another, one must pay attention to the actions of another.

2. Retention: Since learning usually involves the repetition of an action at a later point in time, the learner must remember what he or she attended to.

3. Reproduction: At some point, the action to which the learner attended and chose to retain must be reproduced or performed by the learner.

4. Motivation: Individuals will reproduce only those actions they are motivated to perform. Motivation can be influenced by the consequences that were observed following the actions performed by the model.

You might also share with your students the YouTube video ―Children See Children Do‖ posted by jab513, which provides a wonderful glimpse of observational learning in action.

Who Said That? Either individually or in small groups, ask your students to complete Handout 1-3. This exercise will allow them to clarify the conceptual differences between the major theoretical perspectives reviewed.

Advice Columns What would Sigmund Freud or Albert Bandura suggest? This exercise (see Handout 1-4) will give your students a chance to speak for several notable developmental theorists. As a classroom exercise, Handout 1-4 should be completed in small groups. You can also use this handout as a homework assignment and as a take-home portion of an exam. Students respond well to it in any of these formats.

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Internet Annotated Bibliography Ask your students to use the Internet to identify 10 websites that provide scholarly information on the theories or theorists discussed in this chapter. Students should assemble an annotated bibliography that lists the URLs for these websites and gives a brief (one or two paragraph) summary or review of each.

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MODULE 1.3: THEMES IN CHILD-DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 1.3 Identify the major themes in child-development research.

KEY QUESTIONS:    

How well can developmental outcomes be predicted from early life?

How do heredity and environment influence development?

What role do children have in their own development?

How is development in different domains connected?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: Nature-Nurture Demonstration To clarify the complicated interaction of genetics and environment, David Miller recommends the use of a cooking metaphor. With the use of pictures or actual ingredients, Miller demonstrates that a basic ingredient (flour is used to represent genetic inheritance), when combined with a few additional ingredients and exposed to various ―treatments‖ (e.g., frying versus baking), interacts to produce very different outcomes (representing individual developmental differences). For example: Basic Ingredient FLOUR FLOUR FLOUR FLOUR

Additional Ingredients SALT + WATER SALT + WATER SALT + WATER + YEAST SALT + BUTTER + COCOA + SUGAR

Treatment FRYING BAKING BAKING

Developmental Outcome FLOUR TORTILLA MATZO BREAD

BAKING

BROWNIE

Miller‘s demonstration concludes with a discussion of various aspects of the nature-nurture issue, including: a. the concept of developmental constraints (e.g., the limitations of ingredients and treatments); b. how genes do not code for specific developmental outcomes (e.g., flour alone does not produce a specific food item); c. the inseparability of genetic and environmental contributions to development (e.g., What makes a brownie a brownie? The ingredients or the baking process?); and d. the inability to identify specific constituent elements of the developmental product (e.g., you can‘t extract the cocoa from the rest of a baked brownie).

Source: Miller, D. B. (1996). The nature-nurture issue: Lessons from the Pillsbury doughboy. In M. E. Ware and D. E. Johnson (Eds.), Handbook of demonstrations and activities in the teaching of psychology.

Lawrence Erlbaum.

Debates Ask students to divide into three large groups. One group will debate the continuity-versusdiscontinuity issue, one group will debate the nature-nurture issue, and one group will debate the active-passive child issue. After the three large groups are established, each group should subdivide into two smaller groups so that both sides of the debate issue are represented (e.g., a group for nature and a group for nurture). Give students several class periods to prepare for the debate. On debate day, the first two groups will debate the topic 9

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of continuity versus discontinuity while the other groups watch and evaluate. Then the second two groups will debate the topic of nature versus nurture while the other groups watch, and so on. A format for the debate can be modified to fit classes of different lengths: Debate 1: Continuity versus Discontinuity (30 minutes) I. Constructive Speeches (Presentation of your side of the argument): A. Continuity side will present for 7 minutes 1. Cross-examination by the Discontinuity side for 3 minutes B. Discontinuity side will be presented for 7 minutes 1. Cross-examination by the Continuity side for 3 minutes II. Rebuttal Speeches (Your response to the other side‘s argument): A. Discontinuity side will rebut for 5 minutes B. Continuity side will rebut for 5 minutes III. Questions from Audience (5 minutes) Debate 2: Nature versus Nurture (30 minutes) I. Constructive Speeches (Presentation of your side of the argument): A. Nature side will present for 7 minutes 1. Cross-examination by the Nurture side for 3 minutes B. Nurture side will present for 7 minutes 1. Cross-examination by the Nature side for 3 minutes II. Rebuttal Speeches (Your response to the other side‘s argument): A. Nurture side will rebut for 5 minutes B. Nature side will rebut for 5 minutes III. Questions from Audience (5 minutes) Debate 3: Active versus Passive Child (30 minutes) I. Constructive Speeches (Presentation of your side of the argument): A. Active side will present for 7 minutes 1. Cross-examination by the Passive side for 3 minutes B. Passive side will present for 7 minutes 1. Cross-examination by the Active side for 3 minutes II. Rebuttal Speeches (Your response to the other side‘s argument): A. Passive side will rebut for 5 minutes B. Active side will rebut for 5 minutes III. Questions from Audience (5 minutes)

MODULE 1.4: DOING CHILD-DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 1.4 Describe the methods and ethics involved in conducting child-development research.

KEY QUESTIONS:    

How do scientists measure topics of interest in children’s development?

What general research designs are used in child-development research?

What designs are unique to the study of age-related change?

What ethical procedures must researchers follow?

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

How do researchers communicate results to other scientists?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: So I See… Ask students to generate strengths and weaknesses of structured versus naturalistic observation.

What are the advantages of each approach? What are the drawbacks of each? What types of conclusions may researchers draw as a function of using naturalistic or structured observations? And most importantly: Why are these types of observations more than just ―keeping your eyes open and looking around?‖ “Results of a Recent Study Indicate that People Rarely Question the Results of Recent Studies‖ For an advanced developmental course: Ask your students to locate a study on some aspect of development that is of interest to them and bring a copy of the Method section to class. In small groups, have students engage in critical reviews of the articles that they found, focusing on sample representativeness and the reliability and validity of the measures or procedures used. Because students sometimes ignore the Method section of journal articles, this exercise should make this section less threatening while honing critical thinking skills.

For an introductory developmental course: Ask your students to find research results that have been reported in the mass media (print or online), make copies of the stories, and bring them to class. Ask for some volunteers to summarize their stories, reading verbatim the section reporting the research results. Then guide the class through a discussion on how to critically interpret the reported results. This exercise produces the same result as the one described above for advanced courses: Your students will develop sharper critical thinking skills.

Understanding Correlations To illustrate the concept that correlation does not equal causation, have your students generate examples of variables that co-vary, and discuss why causal relationships between them cannot be determined. Further, to introduce the concept of spurious correlations, ask the class to think of variables that are highly correlated but meaningless (e.g., birds migrate south when footballs appear in neighborhoods).

Investigating Nursery Rhymes In small groups, ask students to derive testable hypotheses (and the most appropriate means to test them) from the nursery rhymes listed in Handout 1-5. You may wish to assign one rhyme to each group, and then have the groups report their work to the rest of the class.

Designing an Experiment In small groups, have your students design an experiment. Handout 1-6 will guide them through the process of stating a hypothesis, identifying and operationalizing variables, and considering a variety of methodological and ethical issues.

Longitudinal versus Cross-Sectional Designs Before the class session discussing developmental research methods, assign half of your students a longitudinal study to read and the other half a cross-sectional study to read on the same topic. During class, ask students to compare and contrast the results obtained with the different research designs, debating the advantages and disadvantages of each design.

Evaluating Developmental Research Methods As a comprehensive review of the research method module in the chapter, ask your students to complete Handout 1-7, either in class or as a homework assignment.

Name That Research Design To determine if your students can recognize the various research designs when given brief examples of them, have them complete Handout 1-9. This handout serves as an excellent study aid and can be completed as a homework assignment or an in-class activity.

Where Did They Go Wrong? Present your students with brief examples of unethical research practices and ask them to identify the violations present. Handout 1-9 includes some research situations that students can assess.

This handout works well either as an in-class small group exercise or as a homework assignment.

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CHAPTER 1 CASE STUDY Dungeon of Doom: Part I ―He‘s still playing Dungeon of Doom? I‘m getting worried about the amount of time Ari spends in front of that video game, Sidney.‖ ―I don‘t think Ari is going to be harmed by it, Lola. It‘s just a game. He still plays with his kindergarten friends, and goes bike riding and swimming a lot.‖ ―But I worry that he‘ll start to become a bully—make that a ‗Dungeon Master.‘ Maybe we should limit the amount of time he spends with the game.‖ ―That won‘t be easy, Lola, but it‘s probably a good idea. Besides, if Ari spends less time playing Dungeon of Doom, I can spend more time playing my favorite video game, Carnival of Carnage.‖ 1. How can Sigmund Freud‘s theory of personality be used to explain the appeal of video games such as Dungeon of Doom or Carnival of Carnage?

2. What kinds of concerns might Erik Erikson have about 6-year-old Ari‘s habitual video game playing?

3. What suggestions would B. F. Skinner have for changing Ari‘s behavior?

4. Apply the contextual perspective proposed by Lev Vygotsky to this case.

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Dungeon of Doom: Part II ―He‘s still playing Dungeon of Doom? I‘m getting worried about the amount of time Ari spends in front of that video game, Sidney.‖ ―I don‘t think Ari is going to be harmed by it, Lola. It‘s just a game. He still plays with his kindergarten friends and goes bike riding and swimming a lot.‖ ―But I worry that he‘ll start to become a bully—make that a ‗Dungeon Master.‘ Maybe we should limit the amount of time he spends with the game.‖ ―That won‘t be easy, Lola, but it‘s probably a good idea. Besides, if Ari spends less time playing Dungeon of Doom, I can spend more time playing my favorite video game, Carnival of Carnage.‖ 1. State Lola‘s concerns about the effects of the video game on Ari‘s behavior as a testable hypothesis.

2. Design a study to test the hypothesis you just stated.

3. Sidney watched a segment on the local news that reported the results of a recent correlational study investigating video games and aggression. The study indicated that children who spend more time playing video games tend to act more aggressively toward their peers. Sidney concluded that video games cause an increase in aggression, and he decided to return Dungeon of Doom and rent The Wonderful World of Worms instead. Evaluate Sidney‘s interpretation of the research results.

4. Lola suggested that before acting hastily, they watch Ari‘s behavior before and after playing video games and ask their friends to watch their own children‘s pre- and post-video-game behaviors. What measurement technique is Lola proposing? What may be a limitation or weakness in asking just her friends to watch their children‘s behavior?

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CASE STUDY ANSWERS Dungeon of Doom: Part I 1. Violent video games can serve as a means through which the primitive needs of the id (such as aggressive impulses) are satisfied. The ego can channel these impulses through the socially accepted mechanism of video games.

2. For a child who habitually plays video games, Erik Erikson would most likely have concerns about the child‘s ability to work with others and the child‘s mastery of basic skills. If the child devotes much of their time to playing video games, the child is not socializing with peers, nor is the child practicing academic skills.

3. B. F. Skinner would suggest that Ari‘s parents positively reinforce other ―healthier‖ activities that Ari may engage in, such as cooperative play with friends, crafts, and household chores.

4. Lev Vygotsky would argue that by making video games such as Dungeon of Doom available to Ari, his parents are conveying the message that society values violence and solitary activity.

Dungeon of Doom: Part II 1. The more time a child spends playing video games, the more aggressive behavior or bullying is likely to be exhibited by the child.

2. An experiment can be designed with some children being exposed to varying amounts of video game playing (the experimental groups), while other children play with no video games (the control group). The level of aggression or bullying after the play trials can then be systematically observed.

Or, a correlational study can be designed in which parents are asked to indicate (or keep a log that chronicles) how much time their children spend playing video games, then correlate that data with parents‘ ratings of the level of aggression or bullying exhibited by their children.

3. Sidney incorrectly inferred causation from a correlational study.

4. Lola is proposing a naturalistic observation. The limitations or weaknesses in asking her friends to watch their children‘s behavior include: (1) the children of Lola‘s friends do not constitute a representative sample; (2) parents may not witness all of the aggressive acts of their children; (3) parents may define aggression in different ways, thereby compromising the reliability and validity of the data.

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HANDOUT 1-1 The First Four Stages of Psychosocial Development in Erikson’s Theory Directions: What would Erik Erikson suggest for parents who are raising children who fall into these stages?

Psychosocial Stage

Age

Challenge

Basic Trust versus Mistrust

Birth to 1 year

To develop a sense that the world is safe, a ―good place.‖

Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt

1 to 3 years

To realize that one is an independent person who can make decisions.

Initiative versus Guilt

3 to 6 years

To develop a willingness to try new things and to handle failure.

Industry vs.

Inferiority

6 years to adolescence

To learn basic skills and to work with others.

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Eriksonian Parenting Tips

Children and Their Development, 8e

HANDOUT 1-2 Identifying Positive and Negative Reinforcement Directions: In each scenario, identify the type(s) of reinforcement present, as well as who is being reinforced.

(Note: Some scenarios involve both positive and negative reinforcement.)

1. Martino will not take his asthma medication daily, as his doctor has prescribed. Martino‘s parents have been nagging him, telling him that he may have to be rushed to the hospital if he doesn‘t take the medicine as directed.

2. Rowena was given a sticker every time she remembered to brush her teeth.

3. Julio‘s parents went to great lengths to provide him with hot dogs and cheese fries because he would have serious temper tantrums if given any other type of food.

4. Angela is a third-grader in Ms. Schmidel‘s class. Ms. Schmidel is giving each child work materials individually. As Ms. Schmidel turns to each child, Angela makes grunting noises and yells, ―Teacher, teacher—me next!‖ On each occasion, Ms. Schmidel turns to Angela and says, ―Shhh. Wait your turn.‖

5. At supper, Taeyung has to eat a little bit of everything prepared, including parsnips and beets. If he picks a fight with his little sister, he is immediately sent to his room with his plate. Taeyung has been sent to his room four times during the past week.

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HANDOUT 1-3 Who Said That?

Directions: Match the theorist or theoretical perspective to the statement that best represents that viewpoint.

Explain your choice.

B. F. Skinner Albert Bandura John Locke Jean Piaget

Sigmund Freud Erik Erikson Arnold Gesell

1. In everyday life, unconscious needs are struggling for expression; behavior and development are the products of efforts to satisfy these needs.

2. Development is the product of one‘s biological plan; experience matters little.

3. People learn from observing others.

4. Development involves facing a sequence of crises or challenges. How earlier crises are resolved influences later development.

5. Thought develops in four qualitatively different stages, ranging from exploration through the senses and motor abilities to abstract, logical thinking.

6. A child‘s development is influenced by the reinforcements and punishments the child receives.

7. The human infant is a blank slate; experiences mold and shape an infant into a distinct individual.

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HANDOUT 1-4 Advice Columns Directions: Indicate how each theorist would explain these problems and recommend treating them.

B. F. Skinner

Sigmund Freud

Erik Erikson

Lev Vygotsky

Albert Bandura

Jean Piaget

Heather (6 years old) gets upset when her father pays attention to her younger brother. She insists on playing video games and other two-player games with her father in an attempt to exclude her brother.

Dee Dee (2½ years old) insists on bathing and dressing himself even though he doesn‘t do either very well.

Esther and Enoch (5-year-old twins) are tag-team trouble at the dinner table, meaning that they make terrible messes of the table, the floor, and themselves.

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HANDOUT 1-5 Researching Rhyme and Reason Directions: List possible hypotheses that can be derived from each of the nursery rhymes listed below. Suggest appropriate means of testing each hypothesis you generate.

There was an old woman, who lived in a shoe, she had so many children, she didn‘t know what to do.

Jack be nimble, Jack be quick, Jack jump over the candlestick.

Jack jumped high, Jack jumped low, Jack jumped over and burned his toe.

Hypotheses:

Hypotheses:

Wee Willie Winkie runs through the town, Upstairs, downstairs in his nightgown.

Rapping on the window and crying through the lock, ―Are your children asleep? It‘s eight o‘clock!‖

Little Miss Muffet sat on a tuffet, eating her curds and whey.

Along came a spider, who sat down beside her, and frightened Miss Muffet away.

Hypotheses:

Hypotheses:

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HANDOUT 1-6 Designing an Experiment Directions: These questions serve as a guide for designing an experiment. Answer each question in the space provided.

1. What is your general research problem or question?

2. What are your variables? Identify your independent and dependent variables. How are your variables operationally defined?

3. What is your causal hypothesis?

4. Who is your population of interest? How will you draw your sample? Describe your experimental and control groups, and how research participants will be assigned to each group.

5. What data-gathering strategies (e.g., self-report, sampling behavior with tasks) and/or treatments will you use?

6. Describe, diagram, or explain your research procedure.

7. How did you minimize bias in your study?

8. Discuss possible ethical problems or issues.

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HANDOUT 1-7 Evaluating Developmental Research Methods Directions: Identify the strengths and weaknesses for each of these research methods: Research Method

Strengths

Weaknesses

Experiment

Correlational Study

Self-Reports

Naturalistic Observation

Structured Observation Sampling Behavior with Tasks Physiological Measures Longitudinal Study

Cross-Sectional Study

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HANDOUT 1-8 Name that Research Design Directions: Here are brief descriptions of research situations. Indicate which specific measurement techniques and research designs are being employed in each situation.

1. A researcher was interested in determining if there were differences in honesty among elementary school children. To do this, she placed a hand-held electronic game on a bench on a playground prior to recess, and from a nearby window, she unobtrusively recorded the assumed grade level and actions (e.g., playing with the game, giving it to a teacher, putting it in a pocket to keep it) of any child who came into contact with the game.

2. In an effort to determine if there was a relationship between parenting style and socioeconomic status, a researcher telephoned households at random and, if there were parents or caregivers of children under the age of 18 living in the household, asked them several questions about how they interact with their children, and asked them about their jobs and annual income.

3. Does background music affect the play of young children? To address this question, a researcher videorecorded the play of small groups of preschool children at a local daycare center. Using the same playroom and collection of available toys for each group, the researcher recorded the toy selections made by the children and frequency of cooperative versus competitive play under classical, country, rock music, and no music conditions.

4. A school system had implemented a new program in its curriculum designed to reduce aggressive behavior in first-graders. To determine the effectiveness of the program, it was decided that one elementary school in the district would implement the curriculum while another elementary school served as the control group. At the beginning of the school year, parents and teachers were asked to complete a log indicating the frequency of aggressive behaviors that they observed in their children/students during a one-week period. At the end of the 15-week program, the parents and teachers again completed the logs of aggressive behaviors. At the end of that school year and again one year later, the parents and teachers were asked to complete logs of aggressive behavior observed in their children/students.

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HANDOUT 1-9 Where Did They Go Wrong?

Directions: Here are descriptions of research practices that may or may not be ethical. Assess the ethical acceptability of each. Be sure to list specific ethical violations or issues of concern when they are present.

1. Two preschool teachers were discussing the issue of a ―sugar fix,‖ one teacher believing that sugar significantly affected the behavior of children, while the other doubted that sugar alone influenced behavior.

To settle their debate, they decided to give candy and soda pop to the students in one of their classes for an afternoon snack, while the other class was given crackers and milk. The teachers then watched their students play.

2. Third-graders (and their parents) and seventh-graders (and their parents) were invited to participate in a study being conducted at the child research laboratory at a local university. They were told that the researchers were trying to determine how spatial navigation and problem-solving skills developed in children. In actuality, the researchers were interested in differences in the communication patterns and emotional expression characteristics of third-grade versus seventh-grade parent-child dyads. At the conclusion of the testing sessions, the participants were thanked and dismissed.

3. After obtaining informed consent from parents to have their children participate in a research project, the eye–hand coordination abilities of 6-year-old children were assessed by having the children throw metal darts at balloons that were taped to a wall (similar to a carnival game). The number of balloons popped served as the dependent variable. Each child‘s results were then reported to the classroom teacher and physical education instructor.

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HANDOUT ANSWERS HANDOUT 1-1: The First Four Stages of Psychosocial Development in Erikson’s Theory Psychosocial Stage Basic Trust versus Mistrust Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt Initiative versus Guilt Industry versus Inferiority

Eriksonian Parenting Tips Parents should meet the needs of their children consistently, and they should maintain a fairly predictable schedule or routine with their children.

Parents should allow their children to complete certain tasks for themselves (e.g., dressing and feeding themselves) and allow their children to engage in tasks in which success is more likely than failure.

Parents should encourage their children to try new things, supporting their attempts even in the face of failure.

Parents should help their children learn new skills, assisting them with school work and giving them responsibilities at home.

HANDOUT 1-2: Identifying Positive and Negative Reinforcement 1. Martino‘s parents‘ nagging is NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT. 2. The sticker given to Rowena is POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT. 3. Julio‘s temper tantrums served as NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT for the parents‘ behavior of providing Julio with hot dogs and cheese fries. Julio‘s tantrums were POSITIVELY REINFORCED by the parents when they gave him these foods.

4. Ms. Schmidel‘s attention to Angela by telling her to wait her turn is serving as a POSITIVE REINFORCER for Angela‘s obnoxious behavior.

5. Taeyung is being POSITIVELY REINFORCED for fighting with his sister because he—presumably— enjoys being sent to his room.

HANDOUT 1-3: Who Said That?

1. In everyday life, unconscious needs are struggling for expression; behavior and development is the product of efforts to satisfy needs.

2. Development is the product of one‘s biological plan; experience matters little.

3. People learn from observing others.

4. Development involves facing a sequence of crises or challenges. How earlier crises are resolved influences later development.

5. Thought develops in four qualitatively different stages, ranging from exploring through the senses and motor abilities to abstract, logical thinking.

6. A child‘s development is influenced by the reinforcements and punishments the child receives.

7. The human infant is a blank slate; experiences mold and shape the infant into a distinct individual.

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~ Sigmund Freud ~ Arnold Gesell ~ Albert Bandura ~ Erik Erikson ~ Jean Piaget ~ B.F. Skinner ~ John Locke

Children and Their Development, 8e

HANDOUT 1-4: Advice Columns Heather (age 6)

Dee Dee (age 21/2)

Esther and Enoch (age 5, twins)

B. F. Skinner: Heather is seeking the positive reinforcement of her father‘s attention.

He should use positive reinforcement when she exhibits appropriate behavior. Punishment may be needed if the inappropriate behavior persists.

Erik Erikson: Dee Dee is striving to develop autonomy as he faces the autonomy vs. shame & doubt developmental crisis. His parents should allow him to dress and feed himself, and should buy him clothes and make him food that he can manage successfully.

Albert Bandura: Esther and Enoch have observed others (e.g., their parents, older siblings, peers, or television characters) behaving badly. Their parents should expose them to models who are exhibiting more appropriate behaviors at the dinner table.

Sigmund Freud: Heather‘s id impulses are overwhelming her ego. Her father should respond to her in appropriate ways to help her develop her sense of right and wrong (internalized by the superego).

Lev Vygotsky: Dee Dee has learned from his parents that independence is valued in his culture. His parents should encourage his attempts to develop this and other traits valued by their culture.

Jean Piaget: From their preoperational level of reasoning, Esther and Enoch have a fairly immature understanding of table manners that is magnified by their inability to understand the perspective of others. Their parents need to teach them proper table manners and try to help them see how their behaviors affect others.

HANDOUT 1-7: Evaluating Developmental Research Methods See the discussions of the various techniques in the text.

HANDOUT 1-8: Name That Research Design 1. Measurement Technique: Structured observation—placement of the video game on the playground was likely to elicit the behavior of interest.

Research Design: Correlational study—grade level of the child and degree of honesty serve as correlates.

Students could also argue for a quasi-experimental design with grade level serving as an independent (measured) variable.

Measurement Technique: Self-report—parents or caregivers responded to a set of interview questions.

Research Design: Correlational study—parenting style and socioeconomic status serve as the correlates.

Measurement Technique: Systematic observation/naturalistic observation—play behaviors and toy selection were systematically recorded.

Research Design: Experimental study—type of music served as the independent variable, and toy selection and play behaviors (i.e., cooperative versus competitive play) served as the dependent variables.

Measurement Technique: Naturalistic observation—parents and teachers were asked to complete a behavioral log of their children/students, in which they recorded aggressive behaviors as they occurred in natural settings.

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Research Design: Quasi-experiment and longitudinal study. The quasi-experiment entailed the use of firstgraders at two different elementary schools (one school served as the experimental group, and the other served as the control group). The longitudinal study was indicated by the pre- and post-treatment design and a one-year follow-up.

HANDOUT 1-9: Where Did They Go Wrong?

1. No parental permission was granted. The teachers did not gain informed consent.

2. Because deception was used, a complete explanation of the true nature of the study and the reasons for using deception needed to be given to the participants.

3. Results of the research were not kept confidential. Instead, they were reported to the teachers and physical education instructors.

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Q&A ANSWERS Question 1.1 Morgan is 18 months old, and her father believes that she should have a very structured day, one that includes some physical activity, time spent reading and doing puzzles, and finally, lots of reassuring hugs and kisses. Is Morgan’s dad a believer in the Rousseau view or the Locke view of childhood?

Answer: His emphasis on structure suggests that he believes in the importance of children’s experiences, which is a basic concept in Locke’s view of childhood.

Question 1.2 Keunho and Young-shin are sisters who moved to Toronto from Korea when they were 15 and 10 years old, respectively. Although both have spoken English almost exclusively since their arrival in Canada, Keunho still speaks with a bit of an accent and occasionally makes grammatical errors; Youngshin’s English is flawless—she speaks like she was born in Canada. How could you explain Young-shin’s greater skill in terms of a critical period?

Answer: Perhaps there is a critical period of language learning that ends at the beginning of adolescence.

That is, children learn to speak a language like native speakers if exposed to that language extensively in childhood, but not if most of their exposure takes place later, in adolescence and young adulthood. (We’ll learn more about such a critical period in Chapter 9.)

Question 1.3 As a child, Lucia was painfully shy and withdrawn, but as an adult, she is outgoing, the life of many a party. What does Lucia’s life tell us about the continuity or discontinuity of shyness?

Answer: In Lucia’s life, shyness was definitely discontinuous. Even though Lucia was shy early in life, she was not shy later.

Question 1.4 Enoch, a 10-year-old, was at school when a researcher asked if he wanted to earn $10 doing an experiment. The money sounded good to Enoch, so he participated. Despite the pay, Enoch left the experiment upset because he overheard the experimenter telling his teacher how poorly Enoch had done.

What are three ethical problems with this research?

Answer: First, the experimenter apparently did not describe the study in detail to Enoch, only mentioning the pay. Second, children can participate only with the written consent of a parent or legal guardian. Third, results are anonymous and are not to be shared with others.

Chapter 2 Genetic Bases of Child Development CHAPTER OVERVIEW .............................................................................................................................. 2 CHAPTER MODULE SUPPLEMENTS Module 2.1: MECHANISMS OF HEREDITY................................................................................ 3 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics 27

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Module 2.2: HEREDITY, ENVIRONMENT, AND DEVELOPMENT ......................................... 5 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics CHAPTER 2 CASE STUDY ........................................................................................................................ 7 CASE STUDY ANSWERS .......................................................................................................................... 8 HANDOUTS ................................................................................................................................................. 9 HANDOUT ANSWERS ............................................................................................................................. 17 Q & A ANSWERS ...................................................................................................................................... 18

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW V.

VI.

Module 2.1: Mechanisms of Heredity a. The Biology of Heredity i. Chromosomes 1. Egg and Sperm Each Contain 23 Chromosomes ii. Autosomes iii. Sex Chromosomes 1. X and Y iv. Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) v. Gene 1. Genotype 2. Phenotype b. Single Gene Inheritance i. Alleles 1. Homozygous 2. Heterozygous ii. Dominant iii. Recessive iv. Incomplete Dominance v. Sickle Cell Trait c. Cultural Influences i. Why Do African Americans Inherit Sickle-Cell Disease? d. Genetic Disorders i. Inherited Disorders 1. PKU e. Improving Children’s Lives i. Genetic Counseling ii. Abnormal Number of Chromosomes 1. Down Syndrome Module 2.2: Heredity, Environment, and Development a. Methods of Behavioral Genetics i. Family Studies 1. Monozygotic Twins 2. Dizygotic Twins 3. Twin and Adoption Studies b. Focus on Research i. Hereditary Bases of Children’s Self-Control 1. Molecular Genetic Studies 2. Human Genome Project 3. Polygenic Inheritance 4. Epigenesis c. Paths from Genes to Behavior i. Heredity and Environment Interact Dynamically Throughout Development 1. Methylation 2. Heritability Coefficient ii. Genes Can Influence the Kind of Environment to which a Child Is exposed 1. Niche-Picking iii. Environmental Influences Typically Make Children Within a Family Different 1. Nonshared Environmental Influences

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MODULE 2.1: MECHANISMS OF HEREDITY LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 2.1 Explain the role of genetics in shaping who we are.

KEY QUESTIONS:   

What are chromosomes and genes?

What are dominant and recessive traits? How are they inherited?

What disorders are inherited? Which are caused by too many or too few chromosomes?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS:  Reproductive Technology Debate Have the class divide into two large groups. One group will debate the issue of in utero medical interventions, and the other group will debate the issue of selecting the sex or other characteristics of a child prenatally. After the two large groups are decided, each group should subdivide into two smaller groups so that both sides of the debate issue are represented (e.g., pro and con). Give students several class periods to prepare for the debate. On debate day, the first two groups will debate the topic of medical interventions while the other two groups (in the prenatal selection group) watch and evaluate. Then the other two groups will debate the topic of prenatal selection while the medical intervention group watches. A format for the debate is listed below and can be modified to fit classes of different lengths: Debate 1: In Utero Medical Interventions (30 minutes) I. Constructive Speeches (Presentation of your side of the argument): A. PRO side will present for 7 minutes 1. Cross-examination by the CON side for 3 minutes B. CON side will present for 7 minutes.

1. Cross-examination by the PRO side for 3 minutes II. Rebuttal Speeches (Your response to the other side‘s argument): A. CON side will rebut for 5 minutes B. PRO side will rebut for 5 minutes III. Questions from Audience (5 minutes) Debate 2: Prenatal Selection (30 minutes) I. Constructive Speeches (Presentation of your side of the argument): A. PRO side will present for 7 minutes 1. Cross-examination by the CON side for 3 minutes B. CON side will present for 7 minutes 1. Cross-examination by the PRO side for 3 minutes II. Rebuttal Speeches (Your response to the other side‘s argument): A. CON side will rebut for 5 minutes B. PRO side will rebut for 5 minutes III. Questions from Audience (5 minutes)  Guest Speaker: Fertility Specialist Ask a fertility specialist to speak to your students about the kind of work they do and the challenging issues surrounding this segment of the health care industry. Contact a local hospital, your social work department, or perhaps your university‘s medical school for a referral.

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 Guest Speaker: Genetic Counselor Invite a genetic counselor to speak to your class about their work (call a local hospital for referrals). Have your students prepare questions in advance of the visit to make the session more valuable.  What Would You Do? Handout 2-1 asks students to consider a variety of options they may face if they were confronted with a fertility situation in their own lives. Students should complete the handout during class and discuss the ramifications of each option in small groups.  Send in the Clones Ask your students to respond to these questions: Would you want to have another ―you‖ around? Why or why not? Their answers to the ―why or why not‖ question should lead into a discussion of the benefits and risks of genetic engineering in general, and cloning in particular. Inviting a set of (preferably identical) twins to reflect on their developmental experiences will make this class session a memorable one.  Chromosomal Departures Students are typically fascinated by the intricacies of prenatal development, and rightly so. It’s pretty amazing that a stew of cells can develop into…well, someone like them, sitting in a classroom, and reading about a stew of cells. Unfortunately, this process sometimes goes awry, and the manifestations of those disruptions can take different forms.

Down syndrome, named after the physician who first described its symptoms in 1866, is a disorder in which there is an extra chromosome within the body’s cells. The particular chromosome is associated with the 21st pair, making that pair a triplet. This most common type of Down syndrome is called trisomy 21, meaning ―three number 21 chromosome bodies.‖ The risk of having a child who will be diagnosed with Down syndrome increases greatly in people over the age of 35 or under the age of 18 who give birth. Symptoms include wide-set eyes with an almond shape and intellectual impairment.

Edwards’ syndrome, also called trisomy 18, results from an extra chromosome on the 18th pair. Although very rare (there are fewer than 20,000 diagnosed cases a year), it can result in low birthweight, an atypically shaped head, and clenched hands. Structural defects of the kidneys, heart, intestines, and palate are also associated with the disorder. Patau syndrome (trisomy 13) is also very rare and leads to multiple organ defects. Warkany syndrome (trisomy 8), trisomy 9, trisomy 16, and trisomy 22 illustrate that extra chromosomes landing where they shouldn’t can result in a range of impairments.

Other chromosomal departures include Klinefelter syndrome, in which the 23rd set of sex chromosomes is XXY, with the extra X producing a male with enlarged breasts, excessive weight, and excessive height. Another disorder is Turner syndrome. In this disorder, the 23rd pair is missing an X, resulting in a lone X chromosome.

These females tend to be very short, averaging about 4 feet 7 inches in height. They are infertile and tend not to develop the breast tissue and rounded hips typical of other females during adolescence. Many Turner syndrome females have difficulty in learning, especially in the area of mathematics.  And just to complete the alphabet soup, conditions such as XYY syndrome and triple X syndrome (trisomy X, or XXX) illustrate that the normal mixing and matching of XY and XX pairs can easily go awry. Although many of these disorders involve the addition of a chromosome, other disorders, such as cri du chat syndrome, Wolf-Hirschhorn syndrome, and other so-called monosomies, are just as deleterious.  Genetics Worksheet Ask your students to complete Handout 2-2 either before class or as an in-class exercise. The point of this exercise is to give students clear distinctions between phenotypes and genotypes, and to prompt them to reason about dominant and recessive inheritance patterns.  Internet Annotated Bibliography Have your students use the Internet to identify 10 websites that give scholarly information about the genetic disorders discussed in this chapter. Students should type an annotated bibliography that includes the name of the website, a valid URL, and a brief (one or two paragraph) review of the website. Reviews should include a brief summary of what students can expect to find if they visit the 31

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website and a brief evaluation of the website. As a follow-up to this activity, students can combine all of the annotated bibliographies into an Internet Resource Directory that could be distributed in class.  Knowing the Risks To provide students with a more in-depth exposure to genetic disorders, have them complete Handouts 2-3 and 2-4 by using the text, library resources, or the Internet. Students could also use their Internet Annotated Bibliography. This assignment works well as an individual or small group project.  Taking the Risks Having a child is often perceived as being a risky affair. There could be difficulties with becoming or staying pregnant, a lot of threats could be present over a 9-month period, and as this chapter in particular points out, genetic and other disorders remain a possibility. Ask your students what they might consider ―acceptable risks‖ in this context. You might point out that a little knowledge can be a dangerous thing.

Billions of humans over millions of years have given birth, and it‘s arguable that the vast majority of them never thought, ―Well, where can I get some genetic counseling?‖ Similarly, you might ask them to quantify their judgments. If there were a 1 in 10,000 risk of passing on a genetic disorder, is that an acceptable risk? 1 in 100,000? 1 in 1,000? These considerations can be quantified to some extent because statisticians, physicians, and other medical professionals have already compiled the data. So, when is a risk a risk worth taking?

MODULE 2.2: HEREDITY, ENVIRONMENT, AND DEVELOPMENT LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 2.2 Describe how genetics and the environment interact to influence our development.

KEY QUESTIONS  

What methods do scientists use to study the impact of heredity and environment on children’s development?

How do heredity and environment work together to influence child development?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS:  Nature/Nurture Interactions Sandra Scarr‘s research investigating genotype-environment interactions warrants a demonstration due to its complexity. Handout 2-5 presents several examples that illustrate the three types of genotype-environment interactions. Have your students indicate which type of interaction each example depicts.  Epigenetics Since the time of the initial discovery of the structure of DNA, geneticists have learned a tremendous amount about how our genetic code determines our observable characteristics (i.e., phenotypes). A great deal of research, however, has focused on changes in phenotype that are not due to changes in the genetic code. Instead, these changes are caused by epigenetic mechanisms that change the way genes are expressed without changing the genetic code directly. A good example of this is cellular differentiation. Following cellular differentiation in a human body, each cell type performs a specialized role. For example, certain neurons may make the neurotransmitter serotonin, whereas some pancreas cells may make insulin. This difference in function, however, is not due to a difference in the cell’s genetic code. In fact, both cell types would contain the genes necessary to create serotonin and insulin. This means that there must be epigenetic mechanisms that, for example, turn on the insulin gene expression in a pancreas cell, but off in most neurons. In short, these microscopic engines chugging away intracellularly help produce the human that eventually emerges at birth.

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There are several epigenetic mechanisms that have been identified by researchers. For example, one way to stop the expression of a gene is to wrap that section of DNA around a protein called a histone. If a gene is on the section of DNA that is wrapped around a histone, the protein coded by that gene will not be created by the cell.

Another way that gene expression can be regulated is by a process called methylation, which involves the bonding of a methyl group to specific areas of DNA. This methylation does not change the genetic sequence but does alter the expression of genes.

Although epigenetic changes do not change the DNA sequence directly, they can be inherited by other cells, just as direct changes to DNA are passed on when cells divide. This is why, after a cell has undergone differentiation, all subsequent cells created from that cell-line tend to be the same cell type. Most intriguing, however, is evidence that epigenetic changes can be inherited from one generation to the next. This means that epigenetic changes in a parent may be passed on to a child!  Many psychologists have begun to explore how epigenetic mechanisms might affect the brain and behavior.

There is increasing evidence that environmental factors, such as nutrition and early life experiences, may cause long-lasting changes to gene expression by altering epigenetic mechanisms. In addition, some behaviors may be passed on from generation to generation through epigenetic inheritance. For example, the maternal behavior style of certain rats has been shown to be passed on to their female offspring through epigenetic mechanisms.  What Runs in the Family? An interesting exercise for students involves critically examining the role of genetics in psychological traits in their own families. This can be done as a small group exercise, or students could write a short paper exploring the topic. Have each student pick a personality characteristic, talent, or skill that they believe ―runs in the family.‖ You might describe a characteristic of your own family (their artistic ability, humor, extraversion, etc.) to get the discussion started. The student can describe the relatives (living or dead) who also possess this characteristic. Next, have students suggest different interpretations of these data.

What is the likelihood that the trait they are describing is genetically influenced? What might be the relative contributions of genetics versus environment to the expression of this trait? How might genetics and environment interact to produce this trait? How many family members do not possess the characteristic? Most students like to discuss their family backgrounds, and these questions help students to recognize the more general problems of interpreting the behavior genetics research discussed in the text.

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CHAPTER 2 CASE STUDY Genetic Bases of Child Development Luz and Marisol are adolescent twins. They both have brown hair, hazel eyes, wavy hair, freckles, thin lips, and, at the moment, they have cases of poison ivy. As a child, Marisol enjoyed playing and actively exploring her environment; Luz was quieter and enjoyed being held by her mother, who was a bright and shy person. Because Marisol was the ―explorer,‖ her extraverted, athletic father (unintentionally) played with her more than he played with Luz. Luz participated in more solitary play activities or worked on crafts with her mother. In their teenage years, Marisol was described by her peers as ―outgoing, animated, spontaneous, talkative, friendly, and popular.‖ Luz was described by her peers as ―quiet, shy, intelligent, and nice.‖ 4. Many characteristics of Luz and Marisol are listed. Do these features represent their phenotypes or genotypes?

5. Which of Luz and Marisol‘s characteristics are the results of homozygous genotypes, and which are likely the results of heterozygous genotypes?

6. Which characteristics in the descriptions of Luz and Marisol are likely the results of single-gene inheritance? Polygenic inheritance?

7. What types of careers are Luz and Marisol likely to pursue? Career selection would be an example of which type of gene-environment interaction?

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CASE STUDY ANSWERS Genetic Bases of Child Development 8. Phenotypes 9. Homozygous versus heterozygous genotype: Homozygous Genotype Brown hair Thin lips Susceptibility to poison ivy

Heterozygous Genotype Hazel eyes Wavy hair Freckles

10. Single versus polygenic inheritance: Single Gene Inheritance Hair color Eye color High cheek bones Narrow noses

Polygenic Inheritance Childhood activity levels Teenage personality characteristics Teenage intelligence

11. Luz is likely to pursue a career that does not involve extensive interaction with others (e.g., writing, computer programming). Marisol‘s outgoing personality will likely guide her toward a career in sales, marketing, politics, or law. These are both examples of niche-picking.

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HANDOUT 2-1 What Would You Do? Directions: Imagine that you have been in a relationship for 15 years and are 38 years old. You and your partner have not yet been able to conceive a child, even though you have been trying concertedly for the past 8 years.

Rank these options from most to least preferred (1 = most, 8 = least), and provide some reasons (pros and cons) for your ranking. ______ a.

Hire a surrogate.

Pros/Cons: ______ b.

Contact a sperm bank.

Pros/Cons: ______ c.

Pay a lawyer a minimum of $30,000 to try to ―locate‖ a baby for you.

Pros/Cons: ______ d.

Become clients at a fertility clinic even though each attempt at pregnancy will cost $20,000 and the chance of conceiving is very small.

Pros/Cons: ______ e.

Apply to adopt a baby through legal channels, although it will take at least five years before you might ever get a baby.

Pros/Cons: ______ f.

Adopt a ―hard-to-adopt‖ child (i.e., an older child, one who has serious disabilities).

Pros/Cons: ______ g.

Adopt a baby from another country at the cost of $35,000–$70,000 even though it will take 2–3 years and may not be successful.

Pros/Cons: ______ h.

Redirect your energies into your career, hobbies, socializing, civic activities, etc.

Pros/Cons:

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HANDOUT 2-2 Dominant and Recessive Characteristics Characteristics in the left column dominate over characteristics listed in the right column.

Dominant Traits

Recessive Traits

eye color

brown

gray, green, hazel, blue

vision

farsightedness normal vision normal vision normal vision dark hair non-red hair curly hair full head of hair widow‘s peak dimples unattached earlobes freckles broad lips extra digits fused digits short digits fingers lack one joint limb dwarfing clubbed thumb double-jointedness immunity to poison ivy normal skin pigmentation normal blood clotting normal hearing no PKU (normal) Type A blood Type B blood Rh-positive blood

normal vision nearsightedness night blindness color blindness* blonde, light, red hair red hair straight hair baldness* normal hairline no dimples attached earlobes no freckles thin lips normal number of digits normal digits normal digits normal joints normal proportion normal thumb normal joints susceptibility to poison ivy albinism hemophilia* congenital deafness phenylketonuria (PKU) Type O blood Type O blood Rh-negative blood

hair

facial features

appendages

other characteristics

* sex-linked characteristic

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HANDOUT 2-3 Genetics Worksheet Dominant-Recessive Genetic Relationships (Homozygous-Homozygous): B = Dark Hair (Dominant) b = Blonde Hair (Recessive) Dark-Haired Father (Homozygous)

Blonde Mother (Homozygous)

Genotype: BB Phenotype: Dark Hair

Genotype: bb Phenotype: Blonde Hair

Genotype: _____ Phenotype: _____

Genotype: _____ Phenotype: _____

Genotype: _____ Phenotype: _____

Genotype: _____ Phenotype: _____

Dominant-Recessive Genetic Relationships (Heterozygous-Homozygous): Dark-Haired Father (Heterozygous)

Blonde Mother (Homozygous)

Genotype: Bb Phenotype: Dark Hair

Genotype: bb Phenotype: Blonde Hair

Genotype: _____ Phenotype: _____

Genotype: _____ Phenotype: _____

Genotype: _____ Phenotype: _____

Genotype: _____ Phenotype: _____

Dominant-Recessive Genetic Relationships (Homozygous-Heterozygous): B = Dark Hair (Dominant)

b = Blonde Hair (Recessive)

Dark-Haired Father (Homozygous)

Dark-Haired Mother (Heterozygous)

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Genotype: BB Phenotype: Dark Hair

Genotype: _____ Phenotype: _____

Genotype: Bb Phenotype: Dark Hair

Genotype: _____ Phenotype: _____

Genotype: _____ Phenotype: _____

Genotype: _____ Phenotype: _____

Dominant-Recessive Genetic Relationships (Heterozygous-Heterozygous): Dark-Haired Father (Heterozygous)

Dark-Haired Mother (Heterozygous)

Genotype: Bb Phenotype: Dark Hair

Genotype: Bb Phenotype: Dark Hair

Genotype: _____ Phenotype: _____

Genotype: _____ Phenotype: _____

Genotype: _____ Phenotype: _____

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Genotype: _____ Phenotype: _____

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Dominant-Recessive Genetic Relationships (Codominance): A = Type A Blood (Dominant) B = Type B Blood (Dominant) o = Type O Blood (Recessive) Father (Type A–Homozygous)

Mother (Type B–Homozygous)

Genotype: AA Phenotype: Type A Blood

Genotype: BB Phenotype: Type B Blood

Genotype: _____ Phenotype: _____

Genotype: _____ Phenotype: _____

Genotype: _____ Phenotype: _____

Genotype: _____ Phenotype: _____

Father (Type A–Heterozygous)

Mother (Type B–Heterozygous)

Genotype: Ao Phenotype: Type A Blood

Genotype: Bo Phenotype: Type B Blood

Genotype: _____ Phenotype: _____

Genotype: _____ Phenotype: _____

Genotype: _____ Phenotype: _____

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Dominant-Recessive Genetic Relationships (X-Linked or Sex-Linked) X = Normal Female Sex Chromosome (Dominant) Y = Normal Male Sex Chromosome Xh = Female Sex Chromosome (Hemophilia Trait—Recessive) Unaffected Father

Carrier Mother

Genotype: XY Phenotype: Unaffected Male

Genotype: XXh Phenotype: Carrier Female

Boy 1

Genotype: _____ Phenotype: _____

Boy 2

Genotype: _____ Phenotype: _____

Girl 1

Girl 2

Genotype: _____ Phenotype: _____

Genotype: ______ Phenotype: ______

Hemophiliac Father

Carrier Mother

Genotype: XhY Phenotype: Hemophiliac Male

Genotype: XXh Phenotype: Carrier Female

Boy 1

Genotype: _____ Phenotype: _____

Boy 2

Genotype: _____ Phenotype: _____

Girl 1

Genotype: _____ Phenotype: _____ 41

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HANDOUT 2-4 Knowing the Risks Directions: Knowledge of genetic disorders may be your best protection against them. Use the textbook, library resources, or the Internet to locate information on the characteristics, risk factors, and available treatments (if any) for these genetic disorders.

