Solution Manual for Archaeology, 1st Edition

CHAPTER 1: MEET SOME REAL ARCHAEOLOGISTS I.

PREVIEW

II.

INTRODUCTION

A. B. C.

Who Was Kwäday Dän Ts‟inchi”?

Who Controls Human Remains?

Kwäday Dän Ts‟inchi”and Archaeology in North America Looking Closer: Indian or First Nations, Eskimo or Inuit?

III.

THE WESTERN WORLD DISCOVERS ITS PAST

A. B. C.

Archaeology and Society Looking Closer: AD/BC/BP . . . Archaeology’s Alphabet Soup The Discovery of Deep Time Archaeology and Native Americans

IV.

FOUNDERS OF AMERICANIST ARCHAEOLOGY

E.

Looking closer: The Development of Archaeology in Canada David Boyle: Antiquarian Schoolteacher Extraordinaire Diamond Jenness: One of Canada‟s First Academic Archaeologists A.V. “Ted” Kidder: Founder of Anthropological Archaeology In His Own Words: The Pan-Scientific Approach to Archaeology by A.V. Kidder James A. Ford: A Master of Time In His Own Words: The Goals of Archaeology by James A. Ford North American Archaeology at Mid-Twentieth Century

V.

REVOLUTION IN ARCHAEOLOGY: AN ADVANCING SCIENCE

A. B. C.

Walter W. Taylor: Moses in the Wilderness Lewis R. Binford: Visionary with a Message Looking Closer: Did the New Archaeology Catch on in Canada?

Bruce G. Trigger: Canadian Historian of World Archaeology

VI.

ARCHAEOLOGY IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY

A.

Aubrey Cannon: Archaeology Comes of Age

VII.

Conclusion: Archaeology‟s Future

A. B. C. D.

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What Students Should Learn From Chapter 1 1.

How „deep time‟ was discovered, and why the concept is important.

2.

Acronyms (AD, BC etc.) associated with archaeological dating.

3.

A brief history of Americanist Archaeology, including the development of archaeology in Canada.

4.

What caused of the revolution in archaeology in the mid-twentieth century.

5.

The archaeologists discussed in the chapter, and their contributions to the field.

6.

That archaeology today covers a broad spectrum of ideas and approaches to interpreting the past.

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Chapter 1 Lecture Suggestions 1.

Summarize the history of scientific thought from the Middle Ages through the modern science revolution, include individual contributions to the studies of archaeology and geology that helped to highlight the concept of „deep time‟. Good sources are Donald Grayson‟s The Establishment of Human Antiquity (1983) and Bruce Trigger‟s A History of Archaeological Thought (2006, second edition).

2.

Explain and summarize the five periods of Americanist Archaeology, beginning with the early antiquarians, through the speculative, classification-descriptive, classificationhistorical, and ending with the explanatory period. Identify individuals associated with each period and highlight their contributions to the field of archaeology. Again, a good source is Bruce Trigger‟s A History of Archaeological Thought (2006, second edition), Pamela Jane Smith and Donald Mitchell, Bringing Back the Past: Historical Perspectives on Canadian Archaeology (1998) and Jane H Kelley and Ronald Williamson, “The Positioning of Archaeology within Anthropology: A Canadian Historical Perspective” (American Antiquity 61:5-20)

3.

Compare the cases of Kwäday Dän Ts‟inchi” and Kennewick man, including the different perspectives and outcomes involving the CAFN and the Native Americans (e.g.

NAGPRA). See Beattie et al., “The Kwäday Dän Ts‟inchi Discovery from a Glacier in British Columbia (Canadian Journal of Archaeology 24:129-147), David Thomas, Skull Wars (2000), and Joe Watkins‟, Indigenous Archaeology (2000).

4.

Explain how you became interested in the field of archaeology, what types of classes you had to take, types of jobs you have held in archaeology, what some of the major job fields are today.

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Key Terms, Individuals and Concepts AC AD Americanist Archaeology Antiquarian Artifact Aubrey Cannon A.V. “Ted” Kidder bc BC Boucher de Perthes BP Bruce G. Trigger Charles Darwin Charles Lyell Classical Archaeology Conjunctive Approach Culture History David Boyle de‟Pizzicolli Diamond Jenness Ethnology First Nations Inuk / Inuit James A. Ford James Ussher Kwäday Dän Ts‟inchi” Kennewick Man Lewis R. Binford Métis Midden Nabonidus NAGPRA New Archaeology Petrarch Potsherd Stratigraphy The Canadian Institute Trait List Walter W. Taylor William E. Taylor Jr.

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Chapter 1 InfoTrac Exercises 1. Have students search for Kwäday Dän Ts‟inchi” to find Mary Ann Dames article summarizing the discovery, analysis, and repatriation of Kwäday Dän Ts‟inchi”s remains.

Keywords: Kwäday Dän Ts‟inchi”

2. Ask students to report on the Kennewick man controversy and the differing opinions between the Native American claiming the individual and the scientists suing to study him.

Keywords: Kennewick Man 3. Have students look under „Cultural resources AND Canada‟ to access Bennett and Lopoukhine‟s article describing Cultural Resource Management in Canada. Have them write a short paper defining „cultural resource management” and describing the implication of a site‟s social and historic significance.

4. Ask students to look under „Marie Wormington‟ to find Dennis Stanford‟s article about this pioneer woman archaeologist. Have the students outline her life‟s story and contrast her with individuals discussed in the textbook.

5. Have students search for „public archaeology AND Canada‟ to find Lea and Smardz‟s article discussing projects and programs designed to ehance public knowledge about and appreciation for archaeology.

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Chapter 1 Internet Exercises 1.

Have your students use the web to prepare a short paper outlining the history of Americanist Archaeology including the development of archaeology in Canada. A good source would be Bjorn O. Simonsen‟s article “The Canadian Archaeological Association and the development of Archaeology in Canada” on the CAA website (www.canadianarchaeology.com/history ).

2.

Ask students to visit the province of British Columbia‟s website (www.tsa.gov.bc.ca/archaeology ), and search for Kwäday Dän Ts‟inchi”. Have students review the new releases and photos, and outline the various researchers involved in this project, and discuss this topic in class.

3.

Have students visit the University of New Brunswick‟s web site (www.archaeologic.com/jobs_in_archaeology.htm) and follow the links relating to job types and education requirements for professional archaeologists. Have them write a short paper summarizing these two topics.

4.

Have your students search for Charles McGimsey‟s „The Four Fields of Archaeology‟.

(American Antiquity 68 (October 2003), pp. 611-618. After reading, ask them to discuss the different fields described by McGimsey and to assess what overlaps (if any) there are between them. This article could be accessed through JSTORE, if the student‟s library has a subscription, otherwise, the library will probably carry the journal.

CHAPTER 2: ARCHAEOLOGY, ANTHROPOLOGY, SCIENCE AND THE HUMANITIES I.

6

PREVIEW

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II.

INTRODUCTION

III.

SO, WHAT‟S AN ANTHROPOLOGICAL APPROACH?

A.

Kinds of Anthropologists Looking Closer: Academic Funding for Anthropology in Canada

IV.

THE CULTURE CONCEPT IN ANTHROPOLOGY

A.

What is Culture?

B.

How Do Anthropologists Study Culture?

C.

An Example: The Kwakwak‟awakw Looking Closer: Who Are We?

V.

SCIENTIFIC AND HUMANISTIC APPROACHES IN ARCHAEOLOGY

A.

What‟s a Scientific Approach?

B.

How Science Explains Things: The Moundbuilder Myth Archaeological Ethics: Who Owns the Past?

C.

The Scientific Method

D.

What‟s a Humanistic Approach?

Looking Closer: Sioux or Dakota?

In Her Own Words: What This Awl Means

VI.

CONCLUSION: SCIENTIST OR HUMANIST

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What Students Should Learn From Chapter 2 1.

Know what the sub-fields of Biological Anthropology, Cultural Anthropology, Linguistic Anthropology and Archaeology study, and how they relate to one another.

2.

Understand that the four sub-fields listed above make up the field of Anthropology.

3.

Understand the concept of culture and enculturation.

4.

Be able to use the concept of a potlatch to illustrate the different perspectives (ideational and adaptive) anthropologists use to study culture.

5.

Know some of the key characteristics of science.

6.

Understand the scientific method.

7.

Know the general history of investigations and theories behind the moundbuilder myths.

8.

Understand and be able to describe the differences between scientific approaches and humanistic approaches in archaeology.

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Chapter 2 Lecture Suggestions 1.

Discuss the different sub-fields of anthropology, and why it is important that anthropologists use a holistic approach to their studies. Any good introductory cultural anthropology text will be able to provide some specific examples of personalities in each of the subfields and intriguing research projects.

2.

Examine the concept of culture, including what the term means, how it is transmitted, and how it may change through time. Illustrate examples of cultural change (Example: changes in cultures on the plains after the introduction of the horse). Again, introductory cultural anthropology texts should be replete with good concrete examples.

3.

Relate some of your own experiences in dealing with different cultures. Students are always most intrigued by one‟s own personal experiences.

4.

Use a scientific approach to examine an anthropological problem, and then examine the same problem from a humanistic approach. Compare and contrast the two methods and the information they provide.

5.

Use the ethics statements from the American Anthropological Association (www.aaanet.org/committees/ethics/ethcode.htm), the American Association of Physical Anthropologists (www.physanth.org/positions/ethicsmain.htm), the Society for American Archaeology (www.saa.org) or others to illustrate changes in philosophy that have occurred in Archaeology and Anthropology in general since the mid-twentieth century.

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Key Terms, Individuals and Concepts

Adaptive Perspective Anthropology Archaeology Archaeological Record Biological Anthropology Bridging Arguments Cultural Anthropology Culture Deductive Reasoning Enculturation Ephraim Squire Ethnographers Ethnographies Humanism Hypothesis Ideational Perspective Inductive Reasoning Janet Spector John Wesley Powell Kwakwak‟awakw Linguistic Anthropology Moundbuilder Myths Multiple Working Hypotheses Objectivity Participant Observation Potlatch Science Scientific Reasoning Testability

10

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Thomas Jefferson Trade Language

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Chapter 2 InfoTrac Exercises

1.

Have your students search under “Neil de Grasse Tyson” for his two part essay, Certain Uncertainties and Belly up to the Error Bar. (These originally appeared in 1998 issues of Natural History). After reading, have them write a short paper on the major points of this humorous selection on the workings of scientific inquiry.

2.

Ask students to visit the web page for the Principles of Archaeological Ethics (www.saa.org/aboutSAA/ethics.html) as published by the Society for American Archaeology. Have them write a brief summary of the eight principles found there.

3.

Ask your students to search with the terms “Humanistic” AND “Archaeology” to locate the article by Vanpool and Vanpool discussing the scientific nature of postprocessualism.

Have them write a short paper explaining the argument outlined by the authors.

4.

Ask your students to search under “Inuit” AND “Archaeology” to find the article Archaeology and the Oral History of Inuit Land Use on the Kazan River. After reading, have them outline the major points including what new information and assistance aboriginal peoples can bring to archaeology.

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Chapter 2 Internet Exercises

1.

Ask your students to visit the website for the Canadian Association for Physical Anthropology at http://www.utsc.utoronto.ca/~chan/capa/ and examine the job announcements and careers in Physical Anthropology and summarize these in a brief paragraph or two.

2.

Ask students go the website of the American Anthropological Association (www.aaanet.org) and write a short (1page) paper about the diversity of interests found among professional anthropologists there. Questions that may be answered include: How many and what kinds of specialized groups are listed? What range of topics is covered?

3.

Ask students to visit the web page of the University of Calgary, Department of Archaeology (www.arky.ucalgary.ca ), and search for Dr. Peter Dawson, one of the authors of your textbook. Follow the link to his webpage to learn about his research interests involving spatial analysis, architecture, and the archaeology and history of the arctic. The website includes research mas and an interactive whalebone house.

4.

Have students go to http://clioseye.sfasu.edu/jefferson/archaeology.htm and read the information contained therein. Have them discuss Thomas Jefferson‟s contributions to the field of Archaeology, and his conclusions about the moundbuilders in one or two paragraphs.

CHAPTER 3: THE STRUCTURE OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL INQUIRY I.

PREVIEW

II.

INTRODUCTION

III.

LEVELS OF THEORY

A. B. C.

What Are Data?

Low-Level Theory Middle-Level Theory Looking Closer: Maggots, Moose Bone, and Middle Range Research High-Level Theory

D.

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IV.

PARADIGMS

V.

PARADIGMS IN ARCHAEOLOGY

A. B. C. D.

Cultural Materialism Processual Archaeology: Materialism at Work in Archaeology Postmodernism Archaeological Ethics: Excavating the Dead of World War I Postprocessual Archaeology: Postmodernism at Work in Archaeology

VI.

IS POSTMODERNISM ALL THAT NEW?

A.

Adolph Bandelier: Scientific Humanist or Humanistic Scientist?

Looking Closer: Anasazi or Ancestral Pueblo?

In His Own Words: Robert McGhee and the L’Anse-Amour Burial

VII.

ARCHAEOLOGY TODAY

A.

Processual-Plus

VIII.

THE STRUCTURE OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL INQUIRY

A. B.

In His Own Words: Bruce G Trigger (1937-2006) – Memories of a Graduate Student Testing Ideas Reconstructing the Past

IX.

CONCLUSION: PROCESSUALIST OR POST-PROCESSUALIST?

14

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What Students Should Learn From Chapter 3

5.

Understand the different levels of theory in archaeology.

6.

Be able to differentiate between low-level theory, middle-level theory and high-level theory.

7.

Know what data are and how they are generated.

8.

Understand the differences between and similarities of the two major paradigms (processual and post-processual) in archaeology.

9.

Know the underlying concepts of cultural materialism and postmodernism, and their relationship to the two archaeological paradigms.

10.

Understand the structure of archaeological enquiry.

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Chapter 3 Lecture Suggestions

1.

Explain the differences between and similarities of “Processual Archaeology” and “PostProcessual Archaeology”. Papers in Robert Preucel‟s 1991 Processual and Postprocessual Archaeologies: Multiple Ways of Knowing the Past (Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois Univ., Occasional Paper 10. Carbondale) can provide the basis for a point/counterpoint lecture on the two paradigms.

2.

No archaeologist falls neatly into either the processual or post-processual paradigm, especially today. As a way to depict this, explain your own paradigmatic stance in archaeology.

3.

Expand on the text‟s coverage of Bandelier‟s work at Tyuonyi, Cochiti, and other locations in the American southwest. Although this may seem irrelevant to today‟s archaeology, the purpose is to see how someone‟s work is guided by certain paradigmatic notions. And it is often easier to see the paradigms and preconceptions of researchers once we have 50 to 100 years of hindsight. If easier, you might pick a late 19th or early 20th century research from your own research area whose work is sufficiently welldocumented.

4.

Use archaeological examples drawn from your own fieldwork to illustrate data collection in low-level theory.

5.

Use examples of experimental archaeology or ethnoarchaeology to illustrate middle-level theory (although the text will go into these in more detail in chapter 10).

6.

Select a question relating to high-level theory from your own research and explain how low and middle-level theory might be used to address it.

Key Terms, Individuals and Concepts

16

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Adolph Bandelier

Low-Level Theories

Bruce G Trigger

Marvin Harris

Cultural Materialism

Middle-Level Theories

Data

Paradigm

Deconstructiion

Political Economy

Domestic Economy

Postmodernism

Ecofact

Postprocessual Paradigm

Enlightenment

Principle of Infrastructural Determinism

Ethnoarchaeology

Processual Paradigm

Experimental Archaeology

Robert McGhee

Feature

Rockshelter

General Systems Theory

Stelae

High-Level Theories

Structure

Ian Hodder

Superstructure

Infrastructure

Taphonomy

Koshare

Theory

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Chapter 3 InfoTrac Exercises

11.

Ask students to search for “Experimental Archaeology” to locate Schiffer et al. After reading the article on surface treatments of clay cooking pots, have them write a brief synopsis of the methods used by the authors, and the reasoning used to differentiate between experimental archaeology and archaeological experiments.

12.

Ask students to search for “Taphonomy” and “Canada” to locate and read an article by Burke and Cinq-Mars on using taphonomy to investigate the past environment of the Bluefish Caves in the Yukon. Have them write a short paper on the methods and results presented by the authors.

13.

Have students search using “Ethics” and “Archaeology” to find an article by Moe et al.

After reading the article, ask the student to write a short paper reviewing the authors approach to using archaeology to teach ethics, as well as character and citizenship, in the classroom.

14.

Have students search under “processual-plus” to locate an article by Michelle Hegmon.

After reading the selection, ask students to sum up the different types of archaeological theories posited by the author in a short paper.

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Chapter 3 Internet Exercises

1.

Have students go to the University of Alabama‟s web page on Anthropological Theories at www.as.ua.edu/ant/Faculty/murphy/anthros and follow the link for Cultural Materialism. After reading, have them profile the personalities associated with this perspective.

2.

Along with 1, have students use the web to prepare a short paper comparing cultural materialism and postmodernism from an anthropological perspective. Students might be able to use the Association for California Archaeology‟s website and their interview with Ian Hodder: http://www.scahome.org/educational_resources/1999_Hodder.html.

3.

Ask your students to use the web to prepare a paper on the creation of Bandelier National Monument. One place to start is the National Park Service web site at www.nps.gov/band/index.htm.

4.

Ask students to visit www.iridis.com/tzsb/Post-processual_archaeology and read the article. Afterwards, have them follow the link Processual archaeologists in the first paragraph and read that selection. Have students compare the philosophical differences in the two archaeological paradigms in a short paper.

CHAPTER 4: DOING FIELDWORK: SURVEYING FOR ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES I.

PREVIEW

II.

INTRODUCTION

III.

GOOD OLD GUMSHOE SURVEY

A.

Searching for Gatecliff Looking Closer: How Do Archaeological Sites Get Their Names?

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IV.

ARCHAEOLOGY IS MORE THAN JUST DIGGING SITES

A.

The Fallacy of the “Typical” Site In His Own Words: Surveying Late Ice Age Landscapes of Southeastern Quebec

V.

SURFACE ARCHAEOLOGY IN THE CARSON DESERT

A.

Some Sampling Considerations

B.

Getting the Sample

C.

Doing the Work

D.

What We Learned Looking Closer: Surveying the Drowned Landscapes of Gwaii Haanas

VI.

DOES SAMPLING ACTUALLY WORK? THE CHACO EXPERIMENT

VII.

QUALITY CONTROL IN SURFACE SURVEY

A.

So, What‟s a Site?

VIII.

WHAT ABOUT THINGS THAT LIE BELOW GROUND?

A.

Shovel Testing

B.

How to Find a Lost Spanish Mission (Part I) Archaeological Ethics: Professional and Avocational Archaeologists

IX.

GPS TECHNOLOGY AND MODERN SURVEYS

X.

FULL COVERAGE SURVEY

A.

The Valley of Oaxaca Archaeological Survey

B.

What‟s Outside of Monte Albán?

20

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C.

The Case for Full Coverage Survey

D.

The Special Case of Cultural Resource Management

XI.

CONCLUSION

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What Students Should Learn From Chapter 4 15.

Understand the definition of “archaeological site”.

16.

Understand that numerous different techniques are used to find archaeological sites, and be able to describe and differentiate among some of them.