Genetic Disorder

Characteristics of the Disorder

Risk Factors

PKU (phenylketonuria)

Down syndrome

Sickle-cell disease

Huntington‘s disease

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Treatment (if any)

Children and Their Development, 8e

HANDOUT 2-5 Nature/Nurture Interactions For each of the examples below, label the type of nature/nurture interaction by using one of these types of interactions: A. passive gene-environment relation B. evocative gene-environment relation C. active gene-environment relation (niche picking)

______ 1.

Smiling, active babies receive more social stimulation than fussy, difficult infants.

______ 2.

Parents who are sociable will expose their children to more social situations than parents who are socially awkward and isolated. ______ 3.

Cooperative, attentive preschoolers receive more pleasant and instructional interactions from the adults around them than uncooperative, distractible children. ______ 4.

Children who are quick, strong, and agile will likely become involved in athletic activities.

______ 5.

Preschoolers with long attention spans and good spatial skills often seek games and puzzles to play. ______ 6.

Parents who are assertive, when faced with a child who is passive, may exert more pressure and do more assertiveness training than they would with a more assertive offspring.

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HANDOUT ANSWERS HANDOUT 2-3: Genetics Worksheet Dominant-Recessive Genetic Relationships—Homozygous-Homozygous Genotypes: Bb, Bb, Bb, Bb Phenotypes: Dark hair, Dark hair, Dark hair, Dark hair Dominant-Recessive Genetic Relationships—Heterozygous-Homozygous Genotypes: Bb, Bb, bb, bb Phenotypes: Dark hair, Dark hair, Blonde hair, Blonde hair Dominant-Recessive Genetic Relationships—Homozygous-Heterozygous Genotypes: BB, Bb, BB, Bb Phenotypes: Dark hair, Dark hair, Dark hair, Dark hair Dominant-Recessive Genetic Relationships—Heterozygous-Heterozygous Genotypes: BB, Bb, Bb, bb Phenotypes: Dark hair, Dark hair, Dark hair, Blonde hair Dominant-Recessive Genetic Relationships—Codominance- A-Homozygous-B-Homozygous Genotypes: AB, AB, AB, AB Phenotypes: AB blood type, AB blood type, AB blood type, AB blood type Dominant-Recessive Genetic Relationships—Codominance- A-Heterozygous-B-Heterozygous Genotypes: AB, Ao, Bo, oo Phenotypes: AB blood type, A blood type, B blood type, O blood type Dominant-Recessive Genetic Relationships—Sex-Linked—Unaffected Male-Carrier Mother Genotypes: XY, XhY, XX, XXh Phenotypes: Normal male, Hemophiliac male, Normal female, Carrier female Dominant-Recessive Genetic Relationships—Sex-Linked—Hemophiliac Male-Carrier Mother Genotypes: XY, XhY, XXh, XhXh Phenotypes: Normal male, Hemophiliac male, Carrier female, Hemophiliac female HANDOUT 2-5: Nature/Nurture Interactions Answer options: A. passive gene-environment relation B. evocative gene-environment relation C. active gene-environment relation Answer key:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

B A B C C A

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Question 2.1 If Malik learned that he was heterozygous for sickle-cell disease instead of homozygous dominant, how would this affect the odds that he and Nia would have a child with sickle-cell disease?

Answer: Malik and Nia would have a 25% chance of having a child with sickle-cell disease, a 50% chance of having a child with sickle-cell trait, and a 25% chance of having a child with neither sickle-cell disease nor sickle-cell trait.

Question 2.2 Deion, 19, and Tyrell, 16, are brothers. Deion excels in school: He gets straight A’s, is president of the chess club, and enjoys tutoring younger children. Tyrell hates school, and his grades show it.

How can nonshared environmental influences explain these differences?

Answer: Here are three examples of nonshared environmental influences. First, Deion's parents may have had higher academic standards for him, as the older child, and insisted that he do well in school; perhaps they relaxed their standards for Tyrell. Second, perhaps Deion found a circle of friends who enjoyed school and encouraged one another to do well in school; Tyrell may have found a group of friends who enjoyed hanging out at the mall instead of studying. Third, by luck of the draw, Deion may have had a string of outstanding teachers who made school exciting; Tyrell may have had an equal number of not -so-talented teachers who made school boring.

Chapter 3 Prenatal Development, Birth, and the Newborn CHAPTER OVERVIEW .............................................................................................................................. 2 CHAPTER MODULE SUPPLEMENTS Module 3.1: FROM CONCEPTION TO BIRTH ............................................................................ 4 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics Module 3.2: INFLUENCES ON PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT .................................................. 5 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics Module 3.3: HAPPY BIRTHDAY! ................................................................................................. 6 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics Module 3.4: THE NEWBORN ........................................................................................................ 7 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics CHAPTER 3 CASE STUDY ........................................................................................................................ 9 45

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CASE STUDY ANSWERS ........................................................................................................................ 10 HANDOUTS ............................................................................................................................................... 11 HANDOUT ANSWERS ............................................................................................................................. 18 Q & A ANSWERS ...................................................................................................................................... 19

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW VII.

VIII.

Module 3.1: From Conception to Birth a. Prenatal Development b. Period of the Zygote (Weeks 1–2) i. Zygote ii. Blastocyst iii. Implantation iv. Germ Disc v. Placenta c. Period of the Embryo (Weeks 3–8) i. Embryo ii. Ectoderm iii. Mesoderm iv. Endoderm v. Amniotic Sac vi. Amniotic Fluid vii. Umbilical Cord viii. Villi d. Period of the Fetus (Weeks 9–38) i. Period of the Fetus ii. Cerebral Cortex iii. Vernix iv. Age of Viability v. Fetal Behavior e. Improving Children‘s Lives i. Five Steps Toward a Healthy Baby Module 3.2: Influences on Prenatal Development a. General Risk Factors i. Nutrition 1. Spina Bifida ii. Stress iii. Mother‘s Age b. Teratogens i. Diseases ii. Drugs 1. Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) iii. Environmental Hazards c. How Teratogens Influence Prenatal Development i. The Impact of a Teratogen Depends on the Genotype of the Organism ii. The Impact of Teratogens Changes over the Course of Prenatal Development iii. Each Teratogen Affects a Specific Aspect (or Aspects) of Prenatal Development iv. The Impact of Teratogens Depends on the Dose v. Damage from Teratogens Is Not Always Evident at Birth but May Appear Later in Life vi. The Real World of Prenatal Risk d. Prenatal Diagnosis and Treatment i. Ultrasound ii. Amniocentesis iii. Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS) iv. Noninvasive Prenatal Testing (NIPI) v. Fetal Therapy vi. Genetic Engineering 47

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IX.

X.

Happy Birthday! a. Labor and Delivery i. Crowning b. Birth Complications i. Hypoxia ii. Cesarean Section (C-Section) iii. Prematurity and Low Birth Weight 1. Premature Infants 2. Low Birthweight 3. Very Low Birth Weight 4. Extremely Low Birth Weight 5. Small-for-Date Babies c. Cultural Influences i. Infant Mortality d. Adjusting to Parenthood i. Postpartum Depression e. Focus on Research i. Links Between Maternal Depression and Children‘s Behavior Problems The Newborn a. Assessing the Newborn i. Apgar score ii. Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS) 1. Autonomic, Motor, State, and Social b. The Newborn‘s Reflexes i. Reflexes c. Newborn States i. Alert Inactivity, Waking Activity, Crying, Sleeping ii. Crying 1. Swaddling iii. Sleeping 1. Rapid-Eye-Movement (REM) Sleep 2. Non-REM Sleep 3. Co-Sleeping iv. Sudden Infant Death Syndrome 1. Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) d. Child Development and Family Policy i. Safe Sleeping e. Perception and Learning in the Newborn

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MODULE 3.1: FROM CONCEPTION TO BIRTH LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 3.1 Describe the three stages of prenatal development.

KEY QUESTIONS:   

What happens to a fertilized egg in the first two weeks after conception?

When do body structures and internal organs emerge in prenatal development?

When do body systems begin to function well enough to support life?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: Everything Happens in Threes Students often are a little perplexed when they hear about the periods of the zygote, embryo, and fetus, and how these prenatal periods do not correspond directly to the three trimester stages across a typical 9-month pregnancy. Handout 3-1 allows students to draw two parallel timelines that begin with conception and end with birth. On the ―Prenatal Development‖ time line, students indicate the timing of the germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods, and also list some of the major developmental phenomena that occur within each. On the ―Pregnancy‖ time line, they indicate the timing of each trimester and then list things the pregnant person (and other involved party, where appropriate) should be doing, experiencing, or avoiding.

This exercise is successful as an individual or small group activity and usually generates many good questions about the practical aspects of pregnancy and prenatal development.

Guest Speaker: Registered Childbirth Educator Ask a childbirth educator (e.g., Lamaze or other type of instructor) to speak to your students about prenatal development and the birth process. As experts in prenatal development, these professionals usually present an engaging and interactive review of the critical issues facing the developing embryo and fetus (and their parents), providing both factual information (supplemented by plenty of visual aids) and interesting anecdotes. To locate such a speaker, contact a local hospital for a referral, or search the Internet for childbirth education clinics, hospitals, or birthing centers near you.

Pregnancy: Past and Present Before the class session(s) on prenatal development, ask your students to interview a middle-aged mother (their own or someone else‘s) in an attempt to reveal some of the relatively recent changes in beliefs about prenatal development. Have your students get answers to the questions appearing in Handout 3-2 (and other questions that the students generate).

The answers to the questions in Handout 3-2, when contrasted with contemporary approaches to pregnancy and prenatal development, usually prompt extensive class discussions on the practical aspects of pregnancy.

Karyotypes and Karyograms It is relatively easy to contact a genetics laboratory in your area and ask them to supply you with a couple of karyograms. Students always want to know how karyotypes are done and this is an interesting way to demonstrate the process. It might be possible for the person from the lab to talk about the procedure. It might be that they will be able to supply you with a completed one so that you can show these to your students. They may also be able to supply you with samples that have not been mapped together so that you are able to make copies and allow your students to attempt to make the connections of a karyotype during a class period. Your students will discover the intricacies involved in this process.

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MODULE 3.2: INFLUENCES ON PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 3.2 Identify key influences on prenatal development.

KEY QUESTIONS:    

How is prenatal development influenced by a pregnant woman’s nutrition, the stress she experiences while pregnant, and her age?

What is a teratogen, and what specific diseases, drugs, and environmental hazards can be teratogens?

How do teratogens affect prenatal development?

How can prenatal development be monitored? Can abnormal prenatal development be corrected?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: Guest Speaker: Obstetrician Invite an obstetrician to speak to your students about threats to prenatal development and ways to reduce them. Have your class generate questions in advance of this session so that their individual interests and concerns are addressed. Contact a local hospital for a referral.

Prenatal Jeopardy The textbook provides quite a bit of information about general risk factors and teratogens that may affect prenatal development. This activity will reinforce the message that the pregnant person‘s actions have great impact on prenatal development, as can the genetic and behavioral aspects of the birth father. Your students should be divided into six groups, each group being given a topic category (nutrition, maternal age, stress, diseases, drugs, and environmental hazards). Ask each group to create a series of answers to ―Jeopardystyle‖ questions that can be used later in the class session to play the game ―Prenatal Jeopardy.‖ For example, the nutrition group may generate the item ―Absence of this nutrient from the pregnant person‘s diet puts the fetus at risk for spina bifida.‖ After the groups have generated five to ten ―answers,‖ collect them from the class and assume the role of Ken Jennings (or your favorite game show host, such as Jack Narz or Bill Cullen), asking the groups to compete against each other for the correct answers and, of course, valuable prizes. (Note: Groups can only answer questions from the categories for which they did not generate items. And remember, all answers must be phrased in the form of a question.)

Where Do You Stand? Pregnancy presents many complex physical, psychological, moral, and social dilemmas to the expectant parent(s). Ask your students to consider and discuss their views on the issues that appear in Handout 3-3. Small group discussions may be more effective (and less intimidating) than class discussions of these sensitive issues. Remind students that there are no ―right‖ answers to the dilemmas posed in Handout 3-3; the goal of the exercise is to help students clarify their values surrounding pregnancy and parenting.

Prenatal Medicine and Diagnostics Internet Search and Paper Students can conduct a thorough search of the Internet on basic medical care and diagnostic tests administered during prenatal development. Results of the search could be presented as a paper or oral presentation to the class, or in some other format (e.g., brochure). A documentation of the Internet search (i.e., websites visited) should accompany the final product, which should include a summary of the information found and a reflection on how that information relates to infant development.

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Principles of Teratology Because the principles of how teratogens influence prenatal development are important and sometimes difficult to understand, ask your students to complete Handout 3-4. This exercise requires students to identify the principles of teratology illustrated by each example.

Understanding Teratogen Research Handout 3-5 gives some tips for your students on interpreting and understanding teratogen research. Students can combine the information in Handout 3-5 with a research project (either Internet or library-based) by conducting a thorough search of the literature on any of these teratogens: cigarettes, cocaine, heroin, marijuana, prescription drugs, caffeine, or other drugs. Students should submit a one or two page typed paper summarizing and evaluating the findings of their search. A documentation of the literature search (e.g., articles and/or books used or websites visited) should be attached to the paper.

Internet Annotated Bibliography Have your students use the Internet to identify 10 websites that give scholarly information on teratogens. Students should type an annotated bibliography that includes the name of the website (e.g., Clinical Teratology Web), a valid URL (website address, e.g., https://depts.washington.edu/~terisweb/), and a brief (one or two paragraph) review of the website. Reviews should include a brief summary of what students can expect to find if they visit the website and a brief evaluation of the website. As a follow-up to this activity, students can combine all of the annotated bibliographies into an Internet Resource Directory that could be distributed in class.

MODULE 3.3: HAPPY BIRTHDAY! LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 3.3 Summarize birth, including common birth complications for both the newborn and the mother.

KEY QUESTIONS:    

What are the stages in labor and delivery?

What are the ―natural‖ ways of coping with the pain of childbirth? Is childbirth at home safe?

What are some complications that can occur during birth?

What is postpartum depression, and what are its effects?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: Guest Speaker: Registered Childbirth Educator Ask a childbirth educator (e.g., Lamaze instructor, doula, or prepared birth advocate) to speak to your students about the birth process, preparation for a ―natural‖ birth, and available pain medications. Requesting a demonstration of breathing techniques (having the class play the roles of pregnant person and coach) will make this presentation especially effective. To locate a childbirth educator, contact a local hospital for a referral or search the Internet for childbirth education, clinics, hospitals, or birthing centers near you.

Birth Profile The nice thing about talking to humans about birth is that they‘ve all experienced it. The unfortunate thing about that conversation is that, New Age nonsense aside, no one can remember the details!

Ask your students to complete Handout 3-6 (Birth Profile) in an effort for them to gain greater insight into their own entrance into this world and as a starting point for discussion with the larger group.

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Delivery: Past and Present Initiate a class discussion on the various approaches—contemporary and historical—to childbirth (e.g., natural versus medicated, hospital versus home delivery, water birthing, enlistment of doulas). You can easily locate numerous videos that should evoke spirited discussion on the topic.

Guest Speaker: New Parent(s) Ask one or more new parents to bring their newborns to your class to share with your students their birth stories and descriptions of their first days at home with the new baby.

Discuss the Risks: Low-Birth-Weight Babies A major risk factor associated with death in infants in the first months of life is low birth weight. Low birth weight is defined as weighing less than 5.5 pounds for a full-term infant. Low-birth-weight babies also spend more time in intensive-care nurseries at huge annual collective cost.

Ask your students to identify conditions that contribute to the possibility of low birth weight. Their list should be supplemented to include these factors: maternal hypertension rubella during the first 16 weeks of pregnancy urogenital infections diabetes more than four previous pregnancies teenage mother or mother over age 35

mother underweight or undernourished cigarette smoking having two or more abortions anemia exposure to teratogens maternal stress

MODULE 3.4: THE NEWBORN LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 3.4 Describe how newborns experience the world.

KEY QUESTIONS:    

How do we determine if a baby is healthy and adjusting to life outside the uterus?

How do reflexes help newborns interact with the world?

What behavioral states are observable in newborns?

How well do newborns experience the world? Can they learn from experience?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: Neonatal Assessment Handout 3-7 presents various descriptions of newborns and asks students to evaluate the health status of each using the APGAR scale. This activity is successful as a homework assignment, as a group discussion facilitator, or an individual student exercise.

Guest Speaker: New Parent(s) Ask one or more new parents to bring their newborns to your class to share their birth stories with your class and to demonstrate the reflexes of their babies.

Hush Little Baby, Don’t You Cry Not all cries are alike. For example, there is the rhythmic cry (a soft cry that assumes a rhythmic pattern) that usually conveys no specific meaning. A hunger cry begins as a soft cry but escalates until the hunger is sated. A mad cry is, predictably, an intense (i.e., louder, angrier) version of the rhythmic cry. It usually has a sudden onset and rapid conclusion. A pain cry is a long, loud wail that tapers as the baby runs out of air. A pause occurs as the baby gasps for more air, then another wail follows. Cry, the Beloved Country is a novel written by Alan Paton. Cry Me a River is a song popularized by Julie London. Cry Baby is a film by John Waters.

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A Visit to a Newborn Nursery After securing approval from a local hospital, ask your students to visit the newborn nursery at the hospital or birthing center. Through the windows of the nursery, students should be able to observe the newborn states described in the text (i.e., alert inactivity, waking activity, crying, and sleeping). If time permits, you may want to have students observe the newborns for one hour, recording how much time each baby spends in each state. Within the sleep state, students should also be able to distinguish between REM and non-REM sleep.

Evaluating Infant Toys As a homework assignment, whisk your students to a toy store and have each of them choose a toy that is marketed for infants. (This can also be done as an in-class exercise if you bring a supply of infant toys to your class.) When assessing the toys, your students should ask themselves one question: ―Why would an infant like this toy?‖ Their answers to this question should include a review of the sensory or perceptual abilities the toy is designed to stimulate. This assignment can then be elaborated on when you consider future chapters.

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CHAPTER 3 CASE STUDY Prenatal Development, Birth, and the Newborn Pierre and Koko had been trying to conceive a child for years without success. Since Koko is 41 years old, she was growing concerned about her chances to ever have a child. Finally, she and Pierre consulted a fertility specialist who recommended in vitro fertilization, which they did. Now, Koko is nearing her due date and expects to deliver twins. Her pregnancy hasn‘t been easy (she has been confined to bed rest for four weeks due to experiencing some premature labor), but the prognosis is good for her to have two newborns delivered vaginally.

12. Due to her age, which risks to her pregnancy is Koko facing? Koko‘s children are at greater risk for which genetic disorder? How could Pierre and Koko know if their children have a genetic disorder?

13. Because Koko was underweight prior to her pregnancy, she had to modify her diet while she was pregnant. What nutritional recommendations would you give Koko? How much weight should she expect to gain during her pregnancy?

14. Koko and Pierre both enjoy a glass of wine with dinner, and Pierre smokes cigars a few times a week.

What are your recommendations to Koko regarding alcohol consumption during pregnancy? Does Pierre‘s cigar smoking pose a risk to the fetus? Support your answers with specific information on teratogens.

15. Because she missed most of her childbirth classes due to the necessary bed rest, briefly summarize what Koko should expect to experience when she gives birth to her twins.

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CASE STUDY ANSWERS Prenatal Development, Birth, and the Newborn 16. * Due to her age, Koko was facing what risks to her pregnancy? Increased risk of miscarriage and stillbirth. * Koko‘s child is at a greater risk for which genetic disorder? Down syndrome. * How could Pierre and Koko know if their child has a genetic disorder? Amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling (CVS) can both be used to detect genetic disorders.

17. * Because Koko was underweight prior to her pregnancy, she had to modify her diet while she was pregnant. What nutritional recommendation would you give Koko? Eat a well-balanced diet, increasing her caloric intake by 10–20%. Adequate consumption of proteins, vitamins, and minerals (including folic acid) is essential. * How much weight should she expect to gain during her pregnancy? If Koko was of average weight prior to becoming pregnant, she should gain between 25 and 35 pounds.

18. * Koko and Pierre both enjoy a glass of wine with dinner, and Pierre smokes cigars a few times a week.

What are your recommendations to Koko regarding alcohol consumption during pregnancy? Even moderate consumption of alcohol can cause harm to a developing child, resulting in alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder (ARND). Koko should not take this risk and should eliminate alcohol from her diet while pregnant. * Does Pierre‘s cigar smoking pose a risk to the fetus? Support your answers with specific information on teratogens. Pierre‘s second-hand smoke can result in the twins being smaller at birth. (Because twins tend to be smaller than single-birth newborns, this is an especially salient risk factor for Koko and Pierre‘s babies.)

19. * Because she missed most of her childbirth class due to the ordered bed rest, briefly summarize what Koko should expect to experience when she gives birth to her twins. Because Koko is expected to deliver her twins vaginally, students should describe the three stages of labor.

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HANDOUT 3-1 Everything Happens in Threes Directions: Here are two timelines that represent prenatal development and pregnancy. On the ―Prenatal Development‖ timeline, indicate the timing (in weeks) of the three stages of prenatal development and the major developmental phenomena that occur during each. Then, on the ―Pregnancy‖ timeline, indicate the timing (in weeks) of the three trimesters, and then list the things that the pregnant person (and other involved parties, when appropriate) should be doing, experiencing, or avoiding.

Prenatal Development Time Line

Pregnancy Time Line

Conception

Conception

Birth

Birth

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HANDOUT 3-2 Pregnancy: Past and Present Directions: Ask a middle-aged mother (your own, or someone else’s) these questions in an attempt to reveal some of the relatively recent changes in our beliefs about prenatal development. Summarize the responses in the space below each question.

20.

What were some of the things you were told to do while you were pregnant?

21.

What were some of the things you were told not to do?

22. What type of prenatal care did you receive (e.g., how often did you visit the obstetrician; did you take prenatal vitamins)?

23.

Were any prenatal tests performed (e.g., ultrasound, amniocentesis)?

24.

Did you attend childbirth classes?

25.

Other questions:

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HANDOUT 3-3 What Would You Do? Directions: Consider how you would respond to these situations if you had to face them. Discuss the options available to you in each scenario, and explain what action (if any) you would take.

26. The results of an amniocentesis reveal that your fetus has Down syndrome.

What, if anything, do you do?

27. Most societies view parenthood as a right rather than a privilege. What are the benefits of this philosophy? What are the negative consequences of this philosophy?

28.

Should people who abuse drugs or alcohol while they are pregnant be prosecuted?

29. Results of an early ultrasound image reveal atypical physical development of the fetus. Your child, if it survives through the prenatal period, is likely to be severely physically disabled. What, if anything, do you do?

30. A surrogate mother signed a contract in which she agreed to forfeit her parental rights upon delivery of the baby. You have paid for her prenatal health care, and she has accepted a payment of $35,000 to carry and deliver your child. One week after delivering the baby, the surrogate mother would like to see the baby.

She even offered to be its nanny, if one was needed. What would you do?

31. The results of chorionic villus sampling reveal that your embryo is a boy. You already have two sons and were desperately hoping that your third child, who you have decided will be your last child, would be a girl. What, if anything, would you do?

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HANDOUT 3-4 Principles of Teratology Directions: Identify which principles of teratology are illustrated in these examples. Due to the fact that there may be more than one principle involved in each of the examples, indicate why you selected the principle(s) you chose in the space below each item.

A. The impact of a teratogen depends upon the genotype of the organism.

B. The impact of teratogens changes over the course of prenatal development.

C. Each teratogen affects a specific aspect (or aspects) of prenatal development.

D. The impact of teratogens depends on the dose.

E. Damage from teratogens is not always present at birth but may appear later in life. ______ 1.

Jacqueline and Francine, co-workers at a dry cleaning company, became pregnant at about the same time. Jacqueline decided to quit her job shortly after she was aware that she was pregnant, whereas Francine continued to work for another two months. Jacqueline‘s baby was born slightly underweight, whereas Francine‘s baby was underweight, premature, and had short arms and legs.

______ 2.

Leon and Shayna adopted a healthy newborn boy. His biological mother was a teenager who had run away from home and had an extensive history of delinquency and drug use. The baby boy weighed 7 pounds, 4 ounces at birth and was alert and responsive. It wasn‘t until the boy entered preschool that it became apparent that he had a very limited attention span and acted impulsively and aggressively toward his peers.

______ 3.

Birgit and Rolf are fraternal twins who were born to a mother who took prescription medication for her severe asthma. Birgit is a healthy, responsive baby, whereas Rolf is exhibiting hearing and visual impairments.

______ 4.

Kayla‘s grandmother gave her some advice: ―Don‘t get stressed out during your pregnancy, or else you‘re going to have an anxious, fidgety baby.‖ Having taken a child development course in college, Kayla knew that her grandmother‘s advice was well-intentioned but inaccurate. Experiencing prolonged stress during pregnancy is associated with prematurity or low birth weight.

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HANDOUT 3-5 Tips on Understanding Teratogen Research Be a smart consumer—be skeptical of everything you hear until you have researched it.

Stay up-to-date with the latest information. New information on teratogens comes out often and existing research quickly becomes outdated.

Don‘t get caught up in media hype.

Pull information from as many sources as possible. Compare and contrast what you find.

The Internet can be a good source of the latest information on teratogens, but make sure to always check the date of the information and the source.

Evaluate the credibility of the source—for example; the International Coffee Growers Association has a vested interest in minimizing the effects of caffeine on pregnancy. By contrast, parenting magazines or networks, or organizations such as the March of Dimes, might have a vested interest in publicizing the effects of certain substances in an attempt to help protect children.

Study the research carefully. Is it a well-done research study or an opinion piece? The medical field is a good source of information on teratogens. Talk to physicians or read medical journals. Don‘t be afraid to ask followup questions based on what you‘re told.

Be aware of your own biases. For example, if you believe that drinking is morally wrong, this might affect how you interpret the facts.

Be aware of the biases of others—for example, your doctor is probably not going to tell you that something is 100% safe because you might come back to sue that physician later.

Understand the concept of risk. Teratogens put a person at risk for something happening, but it is not a definite guarantee.

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HANDOUT 3-6 Birth Profile Directions: Talk with your parents or early caregivers in an effort to develop your own newborn birth profile. If this information is unavailable to you, complete the birth profile for a newborn baby by interviewing a couple who recently gave birth.

Day, date, and time of birth:

Birth setting/location:

Who was present at the birth?

Timing of birth (circle one):

Birth weight:

Length at birth:

Physiological jaundice?

Hypoxia or placenta previa?

PREMATURE MATURE POSTMATURE

Apgar Scores:

YES

NO

YES

NO

Treatment:

Treatment:

Type of anesthesia used (circle one):

Method of childbirth (circle one):

Birth complications:

LOCAL

LAMAZE

NONE

GENERAL

PREPARED

OTHER: __________________

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HANDOUT 3-7 Neonatal Assessment Directions: Use the Apgar Scale to evaluate the health status of each of these newborn infants.

APGAR Scoring System DIMENSION Appearance (Color) Pulse (Heart Rate) Grimace (Reflex Irritability) Activity (Muscle Tone) Respiration (Breathing)

0 POINTS Blue

2 POINTS Completely pink

No response

1 POINT Body pink, arms and legs are blue Pulse is slow < 100 beats per minute Weak reflex

Limp

Weak movement

Active motion

No breathing, absent

Slow, irregular, shallow breathing

Good breathing, strong cry

Pulse is absent

Pulse is normal 100–140 bpm Strong reflex

32. Manolo is 1 minute old. He is not breathing; he appears blue; his heart rate is 50 bpm; he is completely limp; and exhibits no response to a pinprick on the heel. Manolo‘s APGAR score would be _____.

33. Agnetha is 1 minute old. She is crying loudly; she appears completely pink; her heart rate is 125 bpm; she is actively moving; and exhibits a weak response to a pinprick on the heel. Agnetha‘s APGAR score would be _____.

34. Caleb is 1 minute old. His breathing is shallow; his body is pink, but his arms and legs are tinged blue; his heart rate is 130 bpm; he is showing weak movement; and he exhibits a weak response to a pinprick on the heel. Caleb‘s APGAR score would be _____.

35. Keiko‘s APGAR score was a 7 at 1 minute of age. At 5 minutes, she is retested with the following results: she is crying loudly; she appears completely pink; her heart rate is 140 bpm; she is actively moving; and she exhibits a strong reflex in response to a pinprick on the heel. Keiko‘s APGAR score taken at 5 minutes would be _____.

36. DeShawn‘s APGAR score was a 3 at 1 minute of age. At 5 minutes, he is retested with the following results: his breathing is irregular; his body is ―pink‖ but his arms and legs are grayish-blue; his heart rate is 90 bpm; he exhibits weak movement and a weak reflex in response to a pinprick on the heel. DeShawn‘s APGAR score taken at 5 minutes would be _____.

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HANDOUT ANSWERS HANDOUT 3-4: Principles of Teratology A. The impact of a teratogen depends upon the genotype of the organism.

B. The impact of teratogens changes over the course of prenatal development.

C. Each teratogen affects a specific aspect (or aspects) of prenatal development.

D. The impact of teratogens depends on the dose.

E. Damage from teratogens is not always present at birth but may appear later in life.

37.

38.

39.

40.

B (also contains elements of C and D) E (also contains elements of C) A (also contains elements of C) C

HANDOUT 3-7: Neonatal Assessment APGAR scores: Manolo (1), Agnetha (9), Caleb (6), Keiko (10), DeShawn (5)

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Q & A ANSWERS Question 3.1 Rachel is eight months pregnant and spends hours each day talking to her baby-to-be. Rachel’s spouse considers this a waste of time, but Rachel is convinced that her baby-to-be must benefit. What do you think?

Answer: The fetus can hear Rachel speaking, and these one-sided conversations probably help the fetus become familiar with Rachel’s voice. There aren't other obvious benefits, however, because the fetus can't understand what she’s saying.

Question 3.2 Binh is 22 and pregnant for the first time. She smokes half a pack of cigarettes each day and has one bottle of light beer with dinner. Binh can’t believe that the relatively small amounts she smokes and drinks could hurt the baby she’s carrying. What would you say?

Answer: She’s probably wrong. There are no known ―safe‖ amounts of cigarette smoking and drinking. For example, her drinking might be enough to cause alcohol-related neuro-developmental disorder.

Question 3.3 Rosa gave birth a week ago. Once or twice a day, she has crying spells and gets angry at her husband, even though he’s been quite helpful to her and the baby. Do you think Rosa has postpartum depression?

Answer: At this point, probably not. Soon after birth, it’s normal for women to experience occasional feelings of sadness and anger. But if Rosa’s feelings persist for a few more weeks, then they’re likely to be symptoms of postpartum depression.

Question 3.4 When Aisha’s 4-month-old son cries, she rushes to him immediately and does everything possible to console him. Is this a good idea?

Answer: Probably not. Aisha needs to relax a bit. If her son is in danger, she‘ll recognize a pain cry or a mad cry. Otherwise, Aisha should wait a moment before going to her son to try to decide why he‘s crying and to give him a chance to calm himself.

Chapter 4 Growth and Health CHAPTER OVERVIEW .............................................................................................................................. 2 CHAPTER MODULE SUPPLEMENTS Module 4.1: PHYSICAL GROWTH ............................................................................................... 3 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics Module 4.2: CHALLENGES TO HEALTHY GROWTH .............................................................. 5 Learning Objective Key Questions 64

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Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics Module 4.3: THE DEVELOPING NERVOUS SYSTEM............................................................... 6 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics CHAPTER 4 CASE STUDY ........................................................................................................................ 9 CASE STUDY ANSWERS ........................................................................................................................ 10 HANDOUTS ............................................................................................................................................... 11 HANDOUT ANSWERS ............................................................................................................................. 14 Q&A ANSWERS ........................................................................................................................................ 15

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW XI.

XII.

XIII.

Physical Growth a. Features of Human Growth i. Describing Growth ii. Muscle, Fat, and Bones 1. Cartilage 2. Epiphyses iii. Variations on the Average Profile 1. Secular Growth Trends b. Mechanisms of Physical Growth i. Sleep 1. Growth Hormone ii. Nutrition 1. Balanced Diet 2. Picky Eaters c. Improving Children‘s Lives i. The Benefits of Breast-Feeding 1. Breast versus Bottle d. The Adolescent Growth Spurt and Puberty i. Puberty ii. Primary Sex Characteristics iii. Secondary Sex Characteristics iv. Menarche v. Spermarche e. Cultural Influences i. Adolescent Rites of Passage f. Mechanisms of Maturation g. Psychological Impact of Puberty Challenges to Healthy Growth a. Undernutrition i. Short-Term Hunger b. Eating Disorders: Anorexia and Bulimia i. Anorexia Nervosa ii. Bulimia Nervosa c. Focus on Research i. Evaluating a Program for Preventing Eating Disorders d. Obesity i. Body Mass Index (BMI) e. Disease f. Accidents The Developing Nervous System a. Organization of the Mature Brain i. Neuron ii. Cell Body iii. Dendrite iv. Axon v. Myelin vi. Terminal Buttons vii. Neurotransmitters viii. Synapse ix. Cerebral Cortex 66

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x. Hemispheres xi. Corpus Callosum xii. Frontal Cortex b. The Developing Brain i. Emerging Brain Structures 1. Neural Plate 2. Synaptic Pruning ii. Growth of a Specialized Brain 1. Electroencephalography 2. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) 3. Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy(fNIRS) 4. Generalized Principles a. Specialization Appears Early in Development b. Specialization Takes Two Specific Forms c. Different Brain Systems Specialize at Different Rates d. Successful Specialization Requires Stimulation from the Environment i. Experience-Expectant Growth ii. Experience-Dependent Growth e. The Immature Brain’s Lack of Specialization Confers a Benefit: Greater Plasticity c. Child Development and Family Policy i. Life Imprisonment for Adolescents? d. Brain-Based Education?

MODULE 4.1: PHYSICAL GROWTH LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 4.1 Explore basic features of physical growth and variations in growth patterns.

KEY QUESTIONS:   

What are the important features of physical growth during childhood? How do they vary from child to child?

How do sleep and nutrition contribute to healthy growth?

What are the physical changes associated with puberty, and what are their consequences?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: The Secular Trend An easy demonstration of secular trends can be performed by enlisting the help of the students in your class. Prior to the class session in which you will discuss the subject, ask your students to talk with their same-sex parent and grandparent(s) in an effort to collect data on height. Emphasize that if students can‘t or don‘t want to gather this information, participation is optional. You‘ll need to choose a common age for the height comparison across generations, and the age should be a memorable one. You can use age 16 or their height indicated on their first driver‘s license, and height at age 18 also works, because this height is typically the same as their adult height. When students bring their data to class (along with their own heights listed), average heights for each generation can be easily calculated. When the differences are determined, ask your students to speculate as to why current generations are taller than previous generations. (Most experts agree that improved nutrition is the primary cause for the secular growth trend.)

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Class Debate: Breast versus Bottle Have your students divide into two groups. One group will represent the breast-feeding side of the issue, whereas the other group will represent the bottle-feeding side of the issue. Give students several class periods to prepare for the debate. A format for a half-hour debate is listed below, which can be modified to fit classes of different lengths: I. Constructive Speeches (Presentation of your side of the argument): a. BREAST-FEEDING side will present for 7 minutes i. Cross-examination by the BOTTLE-FEEDING side for 3 minutes b. BOTTLE-FEEDING side will present for 7 minutes i. Cross-examination by the BREAST-FEEDING side for 3 minutes II. Rebuttal Speeches (Your response to the other side‘s argument): a. BOTTLE-FEEDING side will rebut for 5 minutes b. BREAST-FEEDING side will rebut for 5 minutes III. Questions from Audience (5 minutes) Guest Speaker: Breast-Feeding Advocate Invite a volunteer from La Leche League to share with your students the advantages of breast-feeding and how this organization helps new mothers with breast-feeding. Locate a speaker by calling a local hospital, pediatrician, or consulting the Internet.

Confessions from Picky Eaters Have your students assemble into small groups to share stories of food preferences that they now have, which were shaped by experiences during early childhood. How many members of your class were part of the ―Clean Plate Club?‖ How many members of your class were raised in households where only one meal was served for dinner (i.e., no alternatives were provided when ―yucky‖ meals were served)? How many members of your class were given a choice of what they wanted to eat for dinner? What are the ramifications of all of these approaches? Have they affected how your students now eat? Your groups can also swap food ―horror stories,‖ the best of which (from each group) can be shared with your students (if the students are comfortable with this). The results of this exercise will be a thorough coverage of tips on how (and how not) to encourage young children to try new foods.

Food Preferences Paper You can follow up the Confessions from Picky Eaters activity by asking students to write a paper on children‘s food preferences and eating habits. The paper should be developmental in nature (discussing changes in food preferences and eating habits over time) and tied to the text and your lectures.

Students can have the option to either (A) write about how their own food preferences and eating habits have changed over time or (B) write about the food preferences and eating habits of a child that they are very familiar with. If option A is chosen, students should be sure to interview their own parents or caretakers about their food preferences and eating habits as children.

Dear Diary: Reflections on Puberty It is the psychological, rather than the physical, consequences of puberty that may make it a challenging developmental experience. Handout 4-1 presents several questions that should prompt the students to reflect on their pubescence. This handout can either be used to stimulate class discussion on the topic, or it can be collected as a journal assignment.

Puberty: It’s All in the Timing The timing of puberty often produces different psychological reactions in males and females. To review these differences, ask your students to complete Handout 4-2 in small groups. Their responses to this handout can facilitate a class discussion on the impact of the timing of puberty on adolescents.

MODULE 4.2: CHALLENGES TO HEALTHY GROWTH LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 68

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4.2 Identify various obstacles that can impact healthy growth.

KEY QUESTIONS:     

What is undernutrition? What are its consequences? What is the solution to undernutrition?

How do nature and nurture lead some adolescent girls to diet excessively?

Why do some children become obese? How can they lose weight permanently?

What diseases are life-threatening to children around the world?

What accidents are particularly risky for children and adolescents?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: Guest Speaker: Public Health Nurse Have a public health nurse or a representative from an area WIC (Women, Infants, and Children) program discuss the types of problems that are usually dealt with in caring for families with infants and children, especially nutritional deficiencies. A nutritionist could also address dietary issues from a slightly different perspective and could also discuss nutritional issues facing adolescents.

Guest Speaker: Eating Disorders Counselor Invite a counselor who works with adolescents with eating disorders to speak to your students about the issue, including the precursors, psychological consequences, and treatment of eating disorders.

Dietary Excesses Fast food restaurants are required to provide nutritional information to their customers who request it. Have your students visit three of their favorite fast food establishments (national chains) and ask for nutritional information, or search for the information online at the restaurants‘ official websites. Students should then compare the calorie and fat content of these foods to the U.S.D.A. recommended daily allowances (now called ―Percent Daily Values‖). Because consumption of ―Happy Meals,‖ ―Big Kids Meals,‖ ―Kids Club Meals,‖ and other fast food meals packaged for children increase dramatically during early childhood and remains popular through adolescence (or adulthood, for some of us!), this information should serve as a catalyst for a class discussion on the nutritional needs of school-age children and the extent to which a typical fast food meal meets those needs. The topic of obesity should also be raised in this context.

Dietary Models Prior to the class session when you plan to address nutrition and school-age children, ask your students to view a 30-minute television program that targets this age group as its viewing audience. If it fits their busy schedules, ask your students to view children's programming on Nickelodeon, Disney+, Cartoon Network, PBS Kids, or network programming oriented toward children that airs in the after-school hours. Have your students pay particular attention to any scenes involving food or commercials for food products or restaurants.

Your students should tally the number of ―healthy‖ versus ―unhealthy‖ dietary models they witness. Have your students bring their tallies to class so that you can calculate the overall proportion of healthy to unhealthy messages that children are being exposed to as a part of their television viewing. This exercise can serve as an interesting introduction to the various influences on the eating habits of children and the contribution of the media to childhood obesity.

Safety Visit Prior to the class period when you expect to address accidents and injuries during early childhood, ask your students to visit a day care facility or the home of a preschool-aged child. The students should talk with a parent, caregiver, or day care administrator about the measures that have been taken to protect the child from dangers in that environment. After your students visit these locations, they can report back to you and their colleagues about the effective (and ineffective) safety practices they observed.

Internet Annotated Bibliography Have your students use the Internet to identify 10 websites that give scholarly information on eating disorders. Students should type an annotated bibliography that includes the name of the website (e.g., Eating Disorder Treatment and Information), a valid URL (website address, e.g., http://edhelpline.com/), and a brief (one or two paragraph) review of the website. Reviews should include a 69

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brief summary of what students can expect to find if they visit the website and a brief evaluation of the website. As a follow-up to this activity, students can combine all of the annotated bibliographies into an Internet Resource Directory that could be distributed in class.

MODULE 4.3: THE DEVELOPING NERVOUS SYSTEM LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 4.3 Describe how brain development and physical development are interconnected.

KEY QUESTIONS:    

What are the parts of a nerve cell?

How is the brain organized?

How is the brain formed in prenatal development?

When do different regions of the brain begin to specialize?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: The Importance of a Wrinkled Cortex At the beginning of your lecture on the development of the brain, ask students to explain why the cerebral cortex is wrinkled. There are always a few students who correctly answer that the wrinkled appearance of the cerebral cortex allows it to have a greater surface area while fitting in a relatively small space (i.e., the head). To demonstrate this point to your class, hold a plain, white sheet of paper in your hand and then crumple it into a small, wrinkled ball. Note that the paper retains the same surface area, yet is now much smaller and is able to fit into a much smaller space, such as your hand. You can then mention that the brain’s actual surface area, if flattened out, would be roughly the size of a newspaper page. Laughs usually erupt when the class imagines what our heads would look like if we had to accommodate an unwrinkled, newspaper-sized cerebral cortex!

Environmental Influences on the Brain You might want to remind students that brain function and structure are subject to environmental influences. Ask students to identify the behaviors that are important for keeping the brain healthy and functioning well. Here are some possibilities: Good nutrition, especially during childhood Adequate nutrition is vital for proper brain development. Even in adults, diet may influence brain function. Studies are documenting that although high levels of cholesterol may be bad for your heart, low levels of cholesterol may be bad for the brain. Low cholesterol may be associated with low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin, that can result in higher levels of aggression and depression.

Mental stimulation High levels of stimulation help to form neural connections that, in turn, enhance brain function.