17.

Understand the difference between full coverage archaeological survey and archaeological survey sampling.

18.

Understand the concept of settlement systems and patterns and be able to explain them.

19.

That there is no “typical” archaeological site; each is unique.

20.

Understand the concept of non-site archaeology.

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Chapter 4 Lecture Suggestions

1.

Give a detailed presentation on some of the tools of the archaeologist. You may wish to include demonstrations of GPS units, transits, total stations, etc. With a small class (and good weather), you could even do this as an outside class to break up the lecture routine.

2.

Relate personal experiences and the results of surveys in which you have been involved.

3.

Present a hypothetical survey area, complete with sites, and highlight different survey methodologies to illustrate how each can be used to locate the sites using a series of powerpoint slides. Explain what the advantages are of the different types of surveys. You might find the Kythera Island Project at http://www.ucl.ac.uk/kip/survey.php to be useful.

4.

Expand on the concept of settlement patterns and seasonal rounds to illustrate the differences in site locations and types.

5.

Using you own experiences, present some of the ways avocational archaeologists and professionals can interact for the betterment of the field.

6.

Explain the differences between research driven surveys and Cultural Resource Management Surveys.

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Key Terms, Individuals and Concepts

Archaeological Site

Projectile Points

Carson Desert

Sample Fraction

Chaco Canyon

Sample Units

Charles E Borden

Sample Universe

Deflation

Seasonal Round

Full Coverage Survey

Shovel-Testing

Glacial Till

Smithsonian Number

Global Positioning System

Statistical Population

Gwaii Haanas

Statistical Sampling

Julian Steward

Stratified Random Sample

Mano

Systematic Regional Survey

Metate

Total Station

Monte Albán

UTM Grid

Non-Site Archaeology

Wickiup

Plow Zone

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Chapter 4 InfoTrac Exercises

21.

Ask students to search under “Landscape Archaeology” to locate Kenneth Kvamme‟s article on the subject of geophysical surveys as landscape archaeology. After reading the article, have students outline the major premises relating to broad scale archaeological research.

22.

Have students search under “Archaeological” and “GPS” to locate the article entitled Total Station and GPS methodologies aid surface mapping of archaeological site. After reading this short selection, ask the students to recap the technology and methodology used, and summarize the relevant findings.

23.

Ask students to search under “Archaeology” and “Survey” to locate the article by Sullivan et al. discussing archaeological survey design and regional variability. After reading the article, ask the students to summarize the relevant survey strategies and how units of observation can characterize regional variability.

24.

Have students search under “Archaeology” and “Landscapes” to locate the article by Lawson et al. who employed a holistic approach investigating landscape change on Sandoy, Faroe Islands. After reading the article, ask them to summarize the methodology and conclusions of the researchers.

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Chapter 4 Internet Exercises

1.

Ask students to search the web for “Survey Methodologies and Subsistence Strategies”

by Gregory G. Indrisano of the University of Pittsburgh. Ask them to wrote a short paper explaining the survey methodology used.

2.

Have students search the web for “Archaeology at Parks Canada”. At the website have them find the link for “Resources for professionals” (left) and then “Reference material” (top). Ask them to write a summary of the approach that tries to address both the traditional values of Aboriginal peoples and Western-based historical scholarship.

3.

Ask you students to visit erg.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/factsheets/fs07701.html, a website provided by the United States Geologic Survey, and read the information regarding the Universal Transverse Mercator system. Follow this with a visit to www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/FieldMethods/UTMSystem.htm. Then have students explain how the UTM system works. Have them include in which UTM zone their school is located.

4.

Have students visit Luke Della Boda‟s http://modelling.pictographics.com/method.htm, and read the information on predictive modeling in Ontario‟s Forests. Ask them to summarize the different methods of locating sites through predictive modeling.

CHAPTER 5: DOING FIELDWORK: REMOTE SENSING AND GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS I.

PREVIEW

II.

INTRODUCTION

III.

REMOTE SENSING: DATA AT A DISTANCE

A.

High Altitude Imagery Looking Closer: Remote Sensing Imagery: Other Ways of Seeing

IV.

26

HOW TO FIND A LOST SPANISH MISSION (PART II)

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A.

The Proton Magnetometer

B.

Soil Resistivity

C.

Ground Penetrating Radar

V.

CERÉN: THE NEW WORLD POMPEII? In His Own Words: Jean-Michel Maillol and GPR in Northern Mexico

VI.

THE POTENTIAL AND LIMITATIONS OF NONINVASIVE ARCHAEOLOGY

VII.

GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS Archaeological Ethics: Assessing the Visual Impact of Oil and Gas Development on Sacred Sites in Alberta

A.

The Predictive Capacity of GIS: The Aberdeen Proving Ground

B.

Landscape Archaeology

VIII.

CONCLUSION: THE FUTURE OF REMOTE SENSING AND GIS

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27

What Students Should Learn From Chapter 5

1.

Understand what constitutes remote sensing.

2.

Understand the concept of non-invasive archaeology, and what its limits and potentials are.

3.

Be able to describe the use of High Altitude Imagery in archaeology, and give an example of the types of sites investigated using it.

4.

Be able to describe the use of the proton magnetometer in archaeology, and give an example of the types of sites investigated using it.

5.

Be able to describe the use of soil resistivity in archaeology, and give an example of the types of sites investigated using it.

6.

Be able to describe the use of ground penetrating radar in archaeology, and give an example of the types of sites investigated using it.

7.

28

Understand how Geographic Information Systems work in support of archaeology.

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Chapter 5 Lecture Suggestions

1.

Give a powerpoint presentation on the different types of high altitude imagery, including thermal infrared multispectral scanning, aerial photography, color infrared film, synthetic aperture radar, Landsat multi-spectral scanner, SPOT, and side scanning sonar (underwater imaging). One of the most useful links to remote sensing applications in archaeology is the Center for Archaeological Spatial Technologies: http://www.cast.uark.edu/~kkvamme/geop/geop.htm.

2.

Relate your personal experiences using some of the remote sensing technologies and/or GIS.

3.

Present a more in depth look at the archaeological mapping of the Chaco Road system, and how remote sensing aided in that enterprise. See: http://www.ghcc.msfc.nasa.gov/archeology/chaco.html; http://sipapu.gsu.edu/roads/index.html

4.

Examine the different “profiles” developed by proton magnetometer, soil resistivity, and ground penetrating radar surveys.

5.

Give a detailed presentation on the discoveries at Cerén, emphasizing the role played by the different remote sensing techniques. See: http://www.meierweb.us/ceren/CONTENT/INDEX.HTML

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29

Key Terms, Individuals and Concepts

Aerial Photography Cerén Chacoan Roads Color Infrared Film Geographic Information System Georeferenced Ground-Penetrating Radar High Altitude Imagery Landsat Multi-Spectral Scanner Landscape Archaeology Majorville Medicine Wheel Noninvasive Archaeology Proton Precession Magnetometer Remote Sensing Soil Resistivity Survey SPOT Synthetic Aperture Radar Thermal Infrared Multispectral Scanner

30

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Chapter 5 InfoTrac Exercises

25.

Ask students to search for “Remote Sensing” and “Archaeology” to locate an interview with Tom Sever, describing the use of technology to reveal information about the ancient world. After reading, ask the students to recap Sever‟s applications and the results of his remote sensing efforts in a short paper.

26.

Have students search for “Landscape Archaeology” to locate the article by Howard and Macklin discussing a geomorphological approach to landscape archaeology. After reading, ask students to summarize the authors approach to investigating Holocene environments.

27.

Ask students to search for “Ceren” and “Archaeology” and read the articles located.

Have students review the information garnered from the study of the site in a short paper.

28.

Have students search for “Geographic Information Systems” and “Archaeology” to locate the article by Koussoulakou and Stylianidis addressing the application of GIS to archaeological investigations. After reading the selection, ask students to write a short paper on how GIS can assist archaeologists with spatio-temoral data.

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31

Chapter 5 Internet Exercises

1.

Ask your students to visit the Canada Centre for Remote Sensing (www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca) and search “archaeology” to find “Willow Bunch”, the Eastern Slope Archaeology Project. This project is an example of how archaeology can relate not only to historic preservation but to tourism as well.

2.

Have students go to www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/archaeology/archtechnology/ and read the information associated with remote scanning and noninvasive tests. Then, using the textbook and the website, have them compare and contrast the different methods used to investigate archaeological phenomena.

3.

Ask students to visit www.history.org/history/argy/research/argyjtw1.cfm, the web site of the Jamestown Archaeological Assessment. After reading sections I through VII, ask the students to summarize the landscape archaeology evident within this interdisciplinary project.

4.

Have students visit http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/MUS/NN_sep91.html, a report on the study of the mummy Petosiris. After reading the information, ask students to explain what the investigators hope to learn by remote sensing of the remains.

CHAPTER 6: DOING FIELDWORK: WHY ARCHAEOLOGISTS DIG SQUARE HOLES XXIX. PREVIEW XXX. INTRODUCTION A.

The Folsom Site and Humanity‟s Antiquity in North America

XXXI. EXCAVATION: WHAT DETERMINES PRESERVATION? A. B. C. D.

The Duck Decoys of Lovelock Cave The Houses of Ozette The Ice Man of the Alps The Preservation Equation

XXXII.

32

PRINCIPLES OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATION

Copyright © 2009 by Nelson Education Ltd.

A. B. C. D.

Test Excavations Expanding the Test Excavation How Archaeologists Dig Expanding Gatecliff‟s Excavation

V.

PRECISION EXCAVATION

A.

Archaeological Ethics: The Curation Crisis: What Happens to all that Stuff after the Excavation?

Is That All There Is To It?

VI.

SIFTING THE EVIDENCE

A. B.

Water Screening and Matrix Sorting Flotation

VII.

CATALOGING THE FINDS

VIII.

CONCLUSION: ARCHAEOLOGY‟S CONSERVATION ETHIC: DIG ONLY WHAT YOU MUST Profile of an Archaeologist: A Day in the Life of a Territorial Archaeologist

Copyright © 2009 by Nelson Education Ltd.

33

What Students Should Learn From Chapter 6

1.

Understand that archaeological excavation destroys the portions of the site that are excavated.

That is why archaeologists use such stringent techniques to record

proveniences of materials in the field. This allows the archaeologists to reconstruct the contexts of the excavations in a virtual environment.

2.

Preservation of artifacts is the result of local climatic conditions. Continuously dry, wet, or cold environments aid in preservation because they retard the growth of microorganisms that cause decay.

3.

Initially, vertical test units are typically employed to gain chronological control over the site.

4.

Horizontal excavations rely on contextual information to learn about past lifeways.

Provenience information on each artifact and ecofact is critical to the interpretation of the site.

5.

Recovery techniques used to collect artifacts and ecofacts not located in situ or that are very small include screening, flotation, and bulk matrix processing.

6.

All artifacts and ecofacts are tied to the site‟s three dimensional provenience system, site excavation notes, and other information through a series of individual catalog numbers.

7.

Understand that archaeologists keep exacting records about what they excavate, in order to allow other researchers to see the site in the same way as the original excavators.

8.

Archaeology is a hands-on field. It cannot be learned form classroom experiences, computer simulations, or textbooks.

34

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Chapter 6 Lecture Suggestions

1.

Explain the three dimensional provenience system used by most archaeologists. Illustrate the way that elevations are taken in reference to the elevational datum of the site, and how different grid systems are used.

2.

Explain the provenience systems used on excavations in which you have been involved.

Follow a series of artifacts from their discovery locations to their final curation location.

3.

Expand upon the story of George McJunkin, the discoverer of the Folsom Site by using other examples of how early provenience studies helped to solidify the antiquity of humans on the North American continent (Blackwater Draw, etc).

4.

Expand on the preservation topic using examples from waterlogged locations, dry caves, and icesheets (you can search the internet for information on a “ice mummy” found in the Canadian Rockies a few years ago, and “Andean” or “Peruvian” mummies, found on mountain tops.

Copyright © 2009 by Nelson Education Ltd.

35

Key Terms, Individuals and Concepts

Arbitrary Level Cataloging Curation Crisis Datum Point Flotation George McJunkin in situ Jesse Figgins Living Floors Lovelock Cave Matrix-Sorting Natural Level Ötzi the Ice Man Ozette Pleistocene Provenience Strata Test Excavation Water-screening

36

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Chapter 6 InfoTrac Exercises

33.

Ask students to search using “Folsom” and “Site” to locate the article by Meltzer et. al, reporting on the past investigations and current studies of the original Folsom site. After reading the article, ask students to compare and contrast the questions asked by the earlier investigators to those asked by Meltzer and his associates.

34.

Have students search for “Bog bodies” to locate the article “The People of the Bog” by Shanti Menon that describes ancient remains preserved in bogs of northern Europe and England. After reading the article, ask students to write a short paper about the conditions which favor preservation in bogs, and what has been learned from the study of the “bog people”.

35.

Ask students to search for “Chronology” and “Archaeology” to locate the report on radiocarbon dating and the peopling of the New World by Michael Bever. After reading the selection, ask students to explain some of the controversy and contradicting interpretations surrounding this topic.

36.

Have students search for “Tool” and “Excavation” to locate the article by Panger and Boesch dealing with excavations at a chimpanzee stone tool use site. After reading the article, ask students to write a short paper about what conclusions the excavators reached regarding stone tool use at the location.

Copyright © 2009 by Nelson Education Ltd.

37

Chapter 6 Internet Exercises

1.

Have students visit http://isthmia.osu/arched/excavation.html and www.keyschool.org/londontown/Pages/Pages/archbg.html . After examining the two websites, ask students to create a hypothetical archaeological grid system on paper, with notes indicating how they decided upon the layout. Note: The Keyschool web site uses feet instead of meters.

2.

Ask students to search the web for “Artifacts” and “Ice fields” to locate information about archaeological materials exposed by melting glaciers and ice fields. Have students create a list of site locations and artifact types recovered by archaeologists from these contexts.

3.

Ask students to find an excerpt of Elaine Anton‟s paper on the “History of Archaeology in Newfoundland” at http://nfmuseum.cm/history.htm. After reading through the article, ask students to summarize the history of investigations, as well as how excavations and interpretations have changed through the years.

CHAPTER 7: GEOARCHAEOLOGY AND SITE FORMATION I.

PREVIEW

II.

INTRODUCTION

III.

THE LAW OF SUPERPOSITION

A.

Fossilized Mammoth Footprints in Alberta: The Law of Superposition in Action

XXXVII.

READING THE DIRT AT THE STAMPEDE SITE

Looking Closer: Human Hunting and Megafauna Extinction: The View from Wally’s Beach A.

The Stratigraphy of the Stamped Site

B.

Why Was More Dirt Deposited in Some Periods than in Others?

38

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C.

Marker Beds

V.

IS STRATIGRAPHY REALLY THAT EASY?

A.

Reverse Stratigraphy at Chetro Ketl In Her Own Words: Geoarchaeology and SCAPE

VI.

SITE FORMATION PROCESSES: HOW GOOD SITES GO BAD

A.

Formation Processes in the Systemic Context

B.

Formation Processes in the Archaeological Context

C.

An Ancient Living Floor at Cagny-l‟Epinette Archaeological Ethics: Should Antiquities be Returned to the Country of Origin?

VII.

CONCLUSION

Copyright © 2009 by Nelson Education Ltd.

39

What Students Should Learn From Chapter 7

1.

Geoarchaeology applies the techniques of geosciences to the study of archaeological problems.

2.

The study of site stratigraphy using geoarchaeology allows archaeologists to place sites in a chronological framework, based on the law of superposition.

3.

Human and natural processes can work together in complex ways to create archaeological sites. Geoarchaeology aids archaeologists in determining how these processes interact.

4.

The archaeological and systemic contexts of an artifact must be understood in order to interpret the cultural and natural processes that resulted in its burial and recovery.

5.

Artifacts can be moved or altered by natural site formation processes, and geoarchaeologists use their understanding of these processes to ascertain how much artifact movement has occurred during or after deposition. A variety of tests and methods are available to aid in this task.

40

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Chapter 7 Lecture Suggestions

1.

Explain the different soil types found in your general area. Information about soil landscapes of Canada, including detailed soil surveys, can be found at the National Soil Database (NSDB) (http://sis.agr.ca/cansis/nsdb).

2.

Illustrate an example of site formational processes using an archaeological site that you have excavated.

3.

Present a lecture on the exodus of antiquities from Egypt during the 18th, 19th, and early 20th century. Explain the activities that removed these items in terms of the cultural dynamics of the period, and how those dynamics are viewed today. Starting with the Archaeological Institute of America‟s website, http://www.archaeological.org/webinfo.php?page=10218, trace the case of Frederic Schultz, an art dealer convicted of selling illegally obtained artifacts from Egypt.

4.

Give examples of different types of artifact distributions; those affected by deflation, cryoturbation, bioturbation, etc. Some simple powerpoint animation can help drive the point home that various natural processes affect artifacts after they are in the ground. Be sure to make the point that these do not destroy the archaeological record, but modify it in ways that can be taken into account once the archaeologists is aware of the changes.

Copyright © 2009 by Nelson Education Ltd.

41

Key Terms, Individuals and Concepts

Aeolian

Formation Processes

A Horizon

Geoarchaeology

Alluvial Sediments

Geomorphology

Archaeological Context

Graviturbation

Argilliturbation

Krotovina

B Horizon

Law of Superposition

Chetro Ketl

Marker Beds

C Horizon

Nicholaus Steno

Colluvial Sediments

Paleosol

Cryoturbation

Pithouse

Cultural Disturbance Processes

Reclamation Processes

Faunalturbation

Reuse Processes

Fining Upward Sequence

Reverse Stratigraphy

Floralturbation

Site Formation

Footprints at Wally‟s Beach

Soil Systemic Context

42

Copyright © 2009 by Nelson Education Ltd.

Chapter 7 InfoTrac Exercises

38.

Ask students to search for “Stratigraphy” and “Archaeology” to relocate WeinsteinEvron‟s article re-examining the stratigraphy at Shukbah Cave, Judea, Palestine.

After

reading the selection, ask students to write a short summary of the author‟s argument for redefining burial-types belonging to the Natufian.

39.

Have students search for “Archaeological Site Formation” to locate the method paper by Wilkinson et al. addressing the threat to archaeological sites from the erosion of cultivated soil. After reading the article, have the students write a short paper outlining the authors‟ argument.

40.

Ask students to search for “Geoarchaeology” and “Preservation” to locate the article by Waters and Kuehn relating to geological processes and the archaeological record. After reading, have students compare and contrast the authors‟ arguments about archaeological site preservation between North Dakota and Arizona.

41.

Have students search for “Turbation” and “Stratigraphy” to locate the article by Huckell and Haynes about their reexamination of Ventana Cave. After reading the article, ask students to write a short paper about the earlier interpretations and how examination of the stratigraphy allowed the authors to reach different conclusions.

Copyright © 2009 by Nelson Education Ltd.

43

Chapter 7 Internet Exercises

1.

Ask students to visit www.cr.nps.gov/aad/kennewick/huck_stein.htm and read the article about the analyses of sediments associated with Kennewick Man. After reading, ask students to write a short report outlining how the authors determined the stratigraphic origin of the skeletal remains.

2.