Physical fitness Aerobic fitness has an impact on the density of capillaries in the brain. More capillaries result in greater blood flow to the brain.

Maternal health during pregnancy The uterine environment can have an enormous impact on the brain development of a fetus. Pregnant individuals who do not have adequate nutrition, or drink, smoke, or ingest drugs, and who are exposed to certain environmental toxins are likely to place their developing babies at risk.

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Hemispheric Lateralization Hemispheric lateralization results in eyedness, handedness, footedness, earedness, facedness, and other silly-sounding words with important implications for development. Lateralization results from the specialization of each hemisphere for different tasks, such as decoding facial expressions, speaking, solving spatial problems, or performing analytic tasks. Although neuropsychologists use sophisticated measures to determine these lateralizations, this simple exercise allows students to gauge their own brain organization.

With both eyes open, have students hold their right thumbs at arm’s length under an object across the room directly in front of them. As they alternately close their left and right eyes, their thumbs should appear to jump to the right or to the left with respect to the distant object. For those who are right-eyed, their thumbs should jump to the right when they close their right eyes, but stay as is when they close their left eyes. The opposite pattern should occur among those who are left-eyed. Students who see little or no jumping are among the 41 percent of the population who are neither strongly left-eyed nor right-eyed.

As a second test, ask for a volunteer. Present the student with the first paragraph of this exercise (or any suitable short passage) to memorize, a wooden dowel, a clock with a second hand, a pencil, and a pad of paper. First, time how long the volunteer can balance the dowel on the tip of their right index finger while standing on the right foot. Next, measure the time as the volunteer balances the dowel on their left index finger while standing on the left foot. Finally, repeat these tests while the volunteer recites the memorized passage. Speech will be localized on the side of the brain opposite the hand that is most disrupted by the memorization task.

Another demonstration, suggested by Morton Ann Gernsbacher, requires students to move their right hand and right foot simultaneously in a clockwise direction for a few seconds. Next, ask that the right hand and left foot be moved in a clockwise direction. Then, have students make a circular movements in opposite directions with the right hand and the left foot. Finally, have students attempt to move the right hand and right foot in opposite directions. This generally produces laughter as students discover that this procedure is most difficult to do even though they are sure—before they try it—that it would be no problem to perform. A simple alternative activity is to ask students to pat their heads and to rub their stomachs clockwise and then switch to a counterclockwise motion. The pat will show slight signs of rotation as well.

The brain is lateralized to some extent, and this makes some activities difficult to perform. Challenge your students to explain why activities of these types are difficult to execute. This will generally lead to interesting discussions and the assertion by some students that this type of behavior is no problem. Generally, students who have been trained in martial arts, dance, and/or gymnastics have less difficulty completing these activities due to their rigorous physical training. Use that observation as a springboard for discussing the environmental considerations that may affect lateralization and skills during early childhood development.

Sources: Haseltine, E. (1999, June). Brain works: Your better half. Discover, 112.

Kemble, E. D. (1987). Cerebral lateralization. In V. P. Makosky, L. G. Whittemore, and A. M. Rogers (Eds.). Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology (Vol. 2) (pp. 33–36). American Psychological Association.

Kemble, E. D., Filipi, T., & Gravlin, L. (1985). Some simple classroom experiments on cerebral lateralization. Teaching of Psychology, 12, 81–83.

Windows of Opportunity During infancy and early childhood, the rapid maturation of the brain results in increasing cognitive abilities. As structures in the brain mature, neuronal growth slows, and the development of certain skills also becomes more difficult. Use Handout 4-3 to guide a class discussion on brain maturation and its developmental consequences.

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CHAPTER 4 CASE STUDY Growth and Health ―I can‘t take it anymore. We‘ve been back at school for over a month and the kids in my class still pick on me. I don‘t want to go back there, Mom.‖ ―That‘s not an option, Nina. Fifth grade can‘t be all that bad, now can it?‖ ―I hate it. I‘m always picked last for teams in gym class, the boys tape notes to my back that say ‗Wide Load,‘ and the girls call me ‗Dolly.‘‖ ―Dolly?‖ ―As in Dolly Parton, Mom.‖ ―Oh, I see. Well, just don‘t pay any attention to them, honey. They‘re probably jealous because you‘re taller and prettier than they are. Here, have some frozen candy bars. They always make me feel better when I‘m having a bad day.‖ 41.

Nina is an obese child. What factors have probably contributed to her obesity?

42. Nina‘s parents believe that her extra weight is just ―baby fat‖ and aren‘t concerned about it. What are some of the physical and social consequences of obesity that Nina may experience?

43. On an average day, Nina consumes over 3500 calories. She has occasionally tried radical diets (e.g., the rice diet, the grapefruit diet) without success. What would you recommend to her (and her family) regarding an effective approach to weight loss?

44. Nina has started to experience some of the changes of puberty, but her classmates have not. What challenges does this pose for her?

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CASE STUDY ANSWERS Growth and Health 45.

Nina is an obese child. What factors have probably contributed to her obesity?

Nina‘s mom used food for comfort rather than for nutritional consumption, and she encouraged Nina to eat high-fat food (frozen candy bars). In addition, heredity may influence a child‘s activity level or set the basal metabolic rate. Television advertisements for fattening foods or parents who encourage their children to ―clean their plates‖ may be environmental contributors.

46. Nina‘s parents believe that her extra weight is just ―baby fat‖ and aren‘t concerned about it. What are some of the physical and social consequences of obesity that Nina may experience?  Unpopularity  Low self-esteem  At risk for medical problems 47. On an average day, Nina consumes over 3500 calories. She has occasionally tried radical diets (e.g., the rice diet, the grapefruit diet) without success. What would you recommend to her (and her family) regarding an effective approach to weight loss?  Change Nina‘s eating habits and encourage her to be more active.  Nina needs to more closely monitor her eating and activity levels, setting goals and identifying rewards for achieving those goals.  Her parents need to assist her in the above endeavors, while also monitoring their own lifestyles to make sure that they aren‘t fostering obesity-causing habits.

48. Nina has started to experience some of the changes of puberty, but her classmates have not. What challenges does this pose for her?

Nina is an early-maturing female and, as such, she is more likely to be:  Lacking in self-confidence  Less popular  More depressed or have behavioral problems  More likely to smoke and drink.  More negative in their feelings about their physical development.  Doing more poorly in school or getting into more trouble at school  More likely to be sexually active

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HANDOUT 4-1 Dear Diary: Reflections on Puberty Directions: For most adolescents, it is the psychological rather than the physical consequences of puberty that may make it a challenging developmental experience. Take a moment to reflect on your reactions to the pubertal physical changes as they were occurring. Answer each question about your experiences of puberty.

49. At what age did you first notice your body physically changing? Did these changes occur before, at about the same time, or after your friends experienced them? (In other words, were you an early, on-time, or late developer?)

50.

What types of physical changes did you notice first? How did you react to these changes?

51. How did other people (e.g., siblings, parents, extended family, friends, teachers, and other adults) react to your physical changes?

52.

What were some positive consequences of puberty? What were some negative consequences?

53.

Is there anything that you wish you could have changed about your pubescence?

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HANDOUT 4-2 Puberty: It’s All in the Timing Directions: The impact of puberty may vary dramatically depending upon its timing. Indicate some of the pros and cons for males and females regarding the timing of puberty.

FEMALES Pubertal Timing

PROs

MALES CONs

PROs

CONs

Early Maturation

On-Time Maturation

Late Maturation

What pubertal timing appears to be the ―best-case scenario‖ for females? ______________ What appears to be the ―worst-case scenario‖ for females?

______________

What pubertal timing appears to be the ―best-case scenario‖ for males?

______________

What appears to be the ―worst-case scenario‖ for males? ______________

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HANDOUT 4-3 Windows of Opportunity Directions: Here is a chart indicating a variety of skills that infants and children acquire as the brain matures.

The shaded boxes indicate when development occurs most rapidly (dark boxes indicate rapid development, lighter boxes indicate slowing development). Beside each skill, indicate what environmental stimulation you would recommend to facilitate the development of each ability.

Skill or Ability

Prenatal Period

0–1 year

1–2 years

2–3 years

3–4 years

4+ years

Motor development Emotional control

Vision Social attachment

Vocabulary Second language

Math/logic Music

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HANDOUT ANSWERS HANDOUT 4-1: Puberty: It’s All in the Timing BOYS who were EARLY MATURERS tended to be:  Dating more often  More positive in their feelings about their physical appearance and athletic abilities BOYS who were LATE MATURERS tended to be:  Frustrated due to being treated like little boys rather than young men GIRLS who were EARLY MATURERS tended to be:  Lacking in self-confidence  Less popular  More depressed or have behavioral problems  More likely to smoke and drink.  Doing more poorly in school or in more trouble at school  More likely to be sexually active No specific information is given about on-time maturation for boys or girls, or late maturation for girls.

What pubertal timing appears to be the ―best-case scenario‖ for females? On-time What appears to be the ―worst-case scenario‖ for females?

Early What pubertal timing appears to be the ―best-case scenario‖ for males? Early What appears to be the ―worst-case scenario‖ for males? Late

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Q&A ANSWERS Question 4.1 Tameka is pregnant with her first child and wonders whether breast-feeding is really worthwhile. What advantages of breast-feeding would you mention to her?

Answer: You could tell her that breast-fed babies tend to be healthier, get diarrhea less often, and make the transition to solid foods more easily. You could also mention that it’s impossible to contaminate breast milk.

Question 4.2 Joshua is a 10-year-old who is 25 pounds overweight. What can he and his parents do to help him lose weight?

Answer: Joshua and his parents need to work together to create a healthier lifestyle, one that changes his eating habits and encourages him to be more active. They need to agree upon realistic goals (e.g., losing 6 pounds in a month; 20 minutes of outdoor play each day) and use rewards to help Joshua achieve those goals. Also, Joshua needs to learn how to record what and how much he eats, along with recording his exercise.

Question 4.3 Ashley was distraught when her 2-year-old daughter fell down a full flight of steps and hit her head against a concrete wall, which led to a trip to the hospital. What could you say to reassure Ashley about her daughter’s prognosis?

Answer: You could explain that young children recover from brain injury more often than older children and adults do. So, unless her daughter has suffered extensive damage to the brain, she should be okay.

Chapter 5 Perceptual and Motor Development CHAPTER OVERVIEW .............................................................................................................................................. 2 CHAPTER MODULE SUPPLEMENTS Module 5.1: BASIC SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL PROCESSES ........................................................... 3 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics Module 5.2: COMPLEX PERCEPTUAL AND ATTENTIONAL PROCESSES .......................................... 4 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics Module 5.3: MOTOR DEVELOPMENT ....................................................................................................... 6 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics CHAPTER 5 CASE STUDY ........................................................................................................................................ 8 CASE STUDY ANSWERS .......................................................................................................................................... 9 78

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Children and Their Development, 8e HANDOUTS ............................................................................................................................................................... 10 HANDOUT ANSWERS ............................................................................................................................................. 17 Q&A ANSWERS ........................................................................................................................................................ 18

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW XIV. Introduction a. Sensory and Perceptual Processes b. Motor Skills XV. Basic Sensory and Perceptual Processes a. Habituation b. Smell, Taste, and Touch c. Hearing i. Auditory Threshold d. Improving Children‘s Lives i. Hearing Impairment in Infancy e. Seeing i. Visual Acuity ii. Cones f. Integrating Sensory Information XVI. Complex Perceptual and Attentional Processes a. Perceiving Objects b. Perceptual Constancies i. Size Constancy ii. Depth 1. Visual Cliff 2. Kinetic Cues 3. Visual Expansion 4. Motion Parallax 5. Retinal Disparity 6. Pictorial Cues a. Texture Gradient b. Interposition c. Linear Perspective d. Relative Size iii. The Impact of Motor-Skill Development iv. Perceiving Faces c. Attention d. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) i. Inattention ii. Hyperactivity and Impulsivity e. Child Development and Family Policy i. Interventions to Support Children with ADHD in the Classroom XVII. Motor Development a. Locomotion and Fine-Motor Skills i. Toddlers ii. Dynamic Systems Theory iii. Posture and Balance iv. Stepping v. Environmental Cues vi. Coordinating Skills 1. Differentiation 2. Integration vii. Beyond Walking b. Cultural Influences i. Cultural Practices That Influence Motor Development 80

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c. Fine-Motor Skills i. Reaching and Grasping 1. Affordances ii. Handedness d. Focus on Research i. Discovering Hidden Affordances: Opening Containers e. Physical Fitness i. Participating in Sports

MODULE 5.1: BASIC SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL PROCESSES LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 5.1 Describe perceptual development and sensory processes in infancy.

KEY QUESTIONS    

Are newborn babies able to smell and taste? Do they respond to touch and experience pain?

How well do infants hear?

How accurate is infants’ vision? Do infants perceive color?

How do infants integrate information from different senses?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: Baby Show and Tell Invite a parent to bring an infant to class to demonstrate the infant‘s perceptual skills.

Demonstrations of smell and taste discrimination are relatively easy to orchestrate, as are auditory preferences (e.g., the sound of a parent‘s voice versus the sound of a stranger‘s voice) and visual discrimination. Habituation can also be easily demonstrated with the use of a metronome or other repetitive stimuli.

Guest Speaker: An Audiologist Invite an audiologist to your class to speak about the causes, diagnosis, and treatment of hearing problems in infants and young children. Also, ask the audiologist to discuss the developmental consequences of hearing impairments. To locate an audiologist, contact a local hospital or pediatrician for a reference.

Evaluating Infant and Child Toys II Dispatch your students to a toy store and have each of them choose a toy that is marketed for infants or young children. (This can also be done as an in-class exercise if you bring a supply of toys to your class.) What senses are the toys designed to stimulate? Are there ways in which the toys can be improved to better enhance perceptual development? If students find similar toys, can they recommend one over the other? Upon what evidence do they base their recommendations? This project can be elaborated upon when you cover future chapters in the text.

A Few Animal Facts You can spice up a discussion of the visual system by comparing the abilities of nonhuman animals and humans. The senses of nonhuman animals have evolved to give members of some species an optimum chance for survival. Here are a few examples:  Some nonhuman animals, such as cats, have a reflective surface on the back of the eye behind the sensory receptors. When light first enters the eye, some light is detected by the sensory receptors.

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The light not detected by the sensory receptors continues onto the reflective surface at the back of the eye. This light is then reflected outward toward the sensory receptors, providing a second opportunity for detection. This feature produces two results. First, the outward reflection results in the shining of the cat’s eye when a light beam falls onto it. The second result is that the cat’s night vision efficiency is doubled compared to nonhuman animals with a nonreflective rear surface, such as humans.  Diurnal nonhuman animals, such as fish and birds, have all or mostly cones on their retinas. Their superior color vision is a strong advantage during daylight, but they are nearly blind at night.

Nocturnal nonhuman animals, such as rats and bats, have all or mostly rods on their retinas; therefore they have no color vision, but they can see at night. The retinas of humans contain both rods and cones; therefore, humans can see things at night and with color during the day.  Most herbivores and prey animals have their eyes placed far to the side of the head to give them a wide range of vision, whereas carnivores, including humans, have their eyes closer together so the overlapping visual fields can provide good depth perception. This is easy to remember using the old saying, ―Eyes wide, likes to hide; eyes front, likes to hunt.‖ Demonstrating Intersensory Integration To demonstrate to your students how sophisticated adult skills of intersensory integration are, bring a series of similar objects to class. Sets of balls make a good choice because they are usually easy to access and are relatively inexpensive. Create two identical sets of balls, including tennis balls, racquet balls, ping-pong balls, golf balls, round sponge balls, billiard balls, baseballs, solid rubber balls, superballs, and so on. Arrange one set on the desk in front of the class, and leave the other in a box nearby. Ask a volunteer to wear a blindfold or keep their eyes closed, reach into the box, and select a ball. It is the volunteer‘s job to examine the ball by touch alone, then after returning the ball to the box, identify the ball from the set in front of the class. This is a simple demonstration of a sophisticated skill, and you can enhance the demonstration by elaborating on the development of intersensory integration. Additionally, if you conduct this demonstration by walking around your classroom with the box of balls, it also becomes a demonstration of size constancy, because your students will have to identify the ball they selected from a set in front of the classroom that casts a smaller retinal image than the one imagined when holding the ball.

MODULE 5.2: COMPLEX PERCEPTUAL AND ATTENTIONAL PROCESSES LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 5.2 Summarize the development of perceptual and attentional processes in childhood.

KEY QUESTIONS:   

How do infants perceive objects?

What are the components of attention? How do they develop?

What is attention deficit hyperactivity disorder? How does it affect children’s development?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: Do You See What I See? To highlight the visual perceptual abilities (and the development thereof) of infants, ask your students to bring a color picture to class (or you can bring one or more pictures to class). The pictures, which can be photographs or magazine images, must depict some sort of indoor or outdoor scene so that color 82

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and depth cues can be identified. Ask your students to view the pictures through the eyes of a newborn and a 1year-old, and then complete Handout 5-1. This activity can be done as an individual or small group activity, or as a homework assignment.

Size Constancy: It’s All in the Mind’s Eye A relatively simple but compelling demonstration of how people maintain size constancy despite changes in the size of the retinal image can be accomplished with the use of Handout 5-2. Instead of changing the size of the retinal image—which can be easily done by simply walking toward and away from your students—this demonstration will hold the size of the retinal image constant while varying distance. (Note: This demonstration requires a brightly-lit classroom with light-colored walls.) See Handout 5-2 for further details. The explanation as to why the rectangle appears larger when looking toward a distant wall (i.e., Step Four on the handout) should include the fact that size constancy is a product of the interaction of size and distance information. For a distant object to cast the same retinal image as a near object, the distant object must be much larger.

Are You Paying Attention? A compelling demonstration of the role of attention in learning is described by Janet Larsen. Instructors should create a series of six large colored cards that contain two items of information: Words and numbers. Larsen uses three-letter words (dog, cat, pig, rat, cow, and hen) and single-digit numbers. Each clearly printed word should be written on a different colored card, and a single-digit number should be written below each word. The large colored cards with words and numbers should then be shuffled so that the numbers do not appear in sequence.

Three different sets of test booklets also need to be constructed (see Handouts 5-4a and 5-4b). The instructions on the cover page of your test booklets should direct your students to attend to one of three different features of the cards (i.e., their color, the word, or the number). The remaining pages of the test booklet should have instructions to attend to features of the cards in this order:

COVER PAGE PAGE 2 PAGE 3 PAGE 4

SET ONE ―Try to remember the words on the cards ...‖ WORDS NUMBERS COLORS

SET TWO ―Try to remember the numbers on the cards ...‖ NUMBERS COLORS WORDS

SET THREE ―Try to remember the colors on the cards ...‖ COLORS WORDS NUMBERS

The three sets of test booklets should be mixed and distributed to your students. Ask them to read the cover page of the test booklets, and then show the cards to your students for 5 seconds each. Have them complete their test booklets, and then show them the cards again so that they can score their responses. Students should recall the feature of the cards to which they were initially instructed to attend far better than to the other features of the cards.

Source: Larsen, J. D. (1996). Pay attention! Demonstrating the role of attention in learning. In M. E. Ware and D. E. Johnson (Eds.), Handbook of demonstrations and activities in the teaching of psychology (Vol. 3). Lawrence Erlbaum.

Internet Annotated Bibliography Have your students use the Internet to identify 10 websites that give scholarly information on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Students should type an annotated bibliography that includes the name of the website (e.g., National Institute for Mental Health‘s ADHD page), a valid URL (website address, e.g., http://www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/adhd.cfm), and a brief (one or two paragraph) review of the website. Reviews should include a brief summary of what students can expect to find if they visit the website and a brief evaluation of the website. As a follow-up to this activity, students can combine all of the annotated bibliographies into an Internet Resource Directory that could be distributed in class.

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LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 5.3 Identify how the development of motor skills helps children explore and understand the world around them.

KEY QUESTIONS:   

What are the component skills involved in learning to walk, and at what age do infants typically master them?

How do infants learn to coordinate the use of their hands? When and why do most children begin to prefer using one hand?

Are children physically fit? Do they benefit from participating in sports?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: Observing Motor Development Handout 5-5 asks your students to observe several young children ranging in age from newborns to toddlers (birth to age 2). Your students are to record their observations and then compare the differences in skills between the youngest and oldest children they observed. Depending upon the availability of small children to members of your class, this project can be completed individually or in small groups.

Guest Speaker: Pediatrician Ask a pediatrician to talk with your students about motor development, both normative and non-normative. The pediatrician should be able to discuss various means of determining normative development and those factors that contribute most to it. Also, a discussion of physical limitations and their impact on child development would be valuable. Your students should come to this class with questions prepared in advance.

Look Into It Students can pursue some focused library searches. Depending upon your class size (under 40 works well) and available library resources (PsycINFO, Academic Search Premier, or equivalent databases), this project can be an effective means of allowing students to explore a topic that is of particular interest to them.

Handout 5-6 provides a series of questions that will guide the students‘ library searches.

Assign one topic related to motor development to each student (or small group of students) and have them explore the professional literature related to it. During your next class session, invite them to briefly present their findings to the rest of the class. (a) genetics (b) health status at birth (c) low birth weight (d) prematurity (e) physical size

(f) race or ethnicity (g) nutrition (h) birth order (i) social class (j) child-rearing practices

Being Left-Handed in a Right-Handed World Have one (or a panel) of left-handed students talk about their experiences as left-handers. What difficulties or discrimination have they encountered in school and in carrying out daily activities? What tools or devices do they find especially challenging to use? Are there specific motor skills in which they feel they excel? Do they believe their left-handedness provides any advantages in their daily functioning? Did they ever try to be (or were they encouraged by others to be) right-handed?

Evaluating Infant and Child Toys III Hasten your students to a toy store and have each of them select a toy that is being marketed for infants or young children. What motor skills (locomotor or fine-motor skills) is the toy supposed to facilitate or challenge, and how does it accomplish this? Are there ways in which the toy can be improved to better impact a child‘s motor development?

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Developmental Milestones Paper Students can reflect on and write a paper about their own development between the ages of birth to 2, 2 to 3, 3 to 5, or 6 to 12 years. The paper should be developmental in nature (talking about changes in physical abilities over time). Students should be sure to interview their own parents or caregivers for a description of their development at their chosen ages. This can be followed with a classroom discussion of findings.

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CHAPTER 5 CASE STUDY Perceptual and Motor Development Six-year-old Giorgio is a quiet but energetic kindergartner. He is usually well-behaved, but this morning he hit another child who took a crayon away from him. Also, Giorgio is not showing much interest in the prereading exercises that you‘re using with the class, and his spoken utterances are often unclear or nongrammatical. As Giorgio‘s teacher, you are concerned about his intellectual and social development, so you have a conference with his parents. During this meeting, Giorgio‘s parents reveal that they have noticed that his 4-year-old sister seems more talkative than Giorgio and has shown more interest in reading, but they just attributed that to the different personality characteristics of their children. Giorgio has never enjoyed tasks that take time or effort, whereas his sister often looks through books or plays with building blocks for long periods of time. Lately, Giorgio‘s parents have been trying to address his habit of interrupting ongoing conversations, but their efforts have met with little success.

54. Without further information, what issues do you suspect may be impacting Giorgio‘s development?

Identify the evidence that fuels your suspicions.

55. Following your conversation with Giorgio‘s parents, you decide to attend more carefully to Giorgio‘s interactions with other children. You notice that it often takes his classmates two or three tries to get his attention. What conclusion can you draw from this, and given your conclusion, what would you recommend to his parents?

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CASE STUDY ANSWERS Perceptual and Motor Development 56. Without further information, what issues do you suspect may be impacting Giorgio‘s development?

Identify the evidence that fuels your suspicions.

Many of Giorgio‘s behaviors (e.g., hitting another child, interrupting his parents) indicate impulsivity.

Other behaviors (e.g., not enjoying tasks that take time or effort) may indicate an inability to pay attention and stay on task. Finally, Giorgio was described as ―energetic.‖ Depending upon his level of activity, he may be exhibiting hyperactivity. All of these characteristics are symptoms of ADHD. 57. Following your conversation with Giorgio‘s parents, you decide to pay closer attention to Giorgio‘s interactions with other children. You notice that it often takes his classmates two or three tries to get his attention. What conclusion can you draw from this, and given your conclusion, what would you recommend to his parents?

Given the difficulty in getting his attention and Giorgio‘s unclear utterances, a hearing impairment may be the culprit. Also, Giorgio‘s lack of interest in reading and the fact that he talks less than his younger sister may be indicative of a language delay, which is common among children with hearing impairments.

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HANDOUT 5-1 Do You See What I See? Directions: Imagine viewing the picture through the eyes of a newborn and a 1-year-old infant. What do you see?

Newborn Child VISUAL ACUITY: Describe the objects in the picture that each child can see.

COLOR VISION: Describe the colors of the objects in the picture as they would appear to each child.

Would any objects appear to be the same color?

DEPTH PERCEPTION: How can each child determine which objects are more distant than others in the picture?

What depth cues can each child utilize?

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HANDOUT 5-2 Size Constancy: It’s All in the Mind’s Eye Directions: This is a demonstration of size constancy (i.e., the realization that an object’s actual size remains the same despite changes in the size of its retinal image). Read all of the instructions before starting the demonstration, because stopping to read during the demonstration will cause it to fail.

STEP ONE: Stare at the X in the middle of the white triangle for a few minutes.

STEP TWO: Look down at the blank part of this page to see an afterimage of the white rectangle (i.e., you should see what appears to be a floating dark rectangle).

STEP THREE: Look at a light-colored wall in the classroom. The afterimage should now appear much larger.

STEP FOUR: Explain why.

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HANDOUT 5-3 Reviewing Research: Guiding Questions Directions: Answer these questions as you read the assigned research article.

58. What was the aim of the study?

59. How did the investigator(s) measure the topic of interest?

60. Who were the children who participated in the study?

61. What was the design of the study?

62. Were there ethical concerns with the study?

63. What were the results?

64. What did the investigator(s) conclude?

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HANDOUT 5-4A

HANDOUT 5-4A

INSTRUCTOR: Copy then cut along the dotted lines. You‘ll need one cover page for each test booklet.

Are You Paying Attention?

IMPORTANT: Please do not turn the page until instructed to do so.

DIRECTIONS: You will be shown a series of cards.

Try to remember the numbers on the cards in the order they are shown.

HANDOUT 5-4A

HANDOUT 5-4A

Are You Paying Attention?

Are You Paying Attention?

IMPORTANT: Please do not turn the page until instructed to do so.

IMPORTANT: Please do not turn the page until instructed to do so.

DIRECTIONS: You will be shown a series of cards.

Try to remember the colors of the cards in the order they are shown.

DIRECTIONS: You will be shown a series of cards.

Try to remember the words on the cards in the order they are shown.

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HANDOUT 5-4B DIRECTIONS: In each space, list the numbers on the cards in the order they were shown.

INSTRUCTOR: Copy then cut along the dotted lines. You‘ll need one copy of this set of three pages for each test booklet.

1. _______________________________________ 2. _______________________________________ 3. _______________________________________ 4. _______________________________________ 5. _______________________________________ 6. _______________________________________

DIRECTIONS: In each space, list the colors of the cards in the order they were shown.

DIRECTIONS: In each space, list the words on the cards in the order they were shown.

1. _______________________________________

1. _______________________________________

2. _______________________________________

2. _______________________________________

3. _______________________________________

3. _______________________________________

4. _______________________________________

4. _______________________________________

5. _______________________________________

5. _______________________________________

6. _______________________________________

6. _______________________________________

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HANDOUT 5-5 Observing Motor Development Directions: Observe several children from newborns to preschoolers (birth to 5 years old). Determine their level of locomotion or gross-motor skills (e.g., lifting head, rolling over, sitting up, crawling, cruising, walking alone, walking up stairs, running) and fine-motor skills (e.g., reaching, grasping, picking up objects, feeding self, holding a cup).

Gross-motor skills

Fine-motor skills

Child #1 Sex Assigned at Birth: Age: Child #2 Sex Assigned at Birth: Age: Child #3 Sex Assigned at Birth: Age: Child #4 Sex Assigned at Birth: Age: Child #5 Sex: Sex Assigned at Birth Age: 65. Did any of the children you observed have skills that surprised you? Explain.

66. Did any of the children you observed appear to be struggling with certain skills? Explain.

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HANDOUT 5-6 Look Into It Directions: You have been assigned a topic that impacts motor development. It is your job to investigate research on this topic using any available library resources. To help focus your search, please respond to each question.

TOPIC: ____________________________________

67. How does your topic impact motor development? (Describe the positive or negative relationships that exist between your topic and motor development.)

68. What types of research (e.g., experiments, observational studies, etc.) have been conducted to investigate the relationship between your topic and motor development?

69. How can the impact of your topic on motor development be mediated? In other words, if parents or teachers are aware of how your topic impacts motor development, what can they do about it?

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HANDOUT ANSWERS HANDOUT 5-1: Do You See What I See?

VISUAL ACUITY: Describe the objects in the picture that each child can see.

COLOR VISION: Describe the colors of the objects in the picture as they would appear to each child.

Would any objects appear to be the same color?

DEPTH PERCEPTION: How can each child determine which objects are more distant than others in the picture?

What depth cues can each child utilize?

Newborn Child Because visual acuity is poor in newborns, only the largest objects in the picture will be discernable to this child.

Due to immaturity in the visual sensory system responsible for color vision, newborns can see only a few, bold (usually primary) colors.

Subtle hues (e.g., pastels) will not be perceived by newborns.

Due primarily to their poor visual acuity, newborns will not be able to detect depth in a picture. Binocular cues (such as retinal disparity), available to 1½ month-olds, do not work on two-dimensional images.

1-year-old Child Because visual acuity in 1year-old is comparable to that of adults, all objects in the picture will be discernable to this child.

By 3 or 4 months of age, color vision is functioning well, so 1-year-olds should be able to see all of the colors in the picture.

By the time a child is 7 months of age, several monocular cues are used to indicate depth in two and three-dimensional images: linear perspective, texture gradient, interposition, and relative size.

HANDOUT 5-2: Size Constancy: It’s All in the Mind’s Eye STEP FOUR: Explain why.

The retinal image (then afterimage) that was originally created by the dark rectangle on the page was formed at a close distance to the face. Distance information is utilized by the brain when processing information from the retina. When we look to a distant wall, the increase in distance is perceived and entered into our ―mental size equation.‖ Therefore, an object that created the size of the retinal image (that then became the afterimage) must be much larger if it is a distant object than one that is near.

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Q&A ANSWERS Question 5.1 Amani is worried that her 12-month-old daughter may be hearing impaired. What symptoms would suggest that she has cause for concern? If these symptoms are present, what should she do?

Answer: By 12 months, Amani’s daughter should be looking in the direction of sounds (and should have been doing so for several months), should respond to her name, and should make some speech-like sounds on her own. If she doesn't do these things, Amani should take her daughter to see a pediatrician and to an audiologist right away!

Question 5.2 When 6-month-old Sebastian watches his mother type on a keyboard, how does he know that her fingers and the keyboard are not simply one big, unusual object?

Answer: Her hands and fingers move together, independently of the keyboard, and her hands and fingers have a common color and texture that differs from those of the keyboard.

Question 5.3 Hira and Yusef are both left-handed, and they fully expected their son to prefer his left hand, too. But he’s 8 months old already and seems to use both hands to grasp toys and other objects. Should Hira and Yusef give up their dream of being the three left-handed musketeers?

Answer: No. At 8 months, it’s too early for their son to show a consistent preference for one hand. They need to wait; by 13 to 15 months of age, they should have a much better idea of whether their son will be left-handed.

Chapter 6 Theories of Cognitive Development CHAPTER OVERVIEW .............................................................................................................................................. 2 CHAPTER MODULE SUPPLEMENTS Module 6.1: SETTING THE STAGE: PIAGET‘S THEORY ........................................................................ 4 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics Module 6.2: MODERN THEORIES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT .................................................... 7 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics Module 6.3: UNDERSTANDING IN CORE DOMAINS .............................................................................. 9 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics CHAPTER 6 CASE STUDIES ................................................................................................................................... 11 CASE STUDY ANSWERS ........................................................................................................................................ 13 96

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Children and Their Development, 8e HANDOUTS ............................................................................................................................................................... 14 HANDOUT ANSWERS ............................................................................................................................................. 24 Q&A ANSWERS ........................................................................................................................................................ 25

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW XVIII. Setting the Stage: Piaget‘s Theory a. Basic Principles of Piaget‘s Theory i. Assimilation ii. Accommodation iii. Equilibration b. Stages of Cognitive Development i. The Sensorimotor Stage 1. Adapting to and Exploring the Environment 2. Understanding Objects a. Object Permanence 3. Using Symbols ii. The Preoperational Stage 1. Egocentrism 2. Animism 3. Centration iii. The Concrete Operational Stage 1. Mental Operations iv. The Formal Operational Stage 1. Deductive Reasoning c. Piaget‘s Contributions to Child Development i. The Study of Cognitive Development Itself ii. A New View of Children 1. Constructivism iii. Fascinating, Often Counterintuitive Discoveries iv. Teaching Practices that Foster Cognitive Growth—Educational Applications of Piaget‘s Theory 1. Facilitate Rather than Direct Children’s Learning 2. Recognize Individual Differences When Teaching 3. Be Sensitive to Children’s Readiness to Learn 4. Emphasize Exploration and Interaction v. Weaknesses of Piaget‘s Theory 1. Piaget’s Theory Underestimates Cognitive Competence in Infants and Young Children and Overestimates Cognitive Competence in Adolescents 2. Piaget’s Theory is Vague Concerning Mechanisms of Change 3. Piaget’s Stage Model Does Not Account for Variability in Children’s Performance 4. Piaget’s Theory Undervalues the Influence of the Sociocultural Environment on Cognitive Development XIX. Modern Theories of Cognitive Development a. The Sociocultural Perspective: Vygotsky‘s Theory i. Sociocultural Perspective ii. Intersubjectivity iii. Guided Participation iv. The Zone of Proximal Development v. Private Speech 1. Private Speech 2. Inner Speech vi. Scaffolding vii. Cultural Influences 1. How Do Caregivers in Different Cultures Scaffold Their Children’s Learning?

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XX.

viii. Educational Implications of Vygotsky‘s Work b. Dynamic Assessment Information Processing i. Sensory Memory ii. Working Memory iii. Long-Term Memory iv. Central Executive v. How Information Processing Changes with Development 1. More Effective Strategies 2. More Effective Executive Functioning 3. Increased Automatic Processing 4. Increased Speed of Processing c. Theory Theory and Core-Knowledge Theories Understanding in Core Domains a. Understanding Objects and Their Properties b. Understanding Living Things i. Movement ii. Growth iii. Internal Parts iv. Inheritance v. Illness vi. Healing vii. Teleological Explanations viii. Essentialism c. Understanding People i. Folk Psychology 1. First Steps: Understanding Intentionality ii. Developing a Theory of Mind d. Improving Children‘s Lives i. Theory of Mind in Autism

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MODULE 6.1: SETTING THE STAGE: PIAGET’S THEORY LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 6.1 Identify the key ideas of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development and describe the theory’s lasting contributions as well as its shortcomings.

KEY QUESTIONS:   

What are the key ideas in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?

How does thinking change as children move through Piaget’s four stages of development?

What are the lasting contributions of Piaget’s theory? What are some of its shortcomings?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: Piagetian Tasks This demonstration requires some advance preparation in terms of creating a video presentation but typically pays big dividends in terms of student interest and learning. In addition, after you have made the recording you can use it repeatedly.

If you have children, grandchildren, nieces, or nephews of an appropriate age, you can enlist their help. If not, perhaps some of your students will have children of an appropriate age. Failing that, you might contact the local day-care center to see whether any of the parents there would allow their children to be videorecorded for this demonstration. It is not necessary to complete all the activities suggested here; choose those that suit your interests, teaching style, and availability of volunteers. It is important, however, that you get someone else to do the recording, so that you can be seen on the video working with the children; this will make the presentation more realistic and more personal to your students.

If you are able to find children ages 4 months to 1 year to work with, test a selection of children at different ages for evidence of object permanence. Before you show this recording to students, make sure that children are presented in an order that will make sense and show the development of object permanence.

If you are able to find children ages 4 to 7 to work with, test for conservation of number and conservation of volume. Test for conservation of number first. Arrange two rows of five pennies in front of the child, making sure that the length of the two rows is the same. Ask the child, ―Which row has more pennies in it?‖ Children typically will say that both rows are the same. Now move the pennies in one row closer together, so the row is shorter. (If the child previously identified one row of pennies as having more pennies in it, make sure this is the row you shorten now.) Ask, ―Which row has more pennies in it?‖ Children who do not conserve will indicate that the longer row has more pennies in it. Now spread the pennies from the short row farther apart, so the row is now longer than the other. Again ask, ―Which row has more pennies in it?‖ Do not give the child any feedback as to whether their answers are correct or incorrect. If the child wants to count the pennies, that is fine. Often children who can count correctly nonetheless fail at conservation of number.

To test for conservation of volume, get two identical short, fat glasses and one that is taller and thinner. Put equal amounts of liquid in the two short glasses. Orange juice works well because it is easy for both the child and the camera to see. Ask the child which glass has more juice in it. Most children will say that both glasses are the same. Pour the juice from one short glass into the tall, thin glass. (If the child said that one glass had more, pour the juice from the glass that appeared to have less in it into the tall glass.) Ask the child again, ―Which glass has more juice in it?‖ Children who fail at conservation will say that the tall, thin glass has more juice in it.

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You may want to try this several times with each child. Children will sometimes spontaneously articulate their reasoning. If they do not, you may want to prompt an explanation by saying, ―But I thought they both had the same amount.‖ Older children will often tell you that they are aware that one glass is taller and thinner, and that the other is shorter and fatter, but still fail at conservation of volume. Do not give children any feedback on the correctness of their answers.

Some older preoperational children will succeed in conservation of number task, but fail at the conservation of volume task. If this happens, you can use this to spark a class discussion on whether Piaget’s stages are clearly separable. You may also want to discuss real-life correlates of failure of conservation in preoperational children.

For example, concrete operational children often discover that their preoperational siblings would rather have two quarters than one dollar, and use this to make money off of their dupes.

Personal Equilibration When it comes to helping students understand Piaget‘s concepts, one beneficial technique is to have them identify changes in their own thinking, then explain them from a Piagetian perspective. Handout 6-1 will guide your students through an exercise that requires them to comprehend and utilize the concepts underlying Piaget‘s theory of cognitive development. Handout 6-1 can be completed in class or can be used as a homework assignment.

Class Presentations: Sensorimotor Substages Divide the class into six groups and assign each group to a substage of the sensorimotor period. Each group should prepare a description of the assigned substage, complete with examples of behaviors and cognitive abilities characterized by each. Each group should then present the information it generated to the rest of the class.

Discussing Circular Reactions: Are You Being Manipulated? Ask your students if they have ever been drawn into a ―game‖ of picking up a dropped object and returning it to an infant, only to have the infant drop it again.

Why do infants continue to drop objects? Are they clumsy, or is there another explanation? The other explanations generated by your students should raise the issue of the types of circular reactions that infants are mastering during the sensorimotor period.

Observing Egocentrism Either invite several 4- and 5-year-olds to your class or have your students locate children of these ages on their own (e.g., family members, neighbors). Students should ask the children the questions that appear on Handout 6-2, recording the children‘s answers and identifying those that reveal egocentric thinking. If children are brought to class, ask your students to sit on the floor and interview the children in small groups (2–3 students per child). If the students will be locating children on their own, remind them to gain adult permission before talking with the children.

Adult Conservation Skills Assign various conservation abilities (e.g., number, liquid, area, mass, length, weight, volume) to small groups of students. Ask them to identify and demonstrate to the rest of the class situations in adult everyday functioning where their assigned conservation skill is utilized. One successful format is to have each group demonstrate the original test of conservation that Piaget developed for their assigned conservation skill, role-playing how a preoperational and a concrete operational child would respond to the test. Then, each group demonstrates the everyday situation that utilizes the assigned conservation skill.

Make Me Laugh Tell your students to collect jokes from children and adolescents of various ages, ranging from preschoolers to college students. Have your students write down the jokes, record the ages of the people who told them, and bring these jokes to class, and share the ones that can be repeated with the rest of the class. Write the gist or punch line (and age of the joke teller) of several jokes on the board and then ask your class, ―What makes these funny to the joke tellers?‖ As the age of the joke teller increases, a relatively clear progression in the humorous elements of the jokes should be apparent. Young children find simple characteristics of jokes funny (e.g., funny-sounding words or rhymes, simple incongruity or nonsense). Older children and early adolescents should require their jokes to ―make sense‖; that is, any incongruity between the punch line and the opening lines should be able to be resolved. Finally, the jokes of late-adolescents and college students may 101

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include humorous elements that are abstract (e.g., social or political satire, irony). These jokes can then be assessed with respect to Piaget‘s stages of cognitive development.

Demonstrating Formal Operations: The Pendulum Task Locate three strings of different lengths (12, 18, and 24 inches will suffice—longer lengths can be used for improved visibility if you have a large classroom) and three different weights that can be easily connected to the strings. The pendulum task requires an individual to determine what affects the speed of the swing of the pendulum. (Answer: The length of the string.) Ask a volunteer to come to the front of the class to solve the pendulum task. Did the volunteer reveal formal operational reasoning? How did the other students determine whether the volunteer was a formal or concrete operational thinker? (A systematic approach to determining what influences the speed of the swing of the pendulum is indicative of formal operational reasoning. Trial and error or haphazard attempts to solve the problem are indicative of concrete operational reasoning.)

Identifying Piaget’s Stages Handout 6-3 requires students to name the stages of cognitive development in which various individuals appear to be functioning. In true Piagetian fashion, your students are also asked to provide an explanation for their classifications. As an in-class exercise, Handout 6-3 can be completed individually or in small groups, or it functions nicely as a homework assignment.

Guest Speaker: Preschool or Elementary School Teacher Invite a teacher who specializes in early childhood education to your class to talk about the challenges and rewards of this vocation. The speaker should address how the curriculum recognizes and contributes to a child‘s cognitive development. The teacher should also identify how the child‘s cognitive development determines or limits the curriculum. Also, ask the teacher to discuss the training of certain cognitive abilities (e.g., can a child be taught to conserve or be less egocentric?).

Piaget in Action Divide your students into small groups and assign each group (or have each group select) a topic that is challenging for elementary school children to grasp. Sample topics include the ―carrying over‖ rule in addition, the ―borrowing‖ rule in subtraction, telling time, color mixing (e.g., primary versus secondary colors), the importance of recycling, and the infield fly rule in baseball. Have the members of each group create a Piagetian means of teaching their topic. Each group should utilize the material in the ―Teaching Practices that Foster Cognitive Growth—Educational Applications of Piaget‘s Theory‖ part of this module. The curriculum that each group develops can then be demonstrated to the class.

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MODULE 6.2: MODERN THEORIES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 6.2 Summarize key modern theories of children’s cognitive development.

KEY QUESTIONS:   

In Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, how do adults and other people contribute to children’s cognitive development?

According to information-processing psychologists, how does thinking change with development?

What processes allow infants and toddlers to learn so much so quickly and so easily?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: Observing Naïve Theories in Children Assign one of the three naïve theories covered in the text (i.e., naïve physics, naïve (folk) psychology, or naïve biology) to your students, who can work on this project individually or in small groups. Prior to the class session in which you intend to cover this material, have each student or group interact with a preschool-age child. Your students should follow the procedures described in the text (or, ideally, they should find the original research that is cited) to have the children they observe demonstrate their naïve theories.

Discovering Naïve Theories in College Students Although research on naïve theories has focused primarily on preschoolers, evidence of naïve theories of physics, psychology, and biology can be found in college students (and other adults) as well. Handout 6-4 is an engaging and entertaining way to have your students explore their own naïve theories. The accuracy of your students‘ naïve theories can be determined via class discussion—rely on your own students‘ expertise in physics, psychology, and biology to assess the validity of the naïve theories they hold.

Getting Zoned: Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development Ask your students to work in small groups to identify their own zones of proximal development. Which tasks, if any, can they do much better with assistance?

If they are having difficulty generating current zones, have them reflect on their development during childhood or adolescence (e.g., learning to drive a car is usually a memorable zone of proximal development accompanied by sometimes agonizing scaffolding). For each of the zones of proximal development that they are able to identify, ask your students to describe the scaffolding, if any, they have received. Handout 6-5 will help them organize their thoughts. After students have completed Handout 6-5, ask them to share some of their zones and scaffolds with the rest of the class.

Working Memory Task Compile a list of working memory tasks (e.g., forward and backward digit-span tasks, George Sperling‘s working memory tasks). Use a selection of these tasks in class to demonstrate the concept of working memory, and the ―magic number 7‖ when it comes to chunking information together. ―Hey, Professor. Here’s my lucubration‖* In small groups, ask students to complete Handout 6-6. This handout provides a review of the ―mental hardware‖ and ―mental software‖ (as described in the text) involved in information processing. This activity will require students to comprehend the distinctions between sensory memory, working memory, and long-term memory, and to identify some of the processes involved in each. *lucubration: (n) work produced at night; laborious study.

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Developing Test-Taking Strategies For a simple yet compelling demonstration of problem-solving strategies, tap into a set of strategies that are very familiar to every student: test-taking strategies. Ask your students what they do (while taking a multiple-choice exam) if they do not know an answer to a question. List the strategies as they are suggested. Then, ask your students to label each strategy according to its probability of success in identifying the correct answer (high, moderate, low). Efficient strategies enable a person to solve a problem more quickly and/or more accurately. With experience, children develop strategies that are more likely to produce correct answers to problems, similar to the ―high probability‖ test-taking strategies used by your students.

Sample strategies and their relative probabilities of success are listed below.

Strategies with a highprobability of success (a) Process of elimination (b) Retrieve the information from a mental image of a notebook, text, or where the answer was displayed during class.

Strategies with a moderateprobability of success (a) Look for clues in the question or in the answer options themselves. (b) Eliminate extreme (e.g., ―always‖ and ―never‖) answer options.

Strategies with a lowprobability of success (a) Just choose ―C.‖ (b) Spell ―ABACADABA‖ with your answer choices.

Testing Children’s Strategies Ask your students to play the game of 20 questions with two elementary-aged children (ages 5–6 and 10–11 years old), or invite children of these ages to your class to play the game. Handout 6-7 can be used as a homework assignment or as a handout for a class activity. Regardless of the format adopted for this activity, the objective is the same: Children are asked to identify an object in the room that you (or your students) have in mind. The children are allowed to ask questions that can be answered ―yes‖ or ―no‖ to help identify the object. The goal is to ask the fewest number of questions necessary to identify the object. Before using this activity, explain to your class that the game of 20 questions can involve the use of primarily two types of strategies: hypothesis questions and constraint questions. Hypothesis questions are simply guesses that involve one object/item at a time (e.g., ―Is it the clock?‖). Constraint questions involve classes or categories of objects/items (e.g., ―Does it require electricity?‖). The constraint questions eliminate large numbers of objects at a time, making them a more efficient strategy. Completion of Handout 6-7 will demonstrate the use of more efficient strategies as children develop.

Demonstrating Automatic Processes To illustrate how automatization of skills allows for the processing of increasing amounts of information, ask your students to take notes with their other hand (e.g., right-handed students should take notes with their left hands) while you lecture for a few minutes on the topic of automatic processes (be sure to cover terms and definitions ―that will definitely be on the test‖). Their frustration with trying to comprehend what you are saying while also concentrating on the act of writing will become apparent in moments. After directing them to return their writing implements to their preferred hands, discuss their reactions to the demonstration (and, of course, go back over the terms and definitions).

Look Into It: Changes in Information Processing Have your students visit the library (or use their computers) to do some focused library searches. Depending on your class size (under 40 works well) and available library resources (PsycINFO or equivalent search systems), this project can be an effective means of allowing students to explore a topic that is of particular interest to them. Handout 6-8 provides a series of questions that will guide the students‘ library searches.

Several factors have been shown to influence cognitive development. Assign one topic to each student (or small groups of students) and have them explore the professional literature. During your next class session, ask students to briefly present their findings to the rest of the class: 

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   

Increased capacity of working memory More effective inhibitory processes Increased automatic processing Increased speed of processing

MODULE 6.3: UNDERSTANDING IN CORE DOMAINS LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 6.3 Describe how children acquire knowledge of objects, living things, and people.

KEY QUESTIONS:   

What do infants understand about the nature of objects?

When and how do young children distinguish between living and nonliving things?

How do young children acquire a theory of mind?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: Children’s Literature and Theory of Mind In early childhood, parents and stories are main sources of learning for pre-literate children. Parents read endless books to their young children. Children‘s literature carries most of our culture‘s heritage and meanings to young children. Some of the important concepts children learn from certain stories (e.g., Little Red Riding Hood, Cinderella, The Tales of Peter Rabbit) are motives about behavior and the fact that different characters (including the reader) are aware of certain things and unaware of other things. It is this awareness of varying levels of awareness, so to speak, that makes children‘s stories effective vehicles for discussing theory of mind.

Ask your students to bring to class two of their favorite children‘s books, ones that they recall fondly from their preschool years. Then, have them complete Handout 6-9. Completion of this handout should ensure your students‘ comprehension of the meaning of theory of mind and the stages of its development. The completed handout can be collected and graded as an assignment or it can be used as a catalyst for class discussion.

Teddy Bears and Imaginary Friends Ask your students if they had a teddy bear (or favorite stuffed toy). How long did they have this stuffed toy? Did they love their stuffed toy? Did it love them back? Most students will hesitate to answer this last question, but many students, reflecting back on their childhood, will answer affirmatively. This, of course, illustrates animism. Imaginary friends, although somewhat less common than favorite stuffed toys, also indicate animistic thinking (and highly creative thinking, too). Ask students to share stories of imaginary friends with the class. These stories are usually very interesting and reveal the extent to which children attribute life-like properties to inanimate—in this case, imaginary—objects.

Internet Annotated Bibliography Have your students use the Internet to identify 10 websites that give scholarly information on the topic of metacognition. Students should type an annotated bibliography that includes the name of the website (e.g., Metacognition: An Overview), a valid URL (website address, e.g., http://www.gse.buffalo.edu/fas/shuell/CEP564/Metacog.htm), and a brief (one or two paragraph) review of the website. Reviews should include a brief summary of what students can expect to find if they visit the website and a brief evaluation of the website. As a follow-up to this activity, students can combine all of the annotated bibliographies into an Internet Resource Directory that could be distributed in class.

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CHAPTER 6 CASE STUDY Piaget‘s Theory of Cognitive Development ―C‘mon, Daddy, I wanna play hide-n-seek!‖ 4-year-old LaRhonda implored for the third time. ―We‘ve already played hide-and-seek so many times, I‘m running out of places to hide. Why don‘t you try hiding this time. I‘ll count to ten.‖ I hid my eyes and slowly counted to ten. Then, after announcing ―Ready or not, here I come!‖ in my best troll voice, I began to look for her. The search didn‘t take long. LaRhonda had hidden in the same place that I had used a few minutes earlier. ―Ah-hah! I found you! Now I‘m going to eat you up!‖ ―No, Daddy, you can‘t see me!‖ LaRhonda said, as she covered her face with her hands. ―Oh, really? Well, if I can‘t see you, that means I haven‘t found you yet. And if I haven‘t found you yet, why are we talking to each other?‖ ―Because I‘m a ghost.‖ 70. LaRhonda enjoyed playing games over and over again. How would Jean Piaget explain this desire to repeat actions?

71. LaRhonda is 4 years old. According to Jean Piaget, in what stage of cognitive development is she likely to be functioning?

72. What are the major characteristics of the stage of cognitive development that you indicated in your answer to question #2, and what characteristics of this stage does LaRhonda exhibit?

73. When she‘s not playing hide-n-seek, LaRhonda enjoys working on puzzles or coloring. While engaging in these and other activities, she often talks to herself. Is this normal? Explain. What function does this self-talk serve, if any?

74. According to Jean Piaget, LaRhonda is not yet able to conserve. Is Piaget right? Should her parents try to teach her conservation abilities? Discuss the research findings surrounding both of these questions.

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CHAPTER 6 CASE STUDY Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development ―Three little monkeys, jumping on the bed; One fell off and bumped his head; Mommy called the doctor and the doctor said: ‗No more monkeys jumping on the bed.‘‖ Four-year-old Aårno giggled when he finished, then looked up at his mom, proud that he had remembered the whole rhyme. ―What a silly rhyme. Where did you learn that, Aårno?‖ ―At preschool, Mommy. We‘ve been saying it at school every day this week.‖ Aårno‘s grandfather, who was listening to the conversation between his daughter and grandson, couldn‘t sit quietly any longer. ―You spend time at preschool every day saying rhymes like that? Aren‘t you learning to count and to say your ABCs?‖ ―Mostly we just play, Grandpa. We play lots of games, we sing lots of songs, we have a water table and a sandbox, and we makes lots of stuff with paper, crayons, and paste.‖ ―So tell me, what else did you learn this week?‖ Aårno‘s grandfather asked.

Aårno thought for a moment and then replied: ―Two little monkeys, jumping on the bed …‖ 75. Aårno mentioned that his preschool class repeated the rhyme every day. Why is repetition important for the cognitive development of children? Answer this question in the context of what is known about the information-processing abilities of children.

76. Assess the silly rhyme that Aårno learned at preschool. What academic skills is it teaching Aårno?

77. What memory strategy is Aårno‘s preschool teacher using to encourage her students to remember the rhyme? Also, discuss how this rhyme might contribute to the development of Aårno‘s scripts.

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CASE STUDY ANSWERS Piaget‘s Theory of Cognitive Development 78. LaRhonda is engaging in an elaborate secondary circular reaction. Also, an argument could be made that she is gaining a mastery of hide-and-seek via practice, or as Piaget would suggest, via assimilation.

79. Preoperational stage.

80. Egocentrism: LaRhonda thinks that by covering her eyes, she can‘t be seen. Also, she exhibits a logic in responding to the ―Why are we talking to each other‖ question that is self-serving.

Appearance as Reality: If the father was acting like or dressed like a troll, then LaRhonda would believe that he actually was a troll.

Animism and centration (lack of conservation) are also part of this period, but are not present in the case.

81. LaRhonda‘s self-talk is a demonstration of private speech. According to Lev Vygotsky, private speech helps children regulate their behavior and thinking.

82. LaRhonda may not be able to conserve all physical dimensions, but she may be able to conserve some, with practice, and if the conservation tasks are simplified. LaRhonda is also more likely to exhibit conservation if she is asked to render just one judgment about the materials rather than two. LaRhonda can be trained to conserve if given practice with physical dimensions or if allowed to work on conservation problems with a child who can conserve.

Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development 83. Repetition is important for the cognitive development of children because it is an important strategy for storing information in long-term memory. Structured, formal repetition is important for preschoolers, especially, because they do not rehearse information spontaneously.

84. The rhyme is teaching Aårno‘s phonological awareness; the rhyme emphasizes the sound units of the language. Also, given that the rhyme has verses that count down in terms of the number of monkeys jumping on the bed, the rhyme is teaching Aårno the stable-order principle of counting.

85. The repetition of the rhyme is an example of rehearsal, a memory strategy that can be used to store information in long-term memory. The rhyme might also contribute to the development of a script for Aårno in that it contains a common sequence of events: a risky behavior is followed by an injury, which is then followed by a call to the doctor, and the call to the doctor results in medical treatment (or advice).

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HANDOUT 6-1 Personal Equilibration Directions: Remember a time when you were confronted with information or evidence that forced you to reevaluate something you believed to be true. For example, you may have changed your attitude or beliefs about politics, smoking, Santa Claus, religion, or parental authority. After you have identified such a change in your thinking, respond to these questions:

86. What was your original belief?

87. Before you changed your belief, how did you deal with evidence that contradicted your belief?

88. What finally caused you to change your belief? Describe the period of disequilibrium you experienced, and how you resolved it.

89. Describe your new belief and how it resulted from an accommodation process.

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HANDOUT 6-2 Observing Egocentrism Directions: Interview a 4- or 5-year-old child in an effort to determine if the child thinks egocentrically. After a warm-up period where you establish a comfortable rapport with the child, ask the child several questions, recording the answers verbatim (or as accurately as possible). After the interview is concluded, look at the answers again and underline or highlight statements that reveal egocentrism.

90. Why does the sun shine?

91. Why are balls round?

92. Why does the wind blow?

93. Why is there snow?

94. Close your eyes. Can you see me? Do you think I can see you?

95. Do you have a best friend? What is your best friend‘s name? Does ____ (the child‘s best friend) have a friend? Who?

96. Other questions:

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HANDOUT 6-3 Identifying Piaget’s Stages Directions: Name the stage in which each person appears to be functioning. Explain why you chose the stage that you did for each person.

97. Marti wants more cookies, so her aunt breaks in half the ones that she already has, and Marti is satisfied.

98. Sammy wants you to pick up his toy and put it in his crib so that he can drop it again.

99. From a group of objects, June chooses a straw, a pencil, and a ruler to form a group of ―things that go together‖ because they are all long and skinny.

100. A patient is able to discuss the question, ―What would happen if people would never become ill?‖ 101. Mother: ―How do you think Molly feels when you take her toy away from her?‖ Child: ―She feels like I want to play with it.‖ 102. Renaldo can now enjoy playing ―peek-a-boo.‖ 103. When given three kinds of meat, three kinds of cheese, and three kinds of bread, Estella can make 27 kinds of sandwiches.

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HANDOUT 6-4 Discovering Your Own Naïve Theories Directions: This handout will reveal to you some of the naïve theories you have about the world and people around you. Remember that these naïve theories are common and are not a sign of intellectual weakness or academic unpreparedness. The label ―naïve‖ has been applied to them because these theories are the product of your own observations and are not the result of formal education or systematic research. For each general topic, describe the beliefs (i.e., naïve theories) that you hold to be true, and indicate how confident you are in the accuracy of each of your naïve theories. Be prepared to share some of your beliefs with the class, if your instructor chooses.

General Topic Areas

Briefly describe your beliefs (i.e., naïve theories) about each question.

PHYSICS: What makes a curveball curve?

What causes the ocean tides?

How do weather forecasters know when it is going to rain?

PSYCHOLOGY: How do you know if someone has a romantic interest in you?

How do you make someone else feel jealous, and how do you know if they are jealous?

Why do you forget things you previously knew?

BIOLOGY: Why do people age (i.e., what causes physical aging)?

Why do muscles get sore after strenuous exercise?

How do you know you are alive?

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HANDOUT 6-5 Getting Zoned: Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development Directions: This handout will enable you to identify zones of proximal development that you are currently experiencing (or experienced at some point during your childhood or adolescence) and the scaffolding that is contributing to your cognitive development.

104. What task(s) can you perform alone that you can perform much better with assistance? In other words, describe your current zone(s) of proximal development.

105. Who provides assistance for you with the task(s) you just described? How is the assistance provided?

Describe the type(s) of scaffolding you are experiencing.

106. Has the person(s) providing assistance ever provided too much assistance? Too little assistance?

Explain.

107. Do you engage in private speech? If so, under what circumstances? What role, if any, does private speech play regarding your cognitive functioning?

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HANDOUT 6-6 ―Hey, Professor. Here’s my lucubration.‖ Directions: Trace the journey that the term ―lucubration‖ takes through your information-processing system by answering some questions. lucubration: (n) work produced at night; laborious study.

108. Describe the purpose of sensory memory and how the term lucubration is processed in this memory system.

109. How does information enter working memory?

110. Describe the processes or mental activities that occur in working memory upon the ―arrival‖ of the term lucubration. In other words, how do you attempt to comprehend and remember the meaning of this term?

111. How is long-term memory involved in the processing of the term lucubration? Will this term be stored in your long-term memory forever? If so, how might you explain being unable to recall the term or its definition in the event that you forget it?

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HANDOUT 6-7 The Game of 20 Questions Directions: Locate two elementary-aged children (ages 5–6 and 10–11 years old) to play the game of 20 questions. Ideally, you should play the game with each child separately so that the children do not influence each other. After obtaining adult permission to play the game with each child, spend a few minutes establishing rapport with each child. Then, suggest that you‘d like to play a game with the child. Tell them: Here‘s a fun game we can play. I am thinking of something in this room. Your job is to figure out what I am thinking about.

To help you figure this out, you can ask me any questions that can be answered ―yes‖ or ―no.‖ I can‘t tell you anything more than ―yes‖ or ―no‖ when you ask questions. You can ask as many questions as you want to, but try to figure out what I am thinking about by asking as few questions as you can.

Choose a specific object in the room, then tell the child to try and figure it out. Even though the game is called ―20 questions ,‖ young children may require more than 20 questions to identify the object you chose. If the children ask questions that can‘t be answered ―yes‖ or ―no,‖ remind them of the instructions. If the children cannot identify the object (or become frustrated trying), praise them for their efforts and stop the game. As the game is progressing, keep track of the number of hypothesis and constraint questions each child asks in the following table. Then, complete the questions below.

Reminder: Hypothesis questions are simply guesses that involve one object/item at a time (e.g., “Is it the clock?”).

Constraint questions involve classes or categories of objects/items (e.g., “Does it require electricity?”). The constraint questions eliminate large numbers of objects at a time, making them a more efficient strategy.

YOUNGER CHILD

OLDER CHILD

Target object: Number of hypothesis questions: Number of constraint questions: Total number of questions required to identify target: 112. List some of the constraint questions asked by both the younger and older child.

113. Was there any evidence of the use of more efficient strategies by the older child? Explain.

114. Did the two children handle the task as you anticipated they would, or were you surprised by any of their responses?

Explain.

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HANDOUT 6-8 Look Into It: Changes in Information Processing Directions: You have been assigned a topic that impacts cognitive development. It is your job to investigate research on this topic using available library resources. To help focus your search, please respond to these questions: TOPIC: ______________________________________________ 115. How does your topic impact cognitive development? (Describe the positive or negative relationships that exist between your topic and cognitive development.)

116. What type of research (e.g., experiments, observational studies) has been conducted to investigate the relationship between your topic and cognitive development?

117. How can the impact of your topic on cognitive development be enhanced? In other words, if parents, caregivers, or teachers are aware of how your topic impacts cognitive development, what can they do about it?

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HANDOUT 6-9 Children’s Literature and Theory of Mind Directions: Locate two of your favorite children’s stories that you recall from your preschool years. You may find these books in an attic at home, or you may simply want to check them out from a local library. After you have located two stories, please answer some questions about them.

BOOK #1: 118. Title, author(s), and year of publication: ____________________________________

119. What age child would most enjoy this book? ____________________ Why?

120. What is the main idea of the story?

121. What lessons did the author intend for children to learn from this story?

122. What insights into theory of mind would the various children gain from hearing this story? (Cite specific examples from the story to illustrate your points.)

A 2-year-old:

A 3-year-old:

A 4-year-old:

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HANDOUT 6-9 (continued) BOOK #2: 123. Title, author(s), and year of publication: ____________________________________ 124. What age child would most enjoy this book? ____________________ Why? 125. What is the main idea of the story?

126. What lessons did the author intend for children to learn from this story?

127. What insights into theory of mind would various children gain from hearing this story? (Cite specific examples from the story to illustrate your points.)

A 2-year-old:

A 3-year-old:

A 4-year-old:

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HANDOUT ANSWERS HANDOUT 6-2: Identifying Piaget’s Stages 128. Preoperational Stage. Marti is lacking in conservation of mass because she thinks she has more cookies when her aunt breaks the cookies she already has in half.

129. Sensorimotor Stage. Sammy is engaging you in a secondary circular reaction.

130. Concrete Operational Stage. June is successfully categorizing the objects.

131. Formal Operational Stage. The patient is thinking hypothetically.

132. Preoperational Stage. The child is exhibiting egocentrism.

133. Sensorimotor Stage. Renaldo has acquired object permanence.

134. Formal Operational Stage. Estella can devise a plan (a form of abstract thinking) to produce every possible combination of sandwiches.

HANDOUT 6-6: ―Hey, Professor. Here’s my lucubration.‖ 135. Sensory memory is where information being sent from the senses is stored very briefly, in unanalyzed form. Having read the term ―lucubration,‖ the visual image created by this term is stored briefly in sensory memory.

136. Working memory is the site of ongoing cognitive activity (i.e., information processing). Information enters working memory from sensory memory if we attend to it.

137. Part of working memory is devoted to storage, maintaining the word ―lucubration‖ in mind, while other processes take place that are involved in comprehending the word and giving it meaning.

138. Long-term memory (LTM) is involved in processing the term ―lucubration‖ because information on related word meanings is stored in LTM. Also, any memory strategies that may be invoked to process the term have been stored in LTM. The word ―lucubration‖ will be stored in LTM permanently if enough effort is devoted to its storage. In other words, if strategies for storage of information have been utilized successfully (e.g., organization, elaboration, rehearsal, etc.), the term should be stored as a new link in an associative network in LTM. If the term is forgotten after its successful storage, that would be the result of a retrieval failure, meaning that our memory search failed to activate any link that was associated with the term ―lucubration‖ in our associative network.

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Q&A ANSWERS Question 6.1 When 3-year-old Jamila talks on the phone, she often answers questions by nodding her head.

Jamila’s grandma has explained that her listeners can’t see her—that she needs to say ―yes‖ or ―no.‖ But Jamila invariably returns to head-nodding. How would Jean Piaget explain this behavior to Jamila’s grandma?

Answer: Piaget would reassure Jamila’s grandmother that her behavior is perfectly normal. Preschoolers usually believe that others see the world as they do, a phenomenon that Piaget called egocentrism. In this case, Jamila knows that she’s nodding her head, so she believes that others must know it, too.

Question 6.2 Fifteen-year-old Quinn has just completed driver training, and he loves to get behind the wheel. For the most part, his parents are okay with his performance, but they absolutely refuse to let him listen to the radio while he’s driving. Quinn thinks this is a stupid rule. Do you?

Answer: Though Quinn may not like the rule, it’s probably a good one. Beginning drivers like Quinn are told to keep the music turned off because listening would consume working memory capacity that is needed for driving. However, with more experience behind the wheel, many driving skills will become automatic, freeing capacity that can be used to listen to the radio. Patience, Quinn, your time will come!

Question 6.3 One afternoon, 15-month-old Brandon and 6-month-old Justin saw a dragonfly for the first time as it flew around in the backyard, hunting mosquitoes. Would either Brandon or Justin be likely to conclude that a dragonfly is a living thing?

Answer: By 12 to 15 months, toddlers know that living things are self-propelled, move along irregular paths, and act to achieve goals. They saw evidence of these last two (movement along an irregular path to achieve a goal), so it’s likely that Brandon—but not Justin—was old enough to decide that the dragonfly was alive.

Chapter 7 Cognitive Processes and Academic Skills CHAPTER OVERVIEW .............................................................................................................................................. 2 CHAPTER MODULE SUPPLEMENTS Module 7.1: MEMORY .................................................................................................................................. 3 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics Module 7.2: PROBLEM SOLVING ............................................................................................................... 5 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics Module 7.3: ACADEMIC SKILLS ................................................................................................................ 6 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics 120

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Children and Their Development, 8e CHAPTER 7 CASE STUDY ........................................................................................................................................ 8 CASE STUDY ANSWERS .......................................................................................................................................... 9 HANDOUTS ............................................................................................................................................................... 10 Q&A ANSWERS ........................................................................................................................................................ 14

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW XXI.

Memory a. Origins of Memory i. Brain Development and Memory b. Strategies for Remembering i. Memory Strategy ii. Rehearsal iii. Organization iv. Elaboration v. Metacognition 1. Metamemory 2. Metacognitive Knowledge a. Implicit Metamemory b. Procedural Metamemory c. Knowledge and Memory i. Script ii. Autobiographical Memory 1. Infantile amnesia iii. Eyewitness Testimony d. Child Development and Family Policy i. Interviewing Children Effectively XXII. Problem Solving a. Approaches to Children‘s Problem Solving i. Piaget‘s Approach ii. Information-Processing Approach 1. Means-Ends Analysis iii. Dual-Process Approach 1. Dual-Process Theories of Reasoning and Problem Solving b. Obstacles to Successful Problem Solving i. Children Sometimes Fail to Solve Problems Because They Don‘t Encode All the Important Information in a Problem ii. Children Sometimes Fail to Solve Problems Because They Don‘t Plan Ahead iii. System 1 Processing Sometimes Leads to Cognitive Biases 1. Denominator Neglect 2. Framing Effects 3. Anchoring Bias c. Scientific Thinking i. Asking Questions ii. Forming Hypotheses iii. Designing Informative Experiments iv. Drawing Conclusions from Evidence d. Focus on Research i. How Can Students Best Learn the Control-of-Variables Strategy?

XXIII. Academic Skills a. Reading i. Word Decoding ii. Comprehension iii. Foundations of Reading Skill 1. Phonological Awareness iv. Recognizing Words v. Educational Implications for Teaching Reading 122

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b. c.

d.

e.

vi. Comprehension 1. Children’s Language Skills Improve, Which Allows Them to Understand Words That They’ve Decoded 2. Children Become More Skilled at Recognizing Words, Allowing More Working Memory Capacity to be Devoted to Comprehension 3. Working Memory Capacity Increases, Which Means That Older and Better Readers Can Store More of a Sentence in Memory as They Try to Identify the Ideas It Contains 4. Children Acquire More General Knowledge of Their Physical, Social, and Psychological Worlds, Which Allows Them to Understand More of What They Read 5. With Experience, Children Use More Appropriate Reading Strategies 6. With Experience, Children Better Monitor Their Comprehension Improving Children‘s Lives i. Rhyme Is Sublime Because Sounds Abounds Writing i. Greater Knowledge of and Access to Knowledge About Topics ii. Greater Understanding of How to Organize Writing 1. Knowledge-Telling Strategy 2. Knowledge-Transforming Strategy iii. Greater Mastery of Foundational Skills of Writing Knowing and Using Numbers i. Children‘s Understanding of Number ii. Learning to Count 1. One-to-One Principle 2. Stable-Order Principle 3. Cardinality Principle iii. Arithmetic iv. Comparing Children‘s Math Skills Around the World Cultural Influences i. Fifth Grade in Taiwan

MODULE 7.1: MEMORY LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 7.1 Describe how memory develops as children grow.

KEY QUESTIONS:  

How well do infants remember?

How do strategies help children to remember?



How does children’s knowledge influence what they remember?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: Storing Information in Long-Term Memory: An Examination of Note-Taking Styles The metacognitive abilities of most students suggest to them that if they wish to retain information presented during class in their 123

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long-term memories, they should take notes. After lecturing on a particular topic (memory strategies, perhaps), ask your students to form small groups of 3 or 4. Then ask them to pass their notebooks to someone else in the group. Each student should identify the note-taking style of the person whose notes they inspect. (Note: Students should seek permission from each other before leafing through the notebooks.) Handout 7-1 poses questions to students to aid their analyses of note-taking strategies. A class discussion of the various note-taking styles should highlight the variety of strategies available to facilitate the transfer of information to long-term memory.

If the class is comprised of a mixture of lower- and upper-division students (i.e., first-year and sophomore as well as junior and senior students), a comparison across students of different class statuses may yield developmental differences in their note-taking strategies.

Preparing for Retrieval: An Examination of Studying Strategies Ask your students to share how they study for a multiple-choice exam versus an essay exam versus a fill-in-the-blank exam. Make a list of their studying strategies. How do their strategies differ by exam type? Why do their studying strategies differ? With which strategies do they think they learn the most information? Do they always use these ―learn the most‖ strategies? If not, why not? This class discussion should reveal the importance of creating effective and efficient retrieval cues and the fact that the selection of effective retrieval cues is a learned skill.

Exploring Children’s Scripts Children and adults tend to organize routine experiences into scripts, and these scripts increase in sophistication as individuals develop and mature. Ask your students to interview a preschooler (ages 3–4 years) and a first- or second-grade child. Completion of Handout 7-2 should reveal some of the developmental changes in scripts. For example, young children‘s scripts are usually simple, with actions being organized sequentially, whereas older children‘s scripts are usually more elaborate and frequently contain conditional qualifiers (e.g., ―When we go to Del Taco, we order at the counter, but when we go to Taco Palenque, they bring the food to our table‖).

Show and Tell and Tell and Tell For the class session in which you intend to discuss eyewitness testimony, ask your students to bring photographs of themselves as preschoolers, preferably engaging in some activity or attending some event. If students are unable to locate an early photo, ask them to make a brief note about their earliest memory. Then, at the beginning of the class session, ask your students to share with the person next to them as much as they can remember about what was going on when their photo was taken. Can they remember the place, who took the photo, how old they were, the time of year, anything special about the clothes they were wearing or any objects in the photo? (Students describing their earliest memory should try to address these same issues.) After students have shared their photos or earliest memories, ask them to tell their story to someone else in the room, addressing the same questions all over again. Finally, have your students repeat the procedure a third time. By this time, each student should have told their story three times (and heard three others‘ stories).

Ask your students to compare their first story with their third rendition of the story. Was anything added, deleted, or changed with repeated recollections of the story?

Following the story-telling, draw your students into a discussion about the memory capabilities of preschoolers, especially autobiographical memory. Note that memories are not very accurate until after age 3 and that they are susceptible to suggestions. Also, discuss the fact that preschoolers have difficulty describing certain information and tend to oversimplify recollections. Couch all of these points within the context of the accuracy of eyewitness testimony, especially when young children are involved.

MODULE 7.2: PROBLEM SOLVING LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 7.2 Summarize children’s and adolescents’ problem-solving skills.

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  

What approaches have researchers used to study children’s problem solving?

What factors contribute to children’s and adolescents’ success in solving problems?

How do children and adolescents reason scientifically?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: Internet Annotated Bibliography Have your students use the Internet to identify 10 websites that give scholarly information on problem-solving skills in children and/or adolescents. Students should type an annotated bibliography including the name of the website (e.g., Critical Thinking and Problem Solving Skills), a valid URL (website address, e.g., http://falcon.jmu.edu/~ramseyil/critical.htm), and a brief (one or two paragraph) review of the website. Reviews should include a brief summary of what students can expect to find if they visit the website and a brief evaluation of the website. As a follow-up to this activity, students can combine all of the annotated bibliographies into an Internet Resource Directory that could be distributed in class.

Look Into It: Changes in Information Processing Have your students visit the library (or use their computers) to do some focused library searches. Depending upon your class size (under 40 works well) and available library resources (PsycINFO or equivalent search systems), this project can be an effective means of allowing students to explore a topic that is of particular interest to them. Handout 7-3 provides a series of questions that will guide the students‘ library searches.

Several factors have been shown to influence children‘s and adolescents‘ problem solving. Assign one topic to each student (or small groups of students) in your class and have them explore the professional literature. During your next class session, have them briefly present their findings to the rest of the class.     

Encoding Processes Heuristics Means-End Analysis Scientific Problem Solving Confounded Variables

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MODULE 7.3: ACADEMIC SKILLS LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 7.3 Explain children’s development of reading, writing, and mathematical skills.

KEY QUESTIONS:   

What are the components of skilled reading?

As children develop, how does their writing improve?

When do children understand and use quantitative skills?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: Evaluating Children’s Books Prior to the class session in which you intend to discuss prereading skills, ask your students to visit a local public library and borrow a few children‘s books written for preschoolers (or borrow a few books from preschoolers they may know). Students should be encouraged to borrow a selection of books that they think represent both ―good‖ and ―bad‖ children‘s books. (Note: For those students who are unsure about their abilities to judge children‘s books, tell them to look for books that have and have not won literary awards.) During class, ask your students to work in small groups to assess the variety of books that they found. After giving the groups several minutes to compare their books, engage the class in a discussion about what makes a ―good book‖ a good book. In addition to the surface elements of the books (e.g., artwork, story line), direct your students to consider some developmental elements of the books: (a) How do the books enhance word recognition? (Do the authors use repetition?) (b) How is comprehension facilitated? (Do the authors maintain simple story lines that are supplemented by pictures?) (c) Which techniques to enhance phonological awareness are employed? (Do the authors use rhymes, alliteration, or onomatopoeia?)

Should Children Be “Hooked on Phonics”? Your students may or may not be familiar with Hooked on Phonics, a popular reading tutorial program that emphasizes phonics—the sounds of letters—to help children develop reading skills. (Perhaps some of your students‘ parents or other caregivers purchased the program for them!) Marketed as a revolutionary approach to reading, phonics is actually a very old approach that was practiced in American public school systems until the 1930s. Since that time, some reading educators have employed the ―whole language‖ or word recognition approach, in which readers are taught to recognize words in the context of comprehending sentences. The logic, such as it is, is that the recognition of familiar words facilitates the comprehension of sentences, while at the same time, the comprehension of sentences is a tool for learning unfamiliar words. Given this chapter‘s coverage of the information-processing abilities (and limitations) of children, have your students debate the merits of both approaches to reading. [Hint: Programs teaching both phonics and whole language skills produce the most highly-skilled readers.]

Guest Speaker: Early Childhood Educator Invite an early childhood educator (e.g., a preschool teacher or director of a day care center) to address curriculum issues with your students. Ask the educator to review the development of both reading and counting/math skills, and the techniques that are used to facilitate the development of these skills. If possible, arrange a demonstration of some of the educational activities by inviting a few preschoolers (and their parents) to attend this class.

Investigating Early Childhood Curriculums Divide the students in your class into three groups and ask them to investigate a specific approach to early childhood education. One group should investigate the Montessori method, another group should investigate the academic skills method (e.g., emphasis on pre-reading skills, 126

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counting skills, etc.), and a third group should investigate an approach that emphasizes emotional-social development (this approach is often called a ―play-based curriculum‖ and focuses on cooperation and empathy).

Each group of students should survey the research literature and then contact a preschool or day care program in the community that has adopted their respective educational method. Each group should arrange a visit to the program and an interview with the director or a teacher at the facility. Finally, each group should present its findings to the rest of the class.

You Can Count on It Locate a video that shows a child learning to count, but importantly, making mistakes while doing so. For example, many children will recite a sequence such as ―1-2-3-5-6-4-7-8,‖ not noticing their sequence error. You can also find videos of adults testing children’s recognition of counting errors (i.e., the adult purposely makes a mistake and asks the child to explain the error) or videos of children assigning ordinal positions to a group of objects (and perhaps making mistakes). The children certainly are charming both in their insistence that they are correct, and in their often condescending explanations to adults who have demonstrated an error, but your focus should be slightly different. Discuss with your students how the study of errors sheds light on various theories of rudimentary number concepts that are present in early development. Also, link the errors to Jean Piaget’s notions of cognitive development. Ask students whether they think the errors are random or illustrate a pattern of cognitive processing.

Creating Educational Games Individually or in small groups, ask your students to create a game that will foster the development of reading and/or counting/math skills (and additional information-processing abilities).

Handout 7-4 provides detailed instructions for this activity. The final product should include the game itself (e.g., playing cards, game board, game pieces), a detailed set of instructions, and a developmental critique. The developmental critique is a short paper in which each group identifies the developmental constructs included in their game and provides a review of supporting research that indicates the importance and appropriateness of each construct for the age group for whom the game is designed. (Handout 7-4 fully describes each element of this assignment.) ―Game Day,‖ a class session devoted to demonstrating and playing all of the groups‘ games, is typically a hit with students and provides a nice break from traditional classroom instruction.

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CHAPTER 7 CASE STUDY Cognitive Processes and Academic Skills Moneek is 30 months old (2 1/2 years), and she loves to count the steps at her grandmother‘s house as she walks down them. Starting with the first step, Moneek will say, ―2.‖ As she takes the next step, she says, ―2‖ and so on down all the steps, counting, ―2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2…10! Yeah!‖ Loretta (Moneek‘s grandmother) thinks this is very cute, but she wonders how much her granddaughter understands about numbers and counting, because no matter how many times she tries to help Moneek count accurately, Moneek continually says, ―2, 2, 2, 2, 2,…10!‖ What can you tell Loretta?

139. Does Moneek understand the one-to-one principle? Why or why not?

140. Does Moneek understand the stable-order principle? Why or why not?

141. Does Moneek understand the cardinality principle? Why or why not?

142. If Moneek were growing up in an Asian country, do you think her counting or other math skills would be more accurate? Why or why not?

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CASE STUDY ANSWERS Cognitive Processes and Academic Skills 143. Moneek clearly understands the one-to-one principle, that there must be one and only one number name for each object that is counted, because she counts each step once and only once (even though she assigns the wrong number label to her counting).

144. It is a little difficult to know whether Moneek understands the stable-order principle, that number names must be counted in the same order, because she uses the number 2 for each number. However, the fact that she uses 10 as the last number and consistently counts the same way each time suggests that this is probably an emerging skill for her—one that she is just beginning to grasp but hasn‘t yet mastered.

145. Again, it is a little difficult to know whether Moneek understands the cardinality principle, that the last number differs from the previous ones in a counting sequence by denoting the number of objects. Although the fact that she uses a different number to denote the last step provides some evidence that she grasps this concept, she doesn‘t repeat the number 10, which may indicate that she doesn‘t yet realize that this means the number of steps she has counted. This contradictory information suggests that this is probably an emerging skill for Moneek—one that she is beginning to grasp but hasn‘t yet mastered.

146. Moneek would probably be a more accurate counter if she were growing up in an Asian country such as China, Japan, or Korea, because in contrast to English number systems, Chinese, Japanese, and Korean number systems are almost perfectly regular. Simplified number names explain why children growing up in Asian countries count more accurately than U.S. children of the same age. Should Moneek‘s grandmother worry? Not at all. Moneek is right on track for typical mathematical development.

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HANDOUT 7-1 Note-Taking Strategies Directions: The metacognitive abilities of most students suggest to them that if they wish to retain information presented in class in their long-term memories, they should take notes. After receiving their permission to do so, look at a few pages of notes taken by two other students in your class. Answer some questions in an attempt to develop an awareness of the strengths and weaknesses associated with various note-taking (i.e., memory) strategies.

STUDENT #1 Note-taking strategies: Are the notes organized into an outline?

Y N Are the notes a verbatim transcript of the lecture?

Y N Are diagrams or other spatial representations used?

Y N Is there any evidence of unusual memory strategies being used? Y N

Circle one: FR SO JR SR Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of each strategy:

STUDENT #2 Note-taking strategies: Are the notes organized into an outline?

Y N Are the notes a verbatim transcript of the lecture?

Y N Are diagrams or other spatial representations used?

Y N Is there any evidence of unusual memory strategies being used? Y N

Circle one: FR SO JR SR Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of each strategy:

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HANDOUT 7-2 Exploring Children’s Scripts Directions: After receiving a responsible adult’s permission to do so, interview a preschool child and a first- or second-grader. Spend a few minutes establishing rapport with each child, then ask each child (separately) the questions below and record their answers as completely as you can. ―Tell what happens when …

Younger Child‘s Scripts

Older Child‘s Scripts

… you eat breakfast.‖

… you go to (pre)school.‖

… you go to a restaurant.‖

… you get sick with a cold.‖

… you go to a birthday party.‖

What differences did you notice in the scripts used by the children you interviewed? Please describe:

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HANDOUT 7-3 Look Into It: Problem Solving Directions: You have been assigned a topic that impacts children’s and adolescents’ problem solving. It is your job to investigate research on this topic using any available library resources. To help focus your search, please respond to these questions: TOPIC: ______________________________________________ 147. How does your topic impact problem solving? (Describe the positive or negative relationships that exist between your topic and problem solving.)

148. What type of research (e.g., experiments, observational studies) has been conducted to investigate the relationship between your topic and problem solving?

149. How can the impact of your topic on problem solving be enhanced? In other words, if parents, caregivers, or teachers are aware of how your topic impacts problem solving, what can they do about it?

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HANDOUT 7-4 Creating Educational Games Directions: You and your group have just been hired as the research and development team for the Aggresso Toy Company. Because Aggresso’s last product, a game called ―Toxic Waste Wars,‖ was not a great hit with parents (perhaps the Surgeon General’s warnings about mutations and other unpleasant side effects stunted sales), you have been hired to create a developmental game.

Specifically, Aggresso would like you to design a game that will facilitate the reading, mathematical, and information-processing abilities of children. Aggresso is interested in being able to market your game as a tool for enhancing a variety of abilities (the more, the better, as far as Aggresso is concerned). The board of directors at Aggresso thought that several skills that could be included in the game would be easily marketable (but you are welcome to incorporate additional skills): Reading Skills word recognition phonological awareness comprehension

Mathematical Skills quantity one-to-one principle stable-order principle cardinality principle counting addition subtraction advanced math concepts

Information-Processing Skills problem-solving strategies automatic processing speed of processing memory strategies cognitive monitoring knowledge scripts

Your game must include these components: (a) Instructions: You must explain how the game is to be played, including the purpose of the game, the

number of players, their ages, rules of play, and any other information necessary to play the game (please include sub-headings to organize your instructions). The page length of your instructions will vary with the complexity of your game, but one or two pages (typed, double-spaced) is usually sufficient. (b) Developmental Critique: You must provide a 3-page (minimum), typed, double-spaced summary of the

developmental concepts incorporated into your game, including the reading, mathematical, and information-processing skills enhanced by the game. You will support the relevance of each of the developmental constructs for your game by reviewing published research that supports the significance of each construct to the age group(s) for whom the game is designed. (Minimum number of sources = 6) (c) Demonstration: All groups will be asked to demonstrate their games to the class during ―Game Day.‖ This

demonstration will require that you create or find the materials necessary to play your game (e.g., a game board, playing pieces, game equipment). All game materials will be returned to your group after the game has been graded.

Note: You are encouraged to have some fun with this project; please keep that in mind. Also, a stroll through a toy store may prove helpful toward generating game ideas (but do not design a game that violates any copyright laws or patents—in other words, don‘t copy an existing game—Aggresso has enough problems to contend with already).

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Question 7.1 When Courtney was 12 months old, she fell on the sidewalk and went to the emergency room for stitches in her chin. Now she’s a mother and enjoys telling her children how brave she was at the hospital. What aspect of this story doesn’t ring true?

Answer: Due to infantile amnesia, it’s not very likely that Courtney is remembering her actual experience at the emergency room. Instead, her recall of these events is based on what she remembers others saying about what happened that day. She’s heard these stories so many times that she can easily imagine seeing herself in the emergency room as a 12-month-old.

Question 7.2 Ten-year-old Kayla wakes to see the season’s first snowfall. She can hardly wait to get outside but then remembers that her sled is hanging on a hook in the garage, beyond her reach. Use means-ends analysis to show how she could achieve her goal of sledding.

Answer: Top goal: Go sledding Subgoal 1: Get sled Fact: Sled is on the hook in the garage, out of reach Subgoal 2: Get parent to reach the sled Fact: Mom left for work; Dad is asleep Subgoal 3: Wake Dad Question 7.3 Myra enjoys asking her 6-year-old, Tischa, to solve simple arithmetic problems, such as 4+24+2 and 3+13+1. Tischa likes solving these problems, but Myra finds it puzzling that Tischa may solve a problem by counting on her fingers one day and simply saying the answer aloud on the next day. Is Tischa’s behavior unusual?

Answer: No. In many domains, including simple arithmetic, children use multiple strategies. They will solve a problem one way (e.g., counting on their fingers) and when asked the problem again, solve it a different way (e.g., retrieving the answer from memory).

Chapter 8 Intelligence and Individual Differences in Cognition CHAPTER OVERVIEW .............................................................................................................................................. 2 CHAPTER MODULE SUPPLEMENTS Module 8.1: WHAT IS INTELLIGENCE? .................................................................................................... 3 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics Module 8.2: MEASURING INTELLIGENCE ............................................................................................... 4 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics 134

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Children and Their Development, 8e Module 8.3: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN ABILITY ........................................................................... 5 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics CHAPTER 8 CASE STUDY ........................................................................................................................................ 7 CASE STUDY ANSWERS .......................................................................................................................................... 8 HANDOUTS ................................................................................................................................................................. 9 HANDOUT ANSWERS ............................................................................................................................................. 16 Q&A ANSWERS ........................................................................................................................................................ 17

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW XXIV. What Is Intelligence? a. Psychometric Theories i. Psychometricians ii. Fluid Intelligence iii. Crystallized Intelligence b. Gardner‘s Theory of Multiple Intelligences i. Implications for Education c. Sternberg‘s Theory of Successful Intelligence i. Analytic Ability ii. Creative Ability iii. Practical Ability d. Cultural Influences i. How Culture Defines What Is Intelligent XXV. Measuring Intelligence a. Binet and the Development of Intelligence Testing i. Mental age (MA) ii. The Stanford-Binet 1. Intelligence Quotient (IQ) iii. Infant Tests iv. Stability of IQ Scores b. Features of IQ Scores i. Improving Predictions with Dynamic Testing 1. Dynamic Assessment c. Heredity and Environmental Factors d. Child Development and Family Policy i. Providing Children with a Head Start for School e. Impact of Socioeconomic Status, Ethnicity, and Stereotype Threat i. Stereotype Threat ii. Conclusion: Interpreting Test Scores XXVI. Individual Differences in Ability a. Gifted Children i. Creativity 1. Divergent Thinking b. Improving Children‘s Lives i. Fostering Creativity 1. Encourage Children to Take Risks 2. Encourage Children to Think of Alternatives to Conventional Wisdom 3. Praise Children for Working Hard 4. Help Children Get over the ―I’m not creative‖ Hurdle c. Children with Disability i. Children with Intellectual Disability ii. Children with Learning Disability iii. Focus on Research 1. Impaired Reading Comprehension Is Impaired Language Comprehension

MODULE 8.1: WHAT IS INTELLIGENCE? 136

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LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 8.1 Identify and summarize the different definitions of intelligence.