Have students read www.denison.edu/geology/pdf/MunsonSprng_Geoarch_2001.pdf, a publication dealing with the geomorphology of a small site in Ohio, by Frolking and Lepper. Have the students compare the three scenarios proposed by the excavators and explain how the investigators reached their final conclusions.

3.

Ask students to visit the web site titled Geoarchaeology at http://accessibility.englishheritage.org.uk/Filestore/publications/pdf/free/Geoarchaeology.pdf. Ask students to give several defining characteristics of colluvial, alluvial, aeolian, wetland and marine deposits, and indicate where each type is likely to be found.

4.

Have students search “Bliss Islands” to find a JSTOR article by Black and Turnbull describing the recent archaeological research on the Insular Quoddy Region, New Brunswick. After reading the article, have the students write a short summary of the authors‟ findings.

CHAPTER 8: CHRONOLOGY BUILDING: HOW TO GET A DATE I.

PERVIEW

II.

INTRODUCTION

III.

RELATIVE DATING

A. B.

The Index Fossil Concept in Archaeology The Next Step: Seriation Looking Closer: Using Seriation to Examine the Origins of the Iroquois.

IV.

ABSOLUTE DATING

A.

Tree Ring Dating

44

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B. C.

Radiocarbon Dating: Archaeology‟s Workhorse Accelerator Dating: Taking Radiocarbon to the Limit Looking Closer: How to Calibrate Radiocarbon Dates Looking Closer: Re-Dating an Ancient and Controversial Bone Tool from the Yukon Territory.

In His Own Words: Isotrace and the Use of AMS Dating in Canada

A. B.

Trapped Charge Dating Potassium-Argon and Argon-Argon

V.

WHAT DO DATES MEAN?

A.

How Old Are the Pyramids?

VI.

THE CHECK, PLEASE

VII.

DATING IN HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY

A. B. C.

Archaeological Ethics: What’s Wrong with Buying Antiquities? (Part I) Pipe Stem Dating Terminus Post Quem Dating Mean Ceramic Dates

VIII.

CONCLUSION

Copyright © 2009 by Nelson Education Ltd.

45

What Students Should Learn From Chapter 8 1.

Relative dating in archaeology includes methods such as stratigraphic position, seriation, correlation of time markers and index fossils.

2.

Absolute dating includes methods such as dendrochronology, radiocarbon, accelerator mass spectrometer, trapped charge, potassium-argon and argon-argon.

3.

Dendrochronology establishes the year of death of the tree, but is of use only in limited areas. In the American Southwest, dates using dendrochronology can extend back about 2000 years.

4.

Radiocarbon dating a very important dating technique, and can date organic materials less than 45,000 years, based on the known rate of decay of carbon-14. Radiocarbon years do not equal calendar years at a 1 to 1 ratio. Although the atmospheric level of carbon 14 has changed, correlations between tree rings and carbon dates have allowed archaeologists to calibrate dates from radiocarbon years to calendar years.

5.

The Accelerator Mass Spectrometer (AMS) method uses very small samples of carbon to obtain radiocarbon dates.

6.

Thermoluminescence (ceramics, burned stone), Optically Stimulated Luminescence (eolian sediments), and Electron Spin Resonance (tooth enamel) calculate the amount of radiation contained within the material since the electron >clock= was last reset. These methods can date items that are beyond the range or radiocarbon - into the range of 10s of thousands of years.

7.

Potassium-argon and argon-argon dating are used to date volcanic rock radiometrically.

These methods can produce dates beyond the limits of radiocarbon or the trapped charge dating.

46

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8.

Dating techniques do not date cultural activities themselves. For instance, radiocarbon dates tell when an animal or plant died, and must be related to the cultural event of interest.

9.

Dating of historical sites is usually accomplished by documentary evidence, by recovery of known age artifacts, mean ceramic dates, or terminus post quem dating.

Copyright © 2009 by Nelson Education Ltd.

47

Chapter 8 Lecture Suggestions

1.

Present the history of radiocarbon dating, from its inception by Willard F. Libby, through the most recent advancement, the nondestructive radiometric technique (see American Antiquity 2004 (v 69, no. 4) Karen Steelman et al., “Nondestructive radiocarbon dating: naturally mummified infant bundle from SW Texas”

2.

Give a presentation on chronological time markers in your area (projectile point styles, ceramic styles, ect.).

3.

Go to CALIB, from the University of Washington: http://radiocarbon.pa.qub.ac.uk/calib/ and calibrate some radiocarbon dates on screen.

4.

Explain the stratigraphy and associated radiocarbon dates from a site that you have worked on. What problems did you encounter?

5.

Expand on the concept of marker beds, index fossils, potassium-argon and argon-argon dating and the ages of hominid fossils using examples from Paleoanthropology in Africa.

The Dmanisi site in Georgia is a recent find, with an excellent website: http://www.dmanisi.org.ge/ and some terrific graphics.

6.

Explain the changes in manufacturing techniques that allow dating brackets to be assigned to bottles. You may wish to include maker‟s marks as dating criteria in historical archaeology. The Bureau of Land Management‟s Historic Bottles web page at www.blm.gov/historic_bottles/index.htm can provide some useful images.

48

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Key Terms, Individuals and Concepts 14

C

Mean Ceramic Date

Absolute Date

Neanderthals

Accelerator Dating

Nels Nelson

Accelerator Mass Spectrometry

Old Wood Problem

Alfred Kroeber

Optically Stimulated Luminescence

Andrew E. Douglass

Photosynthetic Pathways

Argon-Argon Dating

Pipe Stem Dating

Betatakin

Potassium-Argon Dating

C3 and C4 Plants

Radiocarbon Calibration

CAM Plants

Radiocarbon Dating

Dendrochronology

Relative Date

de Vries Effect

Reservoir Effect

Direct Historical Approach

Richard “Scotty” MacNeish

Dosimeter

San Cristobal Pueblo

Egyptian Pyramids

Seriation

Electron Spin Resonance

Terminus Post Quem

Historical Archaeology

Thermoluminescence

Homo erectus

Time-Markers

Index Fossil Concept

Trapped Charge Dating

Khufu

Tree Ring Dating

Libby Half-Life

Willard F. Libby

Copyright © 2009 by Nelson Education Ltd.

49

Chapter 8 InfoTrac Exercises

42.

Have students search for “Seriation” to locate an article by Kintigh et. al, dealing with settlement history in the Zuni area of New Mexico. After reading the article, ask them to summarize the seriation information presented by the authors.

43.

Ask students to search for “Dendrochronology” to locate the article by Bonde and Christensen, relating to the dating of Viking age ship burials in Norway. After reading, ask them to recap the findings of the authors regarding the contemporaneity of the burials, and how the investigators reached their conclusions.

44.

Ask students to locate “50 Years of Radiocarbon Dating” by Taylor. After reading the article, ask them to outline the advances in radiocarbon dating over the last half century listed by the author.

45.

Ask students to search for “radiocarbon dating” and “Canada” locate an article by Richards et. al reporting on the AMS dating and isotopic analysis of the Kwaday Dan T.s‟inchi remains. After reading the article have them summarize the difficulties associated with radiocarbon dating material from the site.

50

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Chapter 8 Internet Exercises

1.

Have students visit Michaels and Fagan‟s University of California, Santa Barbara, web site at http://id-archserve.ucsb.edu/Anth3/Courseware/Chronology/01_Contents.html.

After following the links, viewing the .mov files and reading the text, site, ask students to summarize the dating techniques outlined in this web site.

2.

Have students visit the web site of the Anthropology Outreach Office of the Smithsonian Institution at www.nmnh.si.edu/anthro/outreach/edreldat.html. Select two or more of the seven exercises related to seriation listed on the web page and have your students complete them.

3.

Ask students to visit the Bureau of Land Management‟s Historic Bottles web page at www.blm.gov/historic_bottles/index.htm. Select a series of key dating attributes and construct a few hypothetical bottles, then ask students to provide a range of dates for the bottles based on the criteria available inside this well illustrated web site. Alternatively, use actual historic bottle fragments or complete bottles for a more hands-on approach.

4.

Have students search for and visit the website of the Canadian Archaeological Radiocarbon Database (CARD) and click on the “CARD reviews” link to find the article

by Hoopes outlining various on-line radiocarbon databases worldwide. After reading the article, ask students to visit some of the on-line databases and briefly summarize the information presented.

CHAPTER 9: THE DIMENSIONS OF ARCHAEOLOGY: TIME, SPACE AND FORM I.

PREVIEW

II.

INTRODUCTION

III.

AFTER THE EXCAVATION: CONSERVATION AND CATALOGING

IV.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION

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51

A.

Types of Types Looking Closer: Harpoon Heads as Temporal Types in the Canadian Arctic.

V.

DOING TYPOLOGY

A.

Paleo-Indian Projectile Point Typology in Southern Ontario

B.

Examining More Broad Scale Changes in Projectile Points Looking Closer: The Frison Effect

C.

Paleo-Indian Points as Temporal Types

VI.

TIME-SPACE SYSTEMATICS

A.

Archaeological Cultures: Dividing Space Profile of an Archaeologist: A Cultural Resource Management Archaeologist

B.

Periods: Dividing Time

C.

Phases: Combining Time and Space

D.

Phases: The Basic Units of Space-Time Systematics

VI.

CONCLUSION: SPACE-TIME SYSTEMATICS AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL OBJECTIVES Archaeological Ethics: What’s Wrong With Buying Antiquities (Part II)?

What Students Should Learn From Chapter 9

1.

Archaeology contributes significantly to anthropological understanding by studying long term temporal processes across large areas.

2.

Conservation and cataloging of artifacts are important but time consuming steps that archaeologists must complete, sometimes requiring the help of specialists in artifact preservation.

52

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3.