KEY QUESTIONS:   

What is the psychometric view of the nature of intelligence?

How does Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences differ from the psychometric approach?

What are the components of Sternberg’s theory of successful intelligence?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: Defining Intelligence In a simple exercise that can be conducted prior to or during your first class session devoted to intelligence, ask your students to collect some definitions of intelligence from their friends and family members (or other students that they encounter outside of the classroom). Ask your students to ask others to complete this sentence: ―An intelligent person is someone who …‖ Ask your students to write down the answers they receive and bring them to class. In class, list a variety of the responses your students collected and have them identify themes that emerge, which likely will involve problem-solving abilities, logical thinking, verbal abilities, knowledge, and social competence.

Additional discussion questions will make this exercise even more valuable. Ask your students to consider these questions: 5. Can a person be smart in some respects and not so smart in others?

6. Is intelligence a single trait, or is it a constellation of abilities?

7. What is the relationship between education and intelligence?

Are You a “g” Student? This activity should give your students a better understanding of Charles Spearman‘s notion of g, or general intelligence. Ask your students to complete Handout 8-1. Because most students achieve relatively consistent performance academically, it can be inferred that they possess a general level of intelligence that enables them to perform at a certain level scholastically. The results of this exercise can then be discussed in class.

Gardner’s Intelligences—Identifying Your Multiple Intelligences Howard Gardner proposed nine intelligences: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, and existential. Have your students complete Handout 8.2 to determine in which of Gardner‘s multiple intelligences they are strongest. Make sure to emphasize that they should think about how they learn best, rather than topics that they like most. If a student demonstrates more than one form of intelligence (which most will), have them decide which one best represents their inclinations. Then, have students move to the part of the room that is labeled with each of the nine learning styles. This gives students a visual representation of how intelligence can manifest itself, and also gives them an idea of which intelligences are the most common among students.

Guest Speaker: Elementary School Teacher Invite an elementary school teacher to speak to your students about the intellectual development of children, specifically focusing on the construct of intelligence. Ask the teacher to describe how, if at all, various theories of intelligence shape the curriculum experienced by their students. Ideally, the speaker will be able to provide examples from their classroom or school system that illustrate attempts to foster Howard Gardner‘s different types of intelligences.

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Identifying Your Own Successful Intelligence Bob Sternberg‘s theory of successful intelligence, due to its complexity and importance, merits substantial coverage. Handout 8-3 provides an overview of analytic, creative, and practical abilities and asks students to provide examples in which they have exhibited all three forms of intelligence.

MODULE 8.2: MEASURING INTELLIGENCE LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 8.2 Understand how intelligence tests work and what factors influence test scores.

KEY QUESTIONS:    

Why were intelligence tests devised? What are modern tests like?

What do they predict? How does dynamic testing differ from traditional testing?

What are the roles of heredity and environment in determining intelligence?

How do socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and stereotype threat influence intelligence test scores?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: Demonstrating Intelligence Tests Because most students have not been given a standardized intelligence test, they are fascinated when given the chance to actually see one. Locate a Stanford-Binet (SB5), WISC-V, WPPSIIV, and/or KABC-II-NU and allow the class to examine the test(s). Direct your students to assess the items and instructions, looking for evidence of bias in the test or in the testing procedures. If multiple copies of the test(s) are available, have students work in small groups and test each other on some of the items. Discuss potential problems that your students identify.

Guest Speaker: School Psychologist Invite a school psychologist to speak to your students about intelligence testing, perhaps demonstrating some testing procedures on one or more children. The school psychologist should also discuss the utility and risks of intelligence testing. As an alternative, perhaps someone in your university‘s counseling center has experience with psychometric administration, or (at a minimum) testing for learning disabilities, which can be relevant to a later discussion.

A New Test of Intelligence Divide your students into small groups of 4 or 5. Ask each group to develop its own test of intelligence. Handout 8-4 will guide your students through this activity. Completion of Handout 8-4 will result in increased awareness of the difficulties in designing an intelligence test, familiarity with existing tests, comprehension of reliability and validity issues, and sensitivity to biases and dangers associated with the practice of intelligence testing.

Look Into It: Influences on Intelligence Depending upon your class size (under 40 works well) and available library resources (PsycINFO or equivalent search systems), this project can be an effective means of allowing students to explore a topic that is of particular interest to them. Handout 8-5 provides a series of questions that will guide the students‘ library searches.

Several factors have been shown to influence intelligence or performance on intelligence tests. Assign one topic to each student (or small groups of students) in your class and have them explore the professional literature.

During your next class session, have them briefly present their findings to the rest of the class.   

Heredity Home or family environment Socioeconomic status or income level 138

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 

Enrichment and training programs Social or personal identity

MODULE 8.3: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN ABILITY LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 8.3 Describe how some children’s abilities set them apart from their peers.

KEY QUESTIONS:  

What are the characteristics of gifted children?

What are the different forms of disability?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: A New Test of Creativity Ask your students to devise a new test of creativity. Divide your students into small groups of 4 or 5. Ask each group to develop its own test of creativity. Handout 8-6 will guide your students through this activity. Completion of Handout 8-6 will result in increased awareness of the difficulties in designing a creativity test, greater understanding of reliability and validity issues, and sensitivity to the complexities associated with the practice of creativity testing.

Demonstrating Creativity Tests Because most students have not seen a standardized creativity test, they are interested when given the chance to actually see one. Showing your students standardized creativity tests may be especially helpful following their completion of the previous classroom activity. Locate a Torrance Test, Mednick‘s Remote Associations Test, the Wallach and Kogan creativity measure, or any other standardized test of creativity, and allow the class to examine the test(s). Direct your students to assess the items and testing instructions, looking for evidence of bias in the test or in the testing procedures. Discuss potential problems that your students identify. As a compelling parallel, you might also share with your students some online ―tests of creativity‖ that are likely have dubious psychometric properties. What differences do your students note between ―legit‖ tests and those posted online by… well, who knows?

Guest Speaker: Gifted & Talented Program Teacher or Director Invite a teacher or a director of a gifted and talented program to speak to your students about how the program attempts to educate and stimulate gifted and talented students. Topics for discussion should also include the identification of gifted and talented students, the intellectual and social development of these students, and the factors that contribute to the development of giftedness. A phone call to a local school board should put you in contact with a speaker on this topic.

Class Debate: The Merits and Demerits of Inclusion Divide your students into two groups and ask them to engage in a debate. The focus of this debate should be inclusion or ―mainstreaming,‖ the practice of placing students with intellectual disabilities in regular classrooms (usually accompanied by an additional aid or tutor in these classrooms to assist the mainstreamed child). Critics of inclusion argue against the practice due to the added difficulties placed upon the teachers, the potential for ridicule of the mainstreamed children by cruel classmates, and the possibility of magnifying feelings in the mainstreamed children of being ―different‖ or ―abnormal.‖ Supporters of inclusion cite the social benefits (e.g., feeling less isolated, benefiting from social role models, improved self-esteem) and intellectual benefits (e.g., exposing mainstreamed students to the enriched curriculum of the regular classroom versus the skills training common in special education programs, enabling children with intellectual disabilities to function more successfully in the ―real world‖). Ask your 139

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students to prepare for the debate by researching their assigned position (i.e., FOR or AGAINST inclusion) using available search systems (e.g., PsycINFO or ERIC) and/or the Internet.

To effectively moderate the debate, a debate format is listed below: I. Constructive Speeches (Presentation of your side of the argument): A. PRO side will present for 7 minutes 1. Cross-examination by the CON side for 3 minutes B. CON side will present for 7 minutes 1. Cross-examination by the PRO side for 3 minutes II. Rebuttal Speeches (Your response to the other side‘s argument): A. CON side will rebut for 5 minutes B. PRO side will rebut for 5 minutes III. Questions from Audience (5 minutes) Discussing Learning Disabilities Most students are familiar with the concept of learning disabilities, and the chances are good that more than one student in your class has been diagnosed with a learning disability. But what does having a learning disability mean? Many of the issues surrounding this topic should be revealed by having your students discuss the scenario presented in Handout 8-8.

Internet Annotated Bibliography Have your students use the Internet to identify 10 websites that give scholarly information on types of learning disabilities. Students should type an annotated bibliography that includes the name of the website (e.g., Learning Disabilities Resources), a valid URL (website address, e.g., http://www.ldresources.com/), and a brief (one or two paragraph) review of the website. Reviews should include a brief summary of what students can expect to find if they visit the website and a brief evaluation of the website. As a follow-up to this activity, students can combine all of the annotated bibliographies into an Internet Resource Directory that could be distributed in class.

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CHAPTER 8 CASE STUDY Intelligence and Individual Differences in Cognition Hector and Lois were anxiously awaiting the return of their philosophy exams. Lois greeted her exam with a sigh of relief—she received a ―B+‖. Hector also let out a sigh, but his was one of resignation. Staring at the ―D-‖ written at the top of his exam, he lamented to Lois that he ―just doesn‘t get it.‖ ―I do so well in my pre-calculus and economics courses, but just can‘t get through this introductory philosophy class.‖ ―Don‘t worry about it, Hector. Between the final exam and the paper, there‘s time to improve your grade.‖ ―That‘s easy for you to say. This humanities stuff makes sense to you. Maybe I should start practicing saying ‗Do you want fries with that?‘ If I don‘t pass this core course, I won‘t be able to finish my accounting degree.‖ ―Why don‘t we study for the final exam together? I‘ll bring the note cards that I use to study for each test; you bring the fries.‖ ―Very funny.‖ 150. What challenges to the traditional general factor (―g‖) theories of intelligence are presented by Hector‘s situation?

151. What contemporary theories of intelligence better account for Hector‘s successes in calculus and economics and his struggles in philosophy?

152. According to Robert Sternberg‘s Successful Theory of Intelligence, are Hector‘s difficulties in philosophy indicative of future difficulties in the business world?

153. Is it possible that Hector has a learning disability that accounts for his poor performance in philosophy? How would you determine if he does?

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Intelligence and Individual Differences in Cognition 154. Hector does well in other courses, but not in philosophy. The general factor (―g‖) theories of intelligence imply that his performance should be fairly consistent regardless of the subject matter.

155. Howard Gardner‘s notion of multiple intelligences could account for why Hector can excel in math and economics courses (using his logical-mathematical intelligence) but struggle in philosophy (revealing a deficit in existential intelligence). John Carroll‘s model of intelligence may also pertain to Hector‘s academic situation, implying that his fluid intelligence exceeds his crystallized intelligence.

156. Robert Sternberg‘s theory distinguishes between abilities (analytical, creative, practical) that comprise successful intelligence. Hector may have difficulty in philosophy, revealing some deficits in his creative ability, but his analytical ability may allow him to excel in the business world.

157. If Hector did have a learning disability, he would need to have his intelligence tested, and his sensory functioning would need to be evaluated. Also, the quality of instruction he is receiving in philosophy would need to be ascertained.

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HANDOUT 8-1 Are You a “g” Student?

Directions: Locate at least two years’ worth of your grades from high school or college. If you have not saved your grade reports, try asking the admissions office or your academic advisor for a copy of your high school transcript, or request a copy of your college transcript from the registrar’s office (or appropriate office on campus). Use your grades to determine if you exhibit Charles Spearman’s notion of ―g‖ or general intelligence.

TABLE 1: Charting the consistency of your grades over the course of two years.

LETTER FREQUENCY PERCENT of Total Grades GRADE (Tally the number of A‘s, B‘s, C‘s, D‘s (Divide the tally for each letter grade by the total and F‘s) number of letter grades reported) A B C D F TABLE 2: Charting your grades by subject area.

SUBJECT AREA FREQUENCY A Math (including all math B courses and statistics) C D F A English and Humanities (including Art, Drama, B Music, History, C Philosophy) D F A Natural Sciences (including Chemistry, B Biology, Physics) C D F A Social Sciences (including Social Studies, B Psychology, Sociology, C Government, Economics) D F A Other (including Physical Education, B vocational training) C D F

MOST COMMON GRADE

158. From TABLE 1, is there a single letter grade that is representative of most of your academic performance? Explain.

159. From TABLE 2, is there a pattern of letter grades across subject areas that indicates general academic/intellectual ability? Explain.

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HANDOUT 8-2 Gardner’s Nine Multiple Intelligences Type Linguistic The Word Player Logical/Mathematical The Questioner Spatial The Visualizer Musical The Music Lover

Likes To

Is Good At

Learns Best By

Read, write, tell stories

Memorizing names, places, dates, and trivia

Saying, hearing, and seeing words

Do experiments, figure things out, work with numbers, ask questions, explore patterns and relationships Draw, build, design and create things, daydream, look at pictures, watch movies, play with machines Sing, hum tunes, listen to music, play instrument, respond to music

Math, reasoning, logic, problem solving

Categorizing, classifying, working with abstract patterns and relationships

Yes Maybe No

Imagining things, sensing changes, mazes or puzzles, reading maps, charts

Visualizing, dreaming, using the mind‘s eye, working with colors or images

Yes Maybe No

Picking up sounds, remembering melodies, noticing pitches/rhythms, keeping time Physical activities (sports, dance, acting), crafts

Rhythm, melody, music

Yes Maybe No

Touching, moving, interacting with space, processing knowledge though bodily sensations Sharing, comparing, relating, cooperating, interviewing

Yes Maybe No

Working alone, individualized projects, self-paced instruction, having own space

Yes Maybe No

Outdoor activities, science activities, activities involving hierarchical classification Visits to museums or nature, studying the background (history) of problems, being helped to see the value of a particular learning experience

Yes Maybe No

Bodily-Kinesthetic The Mover

Move around, touch and talk, use body language

Interpersonal The Socializer

Have lots of friends, talk to people, join groups

Intrapersonal The Individual

Work alone, pursue own interests

Naturalistic The Nature Lover

Be outdoors, science, hiking, camping, gardening, recycling, animals

Existential The Spiritual Thinker

Discuss ―life‖ questions, read philosophy and mythology, study history and ancient cultures, meditate, art masterpieces and natural wonders, learn about religion

Understanding people, leading others, organizing, communicating, manipulating, mediating conflicts Understanding self, focusing inward on feelings and dreams, following instincts, pursuing interests and goals, being original Finding patterns, categorizing, biology, botany, zoology

Seeing the ―big picture,‖ learning new things (as long as the value of this is understood), discussion of questions about life

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Like Me Yes Maybe No

Yes Maybe No

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HANDOUT 8-3 Identifying Your Own Successful Intelligence Directions: Read the descriptions of the analytic, creative, and practical abilities that comprise Robert Sternberg’s theory of successful intelligence. Provide examples of how you exhibit each of the three abilities of successful intelligence.

ANALYTIC ABILITY Analytic ability involves analyzing problems and generating different solutions.

Examples of analytic ability from your life:

CREATIVE ABILITY Creative ability involves dealing adaptively with novel situations and problems.

Examples of creative ability from your life:

PRACTICAL ABILITY Practical ability involves knowing what solution or plan will actually work.

Examples of practical ability from your life:

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HANDOUT 8-4 A New Test of Intelligence Directions: Working with other students in the class, create a new test of intelligence. To help you design your test, respond to each of these questions.

160. How do you define intelligence? State your operational definition of intelligence.

161. What types of items or tasks will be included in your intelligence test? Describe the various scales included in your test (if applicable) and provide sample items from your test.

162. How will you determine if your test is reliable and valid? Describe the procedures you would use to assess your test‘s reliability and validity.

163. Who should be tested, and how should your test be used? Describe some appropriate and inappropriate applications of your test.

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HANDOUT 8-5 Look Into It: Influences on Intelligence Directions: You have been assigned a topic that impacts intelligence or performance on intelligence tests. It is your job to investigate research on this topic using any available library resources. To help focus your search, please respond to these questions: TOPIC: ______________________________________________ 164. How does your topic impact intelligence or intelligence testing? (Describe the positive or negative relationships that exist between your topic and intelligence.)

165. What type of research (e.g., experiments, observational studies) has been conducted to investigate the relationship between your topic and intelligence?

166. How can the impact of your topic on intelligence be enhanced? In other words, if parents, caregivers, or teachers are aware of how your topic impacts intelligence, what can they do about it?

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HANDOUT 8-6 A New Test of Creativity Directions: Working with other students in the class, create a new test of creativity. To help you design your test, respond to each of these questions: 167. How do you define creativity? State your operational definition of creativity.

168. What types of items or tasks will be included in your creativity test? Describe the various scales included in your test (if applicable) and provide sample items from your test.

169. How will you determine if your test is reliable and valid? Describe the procedures you would use to assess your test‘s reliability and validity.

170. Who should be tested, and how should your test be used? Describe some appropriate and inappropriate applications of your test.

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HANDOUT 8-7 Discussing Learning Disabilities A child who has been diagnosed with a learning disability is someone who (a) has difficulty mastering an academic subject, (b) has normal intelligence, and (c) is not experiencing other conditions that could explain poor performance, such as sensory impairment of inadequate instruction. Although the definition of learning disability is fairly simple, its diagnosis is not. Consider this story: Janelle, a seventh-grader, cannot understand algebra. She tries for hours at a time but cannot seem to grasp the concepts. Because they were concerned about her, Janelle‘s parents arranged to have her take an intelligence test, which revealed an IQ of 105. In most other subjects, Janelle gets fairly good grades.

171. Do you think Janelle has a learning disability? Why or why not?

172. What other information about Janelle would you need to know before applying a diagnosis of a learning disability?

173. If Janelle doesn‘t have a learning disability, what might account for her poor performance in algebra?

174. What suggestions do you have for Janelle, her teacher, and her parents regarding improving her performance in algebra?

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HANDOUT ANSWERS HANDOUT 8-7: Discussing Learning Disabilities 175. Janelle meets two of the three criteria for having a learning disability (difficulty mastering an academic subject and she has normal intelligence), but a definitive diagnosis cannot be made because we need more information.

176. More information is needed about other conditions that might account for Janelle‘s performance in algebra, including the quality of instruction she is reading and any sensory impairments she may have that would pose special problems for algebra. (Sensory impairments seem unlikely given her success in other classes.)

177. Janelle‘s poor performance in algebra may be the result of poor instruction in the subject. It also may be that Janelle‘s intellectual strengths do not lie in Howard Gardner‘s logical-mathematical type of intelligence; she may excel in other types of intelligence instead.

178. Janelle may need additional instruction in algebra, or perhaps she would benefit from a non-traditional approach to the subject (one that might capitalize on her intellectual strengths).

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Q&A ANSWERS Question 8.1 Nidhi is convinced that her daughter is really smart because she has a huge vocabulary for her age. Would a psychometrician, Howard Gardner, and Robert Sternberg agree with Nidhi’s opinion?

Answer: Each of them would agree that verbal ability is one part of intelligence. A psychometrician and Howard Gardner would both tell her that intelligence includes other skills (although they wouldn’t mention the same ones); Sternberg would emphasize that it’s the application of verbal skill in the context of analytic, creative, and practical abilities that really matters.

Question 8.2 Harper’s 9-month-old completed an intelligence test and received a slightly below-average score. Harper is distraught because she’s afraid her baby’s score means that school will be a struggle. What advice would you give Harper?

Answer: Tell her to relax. Scores on intelligence tests for infants are not related to scores taken on tests in childhood or adolescence, so the lower-than-average score has virtually no predictive value.

Question 8.3 Ryan’s 8-year-old daughter has been diagnosed with impaired reading comprehension. Ryan is concerned that this is just a politically correct way of saying that his daughter is stupid. Is he right?

Answer: No. Part of the definition of learning disability is normal intelligence; children with learning disability have a specific, well-defined disability in conjunction with normal intelligence.

Chapter 9 Language and Communication CHAPTER OVERVIEW .............................................................................................................................................. 2 CHAPTER MODULE SUPPLEMENTS Module 9.1: THE ROAD TO SPEECH .......................................................................................................... 3 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics Module 9.2: LEARNING THE MEANINGS OF WORDS ............................................................................ 5 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics Module 9.3: SPEAKING IN SENTENCES .................................................................................................... 6 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics Module 9.4: USING LANGUAGE TO COMMUNICATE ............................................................................ 6 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics 151

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW XXVII. The Road to Speech a. Elements of Language i. Phonology ii. Semantics iii. Syntax iv. Pragmatics b. Perceiving Speech i. Phonemes ii. The Impact of Language Exposure iii. Identifying Words 1. Infant-Directed Speech c. Child Development and Family Policy i. Are Cochlear Implants Effective for Young Children? d. First Steps to Speech i. Cooing ii. Babbling iii. Intonation XXVIII. Learning the Meanings of Words a. Understanding Words as Symbols i. Underextension ii. Overextension b. Building a Vocabulary i. Naming Explosion ii. The Language Environment iii. Joint Attention iv. Impact of Video v. Technoference vi. Children‘s Contributions vii. Fast Mapping viii. Sentence Cues ix. Cognitive Factors 1. Phonological Memory 2. Lexical Processing Efficiency c. Cultural Influences i. Growing Up Bilingual d. Beyond Words: Other Symbols XXIX. Speaking in Sentences a. From Two-Word Speech to Complex Sentences i. Telegraphic speech ii. Beyond Telegraphic Speech 1. Grammatical morphemes 2. Overregularization b. Focus on Research i. Why Does Exposure to Parents‘ Speech Increase Children‘s Vocabulary? c. Mastering Grammar? i. The Linguistic Answer 1. Semantic Bootstrapping Theory a. Specific Regions of the Brain Are Known to be Involved in Language Processing b. Only Humans Learn Grammar Readily 153

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c. There Is a Critical Period for Learning Language d. The Development of Grammar Is Tied to the Development of Vocabulary ii. The Cognitive Answer iii. The Social Interaction Answer d. Improving Children‘s Lives i. Promoting Language Development 1. Talk with Children Frequently and Treat Them as Partners in Conversation 2. Use a Child’s Speech to Show New Language Forms 3. Encourage Children to go Beyond Minimal Use of Language 4. Listen 5. Make Language Fun XXX. Using Language to Communicate a. Taking Turns b. Speaking Effectively i. Preschool Children Tailor Their Messages to a Listener‘s Knowledge and Intentions ii. School-Age Children Speak Differently to Adults and Peers c. Listening Well

MODULE 9.1: THE ROAD TO SPEECH LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 9.1 Identify children’s first steps to acquiring language, including their learning about speech sounds.

KEY QUESTIONS:   

What are the different components of language?

What are the basic sounds of speech, and how well can infants distinguish them?

What is babbling and how does it become more complex in older infants?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: Phonemic Awareness To illustrate the significant challenge facing infants during their first year of life, ask your students to identify phonemes that DO NOT appear in English. Ask them to construct a list of speech sounds from other languages that are not a part of the English language. After a few moments, several students should have examples that they can share with the class. Ask your students to imagine how an infant perceives language. How does an infant know which sounds are part of ―their‖ language?

If students struggle with responding to the above question, ask them what letters they would choose if they were playing ―Wheel of Fortune.‖ Why did they choose those letters? The same notion of frequency that contestants use when choosing letters for ―Wheel of Fortune‖ applies to how infants discriminate between native language and non-native language phonemes.

Observing Chats with Children In an effort to acquaint your students with infant-directed speech, ask your students to informally observe parents or caregivers talking with their infants or young children. Your students should take note of how the adults change their speech when speaking to their children versus speaking to other adults. Shopping malls, restaurants, and grocery stores are excellent locations for students to observe infantdirected speech. Have your students present summaries of their observations to the class.

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Talking with Tots If class size permits and toddlers are available, ask your students to have a conversation with a toddler. If possible, each student should record the conversation and then analyze it to identify various aspects of infant-directed speech. Ask some volunteers to play their recordings in class, identifying elements of infantdirected speech as they occur.

Class Debate: American Sign Language (ASL) Versus Oral Language Speech pathologists and the deaf community grapple with a difficult issue regarding language development: Should hearing-impaired children be encouraged to learn ASL, or should oral language be emphasized? Children who have been diagnosed with hearing impairments can develop language skills through ASL that parallel those of hearing children in both content (i.e., the elements of language) and timing. However, mastery of ASL may segregate them from the hearing community. Conversely, acquiring oral language skills is very difficult for many hearing-impaired children. What form of language should hearing-impaired children be taught?

Assign half of your students to the ASL position and the other half to the oral language position. Ask your students to review the available research for their respective positions in preparation for a class debate on the topic.

To effectively moderate the debate, you should prepare several questions that each side will address. Here are some sample questions: 8. What does ASL entail? What does oral communication entail?

9. What do educators like or dislike about each approach?

10.

What do parents like or dislike about each approach?

11.

What is the ideal approach to language education for the hearing-impaired?

Class Debate: Cochlear Implants Students can also debate the pros and cons of cochlear implants for deaf children. Assign half of your students to the PRO position and the other half to the CON position. Ask your students to review the available research for their respective positions in preparation for a class debate on the topic. Here‘s a suggested format for the debate: I. Constructive Speeches (Presentation of your side of the argument): A. PRO side will present for 7 minutes 1. Cross-examination by the CON side for 3 minutes B. CON side will present for 7 minutes 1. Cross-examination by the PRO side for 3 minutes II. Rebuttal Speeches (Your response to the other side‘s argument): A. CON side will rebut for 5 minutes B. PRO side will rebut for 5 minutes III. Questions from Audience (5 minutes)

MODULE 9.2: LEARNING THE MEANINGS OF WORDS LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 9.2 Describe how children learn to speak and how they continue to learn new words.

KEY QUESTIONS: 

How do children make the transition from babbling to talking?

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 

What rules do children follow to learn new words?

How does children’s understanding of symbols progress beyond language?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: Baby Charades Playing charades may sound frivolous, but your students will certainly enjoy this activity while gaining an appreciation for the importance of gestures in early communication. Ask a few volunteers to use gestures to convey the meanings of several phrases. Have the rest of the students form teams to guess the phrases (or at least the general messages being conveyed by each).

Phrases for Baby Charades: ―I want a bottle.‖ ―My diaper is wet.‖ ―Pick me up.‖ ―Put me down.‖

―I‘m hungry.‖ ―Open the door.‖ ―I don‘t like this food.‖ ―I‘m happy to see you.‖

―That frightens me.‖ ―Wheee! Do that again!‖ ―Too loud!‖ ―Look at that.‖

Observing Styles of Language Ask each of your students to observe the spontaneous speech of young children between the ages of 12 and 24 months. For each child that your students observe, ask them to record the number of words or phrases (see Handout 9-1) in which the child is naming or identifying something (i.e., exhibiting a referential style) versus the number of words or phrases in which the child is influencing others (i.e., exhibiting an expressive style). How would they classify each child they observed based upon their use of language? This activity can be completed individually or in small groups.

Understanding a Snork Handout 9-2 presents an exercise in fast mapping to your students. Ask your students to complete the exercise quickly and without discussing it with others. The first four questions should be easy for them to complete, but the last question was designed to be impossible to answer without further information.

The series of questions puts your students in the shoes of toddlers who are listening to adults speak. Like toddlers, your students must rely on context to comprehend the strange vocabulary used to describe the snork.

And, in the absence of adequate context (as presented by question #5), comprehension is impossible.

Where the Air Is Sweet Educational programs such as Sesame Street help children develop their language skills.

In small groups, ask your students to design an educational show or game that will help children learn the meaning of new words. The show or game should be presented to the class while each group explains how the show or game will facilitate the language development of children. If you had your students develop a game when discussing previous chapters, you may simply want your students to add a component to enhance language development. If you have your students design an educational show, ask them to video record a segment from their show that can then be played for the class. Students are often more comfortable recording their productions rather than trying to present them ―live.‖

MODULE 9.3: SPEAKING IN SENTENCES LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 9.3 Examine children’s early sentences and summarize the rules children use to create these sentences.

KEY QUESTIONS:  

How do children progress from speaking single words to creating complicated sentences?

How do children acquire the grammar of their native language?

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LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: Is the Grammar Lesson Over Yet? Although language development is typically considered a childhood phenomenon, improvements in language continue throughout life. Ask your students to consider grammatical issues that they are trying to master. What mistakes have been pointed out to them on recent papers they have written? This activity can function as a catalyst for class discussion, or you can modify it for use as a homework assignment by asking your students to locate a paper that was carefully graded for content and expression by one of their professors. Completion of Handout 9-3 will not only enhance their understanding of grammatical issues involved in the language development of children but should also shed some light on grammatical issues that they must continue to master.

Testing Language Development Theories: The Tragic Story of Genie One of the most moving stories regarding language development is captured in the case history of a 13-year-old girl who was called ―Genie.‖ Genie had been raised by horribly abusive parents who locked her in her bedroom for most of her life and neither spoke to her nor allowed her to make any type of noise. There are numerous sources of original footage of Genie and the people who worked with her over the years. There is no better way to convey information about theories of language development, critical periods, and the significant role that parents play in the language development of their children than by sharing Genie‘s story with your students.

MODULE 9.4: USING LANGUAGE TO COMMUNICATE LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 9.4 Explain how children use language to communicate with others.

KEY QUESTIONS:   

When and how do children learn to take turns in conversation?

When do children master the skills needed to speak effectively?

When do children learn to listen well?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: Observing Turn-Taking Divide your students into small groups of three and ask them to observe toddlers and preschoolers engaging in turn-taking. Turn-taking in these age groups can be easily observed in day care or preschool classes, at grocery stores, libraries, shopping centers, restaurants, or playgrounds. What evidence did they observe of turn-taking? What criteria did they use to identify turn-taking? How did turn-taking vary among different ages of children? Handout 9-4 will assist in their completion of this assignment. Have your students present their findings to the class.

Assessing Children’s Books Have each of your students bring a favorite children‘s book to class. Then, distribute Handout 9-5 so that students can assess the linguistic complexities their books pose to child readers or listeners. Ask for some volunteers to present their assessments of their favorite children‘s books. In effect, this activity combines the enjoyment of ―show-and-tell‖ with the rigor of critical thinking.

Internet Annotated Bibliography Have your students use the Internet to identify 10 websites that give scholarly information on listening skills and/or speaking skills. Students should type an annotated bibliography that includes the name of the website (e.g., Listening Skills), a valid URL (website address, e.g., http://www.d.umn.edu/student/loon/acad/strat/ss_listening.html), and a brief (one or two paragraph) review of 157

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the website. Reviews should include a brief summary of what students can expect to find if they visit the website and a brief evaluation of the website. As a follow-up to this activity, students can combine all of the annotated bibliographies into an Internet Resource Directory that could be distributed in class.

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CHAPTER 9 CASE STUDY Language and Communication An aunt was talking with her 2½-year-old niece about the carnival they attended yesterday afternoon.

When asked what she liked best, the niece responded, ―I like the balloons bestest!‖ ―Oh, so you liked the balloons the best. What else did you like?‖ the aunt asked. ―The splashies!‖ ―The splashies? Do you mean the water guns at the arcade?‖ ―Yeah, the watta gum. I no like the wrinks. They too hard.‖ ―The wrinks were hard to throw, weren‘t they? Did you know that the arcade games take a lot of skill to win?‖ At that moment, the niece‘s mother chimed in: ―The games may take skill, but they also need a little luck. ‗With a little luck, we can work it out,‘ like the song says.‖ ―Do you want to go back to the carnival again?‖ the aunt asked the niece. ―No. The carnival goed away.‖ 179. Focus on what the niece said in this conversation. Identify any phonetic and grammatical errors that appeared in her speech. After you list each, describe the specific type of error made.

180. In speaking with her niece, what did the aunt do to facilitate the language development of her niece?

181. Do you think the niece understood what her mother was trying to say about ―we can work it out‖? Why or why not?

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CASE STUDY ANSWERS Language and Communication 182. ―bestest‖ – an overregularization error. ―wrinks‖ – an error in pronouncing the embedded /g/ phoneme. ―watta gum‖ – an error in pronunciation. ―I no like the wrinks‖ – the child is learning to use negation but erred in the grammar. ―They too hard‖ – a grammatical error, resulting in an almost ―telegraphic‖ sentence. ―goed‖ – an overregularization error.

183. The aunt was questioning the girl, encouraging her to express herself.

The questioning was in the format of turn-taking.

The aunt was elaborating on what the niece said, recasting some of the niece‘s comments into proper grammatical form.

184. It is unlikely that the girl in the case understood her mother‘s comment about a little luck and working things out because 30-month-old children interpret language quite literally, and they devote much of their attention to learning the meanings of new words. The mom was attempting to use poetic language, something that the little girl will not comprehend until age 5 or so.

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HANDOUT 9-1 Observing Styles of Language Directions: Locate at least two children between the ages of 12 and 24 months. Record their spontaneous speech over the course of 20–30 minutes or until you have recorded 10–15 words or phrases. After each recorded utterance, indicate whether the child was naming something or trying to influence or interact with someone. Tally the number of ―naming‖ versus ―influencing‖ phrases in an attempt to classify each child’s language style as either referential or expressive.

CHILD #1‘s Words/Phrases:

Naming

Influencing

Referential

Expressive

Naming

Influencing

Referential

Expressive

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

Overall language style (circle one): CHILD #2‘s Words/Phrases: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

Overall language style (circle one):

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HANDOUT 9-2 Understanding a Snork Directions: Refer to the following drawing to answer several questions.

185. This is a snork. It walks on its flaxes. How many flaxes does a snork have?

186. Snorks have twice as many flaxes as ampolinks. Draw an arrow pointing toward the ampolinks.

187. Snorks are covered with garslim. Garslim is like ____________________________.

188. Like dogs, snorks can wag their pangeers. Draw an arrow pointing toward the pangeer.

189. Do you think snorks can bispooche? Why or why not?

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HANDOUT 9-3 Is the Grammar Lesson Over Yet? Directions: Most people think of language development as something that occurs during childhood. However, everyone makes occasional grammatical mistakes throughout their lifetimes. Locate a graded paper that you recently completed for one of your college courses. Ideally, you should choose a paper that was graded carefully for both content and expression. If you cannot locate such a paper, try to remember some of the feedback that you usually receive about the papers you turn in. Then, with paper in hand (or in mind), complete these tasks: 190. Copy some of the lines from your paper that were indicated as incorrect by your instructor. If you were unable to locate a paper or if you write exceptionally well, describe some of the conscious efforts you make to produce good written work.

191. What types of grammatical errors occurred in the lines that you listed? For example, were there errors in verb tense, plural/singular inconsistencies, run-on sentences, word-order problems, incomplete sentences, or sentence fragments? If you were unable to locate a paper or write exceptionally well, list the types of feedback instructors frequently provide regarding your grammatical expression.

192. After considering the information you provided for question 2, what specific rules of grammar are you apparently trying to master? If you write exceptionally well, what rules are you consciously employing as you write?

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HANDOUT 9-4 Observing Turn-Taking Directions: Working individually or with two other members of your class (as determined by your instructor), observe the turn-taking abilities of toddlers and preschoolers. Turn-taking in these age groups can be easily observed in day care or preschool classes, at grocery stores, libraries, shopping centers, restaurants, or playgrounds. This chart should help you accomplish this task.

Description of the turn-taking interactions

Estimated age of the participants

Participant #1:

Participant #1:

Participant #2: Participant #1:

Participant #2:

Participant #2: Participant #1: Participant #2: Participant #3:

Participant #3:

Participant #4: Participant #3:

Participant #4:

Participant #4: Participant #3: Participant #4: Participant #5:

Participant #5:

Participant #6: Participant #5:

Participant #6:

Participant #6: Participant #5: Participant #6:

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Summary of the evidence of turntaking

Children and Their Development, 8e

HANDOUT 9-5 Assessing Children’s Books Directions: Find one of your favorite children’s books. After you have located it, assess the linguistic challenges it poses to a child reader or listener. Please consider these questions as you evaluate your favorite children’s book.

193.

What is the title and who is the author of your favorite children‘s book?

194.

In what year was it written? ____________________

195.

For what age of child was the book written? ____________________

196.

At what age did you enjoy reading it or listening to it? ____________________

197. What are the most challenging vocabulary words in the book? List them below. If you did not know what the words meant when you first read or heard them, do you recall how you learned their meanings?

198. What is the mean length of utterance (MLU) used by the author? The MLU is the average length of each sentence.

To compute the MLU, follow the instructions in (a) or (b) below. (a) If the book is relatively short, make a list of the number of words in each sentence of the book, add these numbers together, and then divide this sum by the total number of sentences in the book. (b) If the book is relatively long, make a list of the number of words in each sentence of a page or chapter in the book, add these numbers together and then divide this sum by the total number of sentences in the page or chapter.

MLU: ____________________

199. Describe any grammatical challenges posed to the reader or listener. For example, does the story contain sentences with negatives? Does the story include the use of metaphors or sarcasm? List any examples of these grammatical challenges below.

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Q&A ANSWERS Question 9.1 Kristin spends hours talking to her infant son. Her wife wishes Kristin would stop using ―baby talk‖ with their son and just talk in her regular voice. The sing-song pattern drives her bonkers, and she can’t believe that it’s any good for their son. Is she right?

Answer: No, he’s wrong. Infant-directed speech helps babies to learn language, in part because changes in pitch attract an infant’s attention and because the slower pace and accentuated changes help infants to detect differences in speech sounds. But I’ll agree with Kristin’s husband that infant-directed speech can become grating after a while!

Question 9.2 Gavin and Mitch are both 16-month-olds. Gavin’s vocabulary includes about 28 words, but Mitch’s has about 150 words, more than five times as many as Gavin. What factors probably contribute to this difference?

Answer: The two main factors are phonological memory and the boys’ language environments. It’s likely that Mitch has a better phonological memory—he can remember speech sounds more accurately and longer—and he gets exposed to more speech and more sophisticated speech.

Question 9.3 Describing her vacation, 3-year-old Kelly said, ―I sleeped in a tent!‖ What feature of grammatical development does her comment illustrate?

Answer: Saying ―sleeped‖ instead of ―slept‖ shows that Kelly knows the rule about adding -ed to a verb to make it past tense. It also shows that children overgeneralize rules—they use rules with verbs to which the rules don’t apply.

Question 9.4 Shauna’s older brother asked, ―Where’s your locker this year?‖ Shauna replied, ―Next to Mrs. Rathert’s room.‖ When Shauna’s grandmother, who lived in another city, asked the same question, Shauna’s reply was much longer: ―After you go in the front door, turn left and go down a long hall until you get to some stairs. Then…. ‖ What feature of effective communication is shown in Shauna’s two answers to the same question?

Answer: Shauna has changed her description to reflect her listener’s knowledge. Her description is more elaborate for her grandmother (who’s unfamiliar with her school) than for her brother (who knows it well).

Chapter 10 Emotional Development CHAPTER OVERVIEW .............................................................................................................................................. 2 CHAPTER MODULE SUPPLEMENTS Module 10.1: EMERGING EMOTIONS........................................................................................................ 3 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics 166

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Children and Their Development, 8e Module 10.2: TEMPERAMENT .................................................................................................................... 4 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics Module 10.3: ATTACHMENT ....................................................................................................................... 5 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics CHAPTER 10 CASE STUDY ...................................................................................................................................... 8 CASE STUDY ANSWERS .......................................................................................................................................... 9 HANDOUTS ............................................................................................................................................................... 10 Q&A ANSWERS ........................................................................................................................................................ 20

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW XXXI. Emerging Emotions a. The Function of Emotions b. Experiencing and Expressing Emotions i. Development of Basic Emotions 1. Social Smiles 2. Stranger Wariness ii. Emergence of Complex Emotions 1. Self-Conscious Emotions iii. Later Developments iv. Influence of Culture and Parents on Children‘s Emotional Expression c. Improving Children‘s Lives i. But I Don‘t Want to Go to School!

1. School Refusal Behavior d. Recognizing and Using Others‘ Emotions i. Social Referencing ii. Understanding Emotions 1. Display Rules e. Regulating Emotions XXXII. Temperament a. What Is Temperament? i. Extraversion-Surgency ii. Negative Affect iii. Effortful Control b. Heredity and Environmental Contributions to Temperament c. Cultural Influences i. Why Is Yoshimi‘s Son So Patient? d. Stability of Temperament and Personality i. Big 5 personality dimensions e. Temperament and Developmental Outcomes f. Focus on Research i. Temperament Influences Outcomes in Adolescence and Adulthood XXXIII. Attachment a. The Growth of Attachment i. Attachment 1. Preattachment (birth to 6–8 weeks) 2. Attachment in the Making (6–8 weeks to 6–8 months) 3. Clear-Cut Attachment (6–8 months to 18–24 months) 4. Goal-Corrected Partnership (24 months on) b. The Quality of Attachment i. Attachment Styles 1. The Role of Fathers ii. Patterns of Attachment Worldwide iii. Consequences of Quality of Attachment iv. Factors Determining Quality of Attachment 1. Internal working model 2. Work, Attachment, and Child Care c. Child Development and Family Policy i. Determining Guidelines for Child Care for Infants and Toddlers

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MODULE 10.1: EMERGING EMOTIONS LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 10.1 Describe how children first express different emotions and recognize emotions in others.

KEY QUESTIONS:    

Why do people ―feel‖? Why do they have emotions?

At what ages do children begin to experience and express different emotions?

When do children begin to understand other people’s emotions? How do they use this information to guide their own behavior?

When do children show evidence of regulating emotion, and why is this an important skill?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: Guest Speaker: Adult and Infant Child Invite a parent or caregiver to bring their infant (under the age of 12 months) to your class to discuss infant emotions. Ask the person to recall when the child first smiled and what caused these earliest smiles. When did the child start to engage in social smiling? When did the child first laugh?

What caused the laughter? Ask the person about interpreting the child‘s other emotions as well. Finally, ask whether the child senses emotional states. How does the adult know if or when the child perceives their own emotional states?

As a general note: Many suggestions that recommend having a preverbal guest visit class can seem daunting; after all, you can‘t just rent a child for a couple of hours from The Children‘s Depot! But think about your colleagues, some of whom might have children of varying ages. Think also about their friends, who might want to do something nice for their friend, who‘s also your friend. Get the idea? ―Find an infant‖ seems cavalier, whereas ―talk to people you already know, who also know other people, all of whom might want to proudly show off their child to strangers‖ is much more manageable.

Who’s Afraid of the Big, Bad Wolf? At approximately 6 months of age, stranger anxiety may become apparent in infants. During the preschool years, other fears may arise. Assign different fears to each of your students and ask them to investigate the development of their assigned fear. A list of potential fears appears below.

Stranger wariness Separation anxiety Fear of the dark Fear of monsters

School refusal behavior Fear of spiders Fear of water Fear of ____________________?

Handout 10-1 will guide your students through their research efforts. Ask your students to present their findings in class.

Recollections of Complex Emotions Ask your students to complete Handout 10-2 to gain an understanding of how complex emotions differ from basic emotions. This exercise will also give students a chance to reflect on their own childhood and connect course content to their own development. This activity can serve as a catalyst for class discussion or as a homework assignment.

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Adult Emotional Management: Social Referencing and Display Rules Ask your students to generate examples of recent situations in which they engaged in social referencing. Why did they look to the reactions of others to determine their own reactions to the situations they described? The answers to this question will explain why infants engage in social referencing as well (ambiguous situations are ones in which social referencing is most likely to occur). During this discussion, you may want to talk about the notion of ―display rules,‖ or the set of norms that dictate appropriate emotional expressions in a variety of circumstances. These norms are learned during childhood and adolescence. What display rules have your students learned? Have they ever broken display rules? What were the consequences for breaking these rules?

Finally, you might also point out that, as adults, people rely on social proof quite often. As social psychologist Robert Cialdini has pointed out, when faced with an ambiguous or confusing situation, people look to the behavior of others as a guide. ―Am I supposed to tip the bartender at this wedding? There‘s a tip jar there.

Hmm... are other people tipping? I guess we tip...‖ Where it gets interesting is that savvy persuaders will create their own social proof. It‘s a smart bartender who puts their own $5 bill in the tip jar first, as a means of providing ―proof‖ to others. Draw parallels between social referencing (infants look to others as a guide for their own emotions, reactions, and behaviors) and social proof (adults still look to others as a guide, but perhaps in a different context and with different motives compared to infants) to expand the discussion.