Classification of artifacts into different types (typology) begins in the field, where artifacts may be sorted into different categories according to materials. Laboratory analyses further divide the artifacts according to more exacting criteria.

4.

Morphological types are fashioned by archaeologists based on assumptions of shared aspects of culture. Researchers postulate that the way particular types of artifacts were made is due to shared ideas of what they should look like. Whether or not the final forms of the artifacts had meanings or were of special importance to the makers are not important at this point in the analyses.

5.

The basic unit of analysis is the type. The type is an idealized concept that permits archaeologists to construct broader, more generalized categories.

6.

Temporal types examine how artifacts change through time, while morphological types focus on broad similarities and are more descriptive. Artifacts arranged by functional types concentrate on similarity of use or purpose, regardless of morphology.

7.

Differences within groups are minimized and differences between groups are maximized using typology.

8.

Explicit, objective and replicable criteria are needed to assign artifacts to types accurately.

9.

Spatial patterning in material culture helps define archaeological traditions or cultures.

These are not the same as ethnographic cultures.

10.

Site components are constructed by seeking out clusters of temporal types. These clusters are culturally homogeneous units within a single site, and can be synthesized into phases. Phases are archaeological units of cultural homogeneity that are restricted in both space and time, and are the basic building block for regional synthesis.

Copyright © 2009 by Nelson Education Ltd.

53

11.

Space-time systematics is but one step toward the larger goals of reconstructing and explaining the past.

54

Copyright © 2009 by Nelson Education Ltd.

Chapter 9 Lecture Suggestions

1.

Using examples from ancestral pueblo sites, illustrate the use of typologies in classification of different ceramic types. This can be expanded into a discussion of different phases of ceramic decoration and stylistic variation across both time and space.

2.

Elaborate on the archaeological periods defined in the region of your choice. Include discussions of artifact types associated with each period, changes and similarities seen between periods, and similarities and differences with adjacent regions.

3.

Using projectile point/ceramic chronologies and typologies from the area of your choice, explain the defining characteristics of each point type, as well as their spatial and temporal distributions. Develop a hands-on experience in which students take a physical artifact and work through a typology to place the artifact into its type (similar to how the text types a Great Basin projectile point).

4.

Examine the different phases of the prehistoric moundbuilding cultures of the eastern United States. Describe the spatial patterning of settlements, and the characteristics and artifacts that are diagnostic of the specific archaeological culture expressions.

Copyright © 2009 by Nelson Education Ltd.

55

Key Terms, Individuals and Concepts

Assemblage Attribute Component Francois Bordes Frison Effect Functional Type Lithic reduction Sequence Morphological Type Mousterian Period Phase Space-Time Systematics Temporal Type Type Typology

56

Copyright © 2009 by Nelson Education Ltd.

Chapter 9 InfoTrac Exercises

1.

Ask students to search for „Harpoon Heads‟ to locate an article by Park discussing culture contact between the Thule and Dorset cultures in the Arctic. After reading, ask the students to summarize the author‟s argument for the Thule adopting the Dorset harpoonhead styles.

2.

Have students search for „Point Typology‟ to locate the article by Bettinger and Eerkins dealing with the spread of bow-and-arrow technology in the Great Basin of the American west. After reading, ask students to summarize the arguments made by the authors about the success of typological divisions relying on attribute analysis in the different portions of the Great Basin.

3.

Have the students search for „Projectile Point‟ to find a report by Cheshier and Kelly.

The authors are using an experimental approach investigating shape and durability of various projectile points. Ask the students to read the report and to briefly sum up the authors‟ findings.

4.

Ask students to search for „Morphological Typology‟ to locate an article by Fullagar and Field relating to seed grinding implements from Australia‟s arid region. After reading, ask students to produce a short report on the typological assignations applied to the grinding implements from the site, and how the authors used ethnographic analogy to interpret the site function and past climates.

5.

Have students search for „Attributes‟ and „Archaeology‟ to locate an article describing geographic variation in fluted projectile points in North and South America by Juliet E. Morrow and Toby A. Morrow. After reading the article, ask the students to summarize the changes noted in the attributes of the projectile points across time and space.

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57

Chapter 9 Internet Exercises

1.

Ask students to visit the projectile point typology web page from Warren-Wilson College in North Carolina at www.warren-wilson.edu/~arch/fieldandmethodpoints.html. After viewing the illustrations and descriptions, ask students to create attribute lists and discuss differences in styles of projectile points from either the Archaic or Woodland/Mississippian periods.

2.

Ask students to visit www.umanitoba.ca/faculties/arts/anthropology/manarchnet/chronology/, located at the University of Manitoba. This location presents a chronological overview of the prehistoric cultures in that area. After browsing the various traditions presented, ask students to outline the differences in artifact assemblages and subsistence strategies across time and the various geographic regions mentioned.

3.

Have students visit http://archnet.asu.edu/archives/ceramic/hgloss/hgloss.html at the University of Arizona, and read through the glossary of ceramic attributes. Afterwards, ask them to summarize the different types of characteristics used to differentiate ceramic sherds and assemblages.

4.

Ask students to visit www.texasbeyondhistory.net/pavoreal/paleoindian.html, an article about identifying and separating components at the Palo Real Paleoindian site in Texas.

Afterwards, have students write a short report on the methods used by the site investigators to separate artifacts into components, and identify the problems associated with the separation.

CHAPTER 10: TAPHONOMY, EXPERIMENTAL ARCHAEOLOGY, AND ETHNOARCHAEOLOGY

I.

PREVIEW

II.

INTRODUCTION

58

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III.

MIDDLE RANGE RESEARCH: WHAT IS IT?

A.

Some Bones of Contention

B.

Analogy Versus Middle Range Theory Archaeological Ethics: The Ethics of Doing Ethnoarchaeology

IV.

TAPHONOMY

A.

Taphonomy at the Hudson-Meng Bison Bonebed

B.

Taphonomy and Uniformitarianism Looking Closer: Boundaries and Bones: Reconstructing Social Space at Head-SmashedIn Buffalo Jump

V.

EXPERIMENTAL ARCHAEOLOGY

A.

How Were Stone Tools Made?

B.

Experimental Archaeology and Uniformitarianism Looking Closer: Obsidian Blade Technology: Modern Surgery’s Newest Ancient Frontier

C.

What Were Stone Tools Used For?

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59

VI.

ETHNOARCHAEOLOGY

A.

Binford Takes Off for Points North In His Own Words: Why I Began Doing Ethnoarchaeology

B.

Ethnoarchaeology in Madagascar Looking Closer: Using Ethnoarchaeology to Assess Inuit Housing needs

C.

Ethnoarchaeology and Uniformitarianism

VII.

CONCLUSION

60

Copyright © 2009 by Nelson Education Ltd.

What Students Should Learn From Chapter 10

1.

Archaeologists must follow the principle of uniformitarianism from geology in order to understand the ”facts” of archaeology by studying ongoing processes and their material remains.

2.

The use of analogy is one way to reconstruct the past. Its utility is limited to those societies that have very close cultural and geographic counterparts, or to relatively lowlevel inferences.

3.

Middle-range research allows archaeologists to make better inferences from archaeological data by clarifying the basis for the inference. Middle-range research is designed to create bridging arguments that link human behavior and/or natural processes to material remains.

4.

Critical to the development of middle-range theory is the principle of uniformitarianism.

This principle is what allows confidence in middle-range theory‟s ability to infer natural processes or human behavior from archaeological remain

5.

Relational analogies rely on causal linkages or cultural continuity to justify their use in archaeological inference, while formal analogies rely on similarities in formal attributes.

Analogies can be relational, formal, or a mixture of both.

6.

Middle-range theory is a particular type of analogy. It attempts to demonstrate why a particular pattern in the archaeological data can be clearly interpreted in a particular way.

7.

The study of how natural processes help create the archaeological record is called taphonomy. Taphonomy helps to eliminate patterns that are the result of natural processes. Similarly, it helps define patterns that need to be interpreted in terms of human behavior. Taphonomy also helps archaeologists understand the environmental context of past human behavior.

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61

8.

Experimental archaeology studies things that cannot be observed in action today.

Replicative experiments are one class of experimental archaeology. These experiments can help illustrate what techniques could or could not have been used in the past. Stone tool experiments and subsequent usewear studies can also link material signatures and human behavior.

9.

Ethnoarchaeologists study living societies, observing material remains, features and artifacts in their systemic behavioral contexts. Ethnoarchaeology then links human behavior with the archaeologically observable material remains.

10.

In ethnoarchaeology, the principle of uniformitarianism is the most difficult of the three ways to develop middle-range theory.

62

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Chapter 10 Lecture Suggestions

1.

Expand on the story of James Hutton, and the principle of uniformitarianism. Contrast this principle with the theory of punctuated equilibrium and catastrophism.

2.

Using studies of bonebed taphonomy, present a lecture on the many different types of information available from studies of bonebed formation and preservation. Numerous studies are available on the web, from both archaeological and paleontological perspectives.

3.

Present an ethnoarchaeological study from the region of your choice (consult references cited in the text, e.g., Yellen‟s work with the Bushmen relating site size, population, length of occupation; Kramer‟s work with pottery in Rajastan. Explain how the study of the living groups enhances the understanding of the archaeological record.

4.

Present a lecture on experimental replication of specific artifact types. You may wish to include live demonstrations or guest presenters with expertise in artifact replications.

5.

Examine the use of analogy linking modern puebloan cultures to prehistoric architectural ruins in the American southwest.

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Key Terms, Individuals and Concepts

Alfred Kroeber

Heat-Treatment

Analogy

I. A. Efremov

Atlatl

Ishi

Bonebed

Kiva

Bram Tucker

Lawrence Keeley

Channel Flake

Lewis Binford

Core

Microwear

Don Crabtree

Mikea

Ethnoarchaeology

Principle of Uniformitarianism

Experimental Archaeology

Relational Analogies

Faunal

Robert Kelly

Flake

Saxon Pope

Flute

Sergei Semenov

Folsom Points

Sipapu

Formal Analogies

Slash-and-Burn

Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump

Taphonomy

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Chapter 10 InfoTrac Exercises

1.