MODULE 10.2: TEMPERAMENT LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 10.2 Identify children’s different behavioral styles, their origins, and their consequences.

KEY QUESTIONS:   

What are the different features of temperament?

How do heredity and environment influence temperament?

How is a child’s temperament linked to their personality?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: Identifying Temperaments: Interviewing Primary Caregivers To ensure that your students understand how temperament classifications are determined (and to give your students an appreciation for how difficult this classification can be), ask them to interview the primary caregivers of at least two infants (2 to 12 months of age). Your students should generate a standard set of questions that they will ask each person they interview.

These questions should be based on the dimensions of temperament identified by researchers. Your students should then attempt to classify their infants as ―easy,‖ ―difficult,‖ or ―slow-to-warm-up.‖ (You will want to inform them that nearly one-third of all infants do not fit neatly into one of these categories.) A discussion of how difficult it was to attach a single temperament label to the observed infants will reveal to your students the more contemporary practice of using the dimensions of temperament independently. Have your students summarize their interviews and classifications either in writing or as a class presentation.

As an alternative, if students have access to infants between the ages of 2 and 12 months, rather than interviewing primary caregivers, ask your students to directly observe at least two infants in their homes or at a day care facility and identify their temperament classifications. Handout 10-3 will provide structure for your students‘ observations. Ask your students to summarize their observations and their classifications in a brief presentation to the class.

Of Course I Was a Good Baby...Wasn’t I? In an exercise your students will certainly enjoy, ask them to talk with the people who cared for them when they were young about how they (your students) acted as infants.

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Specifically, your students should try to determine their own infant temperaments. Additionally, this exercise will cause your students to consider the stability of temperament and its relationship to later adult personality.

Completion of Handout 10-4 will foster your students‘ comprehension of the influences on, and/or determinants of, temperament.

Dimensions of Temperament Ask your students to complete the Adult Section of Handout 10-5. Then they should ask someone who knew them as a young child (e.g., parent, grandparent, older sibling) to complete the Infant Section of Handout 10-5 without looking at how the student responded to their own questions. Students should then compare the answers on both parts of the handout, looking specifically at the issue of stability, reminding students that a difference of a point or two is probably not substantial.

Guest Speaker: Parenting Skills Educator Invite a parenting skills educator to your class to speak about the impact of temperament on caregiver–infant interactions. Ask the speaker to address how parents can influence their infant‘s temperament and how the infant‘s temperament influences the caregiver‘s relationship with the infant. To locate such a speaker, contact a local hospital, mental health facility, or county agency that sponsors parenting classes.

MODULE 10.3: ATTACHMENT LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 10.3 Understand infants’ emotional relationships with primary caregivers.

KEY QUESTIONS:  

How does an attachment relationship develop between an infant and the primary caregiver?

What different types of attachment relationships are there? What are the consequences of different types of relationships?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: Evidence of Attachment: Interviewing Parents Ask your students to interview the parents of an infant who is between 6 and 12 months old. The interview should include all of the infant‘s regular, primary caregivers so that different perspectives and attachments can be explored. (In many, but not all, cases, this might be a two-parent household.) If your students have difficulty locating participants, you may want to give them the option of either teaming up for this assignment or doing a retrospective interview with their own primary caregivers. Your students should generate interview questions that explore how each person in the child‘s life facilitated the establishment of an attachment relationship. (e.g., ―What did you do when your child cried?‖ or ―How much time did you spend each day playing with [or feeding or snuggling with] your child?‖ or ―When did your child first reveal a preference to be held by you rather than someone else?‖) From the answers given to the interview questions, each student should be able to summarize the potential for the development of secure attachment relationships through this rather crude assessment of various caregivers‘ degree of responsiveness and consistency in meeting a child‘s needs. You may want to suggest that your students summarize their interviews by rating caregivers on 10-point scales for responsiveness and consistency, and then you can tally the ratings that the class generates. With or without the ratings, this exercise usually leads to an in-depth discussion about the ―ingredients‖ for establishing a secure attachment relationship.

Re-enacting the Strange Situation To demonstrate Mary Salter Ainsworth‘s Strange Situation, ask for four pairs of student volunteers to play the roles of primary caregiver and child (you will play the role of experimenter). Assign four of your students to play the roles of children who have formed secure attachment, 171

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avoidant attachment, resistant attachment, and disorganized (disoriented) attachment relationships with the other students playing the role of caregivers. Assign students to these roles in such a way that the rest of the class is unaware of which attachment relationship has been assigned to each student. Then, referring to Handout 10-6, guide the adult-child dyads through the Strange Situation (one pair at a time).

NOTE: It is critical that the students who are playing the roles of the children understand the behaviors and emotional reactions that are consistent with their assigned attachment type. You may want to provide a script to each of these four students. The role of the caregiver in each Strange Situation is fairly simple and consistent.

The rest of the class should try to identify the type of attachment relationship being portrayed at the conclusion of each of the Strange Situation tests.

Look Into It: Influences on Attachment Relationships Students can be shooed to the library to conduct some focused literature searches. Depending upon your class size (under 40 works well) and available library resources (PsycINFO or equivalent search systems), this project can be an effective means of allowing students to explore a topic that is of particular interest to them. Handout 10-7 provides a series of questions that will guide the students‘ library searches.

There are many factors that influence the attachment relationship that the child develops. Assign one topic to each student (or small group of students) and have them explore the professional literature. During your next class session, ask them to briefly present their findings to the rest of the class. (a) maternal employment (b) day care (c) temperament (d) child abuse (e) adoption (f) prematurity

(g) family size (h) divorce (i) culture (j) parenting skills (k) birth order (l) other: _______________________

Debating the Consequences of Day Care Divide students into two groups. One group will debate the PRO side of the day care issue, and the other group will debate the CON side of the issue, focusing on whether spending time in a day care setting has implications for emotional development. Give students several class periods to prepare for the debate. A format for a half-hour debate is listed below, which can be modified to fit classes of different lengths: I. Constructive Speeches (Presentation of your side of the argument): A. PRO side will present for 7 minutes 1. Cross-examination by the CON side for 3 minutes B. CON side will present for 7 minutes 1. Cross-examination by the PRO side for 3 minutes II. Rebuttal Speeches (Your response to the other side‘s argument): A. CON side will rebut for 5 minutes B. PRO side will rebut for 5 minutes III. Questions from Audience (5 minutes) Internet Annotated Bibliography Have your students use the Internet to identify 10 websites that give scholarly information on child care arrangements. Students should type an annotated bibliography that includes the name of the website (e.g., National Network for Child Care), a valid URL (website address, e.g., http://www.nncc.org/), and a brief (one or two paragraph) review of the website. Reviews should include a brief summary of what students can expect to find if they visit the website and a brief evaluation of the website. As 172

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a follow-up to this activity, students can combine all of the annotated bibliographies into an Internet Resource Directory that could be distributed in class.

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CHAPTER 10 CASE STUDY Emotional Development ―Is Solomon crying again?! It‘s only midnight, and he‘s awake for the third time tonight. Looks like we‘re in for another long night.‖ ―Why don‘t you see if his diaper is wet or if he‘s hungry?‖ ―Didn‘t you just feed and change him an hour ago?‖ ―I did, but you know how unpredictable he can be.‖ ―Solomon‘s 10 months old—shouldn‘t he be sleeping through the night by now? Who would‘ve thought that parenting was going to be so much work?!‖ ―Just see what he needs. Hopefully, he‘ll quiet down quickly so we can get some sleep.‖ 200.

From the description of Solomon in this conversation, which temperament pattern do you think he is exhibiting? Explain your choice.

201.

If Sol‘s parents are feeling very frustrated, will he be able to detect their frustration?

202.

If Solomon is frequently unhappy and is somewhat difficult to comfort, how might this impact his attachment relationships with his parents?

203.

To foster a secure attachment relationship, how should the parents respond to Solomon?

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CASE STUDY ANSWERS Emotional Development 204. Solomon appears to exhibit what psychiatrists Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess would call the ―difficult‖ temperament. This temperament is characterized by negative affect and unpredictable eating and sleeping.

205.

Even by 5 or 6 months of age, infants can detect emotions in the facial expressions of others, so Solomon, at 10 months, would certainly be able to detect the frustration of his parents.

206.

Infants who are unhappy and who are difficult to comfort pose challenges to parents who are trying to meet their needs. If interactions between parent and child are not gratifying, the parent may spend less time with the child or become less responsive to the child, resulting in greater likelihood of fostering one of the insecure forms of attachment.

207.

Solomon‘s parents need to coordinate their responses to best meet his needs. Children who have difficult temperaments are easily overstimulated and do not respond well to change, so Solomon will need more ―quiet time‖ and more stability in his schedule.

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HANDOUT 10-1 Who’s Afraid of the Big, Bad Wolf?

Directions: You have been assigned a topic regarding childhood fears. It is your job to investigate research on this topic using any available library resources. To help focus your search, respond to these questions: TOPIC: ______________________________________________ 208. How common is your assigned fear among infants and young children?

209.

How is this fear expressed by infants and young children (i.e., what are the signs that a child has this fear)?

210.

How is this fear typically acquired?

211.

What type of research (e.g., experiments, observational studies) has been conducted to investigate your assigned fear?

212.

How can your assigned fear be prevented, mediated, or treated? In other words, if parents, caregivers, or teachers are aware of the conditions that contribute to the development of this fear and they are aware of the symptoms in a child who has this fear, what can they do about it?

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HANDOUT 10-2 Recollections of Complex Emotions Directions: Complex emotions, such as pride, embarrassment, and guilt, develop during early childhood as the intellectual abilities of the child increase. Some understanding of the self and a comprehension of rules or norms are prerequisites to experiencing complex emotions. Think back to your earliest experiences of complex emotions. Complete this table to assess why you experienced those emotions.

Complex Emotion

Describe your earliest memory of experiencing each complex emotion.

Pride

Embarrassment

Guilt

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What basic emotions did you also experience at the same time?

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HANDOUT 10-3 Identifying Temperaments: Observing Infants Directions: Locate two infants between the ages of 2 and 12 months. If you are planning to observe the infants in their homes, do so after gaining permission and with a primary caregiver present. If you are planning to observe the infants in a day care facility, gain permission to do so from the director of the facility and from the teacher(s) responsible for the infants you plan to observe. Observe each infant for at least 20 minutes, noting emotions, behaviors, and other characteristics that enable you to classify each infant’s temperament.

INFANT #1 Temperament Dimension

Sex Assigned at Birth: ____________

Age: ____________

Description of the infant being observed

Activity level Rhythmicity Approach/ Withdrawal Distractibility Adaptability Intensity of reaction Mood Threshold Attention span and persistence INFANT #1‘s TEMPERAMENT CLASSIFICATION: _____________________________

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HANDOUT 10-3 (continued) INFANT #2: Temperament Dimension

Sex Assigned at Birth: ____________

Age: ____________

Description of the infant being observed

Activity level Rhythmicity Approach/ Withdrawal Distractibility Adaptability Intensity of reaction Mood Threshold Attention span and persistence INFANT #2‘s TEMPERAMENT CLASSIFICATION: _____________________________ (a)

What differences did you notice between the two infants?

(b)

Did their temperamental classifications differ? How so?

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HANDOUT 10-4 Of Course I Was a Good Baby...Wasn’t I? Directions: Determine the type of temperament you exhibited as an infant. You may need to talk with the people who cared for you at that age. After you’ve identified your infant temperament, please answer some questions.

213. How would you describe your infant‘s temperament (e.g., ―easy,‖ ―difficult,‖ ―slow-to-warm-up‖)?

Support your choice with examples.

214.

If you have siblings, how would you describe their temperaments? How different or similar were your individual temperaments?

215.

Did your temperament remain relatively stable throughout your childhood and adolescence, or did it change? Explain.

216.

How does your present personality relate to your infant temperament?

217.

Describe some of the advantages and disadvantages of your temperament. Did your temperament pose any special challenges to you or the people who took care of you?

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HANDOUT 10-5 Dimensions of Temperament Students individually should complete the Adult part of the Dimensions of Temperament Scale. Then, they should contact, if possible, someone who knew them as a child (e.g., parent, grandparent, older sibling) and ask them the questions on the Infant part of the Dimensions of Temperament Scale. If students do not have access to someone who knew them as a child, they should complete the Infant part of the scale to the best of their ability using whatever sources may be available (e.g., anecdotes, baby books). After both parts of the scale have been completed, students should compare the answers to the questions, looking specifically to see how stable their temperament has been over time.

DIMENSION Activity Level Rhythmicity

DESCRIPTION Proportion of active periods to inactive periods Regularity of body functions

Attention Span

Degree to which stimulation from the environment alters behavior Response to new object or person Ease with which the person adapts to changes in the environment Amount of time devoted to an activity

Intensity of Reaction

Intensity or energy level of response

Distractibility

Approach/Withdrawal Adaptability

Threshold of Responsiveness

Quality of Mood

Intensity of stimulation required to evoke a response Amount of friendly joyful behavior as opposed to unfriendly behavior

EXAMPLE Some people are always in motion. Others move around very little.

Some people fall asleep, wake up, get hungry, and have bowel movements on a regular schedule. Other people are less predictable.

Some hungry babies can be distracted by a pacifier or toy, although others will continue to cry until fed.

Some people like new foods, people, and experiences, whereas others prefer familiarity.

Some people accommodate change, whereas others are uncomfortable with change and are resistant to it.

Some people can stay on task or focused for a long time, although others lose interest quickly.

Some people have strong or intense reactions to stimuli (e.g., pain, laughter), although others have milder reactions.

Some people startle easily whereas others take little notice of stimulation.

Some people are positive and optimistic about things, although other people are more negative and pessimistic.

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HANDOUT 10-5 (continued) Dimensions of Temperament—Adult Activity Level: Some people are always in motion; other people move around very little. Please rate yourself.

1 2 3 4 5 Not at all active Rarely Active Undecided Active Very Active Rhythmicity: Some people‘s bodies are always on a regular schedule (get hungry at the same time, go to the bathroom on schedule); other people‘s bodies are very unpredictable. Please rate yourself.

1 2 3 4 5 Very regular Regular Undecided Unpredictable Very Unpredictable Distractibility: Some people‘s states are easily changed by stimulation from the environment (e.g., you‘re in a bad mood; someone smiles at you; you cheer up); other people‘s states are not easily changed (your friends try to cheer you up, but it doesn‘t work). Please rate yourself.

1 2 3 4 5 Not At All Distractible Rarely Distractible Undecided Distractible Very Distractible Approach-Withdrawal: Some people are attracted to new things (e.g., new foods, new people); other people hesitate to try new things.

Please rate yourself.

1 2 3 4 5 Never Try New Things Rarely try new things Undecided Like Novelty Love Novelty Adaptability: Some people cope easily with change (e.g., new job, moving); other people have a hard time making transitions.

Please rate yourself.

1 2 3 4 5 Not At All Adaptable Rarely Adaptable Undecided Adaptable Very Adaptable Attention Span and Persistence: Some people can focus on one activity for a long time; other people have a hard time paying attention. Please rate yourself.

1 2 3 4 5 Very Little Focus Little Focus Undecided Focused Very Focused Intensity of Reaction: Some people have very intense reactions (e.g., get very excited about the least little thing); other people react calmly to the world around them. Please rate yourself.

1 2 3 4 5 Not At All Intense Rarely Intense Undecided Intense Very Intense Threshold of Responsiveness: Some people are easily startled; other people react little. Please rate yourself.

1 2 3 4 Not Easily Startled Rarely Startled Undecided Easily Startled

5 Very Easily Startled

Quality of Mood: Some people are happy and friendly; other people are more negative. Please rate yourself.

1 2 3 4 5 Negative Mood Somewhat Negative Undecided Somewhat Positive Positive Mood

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HANDOUT 10-5 (continued) Dimensions of Temperament—Infant Activity Level: Some babies are always in motion; other babies move around very little. Please ask your caregiver to rate you as an infant.

1 2 3 4 5 Not At All Active Rarely Active Undecided Active Very Active Rhythmicity: Some babies‘ bodies are always on a regular schedule; other babies‘ bodies are very unpredictable. Please ask your caregiver to rate you as an infant.

1 2 3 4 5 Very Regular Regular Undecided Unpredictable Very Unpredictable Distractibility: Some babies‘ behaviors are easily changed by stimulation from the environment; other babies‘ behaviors are not easily changed. Please ask your caregiver to rate you as an infant.

1 2 3 4 5 Not At All Distractible Rarely Distractible Undecided Distractible Very Distractible Approach Withdrawal: Some babies are attracted to new things; other babies hesitate to try new things. Please ask your caregiver to rate you as an infant.

1 2 3 4 5 Never Tried New Things Rarely Tried New Things Undecided Liked Novelty Loved Novelty Adaptability: Some babies cope easily with change; other babies have a hard time making transitions. Please ask your caregiver to rate you as an infant.

1 2 3 4 5 Not At All Adaptable Rarely Adaptable Undecided Adaptable Very Adaptable Attention Span and Persistence: Some babies can focus on one activity for a long time; other babies have a hard time paying attention. Please ask your caregiver to rate you as an infant.

1 2 3 4 5 Very Little Focus Little Focus Undecided Focused Very Focused Intensity of Reaction: Some babies have very intense reactions; other babies react calmly to the world around them. Please ask your caregiver to rate you as an infant.

1 2 3 4 5 Not At All Intense Rarely Intense Undecided Intense Very Intense Threshold of Responsiveness: Some babies are easily startled; other babies react little. Please ask your caregiver to rate you as an infant.

1 2 3 4 5 Not Easily Startled Rarely Startled Undecided Easily Startled Very Easily Startled Quality of Mood: Some babies are happy and friendly; other babies are more negative. Please ask your caregiver to rate you as an infant.

1 2 3 4 5 Negative Mood Somewhat Negative Undecided Somewhat Positive Positive Mood

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HANDOUT 10-6 Mary Ainsworth’s Strange Situation Test EPISODE

DESCRIPTION

BEHAVIORS OBSERVED

1

Caregiver, baby and observer enter experimental room. Observer leaves.

Many attractive toys are scattered around.

2

Caregiver sits and watches while baby is free to explore the room.

3

Stranger enters. Stranger is silent for 1 minute. Stranger approaches baby.

Caregiver leaves room unobtrusively.

4

Baby is alone with stranger.

5

Caregiver comes back into room and greets and comforts baby. Baby is encouraged to play again.

6

Caregiver leaves room, says ―Byebye.‖

7

Stranger attempts to interact with baby.

8

Caregiver enters room. Greets baby and picks up baby. Stranger leaves.

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HANDOUT 10-7 Look Into It: Influences on Attachment Relationships Directions: You have been assigned a topic that impacts the development of attachment relationships. It is your job to investigate published research on this topic using any available library resources. To help focus your search, please respond to some questions.

TOPIC: ______________________________________________ 218. How does your topic impact the attachment relationship? (Describe the positive or negative influences that exist between your topic and attachment.)

219.

What type of research (e.g., experiments, observational studies, cross-sectional or longitudinal studies) has been conducted to investigate the relationships between your topic and the development of attachment relationships?

220.

How can the impact of your topic on attachment be mediated? In other words, if parents, caregivers, teachers, employers, or child care workers are aware of how your topic impacts the development of attachment relationships, what can they do about it?

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Q&A ANSWERS Question 10.1 Courtney often expresses her joy, anger, and fear but has yet to show pride, guilt, or embarrassment. Based on this profile, how old do you think Courtney is?

Answer: Because Courtney expresses joy, anger, and fear, she’s at least 6 months old. Because she hasn’t expressed any of the complex emotions (pride, guilt, embarrassment), she’s not yet 18 months old. Thus, she’s probably between 6 and 15 months old.

Question 10.2 Ten-month-old Nina is usually cheerful, enjoys going on outings with her parents, and sleeps soundly every night. How would Thomas and Chess describe Nina’s temperament?

Answer: Thomas and Chess would say that she’s a prototypic ―easy‖ baby: she’s happy, she adjusts well to new situations (shown by how much she enjoys going to new places with her parents), and she has a regular routine for sleeping.

Question 10.3 Chantal is the mother of a 3-month-old. She’s eager to return to her job as a civil engineer, but she worries that she may harm her baby by going back to work so soon. What could you say to reassure her?

Answer: Tell her that the findings of the NICHD Early Child Care Study make it clear that as long as Chantal provides high-quality parenting—that is, as long as she responds appropriately and predictably to her baby’s needs—she and her baby should have a secure attachment even if the baby is in day care full time.

Chapter 11 Understanding Self and Others CHAPTER OVERVIEW .............................................................................................................................................. 2 CHAPTER MODULE SUPPLEMENTS Module 11.1: WHO AM I? SELF-CONCEPT ............................................................................................... 3 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics Module 11.2: SELF-ESTEEM ........................................................................................................................ 5 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics Module 11.3: UNDERSTANDING OTHERS ................................................................................................ 6 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics 186

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Children and Their Development, 8e CHAPTER 11 CASE STUDY ...................................................................................................................................... 8 CASE STUDY ANSWERS .......................................................................................................................................... 9 HANDOUTS ............................................................................................................................................................... 10 Q&A ANSWERS ........................................................................................................................................................ 15

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW XXXIV. a. b. c.

Who Am I? Self-Concept Origins of Self-Recognition The Evolving Self-Concept The Search for Identity i. Adolescent Egocentrism ii. Imaginary Audience iii. Personal Fable iv. Illusion of Invulnerability v. Identity Statuses vi. Ethnic-Racial Identity vii. Cultural Influences 1. Dea’s Ethnic-Racial Identity viii. Focus on Research 1. Parent Socialization Practices & Their Children’s Ethnic-Racial Identity a. Acculturation Gap ix. Storm and Stress x. Depression XXXV. Self-Esteem a. Developmental Change in Self-Esteem i. Structure of Self-Esteem 1. Scholastic Competence 2. Athletic Competence 3. Social Acceptance 4. Physical Appearance ii. Changes in Level of Self-Esteem iii. Variations in Self-Esteem Associated with Ethnicity and Culture b. Sources of Self-Esteem c. Low Self-Esteem: Cause or Consequence?

XXXVI. Understanding Others a. Describing Others b. Understanding What Others Think i. Egocentrism ii. Perspective Taking iii. Recursive Thinking c. Understanding Social Groups i. Prejudice ii. Racism iii. Discrimination iv. How Prejudice Develops d. Consequences of Discrimination e. Focus on Research i. Who Is Resilient in the Face of Discrimination? f. Improving Children‘s Lives: Eliminating Prejudice and Individual Racism i. Participating Groups of Children Are Equal in Status ii. Contact Between Groups Involves Pursuing Common Goals iii. Parents and Teachers Support the Goal of Reducing Prejudice g. Child Development and Family Policy i. Ending Segregated Schools

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MODULE 11.1: WHO AM I? SELF-CONCEPT LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 11.1 Examine the processes and mechanisms that help develop adolescents’ identities.

KEY QUESTIONS:   

When do infants first acquire a sense of self?

How does self-concept become more elaborate as children grow?

How do adolescents achieve an identity?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: Reflecting on Self-Awareness Several researchers have been interested in questions of self-recognition, selfawareness, and self-knowledge in other species, and have actively sought ways to gather evidence for these processes. As an example, Gordon G. Gallup, Jr., developed a technique for testing self-recognition among primates that circumvented the barrier produced by the lack of a common communication system between species. One marker of self-recognition is the ability to visually identify oneself, such as occurs when looking in a mirror. Gallup capitalized on this facet of recognition in a study enlisting chimpanzees. The chimps were given several days of exposure to a mirror in their environment. Gallup noted that at first, the chimpanzees acted as though the image in the mirror was another animal. Gradually, however, they began to respond in a way that suggested they had realized they were seeing an image of themselves. To validate these observations, Gallup anesthetized the chimpanzees and applied an odorless, bright red dye to their faces, in such a location that it could only be seen in the mirror. When the chimpanzees were revived and the mirrors were reintroduced, all the chimpanzees reacted in a way that strongly suggested mirror self-recognition. The chimps reached up to their faces, exploring the marks while watching their reflections, and did so more often than under control conditions.

This procedure, subsequently dubbed the ―mark test‖ or ―mirror test,‖ has been used with a number of other species. Gallup contends, however, that although chimpanzees and orangutans can reliably demonstrate selfrecognition of this type, the effect has not been reliably demonstrated among gorillas, monkeys, or prosimians.

Nonetheless, more recent research has demonstrated self-recognition among bottlenose dolphins, Asian elephants, magpies, ants, and orca whales, with varying degrees of reliability and confirmation in the scientific community.

My Evolving Self-Concept Handout 11-1 sheds light on how the self-concepts of your students (and the selfconcepts of people in general) changed during their preschool, school-age, and adolescent years. Ask your students to please complete Handout 11-1 and then ask volunteers to read one of their self-concept descriptions and have the other students guess the age group that would likely generate each description. Finally, ask some of your students to summarize their responses to the questions at the bottom of the handout.

Stories of Our Adolescence Distribute 3×5 inch index cards and have your students write a brief description of something they did as young teenagers (in middle school or high school) that they would not do now. Also, ask them to briefly indicate why they did it. Ask them to leave the cards anonymous and to omit any information that would reveal their identity. Collect the cards, arrange the students into groups, and distribute the cards randomly to the groups. Ask the groups to determine which actions could be explained by David Elkind‘s ideas about adolescent egocentrism (i.e., personal fable and imaginary audience). After a few minutes, ask the groups to present examples of their findings.

Identity Statuses in Film Students will respond very positively to being ―forced‖ to watch a full-length feature film. There are several films that do an excellent job of presenting adolescent struggles with identity without 189

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turning the characters into caricatures. ―Classics‖ such as Stand By Me and The Breakfast Club convey a variety of concepts quite clearly. Other movies with adolescent identity issues portrayed include Dead Poet‘s Society, Say Anything, Cinema Paradiso, Diner, Ferris Bueller‘s Day Off, Pretty in Pink, and Pump Up the Volume, in addition to many others (students can choose any relevant film, as long as they secure instructor permission first). An analysis of the characters‘ identity development according to Jimmy Marcia‘s identity statuses can be completed as a written assignment or in-class discussion.

Barbie (2023, Warner Brothers, 114 minutes) Boyhood (2014, IFC Films, 165 minutes) Easy A (2010, Sony Pictures, 92 minutes) Eighth Grade (2018, Sony Pictures, 94 minutes) Good Will Hunting (1997, Miramax Films, 126 minutes) Juno (2007, Dancing Elk Productions, 96 minutes) The Kite Runner (2007, Dreamworks Pictures, 128 minutes) Mean Girls (2004, Paramount, 97 minutes) Napoleon Dynamite (2004, Fox Searchlight, 86 minutes) The Outsiders (1983, Warner Brothers, 91 minutes) The Perks of Being a Wallflower (2012, Summit Entertainment, 103 minutes) A Walk to Remember (2002, DiNovi Pictures, 101 minutes) Adolescent Identity Paper Students can write a 3–5-page paper describing the formation of adolescent identity, its significance, and cultural relevance. Papers should include a minimum of five original scholarly references.

Ostracism It can be awkward and confusing to be out of one’s own culture or to interpret the behavior of a person from another culture. In such situations, feelings of acculturation stress or even ostracism are not uncommon. Jane Halonen describes a writing exercise that helps students achieve a deeper understanding of ostracism by taking another person’s perspective. After describing the idea of the cultural mainstream, ask students to think about a time they felt ostracized, a time they themselves were outside of the mainstream (e.g., not being invited to a party, having a poor complexion, being chosen last for a team sport). Then, ask students to write a journal entry that reflects the experience of ostracism—but not from their own perspective. Instead, they should choose someone else (it can be a friend or relative, someone famous, or even a hypothetical person) and write about that person's experience as though it were their own (i.e., they should write in the first person).

Although students are not to write about their own specific experiences, they should feel free to use the energy and feelings of their own experience to explore the emotional reaction of another person.

Source: Halonen, J. S. (1986). Teaching critical thinking in psychology. Alverno Productions.

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MODULE 11.2: SELF-ESTEEM LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 11.2 Explore how self-esteem impacts individuals’ sense of identity.

KEY QUESTIONS:    

How does self-esteem change as children develop?

How does self-esteem vary depending on ethnicity and culture?

What factors influence the development of self-esteem?

Is children’s development affected by low self-esteem?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: Assessing Self-Esteem Emphasize the multifaceted nature of self-esteem; it is not just a unidimensional quality that people have more or less of. Handout 11-2 reinforces this multidimensional quality of self-esteem and prompts students to consider the various ways in which self-esteem can be impacted.

Look Into It: Sources of Self-Esteem You can shepherd your class to the library to complete focused literature searches. Depending on your class size (under 40 works well) and available library resources (PsycINFO or equivalent databases), this project can be an effective means of allowing students to explore a topic that is of particular interest to them. Handout 11-3 provides a series of questions that will guide the students‘ library searches.

There are many factors that influence a child‘s level of self-esteem. Assign a topic to each student (or small group of students) and kindly ask them to please explore the professional literature. During your next class session, ask them to briefly present their findings to the rest of the class. parental involvement parental discipline gender identity differences academic competence peer feedback

teacher characteristics extracurricular involvement school transition pubertal timing other: _______________________

Early Influences on Self-Esteem A person‘s family and primary caregivers while young play a crucial role in the development of a child‘s self-esteem. Ask your students to complete Handout 11-4 to familiarize them with a variety of ways in which people from their own developmental background contributed to their sense of selfworth.

Guest Speaker: Middle School Teacher/Guidance Counselor or a Child Psychologist Invite a professional from a local middle school to speak to your students about self-esteem issues. Why does the school transition from elementary school to middle school pose a challenge to many students‘ sense of self-worth? What can be done about it? Your students should come to this class session with questions that they would like to ask the speaker.

Internet Annotated Bibliography Have your students use the Internet to identify 10 websites that give scholarly information on self-esteem and children in this chapter. Students should type an annotated bibliography that includes the name of the website (e.g., National Association for Self-Esteem), a valid URL (website address, e.g., http://www.self-esteem-nase.org/links.shtml), and a brief (one or two paragraph) review of the website.

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Reviews should include a brief summary of what students can expect to find if they visit the website and a brief evaluation of the website. As a follow-up to this activity, students can combine all of the annotated bibliographies into an Internet Resource Directory that could be distributed in class.

MODULE 11.3: UNDERSTANDING OTHERS LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 11.3 Describe how children and adolescents develop an understanding of others.

KEY QUESTIONS:   

As children develop, how do they describe others differently?

How does the understanding of others’ thinking change as children develop?

How does children’s understanding of groups develop? How can it lead to prejudice?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: What Is a Friend? This activity requires your students to find three children and adolescents of various ages (5– 18 years old) and ask them to complete this statement: ―My best friend is ________ because …‖ Your students should be encouraged to get as much detail as possible from the people they interview. Students should record the responses and the age and sex assigned at birth of each person interviewed. After all three interviews have concluded, ask your students to summarize developmental changes in the descriptions of best friends either in writing or in an oral presentation to the rest of the class.

How Old Am I? Ask students to work in small groups to develop descriptions of fictional friends that children of various ages would generate. On 3×5-inch index cards, write a number between 5 and 18 (representing the age of a fictional person) and distribute the cards to each group in your class. Have the groups write descriptions of fictional best friends that are consistent with the age indicated on the card. After the groups have written their descriptions, collect the cards and read them to the class, asking the students to guess the age group that would most likely offer each description.

Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination To help students learn the impact of prejudice and discrimination, and the effects of stereotyping, ask them to engage in this exercise. Construct headbands with a variety of phrases clearly written on them. Randomly distribute the headbands to students; if you have a small class, you could give each student a headband, whereas in a larger class, you might ask for volunteers. Those who wear the headbands should not know what the phrase is. As you distribute the headbands upside-down, caution students not to look at them; rather, they should lean their heads down to the desk and affix the headband accordingly.

The rest of the students are then told to treat those wearing headbands as the label on the headband reads. Those wearing headbands must try to figure out how their headbands are labeled.

Boss

Comic

Blonde

Quiet

Hot-tempered

Diseased

Chinese

Farmer

Minister

Insignificant

Wealthy

New Ager

Arab

Simpleton

Gang member

Feminist

Athletic

Nerd

Scientist

Writer

Hispanic

Irish

Promiscuous

Military

Psychologist

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Japanese

Black

Odd

White

HIV Positive

Teacher

Drug addict

Mechanic

Murderer

Grandparent

Source: Hebl, M. R., Foster, J. B., Mannix, L. M., & Dovidio, J. F. (2002). Formal and interpersonal discrimination: A field study of bias toward homosexual applicants. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(6), 815–825.

Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain Ask students to please explore the work of Jane Elliott, an elementary school teacher in Riceville, Iowa, who conducted a compelling social experiment in the late 1960s. No doubt you are familiar with the Blue Eyes/Brown Eyes paradigm, but it may be new to your students. Ms. Elliott maintains a website that your students can explore, and there are many full-length versions and edited clips of the various Blue Eyes/Brown Eyes demonstrations that have been conducted over the decades. Having students write a one or two-page reflection on their reactions to the website, film, or general set-up gives them a chance to process their own thoughts and feelings about how we come to understand others, and how those perceptions lead to the ways in which we treat other people.

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CHAPTER 11 CASE STUDY Understanding Self and Others ―I‘m so glad that family reunion is finally over, Ti‘Ana. I got sick of people asking me what I wanted to be when I grow up. I‘m only in seventh grade. I won‘t be a grown-up for at least 10 or 20 years.‖ ―Family reunions can be awful, Khloe, but at least they don‘t happen very often.‖ ―That‘s the only thing that‘s good about them. All these people I don‘t know saying things like ‗What do you want to be when you grow up?‘ ‗Oh look how big you‘ve gotten.‘ ‗What subjects do you like in school?‘ ‗Gimme those cute cheeks.‘ Puh-leez—leave me alone already. I started saying things like ‗I wanna be lazy when I grow up‘ and ‗I like lunch period the best.‘ They wouldn‘t stop bugging me.‖ ―Was it really that bad?‖ ―I just got tired of all the attention and questions. I don‘t know what I want to be when I grow up! I don‘t like my cheeks! And I didn‘t want to tell them I get ‗C‘s‘ in most everything at school. I just wanted to be left alone.‖ 221. Khloe doesn‘t know what she wants to be when she grows up, and she doesn‘t mention any attempts to address this issue. According to James Marcia, which identity status is descriptive of Khloe‘s identity development? What statuses is she likely to experience in the next few years?

222. How would you describe Khloe‘s self-esteem? What, if anything, can be said about her overall sense of self-worth?

223. How can Khloe‘s self-esteem be enhanced? What recommendations do you have for her parents, teachers, or for her friend, Ti‘Ana?

224. Khloe and Ti‘Ana are close friends. How do you think Khloe would describe Ti‘Ana? What level(s) of perspective taking does she most likely engage in?

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CASE STUDY ANSWERS Understanding Self and Others 225. According to James Marcia, Khloe is likely to be in the identity diffusion status. When she starts to actively explore her options, she will move into the moratorium status, and when she makes decisions about aspects of her identity, she will transition into the identity achieved status.

226. Khloe‘s self-esteem appears to be fairly low in certain aspects of her life. Her overall self-worth may be moderate or high, as she seems a bit feisty and self-assured in some regards.

227. Khloe‘s parents, teachers, and her friend, Ti‘Ana, should focus on areas of success or strength for Khloe. Khloe‘s teachers should avoid encouraging students to compare themselves to each other, and they should take the time to recognize the accomplishments of each of their students. Khloe‘s parents should encourage Khloe to explore areas of interest and potential growth, creating opportunities for Khloe to enjoy success. Ti‘Ana should remain supportive and encourage Khloe to remain actively involved socially.

228. As an early adolescent, Khloe would most likely describe Ti‘Ana in terms of her personality characteristics, educational and occupational goals, and maybe some appearance characteristics. Khloe is probably able to engage in third-person perspective-taking, able to view situations from the perspective of an objective observer.

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HANDOUT 11-1 My Evolving Self-Concept Directions: Think through your adolescence, elementary school years, and preschool years, and recall your interests, abilities, likes, and dislikes. Then try to view the world and yourself from your own preschool, elementary school, and adolescent perspectives. For each of these age groups, please answer this question:

―How would you describe yourself?‖ AGE GROUP Preschooler

SELF-DESCRIPTION

I am …

I like …

I am good at …

Elementary School Child I am …

I like …

I am good at …

Adolescent I am …

I like …

I am good at …

How did your descriptions in the three age groups differ?

How does your current self-description differ from your adolescent description?

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HANDOUT 11-2 Assessing Self-Esteem Directions: Self-esteem refers to a person’s judgment and feelings about his or her own worth. These feelings are based upon self-evaluations of many aspects of one’s life. Please evaluate yourself on several dimensions, and describe how an individual’s self-esteem can be influenced (and by whom) in each of the areas listed.

Very Dissatisfied 1. PHYSICAL MATURITY

Very Satisfied

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

How can this aspect of self-esteem be influenced?

2. ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE How can this aspect of self-esteem be influenced?

3.

WORK EXPERIENCES

How can this aspect of self-esteem be influenced?

4. FINANCIAL INDEPENDENCE How can this aspect of self-esteem be influenced?

5. FAMILY RELATIONS How can this aspect of self-esteem be influenced?

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HANDOUT 11-2 (continued) Very Dissatisfied 6. PEER RELATIONS

Very Satisfied

1

2

3

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How can this aspect of self-esteem be influenced?

7. ROLE IN THE COMMUNITY How can this aspect of self-esteem be influenced?

8. SENSE OF VALUES AND RELIGIOSITY How can this aspect of self-esteem be influenced?

9. ROMANTIC AND INTIMATE RELATIONSHIPS How can this aspect of self-esteem be influenced?

10. COPING SKILLS

How can this aspect of self-esteem be influenced?

What is your total self-esteem score? (Add the numbers you circled) ______________ High Self-Esteem: 45–60 Moderate Self-Esteem: 25–45 Low Self-Esteem: 10–25 What are the strengths and weaknesses of this approach to assessing self-esteem?

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HANDOUT 11-3 Look Into It: Sources of Self-Esteem Directions: You have been assigned a topic that impacts the development of self-esteem. It is your job to investigate published research on this topic using any available library resources. To help focus your search, please respond to some questions: TOPIC: ______________________________________________ 229. How does your topic impact the development of self-esteem? (Describe the positive or negative influences that exist between your topic and self-esteem.)

230. What type of research (e.g., experiments, observational studies, cross-sectional or longitudinal studies, etc.) has been conducted to investigate the relationships between your topic and the development of selfesteem?

231. How can the impact of your topic on self-esteem be mediated? In other words, if parents, teachers, employers, day care workers, etc., are aware of how your topic impacts the development of self-esteem, what can they do about it?

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HANDOUT 11-4 Family Influences on Self-Esteem Directions: There are many groups of people and countless experiences that contributed to the development of your self-esteem. This exercise will focus on the role that your family or other primary caregivers have played.

To better understand the variety of ways in which these people influence one’s sense of self-worth, please answer these questions: 232. Think about your childhood. How would you describe your relationship with your parents or other primary caregivers? Your siblings or cousins?

233. What was the best thing that your family said about you or did for you?

234. Try to remember one specific day when that was said or done for you. Remember how you felt then.

Have you felt this way recently? Explain.

235. Who did the family think you were like? Did you like this comparison?

236. Did you have a nickname? How did you feel about it?

237. Did family members tell you what you would end up being or doing ―when you grew up‖? Was it what you wanted to be or do? How did you respond to this?

238. How do you think your parents or caregivers would have described you to a close friend of theirs? What were they most concerned about for you?

WHAT DOES YOUR FAMILY WANT YOU TO DO WITH YOUR LIFE NOW? HOW DOES THIS MAKE YOU FEEL?

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Q&A ANSWERS 239.

Question 11.1 Jenny thinks she might like to be an engineer, but she also enjoys dance. To help decide what path would be best for her, Jenny has taken a battery of interest inventories, and her guidance counselor has suggested colleges where she could pursue both engineering and dance. Which of the four statuses best describes Jenny, at least as far as a possible occupation is concerned?

Answer: Jenny appears to be in the moratorium status because she is actively exploring different alternatives.

Question 11.2 Karina and Leilana have a 3-year-old son. It’s important for them that their son feels good about himself, and they wonder how they can help him in this regard. What advice would you give them?

What parental behaviors are known to support the development of high self-esteem?

Answer: To support their son’s self-esteem, Karina and Leilana can be affectionate with him, involved with him, and praise him (but not excessively). They can also set reasonable rules for him and expect him to follow those rules.

Question 11.3 Gracie is eager for her cousin Andrew to arrive for a weeklong visit. Gracie knows that Andrew will want to go swimming right away because Gracie loves to swim. Based on this example, what stage of perspective taking is Gracie in? About how old is she?

Answer: Gracie is confusing what she wants to do (―I love to swim and can’t wait to go!‖) with what Andrew wants to do (which she doesn’t know). This would put her in Selman’s undifferentiated state because she is confusing her thoughts with his. And this means she’s probably between 3 and 6 years old.

Chapter 12 Moral Understanding and Behavior CHAPTER OVERVIEW .............................................................................................................................................. 2 CHAPTER MODULE SUPPLEMENTS Module 12.1: REASONING ABOUT MORAL ISSUES ............................................................................... 3 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics Module 12.2: HELPING OTHERS................................................................................................................. 5 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics Module 12.3: AGGRESSION ......................................................................................................................... 6 Learning Objective Key Questions 201

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Children and Their Development, 8e Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics CHAPTER 12 CASE STUDY ...................................................................................................................................... 8 CASE STUDY ANSWERS .......................................................................................................................................... 9 HANDOUTS ............................................................................................................................................................... 10 HANDOUT ANSWERS ............................................................................................................................................. 17 Q&A ANSWERS ........................................................................................................................................................ 18

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW XXXVII. Reasoning About Moral Issues a. Piaget‘s Views i. Moral Realism ii. Immanent Justice iii. Moral Relativism b. Kohlberg‘s Theory i. Preconventional Level 1. Stage 1: Obedience Orientation 2. Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation ii. Conventional Level 1. Stage 3: Interpersonal Norms 2. Stage 4: Social System Morality iii. Postconventional Level 1. Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation 2. Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles iv. Evaluating Kohlberg‘s Theory v. Social Domain Theory of Moral Development 1. Social Conventions 2. Personal Domain vi. Cultural Influences 1. Lies, White Lies, and Blue Lies vii. Origins of Moral Reasoning in Infancy viii. Improving Children‘s Live: Encouraging Moral Heroes XXXVIII. Helping Others a. Prosocial Behavior b. Altruism c. Development of Prosocial Behavior d. Skills Underlying Prosocial Behavior i. Perspective Taking ii. Empathy iii. Moral Reasoning e. Situational Influences i. Feelings of Responsibility ii. Feelings of Competence iii. Mood iv. Group Membership v. Cost of Altruism f. The Contribution of Heredity g. Focus on Research i. Links Between Temperament and Prosocial Behavior: Shyness and Helping h. Socializing Prosocial Behavior i. Modeling ii. Disciplinary Practices iii. Opportunities to Behave Prosocially XXXIX. Aggression a. Change and Stability i. Instrumental (Proactive) Aggression ii. Hostile (Reactive) Aggression iii. Relational Aggression 203

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iv. Stability of Aggression b. Roots of Aggressive Behavior i. Biological Contributions ii. Impact of the Family iii. Influence of Community and Culture 1. Media 2. Peers 3. Poverty iv. Cognitive Processes 1. Hostile Attribution Bias v. Multiple, Cascading Risks c. Victims of Aggression d. Child Development and Family Policy i. The KiVa Antibullying Program

MODULE 12.1: REASONING ABOUT MORAL ISSUES LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 12.1 Describe the processes children and adolescents use to reason about moral issues.

KEY QUESTIONS:   

How did Piaget describe growth in moral reasoning?

What stages of moral reasoning did Kohlberg propose?

How do children reason in different domains of social judgment?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: Children’s Judgments of Good and Bad Invite a few parents or other primary caregivers to bring toddlers and preschoolers to your class. Have a few toys available to make them comfortable in front of your students. After they have spent a few minutes getting used to the classroom environment, get their attention and tell the children that you are going to tell them a story about two little children.

One day, a girl named Olivia was playing with her mommy. Olivia decided that it would be fun to have a tea party with her mommy and her dolls. So, Olivia went into the kitchen and got a box of crackers and six teacups. Olivia carefully arranged the teacups on a tray, but while she reached for the box of crackers, the tray accidentally slipped out of her hands, and the six cups smashed into pieces on the floor.