Have students search for „Taphonomy‟ to locate an article by Chase and Nowell relating to the taphonomic examination of a possible bone flute recovered from a Middle Paleolithic site in Slovenia dated to 43,100 years ago. After reading, ask the students to summarize the arguments the authors make regarding the probably processes that resulted in the formation of the „flute‟.

2.

Ask students to search for „Experimental Archaeology‟ and „Pots‟ to locate an article by Schiffer et al. dealing with experimental construction and firing of ceramic vessels.

After reading, ask the students to outline the procedures used by the authors to replicate prehistoric ceramics, and to summarize the results presented.

3.

Ask students to search for „Ethnoarchaeology‟ to locate the article by Sillitoe and Hardy dealing with lithic tool production and use in Papua New Guinea. After reading the article, have students outline the major points that the authors note about manufacture, use, discard and storage of lithic tools in Wola culture.

4.

Have students search for „Castle‟ and „Experiment‟ to locate the article by Evan Hadingham about the replication of medieval trebuchets. After reading, ask students to write a short paper about the reasoning behind the construction, and what the experimenters hoped to learn.

5.

Ask the students to search for „Experimental Archaeology‟ to find an article by O‟Flaherty investigating the Irish early Bronze Age halberd (two-handed pole weapon).

Have the students sum up what the author hoped to determine, the methods used, and what he found.

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Chapter 10 Internet Exercises

1.

Ask students to visit the Stone Age Institute at http://www.stoneageinstitute.org/c_facility.shtml and go to the sections on experimental and actualistic studies under the Research heading. After reading, have students write a short paper about the contributions made by each of the studies, and how these aid researchers in understanding the archaeological record.

2.

Have students visit the Journal of Taphonomy website at http://www.journaltaphonomy.com/, and browse the sample issue. Ask students to select one of the three articles presented therein and summarize the methodology and results presented by the investigators in a short paper.

3.

Have the students visit the Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump website (http://www.headsmashed-in.com) and review the section on “archaeological facts”, including the link to “anatomy of the site”. Ask the students to sum up the findings and interpretations of the Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump site.

4.

Ask students to visit the web site of the Butser Ancient Farm and read the essay by Dr. Peter J. Reynolds regarding the differences between experience and experimentation in archaeology. The essay is located at www.butser.org.uk/iafexp_hcc.html. After reading, ask students to outline the differences between experiential archaeology and experimental archaeology as defined by Dr. Reynolds.

CHAPTER 11: PEOPLE, PLANTS, AND ANIMALS IN THE PAST I.

PREVIEW

II.

INTRODUCTION

III.

WHAT‟S AN ARCHAEOFAUNA?

A.

The Agate Basin Site

B.

Ancient DNA Analysis: A New Tool for Zooarchaeology

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C.

Salmon Utilization and the Emergence of Social Complexity Profile of an Archaeologist: Ariane Burke

D.

Case Study 1: Salmon Use and Social Hierarchy at Keatley Creek

E.

Case Study 2: Salmon Use and Early Sedentism at Namu

F.

The Future of DNA Analysis in Zooarchaeology

IV.

STUDYING PLANT REMAINS FORM ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES

A.

Palynology Looking Closer: Palynology of Shanidar Cave: Why Formation Processes Matter

B.

What Plants Did People Eat in the Stillwater Marsh?

C.

Wood Rat Nests

D.

Coprolites of Hidden Cave In Her Own Words: Black Holes and Plateau Paleoethnobotany

E.

Lipid Analysis: Squeezing Fat from Ceramics

V.

THE SYMBOLIC MEANING OF PLANTS: THE UPPER MANTARO VALLEY PROJECT

A.

What Explains Wood Use?

B.

Relating Ideology to the Past

VI.

CONCLUSION

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What Students Should Learn From Chapter 11

1.

The reconstruction of past environments and diets are aided by the study of plant and animal remains. Without environmental contexts dietary reconstructions are limited in utility.

2.

The study of animal remains from archaeological sites (called faunal analysis) can give direct evidence of the species used for food, how they were harvested, and what methods were used to butcher the animals. In addition, by using animal birthing and tooth eruption schedules, faunal remains may help to establish the season of the year when the site was occupied.

3.

The remains of plants are excellent sources of data, and are usually recovered from archaeological sites by a process called flotation.

4.

The study of pollen (termed Palynology) is most useful in studying past regional environments. Using pollen diagrams, palynologists can document how local and regional vegetation has changed through time.

5.

The nests of wood rats (pack rats) can preserve records of local environmental change that are millennia-long.

6.

Intact plant parts (called macrofossils) can provide direct evidence of which plants were exploited, plant processing technology, and the season of site occupation. These are also important to the reconstruction of paleoenvironments.

7.

Small grains of silica (called phytoliths) that form inside plant stems can give indications of which plant species were present at the site.

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8.

Desiccated feces, or coprolites, provide evidence of what people ate. They can be especially useful indicators of plant and small animal consumption, and may aid in interpreting food storage practices.

9.

Information about plant and meat use and cooking methods can be gained from new analytic techniques, including the analysis of lipids preserved on the interior of ceramic vessels.

10.

The economic basis of people‟s interactions with the environment may be frequently overlain with multiple layers of symbolic meaning.

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Chapter 11 Lecture Suggestions

1.

Expand upon the concept of tooth eruption schedules and determination of seasonality, using illustrations from species available in your area prehistorically. Include comparative information from tooth wear studies and long bone articular fusion schedules.

2.

Present a lecture detailing the differences in specific bone elements of several species, as well as the sexual dimorphism present in most species.

3.

Illustrate the difficulties of element and species identification by having students participate in a hands-on exercise where they attempt to match small fragments to locations on complete bones of the same faunal species. Then ask the students to calculate MNI and NISP for the fragments.

4.

Examine the differences in local and regional pollen signatures, and what each can tell about site locations and past environments. Compare and contrast the information available from pollen studies on a regional scale, and from phytolith studies from a specific site. Explain how these can be used as complimentary approaches, with one providing coarse grained information, and the other very fine grained environmental data.

5.

Present a lecture on the use of human coprolites in dietary reconstruction for prehistoric puebloan cultures in the American southwest. Numerous resources are available on the world wide web (some of which consider the evidence for cannibalism in the northern southwest).

6.

Prepare a lecture on the ethnobotany of the region of your choice. Include information tying archaeological plant remains to the ethnobotany of the area‟s native inhabitants.

You may wish to incorporate information about medical plant use, selection of species for specific tasks like basketry production or weapons use.

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Key Terms, Individuals and Concepts

Agate Basin Site

Macrobotanical Remains

Ancient DNA Analysis

Mantaro Valley

Appendicular Skeleton

Matt Hill

Archaeofauna

Middle Period Marpole Culture

Axial Skeleton

MNI – Minimum Number of Individuals

C. Vance Haynes

Namu

Christine Hastorf and Sissel Johannessen

NISP – Number of Identified Specimens

Clovis

Paleoethnobotanist

Comparative Collection

Palynology

Coprolite

Phytoliths

Element

Pollen Diagram

Faunal Analysis

Seasonality

Faunal Analyst

Shanidar Cave

Holocene

Size Classes

Keatley Creek

Taxon

Kill Site

Wood Rats (Pack Rats)

Lipids

Zooarchaeologist

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69

Chapter 11 InfoTrac Exercises

1.

Ask students to search for „Zooarchaeology‟ to locate an article by David W. Steadman about the extinction of birds in the tropical Pacific. After reading, have students summarize the author‟s arguments about the diversity of avian fauna before and after human occupation of their habitats.

2.

Ask students to search for „Pack Rat‟ and „Archaeology‟ to locate the article by Karen Wright about information gathered from pack rat middens. After reading the article, ask student to outline the importance of pack rat middens to archaeology, paleoclimatology and biology.

3.

Have the students search „Ancient DNA Analysis‟ to find an article by Cannon and Yang addressing ancient DNA studies of salmon remains from Namu, British Columbia. Ask the students to briefly sum up the authors‟ research question and findings.

4.

Ask students to search for „Palynology‟ and „Canada to locate an article by Mayle and Cwynar describing a paleoecological approach assessing the impact of the Younger Dryas cooling event on the vegetation of coastal Maritime Canada. After reading the article, ask the student to prepare a short report about the changes in vegetation noted by the investigator.

5.

Ask students to search for „Bones‟ and „Dust Cave‟ to locate the article by Walker et al. that deals with Paleoindian subsistence at the Dust Cave site in Alabama. After reading, ask the student to summarize the results presented by the authors regarding the importance of floral and faunal resources during this time period, and what the remains indicate about Paleoindian subsistence at the site.

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Chapter 11 Internet Exercises

1.

Ask students to visit Lawrence C. Todd‟s bison osteology web site at Colorado State University at http://lamar.colostate.edu/%7Elctodd/mammalia.htm. Prepare a hands-on exercise using fragmentary large mammal bones, preferably bison. After reading through and viewing the pictures associated with the Basic Terms, Bison Bones, and Coding Mammal Bones sections, ask students to use that information to identify and code several fragments according to the information presented by Todd on his web site.

2.

Have students visit the web site that discusses the vegetation and cultural history of the Hind Lake area at http://scape.brandonu.ca/download/PDF_reprints/Boydetal_Geoarchaeology_03.pdf.

After reading the report by Boyd, Running, and Havholm, ask student to summarize the vegetation changes noted by the authors through time using pollen analysis.

3.