Another girl, one named Jacqueline, was playing with her daddy. Jacqueline wanted to play marching band in the kitchen by clanging pot lids together. When her daddy said that he didn‘t want to play marching band because it was too loud, Jacqueline became very upset. She was so angry that she grabbed a cup off of the counter and threw it onto the floor, smashing it into pieces.

Which girl do you think was more bad, Olivia or Jacqueline?

According to Jean Piaget, young children who are in a stage of moral realism judge right and wrong by the consequences of one‘s actions. Therefore, young children should say that Olivia is ―more bad‖ because she broke more cups. These objective judgments give way to subjective judgments when children (around age 8) 204

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enter the stage of moral relativism. In this advanced stage, children consider motives when judging one‘s actions.

As a general note: Many suggestions that recommend having a preverbal guest visit class can seem daunting; after all, you can‘t just rent a child for a couple of hours from The Children‘s Depot! But think about your colleagues, some of whom might have children of varying ages. Think also about their friends, who might want to do something nice for their friend, who‘s also your friend. Get the idea? ―Find an infant‖ seems cavalier, whereas ―talk to people you already know, who also know other people, all of whom might want to proudly show off their child to strangers‖ is much more manageable.

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning Handout 12-1 will give your students the opportunity to identify various levels of moral reasoning revealed by people‘s statements in various situations. This handout can serve as an effective vehicle for clarifying Larry Kohlberg‘s stages and their applications to everyday settings.

Assessing Moral Reasoning Your students will gain an appreciation for the sophistication and complexity of Lawrence Kohlberg‘s ideas by assessing the moral reasoning of a child and an adult they know. Handouts 12-2, 12-3, and 12-4 will guide this process. Your students can work individually or in pairs to complete this assignment, but larger groups prove too intimidating to successfully interview children and adults about this subject matter. It is recommended that you have the students submit their written summaries of their assessments and ask a few volunteers to share with the class their interview experiences.

Discussing Everyday Moral Dilemmas Ask your students to think about a situation that they recently encountered that presented a moral dilemma to them. How did they resolve the dilemma, and what was the justification for their decision or action? At what stage of Lawrence Kohlberg‘s theory of moral reasoning did they function? Then, ask them to assess the same situation according to Carol Gilligan‘s notions of morality.

Finally, have your students assess their reasoning according to social domain theory. If they are comfortable doing so, students can share their situations (and their assessments) with the rest of the class.

Discussing Cheating Ask your students why other students cheat. If we all know that cheating in school is wrong, why do so many students do it? Why do websites that sell term papers receive so much traffic? How is the artificial intelligence (AI) revolution affecting cheating? If you saw someone else cheating, what would you do? Why? Discussions of the inconsistencies between one‘s moral thoughts and one‘s actions are usually interesting and involve most students in the class. Another interesting focus for this discussion would be if your university has an honor code, and whether students know what it is and/or obey it.

MODULE 12.2: HELPING OTHERS LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 12.2 Identify the factors that motivate children to act kindly to others.

KEY QUESTIONS:     

How does prosocial behavior change with age?

What skills do children need to behave prosocially?

What features of situations influence children’s prosocial behavior?

How does heredity contribute to children’s prosocial behavior?

How can parents encourage their children to act prosocially?

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Observing Prosocial Behavior If possible, arrange to have your students visit a local preschool. The preschool setting is ideal for observing prosocial behaviors (and aggression) due to the extensive interaction the children have with one another and due to the fact that most preschools actively foster the development of prosocial behaviors. Ask your students to record the types of prosocial behaviors they witness and to identify the behaviors of others that elicited a prosocial response. Your students should report their observations during your next class period. If a preschool visit is not possible, your students can observe children playing in parks, playgrounds, or child-oriented entertainment places (e.g., Chuck E. Cheese).

Random Acts of Kindness Most acts of kindness are not random. Rather, situational and dispositional forces influence prosocial behavior. Ask your students to debate the notion of ―random acts of kindness.‖ Is such an occurrence possible? Following this brief debate, ask your students to recall one of their own prosocial acts.

Why did they do it? What compelled them to act that way? Was there anything about the situation or people involved that influenced their behavior? What changes to the situation or people involved would have caused them NOT to act helpfully? How did they feel after behaving prosocially? Finally, assign your students to conduct a random act of kindness before your next class period. Tell them that you will call on students randomly to describe their prosocial acts.

Guest Speaker: Elementary School Teacher Invite an elementary school teacher to your class to discuss the prosocial and moral development of children. What types of prosocial behaviors does the teacher see in the classroom? What do schools do to foster prosocial behaviors? Does this generation of elementary school children differ from previous generations regarding their prosocial behaviors? Have social media or video games impacted students‘ behavior? Have your students prepare questions in advance of this guest‘s presentation.

Institutional Influences on Prosocial Development One means of encouraging prosocial behavior is through membership in groups or organizations that value community involvement. Ask your students to list the clubs, groups, or organizations they belonged to during their childhood (e.g., Scouts, church groups, Boys/Girls Clubs) that promoted civic values. What prosocial values did the groups try to convey? Were the groups successful in fostering prosocial behaviors? Why or why not? Are your students currently members of groups or organizations that promote prosocial behavior? What are the similarities and differences between the current groups and those from your students‘ pasts?

Internet Annotated Bibliography Have your students use the Internet to identify 10 websites that give scholarly information on prosocial development as discussed in this chapter. Students should type an annotated bibliography that includes the name of the website (e.g., Developing Empathy in Children and Youth), a valid URL (website address, e.g., http://www.nwrel.org/scpd/sirs/7/cu13.html), and a brief (one or two paragraph) review of the website. Reviews should include a brief summary of what students can expect to find if they visit the website and a brief evaluation of the website. As a follow-up to this activity, students can combine all of the annotated bibliographies into an Internet Resource Directory that could be distributed in class.

MODULE 12.3: AGGRESSION LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 12.3 Examine why children may act aggressively toward other people.

KEY QUESTIONS:  

When does aggressive behavior emerge? How stable is aggression across childhood, adolescence, and adulthood?

What factors contribute to children’s aggression?

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

Why are some children victims of aggression?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: Observing Aggression Unfortunately, it is easy to observe aggressive behavior exhibited by children in a variety of settings. If your students are able to visit a preschool, have them record instances of aggression and note the behaviors of others that elicited the aggressive response. If a preschool setting is not available, ask your students to observe children in other settings (e.g., playgrounds or parks, stores, restaurants). Regardless of the setting, also ask your students to record the consequences of the aggressive behavior. Did the child get rewarded for acting aggressively? How did other children respond to it? Did an adult respond to the aggressive act? If so, how? Have your students report their findings to the rest of the class.

Disciplining Aggressive Children: An Interview with Parents Ask your students to interview parents of children or adolescents about how they respond to their children‘s aggressive behaviors. Handout 12-5 provides some organization for this interview, but encourage your students to generate additional interview questions.

The data that your students collect from these interviews can be combined in class, and correlations between parental discipline and aggressive behavior in children can be calculated.

Violence in Media Choose three television or movie clips (each about 3–5 minutes in length) to show in class.

The clips should include some violent acts and should also be from media that children are likely to watch. It is often interesting to include a clip from a Disney movie among the three clips because students tend to think that Disney movies are appropriate for all ages; however, they can include violent or frightening images that often surprise students. As they watch the clips, students should respond to the questions on Handout 12-6. Follow this with small and/or large group discussion.

Guest Speaker: Juvenile Delinquency Professional or Youth Crimes Officer Invite a professional from the fields of juvenile delinquency, juvenile justice, or law enforcement to speak to your students about the underlying causes of youth crimes and aggression. Ask the speaker to address crime prevention and rehabilitation practices as well. Your students should prepare questions in advance of this class session.

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CHAPTER 12 CASE STUDY Moral Understanding and Behavior Enid was collecting money for UNICEF (United Nations Children‘s Fund), a fundraising effort sponsored by her fourth-grade class. Enid‘s mom was at work, but she had left her purse on the kitchen counter.

So, without asking permission, Enid opened her mom‘s purse, found her wallet, took out a $5 bill, and stuffed it into her UNICEF collection envelope.

Later that afternoon, Enid‘s younger brother, Wally, heard the ice-cream truck coming down the street.

Wally didn‘t have any money, but he wanted an ice cream sandwich. So, Wally took a dollar out of Enid‘s UNICEF envelope to buy an ice cream treat.

240.

Imagine that you read this story to a preschooler. Who would the preschooler say was ―more bad,‖ Enid or Wally? Why?

241.

After Wally bought his Dreamsicle™, he tripped and fell on the front steps, scraping his knee (and ruining his snack). How would a preschooler explain this ―accident?‖

242.

Describe some of the skills and situational variables that are likely influencing Enid‘s prosocial behavior.

243.

What should Enid‘s mom do to encourage Enid‘s prosocial behavior?

244.

What should Wally‘s mom do to discourage Wally‘s inappropriate behavior?

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CASE STUDY ANSWERS Moral Understanding and Behavior 245. According to Jean Piaget, preschoolers would say that Enid was ―more bad,‖ because Enid took more money from her mom‘s purse than Wally did from Enid‘s envelope. Preschoolers judge right and wrong by focusing on the outcome of the behavior, not the person‘s intentions.

246.

Wally‘s ―accident‖ was punishment for taking money from his mom‘s purse. This is an example of immanent justice, or the belief that all misdeeds are punished.

247.

Enid‘s prosocial behavior is a product of her perspective-taking skills, her empathy toward others, and her level of moral reasoning. Her mood is probably positive, and the cost to her of acting helpfully is not high.

248.

Enid‘s mom should use dispositional praise when Enid exhibits prosocial behavior, she should use reasoning and discussion when disciplining Enid, she should set a good example of helping behavior for Enid to emulate, and she should have Enid help with chores around the house.

249.

Wally‘s inappropriate behavior needs to be shaped into more appropriate prosocial behavior. Instilling feelings of responsibility toward others and feelings of competence will increase Wally‘s likelihood of behaving prosocially.

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HANDOUT 12-1 Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning Directions: Here are several situations in which people are revealing various levels of moral reasoning. Using Lawrence Kohlberg’s stages of moral reasoning, assess the stage of moral reasoning exhibited by each person.

Each stage may be used more than once. Explain your choices.

Preconventional Morality Stage 1: Obedience orientation Stage 2: Instrumental orientation

Conventional Morality Stage 3: Interpersonal norms Stage 4: Social systems morality

Post-Conventional Morality Stage 5: Social contract orientation Stage 6: Universal ethical principles

250. Shaking her head and frowning disapprovingly at the teenager who was slipping a candy bar from the shelf into the pocket of his jacket, an adult shopper lectured, ―You know as well as I do that shoplifting is against the law. What if everyone just took what they wanted?‖ Indicate the level of moral reasoning demonstrated by the shopper.

STAGE #: ______

EXPLAIN:

251.

Charlise‘s mother has insisted that Charlise not eat snacks between meals. Now, if Charlise should eat this Hostess Ho Ho before dinner, she should be unhappy when thinking about how she would be disappointing her mother. This reasoning demonstrates what level of morality?

STAGE #: ______

EXPLAIN:

252.

Charlise ate the Ho Ho. When talking with a friend about it the next day, Charlise‘s friend told her that she (Charlise) was bad because her mother caught her eating snacks between meals and punished her for it. Charlise‘s friend is using what level of moral reasoning?

STAGE #: ______

EXPLAIN:

253.

You are distressed when your boss asks you to charge a late fee to customers who miss a return deadline. You believe that a late fee is clearly unjustified; late returns cause no real difficulty and cost the company no more to process than on-time returns. Although you recognize the right of the company to make a profit, you insist that a late fee is not fair to the customer. You are demonstrating what level of moral reasoning?

STAGE #: ______

EXPLAIN:

254.

Conversation overheard in a cafeteria line: ―Why should I want to report the guy for failing to submit all the money we collected for the charity fund? Sure, he kept some of it, but he shared it with me.‖ What level of moral reasoning does this demonstrate?

STAGE #: ______

EXPLAIN:

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Moral Reasoning Interview for a Child Directions: Locate a school-aged child that you know. After obtaining permission to interview the child from a responsible adult, read a moral dilemma aloud and ask the child a series of questions. Either write or record the child’s answers for later analysis.

Age of child __________ Abdallah is walking to the store. It‘s his mother‘s birthday on Saturday. He‘s feeling bad because he hasn‘t been able to save enough money to get her the present he‘d like to give her. Then, on the sidewalk, he finds a wallet with $10.00 in it—just what he needs to buy the present! But there‘s an identification card in the wallet telling the name and address of the owner.

255. What should Abdallah do? Why?

256. reasons?

What would be a good reason for Abdallah to return the wallet? Can you think of any other

257.

Would it be stealing to keep the money? Why is it wrong to steal?

258.

What if the owner of the wallet was rich and greedy and wouldn‘t even give Abdallah a reward for returning it—should he return the wallet then?

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HANDOUT 12-3 Moral Reasoning Interview for an Adult Directions: Please read a dilemma to an adult and then politely ask a series of questions. Either write or record the adult’s answers for later analysis.

Age of adult __________ Juanita and Babs are best friends. One day, they went shopping together. Babs tried on a sweater and then, to Juanita‘s surprise, walked out of the store wearing the sweater under her coat. A moment later, the store‘s security officer stopped Juanita and demanded that she reveal the name of the girl who had walked out. The guard had told the store owner he‘d seen the two girls together and was sure the one who left had been shoplifting. The store owner said to Juanita, ―Come on now, come clean. You could get into serious trouble if you don‘t give us your friend‘s name!‖ 259. Should Juanita tell Babs‘s name to the security officer? Why?

260.

Would it make any difference if Babs had recently done a big favor for Juanita?

261.

Would it make a difference if they were not good friends?

262.

What factors should Juanita consider in making her decision?

263.

Is shoplifting wrong? Why? What‘s the most important reason it is wrong?

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HANDOUT 12-4 Comparing the Moral Reasoning of Children and Adults Directions: Compare the answers to the moral dilemmas you read to a child and an adult. A few questions will help you reflect on your assignment.

264. How did the responses of the child and the adult differ in terms of maturity of moral judgments?

265.

To what extent did the responses correspond with each of the various theories of moral reasoning you‘ve learned about?

266.

Are there any factors (e.g., intelligence, education, breadth of experience, religious affiliation) other than age that might explain the basis for differences in maturity or sophistication?

267.

To what extent did personality, cultural values, gender identity, attitudes, or individual experience appear to be reflected in each respondent‘s reasoning?

268.

Do you believe the differences in types of moral reasoning are related to the characteristic patterns of behavior (e.g., honesty, altruism, or responsibility) of the persons you interviewed? Explain.

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HANDOUT 12-5 Interviewing Parents About Child-Rearing Directions: Interview the primary caregiver of a child or an adolescent regarding that person’s child-rearing practices, especially when it comes to responding to the child’s aggression. Consider asking a few questions at the start of the interview. You are encouraged to ask additional questions of the person you interview.

269. I‘d like to talk with you about your child(ren) for a class assignment. My class is trying to learn more about how adults raise children. Your name and your children‘s names will not be recorded so that you remain anonymous. Please tell me how many children you have, their ages, and their gender identity.

270.

If you have more than one child, please just choose one to focus on for the rest of this interview. It doesn‘t matter which one. What is the age and gender identity of the child you have in mind?

AGE: _______________

GENDER IDENTITY: _______________

271.

If you were to rate this child‘s level of aggressiveness on a 10-point scale, where 1 is highly passive and 10 is highly aggressive, how would you rate the child? Please explain your rating.

272. aggression?

Upon occasion, every child acts aggressively. How do you typically respond to your child‘s

273.

About how often do you see your child behaving aggressively each week?

274. week?

About how often do you see your child behaving in a helpful or altruistic manner each

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HANDOUT 12-5 (continued) 275.

How do you respond when your child is helpful or altruistic?

276.

How does your child get along with siblings or other family members?

277.

How does your child get along with peers?

10. About how many hours of television does your child watch each day?

11. What kinds of television programs does your child like to watch?

12. How often do you do each activity in an average week?

_____ _____ _____ _____

scold the child yell at the child physically punish the child deny privileges (e.g., phone, TV)

_____ _____ _____ _____

bargain with the child use threats with the child reason with the child send child to room/time-out

OTHER QUESTIONS:

Thank you very much for sharing your time and insights with me.

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HANDOUT 12-6 Media and Violence Name: _________________________________________________ I.

Watch the clip from ___________________ and answer these questions: a. What violent acts did you notice in the clip? b. Was the violence realistic or imaginary? c. What age do you think is appropriate for this movie? d. What messages, both positive and negative, do you think children might take away from viewing the clip that you saw?

II.

Watch the clip from ___________________ and answer these questions: a.

What violent acts did you notice in the clip?

b.

Was the violence realistic or imaginary?

c.

What age do you think this television show is appropriate for?

d. What messages, both positive and negative, do you think children might take away from viewing the clip that you saw?

III.

Watch the clip from _______________ and answer these questions: a.

What violent acts did you notice in the clip?

b.

Was the violence realistic or imaginary?

c.

What age do you think this television show is appropriate for?

d. What messages, both positive and negative, do you think children might take away from viewing the clip that you saw?

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HANDOUT ANSWERS HANDOUT 12-1: Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning 278. Stage 4: The shopper refers to shoplifting as being ―against the law.‖ The shopper also asks a question about societal order.

279.

Stage 3: The focus is on maintaining a good relationship with her mother.

280.

Stage 1: Charlise‘s friend refers to the notion of punishment.

281.

Stage 5: Questioning existing rules or laws is indicative of Stage 5.

282.

Stage 2: The self-serving, hedonistic rationale for the misbehavior is consistent with Stage 2.

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Q&A ANSWERS Question 12.1 When Paige was told the Heinz dilemma, she replied, ―He should steal the drug. Everyone would understand why he did it. And if he just let his wife die, his family and friends would think he’s a terrible husband. They would never speak to him again.‖ Which of Kohlberg’s stages best describes Paige’s thinking? About how old is she?

Answer: Paige’s thinking conforms to Kohlberg’s stage 3, in which morality is based on living up to others’ expectations. That is, Paige believes that Heinz should steal the drug because he needs to act as others expect a husband should act. Stage 3 reasoning is common in older adolescents and young adults, so Paige is probably at least 15 years old.

Question 12.2 Paula worries that her son Elliot is too selfish and wishes that he were more caring and compassionate. As a parent, what could Paula do to encourage Elliot to be more concerned about others’ welfare?

Answer: First, Paula can be sure to model the same behavior that she’d like to encourage in her son—she needs to be compassionate herself. Second, when disciplining Elliot, Paula should try to reason with him, emphasizing how his behavior causes others to feel. Third, Paula can ask Elliot to help around the house and suggest that he do some volunteer activity in the community.

Question 12.3 Brandon is constantly picked on by other kids at his school: The girls tease him, and the boys often start fights with him. What could he and his parents do to improve his peer relations?

Answer: In the short term, Brandon should try to look and act as if the teasing and fighting don’t bother him; in the longer term, one of the best things he can do is make more friends in his class.

Chapter 13 Gender and Development CHAPTER OVERVIEW .............................................................................................................................................. 2 CHAPTER MODULE SUPPLEMENTS Module 13.1: SETTING THE STAGE: TERMS AND DEVELOPMENTAL MILESTONES ..................... 3 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics Module 13.2: PRIMARY INFLUENCES ON GENDER DEVELOPMENT................................................. 4 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics Module 13.3: DIFFERENCES RELATED TO SEX/GENDER ..................................................................... 5 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics 218

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Children and Their Development, 8e CHAPTER 13 CASE STUDY ...................................................................................................................................... 7 CASE STUDY ANSWERS .......................................................................................................................................... 8 HANDOUTS ................................................................................................................................................................. 9 Q&A ANSWERS ........................................................................................................................................................ 13

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW XL.

Setting the Stage: Terms and Developmental Milestones a. Gender-Related Terms i. Sex ii. Gender b. Gender Roles and Gender Identity i. Instrumentality and Agency ii. Expressivity and Communion iii. Androgyny iv. Cisgender v. Transgender vi. Gender Identity Disorder vii. Gender Dysphoria c. Sexual Orientation i. Straight ii. Gay men iii. Lesbian iv. Bisexual d. Developmental Milestones: Learning About Gender e. Focus on Research: Gender Development in Transgender Children XLI. Primary Influences on Gender Development a. Biological Influences i. Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) b. Socialization Influences: Learning About Gender i. Parents ii. Teachers iii. Siblings and Peers iv. Media c. Cognitive Theories of Gender Identity d. Improving Children‘s Lives i. Encouraging Valuable Traits, Not Gender Traits XLII. Differences Related to Sex/Gender a. Differences in Physical Development and Behavior b. Differences in Cognitive Abilities i. Verbal Ability ii. Mathematics iii. Spatial Ability 1. Mental Rotation iv. Memory c. Child Development and Family Policy i. Addressing the Gender Gap in STEM-Related Disciplines d. Differences in Social Development and Well-Being i. Emotions and Social Perspective Taking ii. Communication iii. Prosocial Behavior and Aggression iv. Depression e. Frank Talk About Gender Differences f. Cultural Influences (Sort of…) i. A Cross-Cultural Look at Gender Differences in Physical Aggression

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MODULE 13.1: SETTING THE STAGE: TERMS AND DEVELOPMENTAL MILESTONES LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 13.1 Understand important terms used in the study of gender development and describe milestones in the development of gender.

KEY QUESTIONS:  

What are the critical terms used in the study of gender development?

What are the major milestones that mark children’s development of gender?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: Defining Terms Robert Kail notes in the Preface to the textbook that ―Gender and sex represent [a] domain in which terminology matters,‖ and his observation is a good place to begin a discussion of the topics in this chapter. Your students are likely to be familiar with the myriad ways in which gender, gender identity, sexual identity, sexual orientation, and related concepts are currently expressed. For example, terms such as agender, two-spirit, questioning, asexual, pansexual, omnisexual, genderqueer, sex assigned at birth, and so on, have entered the popular lexicon. Discuss some of these terms with your students as a way to (1) set the stage for other concepts, (2) clarify what the terms mean for those unfamiliar with them, and (3) indicate the importance of language, precision, and avoiding assumptions when considering this area of study.

Pro-noun, Anti-noun Along with an explosion of terms related to sex and gender has also come a reconsideration of very tiny words: pronouns. It is commonplace today for people to indicate ―these are my pronouns‖ when speaking, emailing, Zooming, or communicating with others in some fashion. Discuss with your students how this is a not-recent-recent phenomenon. That is, way back in the 1970s, some people (especially Casey Miller and Kate Swift) advocated for gender-neutral pronouns in the English language, suggesting terms such as zhe, zher, zhem, tey, ter, tem, tes, tir, te, and from the 1800s, one can even find suggestions such as e, em, es, er, or thon. For whatever reasons, however, they never really caught on. In 1966, Sweden proposed a gender-neutral personal pronoun (hen) to replace the masculine hon (she) and han (he), but it wasn‘t until 2014 that the word officially entered the Swedish language. Many languages, of their very nature, do not make gender distinctions in personal pronouns. So the topic to consider: Is English behind the times (coming around to such uses relatively recently), ahead of the times (noting proposals close to 200 years ago), or simply in keeping with the times?

Internet Annotated Bibliography Have your students use the Internet to identify 10 websites that give scholarly information on gender terminology. Students should type an annotated bibliography that includes the name of the website (e.g., GLAAD), a valid URL (website address, e.g., http://glaad.org/), and a brief (one or two paragraph) review of the website. Reviews should include a brief summary of what students can expect to find if they visit the website and a brief evaluation of the website. As a follow-up to this activity, students can combine all of the annotated bibliographies into an Internet Resource Directory that could be distributed in class.

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MODULE 13.2: PRIMARY INFLUENCES ON GENDER DEVELOPMENT LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 13.2 Understand primary influences on children’s gender development.

KEY QUESTIONS:   

How does biology influence children’s learning of gender roles?

How do adults (especially parents), other children, and the media influence children’s gender development?

How do cognitive theories explain children’s learning of gender identities and roles?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: Gender Socialization Divide your class into discussion groups. Give each group about 20 minutes to generate a list of all the ways society (parents, peers, relatives, siblings, teachers, media) socializes young children into gender roles. To get their creative juices flowing, you can share these kickstarters:      

When the baby is born When the baby comes home from the hospital Toys and books Birthday parties, Halloween, other holidays TV/media Occupations

Developing Gender Roles: An Interview with Parents Parents or other primary caregivers exert a strong socializing influence on the development of their children‘s gender roles. To better understand the beliefs of parents before and after their children were born, ask your students to locate parents of elementary-aged (or younger) children and interview them. A short set of interview questions appears in Handout 13-1, but you should encourage your students to generate additional questions. A summary of their interviews can be presented in writing, or students can share their interview experiences with the rest of the class through oral reports.

The Company They Keep: Observing Children’s Play If possible, arrange a class visit to a local preschool or kindergarten class. If a class visit is impractical, ask your students to arrange their own individual or small group (two to four) visits to a preschool or kindergarten classroom. Students may also be able to observe the play of young children on playgrounds or at a local park. Ask the students to record instances of gender-typed play.

Who plays with whom? What activities do presumptive boys tend to engage in? What games are presumptive girls playing? Results of their observations can be summarized in writing or in an oral presentation.

Seeing Is Believing: Gender Roles in Children’s Television Programs Television programs often portray people in gender-stereotyped ways. Children can be significantly influenced by what they watch. Your students can gain a greater appreciation for the role of television in the lives of children by viewing and evaluating children‘s television programming. Ask your students to complete Handout 13-2 as they summarize the program they viewed.

The World According to Disney Several classic Disney films (e.g., Cinderella, Sleeping Beauty, Snow White) portray very stereotyped gender roles, whereas some recent Disney films do a better (although nonetheless 222

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problematic) job of presenting less-stereotyped portrayals (e.g., Frozen, Beauty and the Beast, Pocahontas, Mulan). In The Little Mermaid, Ursula (the Sea Witch) even pokes fun at male and female roles. During the class discussion surrounding these video segments, identify specific messages that each segment conveys to children about ―appropriate‖ gender roles.

When I Grow Up… Ask your students to think through their childhood. What did they want to be when they grew up? Who did they want to be like when they grew up? What evidence of gender constancy is apparent in their answers to these questions? For comparison, ask your students who their ―model for adulthood‖ is now. Is their current model a same-sex adult? This series of questions will likely reveal support for Lawrence Kohlberg‘s concept of gender constancy and for gender-schema theory. In effect, we learn our gender role by attending to the characteristics and actions of others who, with respect to their gender, are like us.

Gender Neutrality: Is It Possible? Ask your students to discuss the challenges facing parents who wish to raise their children in a non-stereotyped environment. How can a person‘s gender be made irrelevant? Is that even a good idea? Discuss the pros and cons of gender neutrality, or use the format discussed in previous chapters to stage an in-class debate.

Gender Bias in the Classroom After securing permission from either (or both) a school and teacher, students should visit an elementary classroom or early childhood setting (e.g., childcare) and examine the classroom for evidence of gender bias. Students should pay particular attention to these aspects: (1) materials and toys, (2) books and other literature, (3) posters and wall decorations, (4) teacher interaction, and (5) lessons and curriculum. Students should make note of any examples of gender bias. Students should also discuss what the teacher can do to decrease bias in this setting.

MODULE 13.3: DIFFERENCES RELATED TO SEX/GENDER LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 13.3 Describe the domains in which boys and girls differ, and explain the nature of those differences.

KEY QUESTIONS:    

How do boys and girls differ in physical development?

What are the sex/gender differences in intellectual abilities?

In social development and well-being, how do boys and girls differ?

What are the implications of sex/gender differences for boys’ and girls’ development?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: Observing Sex/Gender Differences Ask your students, individually or in small groups (two to four), to visit a preschool or kindergarten classroom to observe a variety of ways in which presumptive girls and boys may differ. Handout 13-3 provides some structure for your students‘ observations. After your students have completed their observations, they should summarize their findings in writing or give oral summaries to the rest of the class.

Look Into It: The Myths and Realities of Sex/Gender Differences Students can benefit from independently investigating issues of interest to them. If you have a relatively small class and adequate library resources (PsycINFO or equivalent databases), you can hasten your students to the library during class time to conduct focused library searches. Assign a topic area to each of your students (or small groups of students) and ask them 223

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to please investigate it more thoroughly. Handout 13-4 will help guide their search activities. The students should present a summary of their findings to the rest of the class during the next class session.

Sex/Gender differences search topics: (a) physical development (b) activity level and athleticism (c) health status (d) verbal abilities (e) mathematical abilities

(f) spatial abilities (g) aggression (h) emotional expressiveness and empathy (i) susceptibility to persuasion or conformity

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CHAPTER 13 CASE STUDY Gender and Development ―Look,‖ Roger began to pontificate, ―It‘s very simple. There‘s ‗male‘ and there‘s ‗female,‘ and that‘s pretty much it. As it says in the Bible, ‗The Lord God hath made them as they are,‘ or something like that.

Dunno, I‘ve never really read the Bible…‖ ―Yeah, okay,‖ Ginny interrupted. ―People believe a lot of different things, and it sounds like that‘s what you believe. But people also should pay attention to evidence and be willing to expand their notions about the world.‖ ―Whaddya saying, I‘m behind the times or something?‖ Roger huffed. ―That I‘m not ‗hip‘ or ‗with it?‘ All I know is a man has sex with a woman—the way it‘s supposed to be—and the result of that is either a male or a female. Then, when the time is right, that male or female has sex, and the cycle starts all over again.

Propagation of the species, man!‖ ―We should probably sit down and talk in depth,‖ Ginny sighed.

1. What seems to be the basis of Roger‘s views of sex and gender? Which influence on gender development does he seem to place in a primary position?

2. Is Ginny correct in noting that evidence exists to challenge some of Roger‘s views? Summarize some of that evidence.

3. Roger seems to think that sexual behavior (solely for the process of reproduction) results in known, anticipated outcomes, both at birth and throughout life. Is he correct in these assumptions?

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CASE STUDY ANSWERS Gender and Development 1. It appears that Roger endorses a biological view of sex and gender, arguing that the development of sex/gender is a ―mechanical‖ process solely determined by genetics. In doing so, he ignores the role of socialization and cognitive influences in this regard.

2. Ginny is correct. She could discuss with Roger, for example, the role that parents, peers, media, teachers, and other social agents play in shaping sex/gender. She might also discuss notions of gender constancy or genderschema theory. Androgyny and transgender would be relevant. In short, there is no shortage of evidence-based information that Ginny might share with Roger to help expand his views.

3. Roger‘s notion of procreation takes a heteronormative stance, indicating that ―sex‖ is ―a man and a woman.‖ This seriously limits notions of a person‘s sexual orientation as gay, lesbian, bisexual, or any other orientation.

He also assumes that binary options—being female or male—result from the act of procreation, so he should be informed about genetic conditions such as congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) and other departures from typical XX or XY chromosomal patterns, and how they might affect development.

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HANDOUT 13-1 Interviewing Parents About Gender Role Beliefs Directions: Interview the parent of an elementary-aged (or younger) child about the parent’s gender role beliefs before and after the child was born. You are encouraged to ask additional questions of the parent you interview.

283. I‘d like to talk with you about your child(ren) for a class assignment. My class is trying to learn more about how parental expectations impact children. Your name and your children‘s names will not be recorded so that you remain anonymous. Please think back to when you learned that you were going to have your first child. Did you want to know the sex of the child before it was born?

284. How did you prepare for the birth of your first child?

285. After your child was born, did you buy certain colors of clothing or toys for the baby? Please describe them.

286. How would you describe your first child? (Interviewer: Note what types of adjectives are used. Do the parents use masculine descriptors for boys and feminine descriptors for girls?)

287. What expectations do you have for your child as they grow older?

288. Are you consciously aware of gender-stereotyped expectations? Have you tried to avoid them while raising your child?

OTHER QUESTIONS: Thank you very much for sharing your time and insights with me.

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HANDOUT 13-2 Seeing Is Believing: Gender Roles in Children’s Television Programming Directions: For this assignment, you are to watch a children’s television program and then answer some questions.

289. Name of program: _________________________________________________________ 290. Day and time of program: __________________________________________________ 291. Who was the primary audience for this show? ___________________ 292. Why would children like this show?

293. List any incidences of gender stereotyping (e.g., aggressive males, beautiful but weak females, traditional roles):

294. What did you like about this show?

295. What did you dislike about this show?

296. Did the advertisements aired during this show contribute to stereotyping? How?

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HANDOUT 13-3 Observing Gender Differences Directions: You are to observe a preschool or kindergarten class in an attempt to identify ways in which boys and girls may differ. If permitted by the teacher, talk with the preschoolers or kindergartners about their perceptions of boys and girls.

Presumed Girls‘ Characteristics PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT Estimated average height: Estimated average weight: Athletic abilities: Activity level:

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT Verbal ability: (e.g., vocabulary, verbal fluency) Mathematical ability: (e.g., math skills, counting) Spatial ability: (e.g., accuracy of drawings, spatial reasoning)

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT Aggressive behaviors: (e.g., fighting, arguing, name-calling) Emotional sensitivity: (e.g., expressiveness, empathy) Social influence: (e.g., leaders vs. followers, susceptibility to persuasion)

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HANDOUT 13-4 Look Into It: The Myths and Realities of Gender Differences Directions: You have been assigned a topic that may or may not reveal sex/gender differences in its development. It is your job to investigate published research on this topic using any available library resources.

To help focus your search, please respond to some questions: TOPIC: ______________________________________________

297. How does sex/gender impact the development of your topic? (Describe the differences that exist according to research on your topic.)

298. What type of research (e.g., experiments, observational studies, cross-sectional or longitudinal studies) has been conducted to investigate the relationships between sex/gender and the development of your topic?

299. How can the impact of sex/gender on your topic be mediated? In other words, if parents, caregivers, teachers, day care workers are aware of how sex/gender impacts the development of your topic, what can they do about it?

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Q&A ANSWERS Question 13.1 Abigail is excited because this week she’ll have an ultrasound, and, if all goes as expected, she’ll learn whether her fetus is male or female. Then she’ll be able to plan the gender reveal party that she’s been so excited about! Her friend Amanda is not so enthusiastic about the party and, in any case, wants to tell Abigail that these events are definitely misnamed. What about ―gender reveal party‖ does Amanda find objectionable?

Answer: Amanda objects on two grounds. First, what’s being ―revealed‖ at such parties is the sex of the fetus, not its gender. Second, such parties embrace an outmoded binary approach to gender.

Question 13.2 Rick has encouraged his 4-year-old son to play with the 5-year-old girl who lives next door, but his son will have none of it; he refuses every time. Rick thinks his son is being unreasonable and stubborn. Do you agree?

Answer: No. Worldwide, boys rarely pick girls as play partners, and they resist when urged to do so by others. Rick’s son is simply acting as most boys his age would (and as most girls would, if the tables were turned).

Question 13.3 Ladonna is the mother of fraternal twins, a girl and a boy, who are just starting elementary school. She’s determined that both of her children will excel in reading and math. Are Ladonna’s expectations realistic?

Answer: Yes, it’s realistic that her daughter and her son will excel in reading and in math. That said, research on sex/gender-based differences in cognitive ability suggests that reading may be relatively easier for her daughter and math relatively easier for her son.

Chapter 14 Family Relationships CHAPTER OVERVIEW .............................................................................................................................................. 2 CHAPTER MODULE SUPPLEMENTS Module 14.1: PARENTING............................................................................................................................ 3 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics Module 14.2: DIVERSE FAMILIES .............................................................................................................. 5 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics Module 14.3: SIBLINGS ................................................................................................................................ 6 Learning Objective Key Questions 231

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Children and Their Development, 8e Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics Module 14.4: MALTREATMENT: PARENT–CHILD RELATIONSHIPS GONE AWRY ......................... 7 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics CHAPTER 14 CASE STUDY ...................................................................................................................................... 9 CASE STUDY ANSWERS ........................................................................................................................................ 10 HANDOUTS ............................................................................................................................................................... 11 Q&A ANSWERS ........................................................................................................................................................ 20

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW XLIII. Parenting a. The Family as a System i. Microsystem ii. Mesosystem iii. Exosystem iv. Macrosystem v. Chronosystem b. Styles of Parenting i. Authoritarian Parenting ii. Authoritative Parenting iii. Permissive Parenting iv. Uninvolved Parenting v. Variations Associated with Culture and Socioeconomic Status vi. Genetic Influences on Parenting c. Parental Behavior i. Direct Instruction and Coaching ii. Learning by Observing 1. Counterimitation iii. Feedback 1. Reinforcement and Punishment 2. Negative Reinforcement Trap 3. Time-Out d. Influences of the Marital System e. Children‘s Contributions i. Temperament and Behavior ii. Age XLIV. Diverse Families a. Blended Families i. Parents Leave a Relationship b. Improving Children‘s Lives i. Helping Children Adjust After Parental Separation c. Grandparents Raising Grandchildren d. Cultural Influences i. Grandmothers in Black Families e. Same-Sex Parents XLV. Siblings a. Firstborn, Laterborn, Only, and Adopted Children b. Child Development and Family Policy i. Assessing the Consequences of China‘s One-Child Policy c. Adopted Children i. Open Adoption d. The Development and Qualities of Sibling Relationships XLVI. Maltreatment: Parent–Child Relationships Gone Awry a. Consequences of Maltreatment b. Risk and Protective Factors for Maltreatment c. Focus on Research i. Which Parents Who Were Abused as Children Abuse Their Own Children? d. Preventing Maltreatment

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MODULE 14.1: PARENTING LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 14.1 Examine the relationships between parents and children.

KEY QUESTIONS:     

What is a systems view of family dynamics?

What are the different styles of parenting?

What parental behaviors affect children’s development?

How are children influenced by the quality of their parents’ marital relationship?

How do children help determine how parents rear them?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: Family Systems, Then and Now Ask your students to remember when they were 8 years old. On a blank piece of paper, have them draw a diagram of their family system at that time, including additional systems within which their family system was embedded (e.g., parents‘ or caregivers‘ work, child‘s school system, religious organizations). After they have completed this task, have them draw a second diagram of their family system today, now that they are late adolescents or adults. Have your students identify differences between the elements included in the two family systems.

Bronfenbrenner Demonstration To help students understand the different systems involved in Urie Bronfenbrenner‘s ecological systems theory, you can create a visual display of the model using your students to demonstrate. Ask for a student to volunteer to play the role of a child. Place that student in the center of the room, and ask them what age they are role-playing. Then ask that student who the important people are in their life. The people named will represent the microsystem level. Typical examples include parents, siblings, teachers, or friends. Assign another student to each role, and as each person comes up, have them talk about reciprocal relationships—in other words, how do those people affect the child and how does the child affect those people? To visually illustrate the microsystem, make sure to place the people physically close to the ―child,‖ with parents and siblings more physically close than teachers or friends. To illustrate the mesosystem, have the various people in the microsystem talk about how their relationships with each other (e.g., parents‘ marriage, parent–teacher connection) affect the child. Then move out to the exosystem. Ask the class to generate ideas about who would be in the exosystem. Typical examples include parents‘ bosses, parents‘ friends, grandparents, neighbors, or clergy. These people, as they come up, should be placed further away from the child, to indicate the lack of frequent direct contact. After questioning and answering concerning reciprocal relationships, move out to the macrosystem. Typical people in the macrosystem include the president or other government officials, celebrities or athletes (to represent the media), the pope or other heads of churches (to represent religion), and so on. People playing these roles should be placed very far away from the child, to represent their distance from the immediate family system. After a discussion of macrosystem influences, you can conclude by discussing how all of these levels are affected by the chronosystem (i.e., the winds of change).

This activity works well as an icebreaker as well as a visual demonstration of the model.

“The Ideal Caregivers Are Ones Who…” Ask your students to generate five phrases to complete this sentence.

List several of the phrases that your students mention. Then, ask your students how these ideals meet the criteria for effective parenting (i.e., warmth/responsiveness and a reasonable level of control). As an interesting out-ofclass addendum to this exercise, have your students ask their own parents or caregivers to describe ―the ideal parents.‖ The similarities between the caregivers‘ and students‘ responses may surprise your students.

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Personal Reflections on Parenting Styles Ask your students to consider how the parenting styles of their own parents influenced their development. Handout 14-1 will guide your students. If you use this exercise as a homework assignment, it is recommended that you collect it rather than having students summarize their reflections in class due to the potential for embarrassing personal disclosures.

What Should You Do? Handout 14-2 presents common situations that involve a misbehaving child. Ask your students to describe the best course of action to address each child‘s misbehavior. They can work individually or in small groups to complete this exercise. After they have completed the handout, students can share their recommendations with the rest of the class.

Observing Parents in Action Send your students to a playground, park, grocery store line, toy store—any place where they are likely to see parents interacting with children. Ask your students to note any disciplinary actions taken by parents or guardians. Handout 14-3 will guide your students through this observation activity. Students can then summarize their observations in writing or present their findings to the class.

Parents and Education Ask your students to reflect on their own education by asking themselves these questions: (1) What role do you remember your parent(s) and/or guardian(s) playing in your education? (2) Did they help with homework? (3) Attend school functions? (4) Send you to private schools? (5) Homeschool you?

(6) Encourage (or discourage) you in your educational pursuits? Students should reflect on the role their parents or other primary caregivers played in their education at each level: (1) Preschool/elementary; (2) Middle school; (3) High school; (4) College. Encourage your students to contact their parents or guardians about this (if possible) and include their points of view as well as their own in their reflections.

Look Into It: Family Influences on Child Development Students can go to the library to engage in focused literature searches. This activity works well if your class size is relatively small (less than 40) and if your library is equipped with PsycINFO or other comparable database search systems.

The influence of family on child development is perfect for this exercise due to the availability of research in this area. Students can work individually or in small groups to complete this activity. Have them complete Handout 14-4 as they look into their topic, fueled by several possibilities: (d) cultural differences in parenting (e) grandparent/grandchild relationships (f) grandparenting styles (g) LGBTQ+ parents (h) working mothers (i) adolescent parents (j) low-income households (k) other: __________________________________ Class Debate: Spanking Students can debate the pros and cons of spanking as a form of discipline. Assign half of your students to the PRO position and the other half to the CON position. Ask your students to review the available research for their respective positions in preparation for a class debate on the topic. A format for the debate follows: I. Constructive Speeches (Presentation of your side of the argument): A. PRO side will present for 7 minutes 1. Cross-examination by the CON side for 3 minutes B. CON side will present for 7 minutes 1. Cross-examination by the PRO side for 3 minutes II. Rebuttal Speeches (Your response to the other side‘s argument): A. CON side will rebut for 5 minutes B. PRO side will rebut for 5 minutes 235

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III. Questions from Audience (5 minutes)

MODULE 14.2: DIVERSE FAMILIES LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 14.2 Identify different types of families in the 21st century.

KEY QUESTIONS:   

How do children adjust when their parents separate and form new relationships?

How do grandparents contribute to child-rearing?

How do same-sex parents parent?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: What Is a Family? Ask your students a simple question: What constitutes a ―family‖? Being a hip, savvy group, they‘re unlikely to fall into the trap of replying, ―one mommy who stays home, one daddy who goes to work, and 2.5 children…but we‘re hoping ‗.5‘ grows a little.‖ Instead (and perhaps based largely on their own experiences), they‘re likely to report a constellation of valid arrangements. Point out that sociologists offer more or less complicated definitions of ―family‖ that can serve as a starting point or working definition. But also point out that complexity increasingly characterizes the definition of what a family structure is. A transgender man with a bisexual orientation currently in a polyamorous relationship with a cisgender female and a gay male, living with step-grandparents in an uncle‘s house, all caring for their two adopted children, one biological child, and one foster child, suggests that ―a family is simply the people who love you and care for you‖ might be the most appropriate definition.

Setting the Stage for Successful Adjustment to Parental Separation Ask your students to work in small groups to make lists of factors that influence the ability of children to adjust to the separation of their parents and to forming subsequent marriages or other unions. Students should approach this activity as if they are preparing a ―tip sheet‖ for people about to separate or divorce. You may want to assign some groups to the ―Adjusting to Divorce‖ list and others to a ―Adjusting to Blended Families‖ tip list.

Divorce Activity Ask your students to individually complete Handout 14-5 on their personal feelings about divorce. Emphasize that this is an anonymous, personal exercise that is intended to help broaden their perspectives on this topic.

Grandparents’ Day! Ask your students to talk to their grandparents (or grandparent-like figures in their lives) and invite them to attend a class session to share their grandparenting insights with the class. The life stories and family anecdotes provided by these guests serve as terrific illustrations of various grandparenting styles.

Encourage (or require) your students to bring questions to the Grandparents‘ Day meeting as well.

MODULE 14.3: SIBLINGS LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 14.3 Describe the different relationships between siblings.

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KEY QUESTIONS:  

How do firstborn, laterborn, only, and adopted children differ?

How do sibling relationships change as children grow? What determines how well siblings get along?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: Do Parents Treat Siblings Differently? The answer to this question is ―yes and no.‖ Parenting styles remain fairly consistent over time, but parenting practices may change (hopefully for the better) as parents acquire more practice being parents. Therefore, firstborns are sometimes viewed as ―practice‖ kids because parents are learning the parenting trade. Ask your students to put themselves in the shoes of a first-time expectant parent.

From this perspective, have your students discuss their reactions (i.e., agree or disagree) to various pre-parenting beliefs: (l) Rearing children is fun. (m) Children will turn out well if they have ―good parents.‖ (n) Today‘s parents are not as good as those of yesterday. (o) Child-rearing today is easier due to modern medicine, modern appliances, child psychology, and other advances. (p) Children won‘t get into trouble as adolescents if they have been told the facts about sex. (q) There are no bad children, only bad parents. (r) Two parents are always better than one. (s) Love is enough to sustain effective parenting. (t) Children improve a relationship.

Do You Fit the Mold? Part 1 Research investigating birth order effects has not yielded much support for birth order playing a significant role in child development. What is necessary is a critical assessment of the role that birth order plays in influencing child development. Ask your students some pointed questions: FIRSTBORNS: Do you feel that you are more intelligent than your laterborn peers or younger siblings? If so, is your advanced intellect simply the product of being born first in your family? What else might account for your level of intellectual development?

LATERBORNS: Do you feel that you have better social skills and are more creative than your firstborn peers or oldest sibling? If so, are your superior social skills and creativity simply the product of being born later in your family? What else might account for your level of intellectual development?

Do You Fit the Mold? Part 2 Handout 14-6 contains some common descriptions of firstborn, middle, youngest, and oldest children. Ask your students to read each of the characteristics of their birth position, and under the column titled ME, circle whether they AGREE, MAYBE agree, or DISAGREE with each statement. Students should then ask two people who know them well to complete the table (using the PERSON 1 and PERSON 2 columns), making sure that each person does not see the answers that the other people put down. After the table is completed, students should look over the results and write a brief (one or two paragraph) reflection on what they found. In other words, does their birth position seem representative of their overall general personality?

Setting the Stage for Sibling Success In small groups, ask your students to make lists of factors that influence the quality of sibling relationships. Students should approach this activity as if they are preparing a ―tip sheet‖ for parents about to have a second child. What can parents do to encourage positive sibling relationships? What 237

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characteristics of the older sibling significantly influence the sibling relationship for better or worse? What characteristics of the younger sibling significantly influence the sibling relationship for better or worse? What can parents expect regarding the relationships among their children as they grow up? Finally, what characteristics of the parents significantly influence the sibling relationships, for better or worse?

MODULE 14.4: MALTREATMENT: PARENT–CHILD RELATIONSHIPS GONE AWRY LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 14.4 Summarize the consequences of, the risk factors for, and the prevention of maltreatment.

KEY QUESTIONS:   

What is the impact of maltreatment on children?

What factors place some children at risk for maltreatment? What factors protect some children from maltreatment?

How can maltreatment be prevented?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: Signs of Abuse and Neglect Because many students enrolled in child development classes are planning on pursuing careers in education, they should know that they are required by law to report—not investigate— suspected cases of abuse. In order to fulfill this legal and ethical obligation, students should be aware of the signs of abuse and neglect. Ask students to state the symptoms of abuse or neglect that they are aware of, and then you can compile the list that they generate. The point of this exercise is to make sure that all students are aware of the complete set of physical, behavioral, and emotional symptoms of abuse and neglect. The exercise should be concluded by providing the phone number of where students should report abuse.

Guest Speakers Ask one or more professionals to share their insights with your students. For example, a representative from a local child abuse prevention agency can address the proper channels to report abuse, legal definitions of abuse, sanctions or forms of punishment for abusers, and factors contributing to the occurrence of abuse. A child psychologist can convey the short-term and long-term consequences of child abuse and neglect to your class. Also, ask the therapist to describe the treatment that children and families receive following the confirmation of abuse or neglect. A social worker (perhaps a colleague at your university) can discuss a variety of topics, from investigation to legal avenues to the foster care system to prevention. A panel discussion featuring a variety of specializations might also be in order.

Preventing Child Abuse Ask your students to work in small groups to develop effective means of preventing child abuse. What programs or approaches do they suggest to reduce the occurrence of abuse? What audience(s) would they target? What governmental agencies or societal institutions should be involved in an effective prevention program?

Internet Annotated Bibliography Have your students use the Internet to identify 10 websites that give scholarly information on child abuse. Students should type an annotated bibliography that includes the name of the website (e.g., Child Abuse Prevention Network), a valid URL (website address, e.g., www.child-abuse.com), and a brief (one or two paragraph) review of the website. Reviews should include a brief summary of what students can expect to find if they visit the website and a brief evaluation of the website. As a follow-up to this activity, students can combine all of the annotated bibliographies into an Internet Resource Directory that could 238

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be distributed in class.

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CHAPTER 14 CASE STUDY Family Relationships Manjula and Horace don‘t know what to do. Their 4-year-old daughter, Frieda, has tantrums every time they tell her to do something that she doesn‘t want to do. Whether it‘s getting dressed in the morning, choosing which of the double-doors to walk through to enter the preschool building, or deciding what to have for dinner, there always seems to be a struggle. Manjula has been yelling at Frieda more and more and has even resorted to threatening her with a spanking, but Frieda continues to be difficult. Most of the time, Manjula just gives in.

Horace is hoping that it‘s just a phase Frieda‘s going through, and he hopes that it passes quickly.

300. Manjula and Horace frequently tell Frieda what to do and give her very little say in any decision.

Although Frieda doesn‘t respond well to their attempts to exercise control over her, they have not adjusted to better meet her needs. Which type of parenting style have Manjula and Horace most likely assumed?

Explain your choice.

301. Manjula yells at Frieda quite a bit, but Frieda‘s behavior is not changing. Why?

302. What do you think about Horace‘s hope that Frieda is just in a phase? Do you agree with him, or will the behavior patterns being established now continue into the future unless the parents do something about them? What role is Frieda playing in all of this?

303. What discipline techniques would you recommend Manjula and Horace use the next time Frieda has a tantrum?

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CASE STUDY ANSWERS Family Relationships 304. The lack of responsiveness coupled with high levels of parental control and the use of threats of spanking suggest that Manjula and Horace have assumed an authoritarian parenting style.

305. Yelling alone does not explain to children what was wrong about their behavior or what would be acceptable alternative behaviors. The use of direct instruction would likely result in changing Frieda‘s behavior.

306. Horace‘s hope that Frieda is just in a phase is not a realistic one. Frieda has played a role, along with her parents, in establishing a pattern of behavior (the negative reinforcement trap) that may be enduring. Frieda is learning that if she persists in having tantrums, she will eventually get her way. If her parents reward her tantrums by giving in, then Frieda‘s tantrums should remain a part of her behavioral repertoire.

307. Manjula and Horace should use a combination of rewards (positive reinforcement) and punishment (time-out) when Frieda has another tantrum. They should use time-out when the tantrum begins, supplemented by direct instruction after Frieda has calmed down, and then use rewards when Frieda engages in a desired behavior.

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HANDOUT 14-1 Personal Reflections on Parenting Styles Directions: By answering a few questions anonymously, you will gain insight into the parenting style(s) adopted by your primary caregivers and the impact of their parenting style(s) on your development.

308. Consider the various categories of parenting styles (i.e., authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, uninvolved). Which style(s) appear(s) to best represent your own parents or guardians? Explain your choice(s).

309. If there was more than one adult living in your household, did your caregivers have similar parenting styles? How do you think their similar or dissimilar styles interacted to influence your development and the functioning of your family?

310. Do you exhibit any of the common developmental consequences of the parenting style(s) exhibited by your own caregivers? Explain.

311. Did parenting style(s) remain stable throughout your childhood and adolescence, or did you notice a change in style(s) over time? Explain.

312. If or when you become a parent, how do you think your own parenting style will compare with the style(s) you experienced?

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HANDOUT 14-2 What Should You Do? Directions: Parents, caregivers, teachers, and other adults who interact with children frequently face situations in which the children in their care misbehave. Consider some common situations involving children and adolescents. What consequences do you recommend to address each of the misbehaviors? Explain your recommendations.

313. A 3-year-old refuses to wear clothes that are appropriate for the weather (e.g., it is snowing outside, and they want to wear shorts).

314. A 4-year-old preschooler frequently interrupts you as you attempt to read a story to the rest of the class.

315. A kindergartner won‘t share the coveted purple crayon with her coloring partner.

316. A 7-year-old insists on watching a ―Dr. Destructo‖ cartoon and has a tantrum when you don‘t permit it.

317. A 10-year-old frequently tells stories that aren‘t true but insists that they are.

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HANDOUT 14-2 (continued) 318. While at the toy store, you refuse to buy your 12-year-old another game for her Nintendo system because she just got one last week. She becomes whiny and answers your questions with curt, surly responses.

319. A 15-year-old athlete is getting low grades in math and English because he doesn‘t study enough. His eligibility to play soccer for the school is at risk.

320. Your 17-year-old routinely returns the family car filled with more fast food wrappers than gasoline, and Motörhead blasting on the stereo when you turn the key in the ignition.

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HANDOUT 14-3 Observing Parents in Action Directions: Find a location where you can observe adults interacting with children and where disciplinary action is likely to occur (e.g., playground, park, grocery store, toy store, restaurant). Note any disciplinary events and structure your observations by addressing the questions below.

Event #1

Event #2

What behaviors prompted the discipline?

What did the caregiver do to discipline the child?

How did the child respond to the discipline?

What would you have done differently in the situation?

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HANDOUT 14-3 (continued) 1. What types of discipline did you observe most often?

2. Were there differences noted in discipline used by fathers, mothers, nannies, older siblings, and so on?

Describe.

3. Did sons versus daughters appear to receive different forms of discipline? Explain.

4. Did the age of the child appear to influence the type of discipline received? Explain.

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HANDOUT 14-4 Look Into It: Family Influences on Child Development Directions: You have been assigned a topic that pertains to the influence of families on child development. It is your job to investigate published research on this topic using any available library resources. To help focus your search, please respond to some questions: TOPIC: ______________________________________________ 321. How does your topic impact the development of children? (Describe the positive and negative consequences of your topic on the development of children.)

322. What type of research (e.g., experiments, observational studies, cross-sectional or longitudinal studies) has been conducted to investigate the relationships between your topic and the development of children?

323. How can the impact of your topic on child development be mediated? In other words, if parents, caregivers, teachers, day care workers are aware of how your topic impacts the development of children, what can they do about it?

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HANDOUT 14-5 Divorce Activity NAME: ____________________________________________________________ Finish each sentence with your own beliefs. If a statement does not apply to you (e.g., you don‘t belong to an organized religious group), you do not have to complete it.

324. I believe that divorce is okay if…

325. I would get a divorce if...

326. If I were to get a divorce, my family would...

327. If I were to get a divorce, my friends would...

328. If I were to get a divorce, my church would...

329. I think the hardest thing about divorce would be...

330. The three things I would worry most about if I were to get divorced are...

331. I believe that divorce is…

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HANDOUT 14-6 Birth Order Characteristics Find your birth order table among these four choices: Only Child, Firstborn Child, Middle Child, or Youngest Child. Read each of the characteristics of your birth position, and under the column titled ME, circle whether you AGREE, MAYBE agree, or DISAGREE with each statement (i.e., does it describe you?). Then ask two people who know you well to complete the table (using the PERSON 1 and PERSON 2 columns). Make sure that each person does not see the answers that the other people put down. After the table is completed, look over the results and write a brief (one or two paragraph) reflection on what you found. In other words, does your birth position seem representative of your overall general personality?

ONLY CHILD Likes being center of adult attention May have difficulty sharing Prefers adult company Uses adult language Leader Self-confident Organized Ambitious Logical, problem solver May be unable to laugh at self Perfectionist, can‘t bear to fail Acts like a little adult Deliberate Self-motivated Fearful and cautious Voracious reader Black and white thinker Uses very, extremely and exactly a lot High expectations for self

ME Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree

PERSON 1 Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree

PERSON 2 Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree

FIRSTBORN CHILD Authoritarian or strict, a little rigid Bossy, particular with younger siblings Leaders, expect others to follow High achievers Competent Generally compliant May resent younger siblings Conservative Perfectionist Enjoy the company of adults Self-critical Most likely to succeed Goal setters Responsible Well organized Rule keepers Determined Detail people Fear of failure

ME Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree

PERSON 1 Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree

PERSON 2 Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree

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HANDOUT 14-6 (continued) MIDDLE CHILD Even tempered Take it or leave it attitude A bit manipulative Wants to achieve uniqueness Competitive (with older siblings) Usually first to leave home Independent Many friends outside the family Comfortable with people, social Adept at negotiating and compromise Effective team player May rebel against family‘s values Flexible Diplomatic Peacemaker Generous Feels like they don‘t fit in Wants to satisfy own needs

ME Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree

PERSON 1 Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree

PERSON 2 Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree

YOUNGEST CHILD Frequently spoiled or pampered Wants to be bigger and better May have huge plans that never work Needs to be nurtured Difficulty accepting responsibility Charming, may use to manipulate Light-hearted, easy going Playful, family clown, good humor Enjoys being in the spotlight Often not taken seriously Difficulty deciding what to do with life Risk taker Outgoing, very adept socially Idea person Creative Questions authority My way is the only way attitude Tenacious about getting what they want More relaxed, seldom have hidden agendas Not as sensitive to needs/feelings of others

ME Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree

PERSON 1 Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree

PERSON 2 Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree Agree Maybe Disagree

Agree Maybe Disagree

Agree Maybe Disagree

Agree Maybe Disagree

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Q&A ANSWERS Question 14.1 When 10-year-old Hyung’s family got a puppy, he agreed to walk it every day after school.

But when his stepmom asks him to do this, he gets angry because he’d rather hang out with friends. They argue for about 15 minutes and then Hyung’s stepmom gives up and walks the dog herself. Analyze this situation. What could Hyung’s stepmom do to prevent these regular arguments?

Answer: This is a classic negative reinforcement trap: (1) Stepmom asks Hyung to do something, (2) he refuses and argues endlessly, and (3) Stepmom gives in to end the argument, thereby reinforcing the argumentative behavior. Hyung’s stepmother has a couple of alternatives. She could remind Hyung of the original agreement and hold fast to the rule that he can’t hang out with his friends until he’s walked the dog.

But maybe this rule isn’t a good one any longer, for reasons that neither Hyung nor his family could anticipate when they got the puppy. Hyung’s stepmother should have a conversation with him about the agreement and find another way in which he can shoulder part of the responsibility of puppy care.

Question 14.2 Lindsey and Andrea have been married for six years and have decided to adopt a child. In what ways are Lindsey and Andrea likely to function like different-sex parents? In what ways are they likely to differ?

Answer: As with children reared by different-sex parents, Lindsey and Andrea’s child will likely benefit from Lindsey and Andrea’s authoritative parenting or be at risk should Lindsey and Andrea use an authoritarian style.

But that risk is not great because, compared with different-sex parents, Lindsey and Andrea are likely to be warmer and more responsive. In addition, they’re more likely to share household tasks—including parental tasks—evenly.

Question 14.3 Lucas, age 8, and his younger sister, Kris, argue over just about everything and constantly compete for their parents’ attention. Teenage sisters Felicia and Maria love doing everything together and enjoy sharing clothes and secrets about their teen romances. Why might Lucas and Kris get along so poorly, but Felicia and Maria get along so well?

Answer: There are two obvious reasons why Felicia and Maria get along better than Lucas and Kris. First, they’re both girls, and same-sex siblings tend to have better relationships. Second, they’re both adolescents, and sibling relationships tend to improve during these years.

Question 14.4 Daniel has never physically abused his 10-year-old son, Rowan, but he constantly torments him emotionally. For example, when Rowan got an F on a spelling test, Daniel screamed, ―I skipped Monday Night Football just to help you, but you still flunked. You’re such a dummy.‖ When Rowan began to cry, Daniel taunted, ―Look at Rowan, crying like a baby.‖ These interactions occur nearly every day. What are the likely effects of such repeated episodes of emotional abuse?

Answer: If this emotional abuse continues, virtually every aspect of Rowan’s psychological development is likely to be harmed. That is, Rowan will do poorly in school, his social and emotional development will be impaired, he won’t get along well with peers, and he’ll be at risk for psychological disord ers such as depression.

Chapter 15 Influences Beyond the Family CHAPTER OVERVIEW .............................................................................................................................................. 2 251

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Children and Their Development, 8e CHAPTER MODULE SUPPLEMENTS Module 15.1: PEERS ...................................................................................................................................... 3 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics Module 15.2: ELECTRONIC MEDIA ........................................................................................................... 6 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics Module 15.3: INSTITUTIONAL INFLUENCES ........................................................................................... 7 Learning Objective Key Questions Lecture Suggestions, Classroom Activities, and Discussion Topics CHAPTER 15 CASE STUDY .................................................................................................................................... 10 CASE STUDY ANSWERS ........................................................................................................................................ 11 HANDOUTS ............................................................................................................................................................... 12 Q&A ANSWERS ........................................................................................................................................................ 22

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW XLVII.

Peers a. Development of Peer Interactions i. Various Play Styles ii. Parental Influence 1. Playmate 2. Social Director 3. Coach 4. Mediator iii. Peer Relations After Preschool 1. Rough-and-Tumble Play b. Friendship i. Who Become Friends? ii. Quality and Consequences of Friendship 1. Co-Rumination c. Romantic Relationships i. Sexual Behavior ii. Sexual Orientation d. Groups i. Dominance Hierarchy ii. Peer Pressure 1. Norms e. Popularity and Rejection i. Popular Children ii. Rejected Children iii. Controversial Children iv. Average Children v. Neglected Children vi. Consequences of Rejection vii. Causes of Rejection f. Cultural Influences i. Keys to Popularity XLVIII. Electronic Media a. Watching Video b. Improving Children‘s Lives: Get the Kids Off the Couch! c. Playing Games i. Gaming Disorder d. Communicating with Others e. Focus on Research i. Consequences for Adolescents of Negative Feedback on Social Media f. Child Development and Family Policy i. Limits on Adolescents‘ Use of Social Media?

XLIX. Institutional Influences a. Child Care and After-School Activities b. Part-Time Employment c. Neighborhoods d. Schools i. Conventional Public Schools ii. Alternatives to Conventional Schooling

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MODULE 15.1: PEERS LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 15.1 Understand how peer interactions, including friendships and romantic relationships, affect children’s and adolescents’ development.

KEY QUESTIONS:     

When do children first begin to interact with each other, and how do these interactions change during infancy, childhood, and adolescence?

Why do children become friends, and what are the benefits of friendship?

When do romantic relationships emerge in adolescence?

What are the important features of peer groups in childhood and adolescence? How do groups influence individuals?

Why are some children more well-liked than others? What are the causes and consequences of being rejected?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: Observing Children’s Play Ask your students to observe a group of children at a playground or park. What types of play are the children engaging in? Handout 15-1 will help structure your students‘ observations. Your students should then summarize their observations in a class presentation.

Friendship Groups One of the best places to observe groups of older children and adolescents is at the mall.

Your students will not object to being sent to the mall, but give them the added task of observing groups of older children and adolescents. Handout 15-2 will guide your students through their observations.

Interviews About Best Friends Ask your students, either individually or working in pairs, to interview three people: a child between the ages of 4–6, a child between the ages of 8–10, and an adolescent between the ages of 12–16. Your students should interview them about their best friend relationships. Handout 15-3 contains several questions that students should ask their interviewees. This handout can serve as a written homework assignment, or students can summarize their interviews and share the highlights with the rest of the class.

Sexuality 101 By the end of adolescence, many teenagers have had at least one sexual partner. Where are teens getting their knowledge about sex? Ask your students to think about their childhood and adolescence and remember how they learned about sex. What were their sources of information? When they had questions about sex, whom did they ask? What myths about sex had they heard or even believed? If students are reluctant to share their myths with the rest of the class, have them write their myths anonymously on note cards, collect them, and read several to the class.

“Well, That’s How It Happened on Television” Ask your students to keep track of the sexual content they view while watching several of their favorite television programs, YouTube videos, or other media sources. What messages about sex are these forms of media conveying? Ask your students to compose three to five ―rules‖ about sex that they learned as a result of watching these video depictions. (For example, ―Sex usually happens after knowing someone for a few hours, or maybe a day or two,‖ or ―After sex, one‘s hair and makeup remain perfect.‖) Students can then share these ―rules‖ with the rest of the class as an effective means of conveying the influence of media on adolescent sexual attitudes or behaviors.

Guest Speaker: Campus Health Care Professional Ask a health educator or health care provider from your campus health center to speak to your students about sexuality on your campus, including incidents of sexual assault, rates of STDs, and pregnancy issues. Personalizing such presentations to reflect trends on your campus 254

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generates much more interest from the students, resulting in them asking many more questions than had the presentation focused on college students in general.

Effective Sex Education When most students are asked about the sex education they recall receiving from their schools, they usually talk about programs that either focus on the physical aspects of sexuality or abstinence programs that present simple, unrealistic messages (e.g., ―Just Say ‗No‘!‖). Although some students have experienced comprehensive, sustained, high-quality sex education, far too few indicate that they were satisfied with their sex education experience. So, ask your students to design a better, more effective sex education program. This exercise can be completed during class or outside of class, individually or in small groups. Your students‘ programs should address several questions: 12. What is the goal of their program?

13. Who is their target population?

14. How will they respond to parental concerns or objections?

15. What criteria will be used to measure the success of the program?

16. How will they present the information to their audience?

Your students can then present their programs to the rest of the class orally or in written form, as a brochure or booklet.

Look Into It: The Development of Sexual Orientation Students can be dispatched to conduct some focused library searches. Depending upon your class size (under 40 works well) and available library resources (PsycINFO or equivalent databases), this project can be an effective means of allowing students to explore a topic that is of particular interest to them. Handout 15-4 provides a series of questions that will guide the students‘ library searches.

Several factors have been shown to play a role in the development of sexual orientation. Assign one topic to each student (or small groups of students) and have them explore the professional literature. During your next class session, have them briefly present their findings to the class. e. f. g. h. i.

Sex role experimentation Heredity and genetics Family relations with LGB teens Peer relations with LGB teens Mental health of LGB teens

Sociometrics Students can learn more about sociometric categories (e.g., popular, rejected, controversial) by completing Handout 15-5 as either an in-class or homework assignment.

Guest Speaker: Panel of Adolescents Invite several adolescents from a local middle school or high school to attend your class and discuss the social and academic pressures and challenges they are confronting. These panelists should discuss peer pressure, substance use, student–teacher relations, cliques or crowds at their school(s), and other issues that concern them. Your students should have questions prepared in advance to facilitate the panel‘s presentation.

As a general note: Many suggestions that recommend having a guest visit class can seem daunting. But think about your colleagues, some of whom might have children of varying ages. Think also about their friends, who might want to do something nice for their friend, who‘s also your friend. Get the idea? ―Find a teenager‖ seems cavalier, whereas ―talk to people you already know, who also know other people, all of whom might want to proudly show off their child to strangers‖ is much more manageable.

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What Does It Take to Be Popular? In small groups, ask your students to generate lists of characteristics that contribute to popularity during childhood and adolescence. Do these characteristics differ from what we commonly associate with popularity among adults? Also, have your students create a ―tip sheet‖ for parents, guardians, caregivers, and teachers about how they contribute to peer acceptance or rejection, and include the consequences of peer acceptance and rejection as well.

Fostering Social Acceptance Due to the potential for serious, long-term, negative consequences to befall those children who are rejected by their peers, it is important to intervene early and help rejected children develop better social skills that will afford them greater interpersonal success. Common intervention strategies often involve these tactics: a. b. c. d.

reinforcing socially appropriate behaviors; modeling social skills; coaching; and role playing.

Divide your students into small groups and ask them to use one or more of these techniques to foster the development of a specific group of social skills:       

showing empathy and kindness helping giving accepting help graciously comforting another who is in distress showing concern responding to others who are sad

  

sharing cooperating with others to complete a task showing positive verbal and physical contact

  

donating to others who are less fortunate taking the perspective of another showing affection

Your students should share the results of their work with the rest of the class.

Guidebooks for Adolescent Peer Culture In small groups, have your students compile a guidebook for parents, guardians, caregivers, or teachers regarding adolescent peer culture. These guidebooks should include summaries of research on peer groups and social development during late childhood and adolescence, illustrated by the students‘ own experiences during that developmental period. Your students should need approximately 1–2 weeks to complete these guidebooks. During this project, ask them to notice the dynamics underlying the functioning of their groups as they work to achieve a common goal. You may wish to have each student complete a ―group process‖ supplement to this guidebook in which they detail their experiences and reactions to functioning within their assigned groups.

MODULE 15.2: ELECTRONIC MEDIA LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 15.2 Summarize how media affects children's development.

KEY QUESTIONS:  

How does watching video affect children’s attitudes, behavior, and cognition?

What is the impact on children of playing video games?

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

How do children use digital media to connect with friends? What is the impact of such communication?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: Media Issues Activity Students often enjoy discussing the multitude of issues involving mass media and children.

To facilitate this discussion, place signs around the classroom labeled Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree, and Strongly Disagree. As you read out loud or display the statements from Handout 15-6, have the students move to the part of the room that best reflects their opinion on each statement. From within these self-sorted groups, then ask students to discuss each statement, indicating why they agree or disagree. Make sure to remind students to use courtesy and respect, as these discussions can sometimes get heated.

Internet Annotated Bibliography Have your students use the Internet to identify 10 websites that give scholarly information on the effects of electronic media on children. Students should type an annotated bibliography that includes the name of the website (e.g., MediaWise), a valid URL (website address, e.g., http://www.mediafamily.org), and a brief (one or two paragraph) review of the website. Reviews should include a brief summary of what students can expect to find if they visit the website and a brief evaluation of the website. As a follow-up to this activity, students can combine all of the annotated bibliographies into an Internet Resource Directory that could be distributed in class.

Life Without Television There is no denying that television plays a significant role in the lives of children, adolescents, and adults. However, there is little to no research on how television and other media use impacts child development via unrealized potential. In other words, ―What are we missing out on while we‘re idly and passively viewing media?‖ Ask your students to imagine life without television (and/or other media sources, such as YouTube videos or binge-watching). What would they do with the time that they currently spend watching media? What would they have done during their childhood and adolescence with the time they spent watching television (approximately 25 hours each week)? To make this point even clearer, challenge them to avoid their favorite television shows or media sources for one week. Ask them to summarize (or keep a daily log of) their activities and what additional activities and interests they were able to pursue during their media-free week.

Debating the Effects of Television Violence Although most experts agree that there is a correlation between viewing media violence and behaving violently, the causal links between viewing and behavior continue to be debated. Have your students research various perspectives (including hypothesized variables that mitigate the relationship) on the relationship between media violence and violent behavior. As moderator, it will be your job to generate a list of questions to keep the debate civil, focused, and organized. a. How strong is the correlation between viewing media violence and acting violently? b. Why don‘t all children who view violence behave violently? c. For those who behave violently following exposure to media violence, how is this relationship explained? d. Can the relationship between screen media violence and violent behavior be mediated?

Children’s Television and Domains of Development Students should watch an episode of a children‘s television show (e.g., Sesame Street, Arthur, Dora the Explorer). Students should then (1) summarize the episode of the show that they watched, and (2) evaluate the episode based on what they have learned in about cognitive, socioemotional, and physical development. Students should be sure to address these pertinent questions: (1) How do you feel particular aspects of the show help foster children‘s development in each of the domains of development? and (2) Do you feel that the show is developmentally appropriate for young children based on what you have learned?

Video Arcade Study Much has been reported on the level of violence in contemporary video games. Current generations of video games make a mockery of the simplicity of ―Pong‖ or ―Pac Man.‖ Now, with the correct 257

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combination of skill and timing, video game players can rip the spinal cord out of their opponent (on the screen) with the press of a button (―Mortal Kombat‖). What is the effect of this level of video violence? To answer this question, ask your students to visit a local video arcade and study the variety of games available to customers, as well as the reactions of customers while playing the games and immediately afterward. Handout 15-7 will guide your students through this activity. This activity can be completed individually or in small groups. Students should summarize their findings in a presentation to the rest of the class.

Best of the Net The merits of the Internet are sometimes overshadowed by its dark side, as the ready availability of pornographic and violent content is concerningly high. In small groups, have your students develop Internet resource guides for parents, a kind of ―Best of the Net‖ collection of websites (and accompanying descriptions) that will benefit the intellectual, emotional, and social development of children. Depending upon the level of success your students have with this project, you may want to organize the lists into a form that can be shared with the public (e.g., as leaflets or brochures or…well, a website). Your students should enjoy this exercise and experience a sense of accomplishment regarding the public service they are performing.

MODULE 15.3: INSTITUTIONAL INFLUENCES LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 15.3 Identify the influences of cultural institutions on children’s development.

KEY QUESTIONS:    

How are children affected by nonparental child care?

What is the impact of part-time employment on adolescents’ development?

How are children influenced by their neighborhoods?

What are the different forms of schooling in the United States? How effective are they?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES, AND DISCUSSION TOPICS: Child Care Visit Devoting a class session to a visit to a nearby child care facility will be well worth the time.

During your visit, have your students informally evaluate the child care facility according to various criteria (i.e., caregiver-child ratio, presence of books and other stimulating activities, cleanliness). Hopefully, your students will be given a chance to interact with the children at the facility so that they can see firsthand what they have been reading and discussing during this course.

Alternatives to Institutional Child Care Ask your students to interview parents who are using alternative child care arrangements, meaning that their children do not attend a formal child care facility. Examples of alternatives include in-home child care; the use of nannies, grandparents, or extended family members; babysitters; au pairs; or some other group arrangement (e.g., one parent takes care of several children, swapping on a weekly basis). Evaluate the quality of the care that children placed in these alternatives receive. Are the children adequately stimulated? Is the setting safe? How many children are being watched by how many adults?

When Is a Child Old Enough to Be Left Alone? Many parents wrestle with knowing when a child is old enough to be left alone (after school for an evening, and so on), and they often rely on unreliable sources of information or use questionable factors (like chronological age alone) to arrive at an answer. Ask your students to peruse the developmental research literature in search of an answer to this question, and then create a list of variables that should be considered when deciding the appropriate age and circumstances under which children can care for themselves. This work can culminate in the creation of a brochure that can be shared with local parenting groups.

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Child Care Survey Students can find out more about child care options in their area by completing the Child Care Survey in Handout 15-8. This assignment will give students a good overview of different types of child care options within a personal context (their own community) that they should find interesting. Make sure to have some general statistics about child care in your state and nationwide as a point of comparison of students‘ local findings.

For Adolescents, Is There Such a Thing as a “Good Job”? Talking about jobs students had during adolescence can be a lively and effective way to discuss the pros and cons of part-time employment: a. What types of jobs did you have as an adolescent? b. Do most parents want adolescents to work? Why or why not? What types of arguments did your parents make in favor of getting a job or not getting one? c. Did your jobs deliver the benefits your parents argued for, or the detriments that concerned them? d. What did you actually learn from your adolescent jobs? e. What did you gain by working? f. What did you lose by working? g. Overall, was it worth it (monetarily, socially, developmentally, intellectually)?

Look Into It: Characteristics of Effective Schools As you‘re abundantly aware, students can go to the library to engage in focused literature searches. This activity works well if your class size is relatively small (less than 40) and if your library is equipped with PsycINFO or other comparable database search systems.

The qualities of effective schools should prove to be an interesting topic to your students for two reasons: (1) Many students taking Child Development courses have teaching aspirations, and (2) students will undoubtedly compare the characteristics of effective schools with the schools that they attended. Students can work individually or in small groups to complete this activity. Ask them to please complete Handout 15-9 as they look into their topics: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h.

School size and class size Open versus traditional classrooms Teaching styles (classroom atmosphere) Extracurricular opportunities Parental involvement Tracking or ability grouping School funding Other: __________________________________

Interview a Former Teacher Ask your students to speak with or write to a former teacher whom they remember fondly. Your students should generate a list of questions that they would like to ask a former teacher about the interaction between formal education and child development. Questions such as ―How do you know if a child is demonstrating enough effort to master the material or task, or if the child is just lazy?‖ or ―What do you see as the primary obstacle to enabling students to learn more than they currently are?‖ or ―Do you think that standardized tests serve a useful role in elementary or secondary education?‖ would be interesting for the teachers to ponder and for your students to discuss. Your students should summarize their interviews either in writing or as an oral report to the class.

Guest Speaker: School Superintendent or School Principal Invite a high-ranking school administrator to talk with your students about major issues that are impacting formal education in your community, state, and nationwide, in particular school funding, campus security, national or local standards, or Common Core standards. Your students should prepare questions in advance of this class session to make the discussion even more valuable to them.

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CHAPTER 15 CASE STUDY Influences Beyond the Family A conversation overheard between two 10-year-old males at a mall video arcade: ―Awwww, RIIIIIIIIGHT!! Bow before the new High Scorer, dude!‖ ―Man, it‘s about time. You‘ve been playing that game for weeks. You ‗bout ready to graduate from ‗Ms. Pac Man‘ and play a real video game?‖ ―Very funny. The game is called ‗Starbase Attack,‘ you loser. Let‘s see you kill all those ‗droids while your photon blasters are running low.‖ ―Oh, man! Look at the time. My mom‘s gonna kill me. How come time flies while we‘re in here, but the clock stops while we‘re in school?‖ ―I can‘t figure it out. Maybe it‘s ‗cuz we spend every day at school doin‘ the same thing—just sittin‘ and listenin‘ to the teacher yak about one thing or another.‖ ―Why can‘t we use video games to learn stuff at school?‖ 332. These fellows obviously enjoy playing video games. What are the likely consequences of playing such games? If one boy actually had a photon blaster (or any weapon), is he more likely to use it after playing these games?

333. The two boys are friends. What defines their friendship? Given their presumed ages, what underlying features to their friendship would you expect to be present?

334. In what ways could video games or computers be introduced into the educational experiences of the children?

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CASE STUDY ANSWERS Influences Beyond the Family 335. The special skills of the boys are likely to improve due to their playing of video games, but the violent content of many video games will likely encourage higher levels of aggression in their social interactions.

The likelihood of acting aggressively after playing aggressive video games increases.

336. The basis of the friendship of these presumably 10- or 11-year-old boys is based upon several factors, from physical characteristics (such as sex, age, and race) to psychological factors (such as loyalty, similar interests, common attitudes toward school, and similar future aspirations).

337. Computers could be used in the classroom to function in a tutor capacity, to provide a medium for experiential learning (e.g., computer simulations of class material), and they could help students achieve some of the traditional academic goals, such as improved writing and enhanced graphic illustrations.

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HANDOUT 15-1 Observing Children’s Play Directions: Observe a group of children at a playground or park. What types of play are the children engaging in? Please answer some questions as you observe the children playing.

338. How many children are playing in the group that you are observing, and what are their approximate ages?

339. Is the group that you are observing consist of females playing with females, males playing with males, or males and females playing together? In either case, does the play appear to be gender-stereotyped?

340. Have you seen instances of nonsocial play, parallel play, associative play, or cooperative play? Please describe them.

341. Describe any forms of make-believe play that you observe. What benefits might the children derive from the make-believe play you witnessed?

342. Are adults influencing the play of the children? How?

343. Do any of the children you are observing exhibit behaviors or characteristics likely to influence their acceptance or rejection by peers? Explain.

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HANDOUT 15-2 Friendship Groups Directions: Groups of older children and adolescents can often be found roaming aimlessly through shopping malls. Visit a mall on a weekend day and observe groups of older children and adolescents and then please answer a few questions to provide structure for your observations.

344. Describe some of the groups you observed (e.g., their size, gender composition, actions, appearance).

345. Would they be most accurately labeled as friendships, acquaintances, haphazard groups, or some other designation? Why?

346. What types of parenting styles do you think the parents, guardians, or caregivers of the individuals in the groups assumed? Explain.

347. Was there a leader of the group? Describe that person. Was there any evidence of peer pressure?

Explain.

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HANDOUT 15-3 Interviews About Best Friends Directions: Please interview three individuals: A child between the ages of 4–6, a child between the ages of 8– 10, and an adolescent between the ages of 12–16. Your interview should focus on their best friend relationships.

Feel free to add more questions than the ones presented here.

Interview Questions

4- to 6-year-old Child

8- to 10-year-old Child

Who is your best friend?

What is the age of your best friend?

Why is this person your best friend?

How does a best friend differ from a regular friend or a peer?

Additional questions:

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HANDOUT 15-3 (continued) Summary Questions: 348. Did the best friends share physical characteristics that were typical of best friendships for each age group interviewed? Explain.

349. How did the answers about the best friend relationships (―Why is this person your best friend?‖) differ across the three ages of interviewees?

350. What developmental trends did you notice regarding beliefs about best friend relationships?

351. What did you learn from the additional question(s) you asked?

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HANDOUT 15-4 Look Into It: The Development of Sexual Orientation Directions: You have been assigned a topic that impacts the development of sexual orientation. It is your job to investigate research on this topic using any available library resources. To help focus your search, please respond to some prompting questions: TOPIC: ______________________________________________ 352. How does your topic impact the development of sexual orientation?

353. What type of research (e.g., experiments, observational studies) has been conducted to investigate the relationship between your topic and the development of sexual orientation?

354. How can the impact of your topic on the development of sexual orientation be mediated? In other words, if parents, caregivers, or teachers are aware of how your topic impacts the development of sexual orientation, what can they do about it?

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HANDOUT 15-5 Sociometrics Name: _____________________________________________________ Social Preference – Do people prefer you to other people? Do they like you?

Social Impact – Do people notice and remember you?

Positive Nominations – Peers rate you as one of their favorite people in the class.

Negative Nominations – Peers rate you as one of their least favorite people in the class.

Many Positive/Few Negative Nominations (High Preference/High Social Impact) POPULAR – skilled at initiating and maintaining positive relationships; not disruptive; communicate well; friendly; sociable; sensitive to peers and teachers; more likely to be helpful, show leadership skills, and engage in constructive play; rarely engage in behaviors that interfere with the actions of others Many Positive/Many Negative Nominations (MidRange Preference/High Social Impact) CONTROVERSIAL – Have many characteristics of both popular and rejected children

Few Positive/Many Negative Nominations (Low Preference/High Social Impact) REJECTED (Fall into 2 groups) – RejectedAggressive (disruptive, physically aggressive, verbally aggressive) and Rejected-Withdrawn (submissive, immature, socially withdrawn)

Few Positive/Few Negative Nominations (Low Social Impact) NEGLECTED – less sociable, less aggressive (actively avoid aggressive encounters), less disruptive, more negative, less interaction with peers than average children

A fifth (rarely discussed) category – AVERAGE – Some Positive/Some Negative Nominations (Mid-Range Preference/Mid-Range Social Impact). These children fall in the middle on both continua: average in preference and average in social impact.

Questions to Reflect On (please use the back of this paper to answer these questions): 355. Thinking about your school experiences before college, which sociometric category do you think you would have been placed in? Why? 356. How did this affect you at the time (socially, behaviorally, academically)?

357. How do you think your sociometric status in secondary school affects you now?

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HANDOUT 15-6 Media Issues Activity I plan to monitor everything my child listens to, watches on TV, reads, or plays with on computers.

I think it is the moral responsibility of producers and providers to reduce the amount of violence, sexual activity, and offensive language that is currently shown on media.

I think it is important that parents and other responsible adults limit their own media use and monitor the content of what they watch so that they can be role models for children.

I think it is appropriate for children to watch the national news on television on a nightly basis.

I plan on placing limits on the amount of screen time my family has.

I think it is in the best interests of my family to not have a television at all.

I think children should play an active role in deciding what types of media they can view.

I think Disney movies are great family entertainment that is appropriate for all ages.

I think that school libraries should ban or censor books that contain sexual situations or offensive language.

I think it is okay for parents to listen to their favorite radio station in the presence of their children.

I will not allow my children access to the Internet, except when I can be there to monitor it.

I think it is okay for children to have their own private e-mail accounts.

I think music retailers should ban the sale of any music carrying a parental advisory label to anyone under the age of 18.

I think children‘s books that deal with monsters, magic, fairies, witches, elves, or other fantasies (e.g., Harry Potter) are appropriate for children and help stimulate their imaginations.

I think that all retailers should ban the sale of any computer or console games carrying an M (Mature) rating to anyone under the age of 17 or a T (Teen) rating to anyone under 13.

I think the current movie rating system (G, PG, PG-13, R, NC-17, X) works well.

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HANDOUT 15-7 Video Arcade Study Directions: Visit a local video arcade and study the games available to the customers, as well as the behaviors of the customers while they are playing the games and immediately afterward. Organize your observations by addressing several questions: 358. How many video games are available to the customers in the facility you are visiting?

359. How many of the video games have violent content?

360. For those customers seeking a nonviolent alternative to video games, does the arcade provide any (e.g., skeeball, pinball machines, Skil-cranes)? Describe.

361. more male or female customers?

Are there __________________

362. age range of the customers?

What is the __________________

363. percentage of customers is playing alone?

What __________________

364. Describe the behaviors of the customers who are playing the video games.

365. How do the customers react when the game is over?

366. Describe the customers‘ behavior as they leave the arcade.

367.

Overall, do video games appear to have a positive or negative impact on the customers?

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HANDOUT 15-8 Child Care Survey Call or visit five child care providers in your area. Find out: 368. What type of child care services do they provide?

369. The average cost of child care (indicate whether the figure is per month, per week, or per year).

370. The number of children served.

Center Name & Location Type of Child Care Cost of Child Care Number of Children

371. What does the average cost of child care in your area seem to be? Does this seem high? Low? Average?

372. How many different types of child care options did you find during your search? Which types seemed to be the most prevalent?

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HANDOUT 15-9 Look Into It: Characteristics of Effective Schools Directions: You have been assigned a topic that pertains to the way in which various characteristics of elementary and secondary schools affect the education of children and adolescents. It is your job to investigate published research on this topic using any available library resources. To help focus your search, please consider responding to a few questions: TOPIC: ______________________________________________ 373. How does your topic impact the education of children? (Describe the positive and negative consequences of your topic on the education of children.)

374. What type of research (e.g., experiments, observational studies, cross-sectional or longitudinal studies) has been conducted to investigate the relationships between your topic and the education of children?

375. How can the impact of your topic on elementary or secondary education be mediated? In other words, if parents, caregivers, teachers, school administrators, elected officials are aware of how your topic impacts the education of children, what can they do about it?

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Q&A ANSWERS Question 15.1 If Joan is still Amyiah’s best friend in high school, how will Amiyah’s description of their friendship differ from the description she gave as a 5-year-old?

Answer: As a teenager, Amyiah’s description of Joan would focus more on intimacy. She might say, ―I can tell Joan stuff—special stuff, like secrets—that I wouldn’t tell anyone else. And I know she’ll keep my secrets.‖ And Amyiah might mention that Joan is loyal, willing to stand by her when other kids are teasing her.

Question 15.2 Brent is an 8-year-old boy who desperately wants an Xbox for his birthday. His parents are willing to buy him one, but they wonder whether they should limit the types of games that he plays. What advice would you give them?

Answer: Brent’s parents should definitely set limits. Playing violent video games can lead to several undesirable outcomes: children are more likely to behave aggressively and less likely to be empathic and sensitive to violence. His parents could forbid him from playing violent video games. If that’s not feasible, they should absolutely limit the time that he plays them.

Question 15.3 Avanti is a 16-year-old who would love to have a career in the entertainment industry—in TV, movies, or maybe music. For now, they work two nights a week (about eight hours total) as an usher at a local movie theater. At their parents’ request, one-third of their take-home pay goes into a college fund.

What is the likely impact of this part-time job on Avanti?

Answer: Avanti isn’t working enough for the job to interfere too much with school. He is interested in working in the entertainment industry, so there is some benefit to learning the business ―from the ground up.‖ Finally, he’s saving a substantial amount of his pay, which means he’s less likely to experience misleading affluence.

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