Have the students visit Simon Fraser University‟s website (http://www.sfu.ca) and search for “ancient DNA analysis” to find the link to Dr. Yang‟s ancient DNA webpage. Have the students read and sum up the information regarding contamination controls and detection in ancient DNA studies.

4.

Ask students to visit http://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue1/tomlinson_index.html, and follow the links through the report by Tomlinson and Hall regarding the use of the British Isles Archaeobotanical Computer Database (ABCD). After reading, ask students to create a short report detailing changes in plant foods throughout the time periods investigated by the authors.

5.

Ask students to visit the Catal Hoyok web site and read the section dealing with lipid analysis at http://catal.arch.cam.ac.uk/catal/Archive_rep04/ar04_35.html by Evershed et al. After reading the selection, have students outline the procedures proposed by the authors to establish the importance of dairying during different periods of prehistory across space.

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CHAPTER 12: BIOARCHAEOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO THE PAST I.

PREVIEW

II.

INTRODUCTION Looking Closer: Bioarchaeology and the Snake Hill Cemetery Site

III.

SKEKETAL ANALYSIS: THE BASICS

A. B.

Determining Sex Determining Age

IV.

HOW WELL DID THE STILLWATER PEOPLE LIVE? Looking Closer: Hi-Tech Bioarchaeology: Using 3D Imaging Technology to Reconstruct the Face of an Egyptian Mummy

A. B. C. D. E.

Disease and Trauma at Stillwater Growth Arrest Features Workload Paleodemography Stature

V.

RECONSTRUCTING DIET FROM HUMAN BONE

A. B.

Cavities Profile of an Archaeologist: A Native American Archaeologist Bone and Stable Isotopes

VI.

LIVES OF AFFLUENCE? OR NASTY, BRUTISH, AND SHORT?

VII.

ARCHAEOLOGY AND DNA: TRACING HUMAN MIGRATION Archaeological Ethics: Should We Excavate and Analyze Human Remains?

A. B. C. D.

A Little Background on DNA Prospecting for Ancient DNA An African Eve? Skulls and DNA: Tracking the First Americans Looking Closer: Preparing Archaeological Remains for Ancient DNA Analysis

VIII.

CONCLUSION

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What Students Should Learn From Chapter 12

1.

The study of human remains in the archaeological record is termed Bioarchaeology.

Drawing on method and theory from both archaeology and biological anthropology, this field examines the health and workload of historic and prehistoric populations.

2.

An individual‟s sex can be determined by characteristics on bones, including the pelvis and skull. The age of an individual can be ascertained by tooth eruption and bone fusion; bone wear is helpful if they are over 25.

3.

The study of ancient diseases that leave traces on bone is called Paleopathology.

Paleopathology can identify numerous conditions, including cribra orbitalia, linked to possible iron deficiency, and Harris Lines and Dental Hypoplasias associated with periods of severe disease or malnutrition during childhood.

4.

Routine mechanical stresses placed upon bones during life are manifest on skeletal remains. Different workload patterns between the sexes and changes in patterns through time can be examined by studying the osteoarthritis and bone cross-sections present in skeletal remains.

5.

The study of patterns of death, life expectancy, child mortality, and peak ages at time of death is called Paleodemography.

6.

Changes in the quality of diet can be tracked through changes in stature estimates.

7.

Diets high in simple carbohydrates and sugars lead to high frequencies of dental caries.

In bone, the ratios of carbon and nitrogen isotopes can aid in reconstruction of the dietary importance of various animals and plants.

8.

Molecular archaeology uses data from ancient and living populations to reconstruct population migrations. Genetic materials from Y chromosomes and mtDNA are

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75

especially useful in this endeavor. Although the rates at which mtDNA mutate are still being studied, current information indicates that this will be an important avenue of investigation in the future.

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Chapter 12 Lecture Suggestions

1.

Use photographs of male and female crania and pelves to illustrate the sex based differences discussed in the book. In addition, examine the muscle marking on the long bones to show the differences in biomechanical loads and lifestyles. Illustrate the differences typically seen between the biomechanics of hunter gather populations and those of more sedentary horticulturalists.

2.

Although tuberculosis and other diseases have been noted in Old World populations in ancient times, recent studies have suggested that the diseases were present prehistorically in the New World as well. Present the evidence for diseases like tuberculosis among ancient human groups in the Americas.

3.

Examine the evidence of prehistoric and historic human conflicts through the use of bioarchaeology. Cover the types of markers that are left on human bones that indicate interpersonal violence. Explore the role that society must have taken to care for injured individuals.

4.

Present an expanded version of the „African Eve‟ hypothesis. Contrast this with the multi-regional evolution model and the „Modified Out Of Africa‟ model. Indicate which models dictate total replacement and which allow for inclusion of other human lineages.

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77

Key Terms, Individuals and Concepts

Ancient DNA Analysis

Molecular Archaeology

Bioarchaeology

Molecular Clock

Bone Collagen

Mortality Profiles

Bundle Burial

Mummy

Burial Population

Nuclear DNA

Caries

Osteoarthritis

Charnel House

Osteology

Cribra Orbitalia

Osteophyte

Eburnation

Paleodemography

Enamel Hypoplasia

Paleopathology

Epiphyses

Porotic Hyperstosis

Gene

Pubic Symphysis

Haplogroup

Sciatic Notch

Harris Lines

Snake Hill

Long Bone Cross Sections

Stillwater Marsh

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)

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Chapter 12 InfoTrack Exercises

NOTE: Some of these articles contain relatively graphic descriptions of interpersonal violence and disease, and may depict both human skeletal remains and deceased human bodies. The descriptions and images may not be suitable for viewing by some. Discretion is advised.

1. Ask students to search for „Bioarchaeology‟ to locate an article by Pietrusewsky and Douglas investigating the health effects of sedentism and agricultural intensification. After reading, ask the students to summarize the results presented by the authors. Ask them to include descriptions of the different types of indicators used to assess health.

2. Ask students to search for „Bioarchaeology‟ in order to locate the article by Kuckelman, Lightfoot, and Martin relating to the bioarchaeology and taphonomy of human remains in southwestern Colorado. After reading, ask students to summarize the evidence that supports the authors interpretation of anthropophagy (cannibalism) at the sites studied.

3. Have students search for „Sickness‟ and „Mummies‟ to locate the article by Heather Pringle that describes illnesses and parasitic infections in mummies from North and South America.

After reading, ask students to write a short paper reporting on the evidence that humans entering the new world encountered existing parasitic invaders.

4. Ask the students to search for „Haplogroups‟ to find the article by Izagirre et al. discussing the use of rare haplotypes to investigate biosocial questions such as kinship and differential burial practices in past human populations. Have the students briefly sum up the authors‟ findings.

5. Have students perform one search for „Coffin Man‟ and another search for „Forensic Pathology‟ to locate the two-part column by Edwards Park (Around the mall and beyond) in the Smithsonian dealing with the analysis of a mid-19th century burial. After reading, ask students to write a short paper about forensic anthropology and bioarchaeology and what each contributed to the study.

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Chapter 12 Internet Exercises

1.

Ask students to visit www.cast.uark.edu/local/icaes/conferences/wburg/posters/cslarsen/larsen.html and read the article by Larson on the bioarchaeological transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture. After reading, ask them to write a short paper outlining the changes that the author indicates are a result of that transition.

2.

Ask students to visit the web site at www.usd.edu/anth/crow/ccwarn.html to learn about the paleopathology of the Crow Creek Massacre individuals. This web site and the images on it are accessible with the permission of the Arikara people, the Crow Creek Sioux Reservation, and American Indians Against Desecration. After reading the warning page, continue on to the Crow Creek Massacre page, ending ultimately at the paleopathology section. After reading through the paleopathology segments, ask the students to identify the most common paleopathologies and injuries noted and their causes as identified by the investigators of the Crow Creek population.

3.

Have students visit www.crai-ky.com/education/reports/bioanthropology.html After reading the paper and viewing the slides relating to historic cemeteries by Alexanrda Bybee, ask students to outline the major points of research proposed by the author.

4.

Have students visit www.anth.ucsb.edu/faculty/walker/publications/PLW%20Legion.pdf and read about the research conducted by Buzon et al. on a portion of a forgotten cemetery in San Francisco. After reading the report, ask student to summarize the differences and similarities in injuries and traumas between the Legion of Honor Cemetery sample and other comparative samples.

5.

Ask the students to visit the Bioanthropology Digital Image Analysis Laboratory (BDIAL) website (http://home.cc.umanitoba.ca/~hoppard/BDIAL/index.html ) at the University of Manitoba. Have the students review the site and then chose and read two

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or three articles listed under publications and briefly sum up the research question and methods used in each article.

CHAPTER 13: RECONSTRUCTING SOCIAL AND POLITICAL SYSTEMS OF THE PAST I.

PREVIEW

II.

INTRODUCTION

A.

Social Vocabulary

B.

From Artifact to Symbol

III.

ARCHAEOLOGY AND GENDER

A.

Hunting in Africa‟s Rain Forest

B.

Reconstructing Male and Female Activities from Archaeology

IV.

ARCHAEOLOGY AND KINSHIP

A.

Forms of Kinship

B.

Do Descent Systems Appear Archaeologically?

C.

Looking for Matrilineal Descent

D.

Kinship at Chaco Canyon

V.

ARCHAEOLOGY AND SOCIAL STATUS

A.

Egalitarian Societies

B.

Ranked Societies

C.

Death and Social Status

D.

Rank and Status at Moundville

E.

Kinship at Moundville Looking Coser: Mississippian Influence North of the 49th Parallel

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81

VI.

TRADE AND POLITICAL ORGANIZATION

A.

Tracing Exotics Looking Closer: One of These Things is Not Like the Other: Using Neutron Activation Analysis to study Moche Craft Specialization

VII.

82

CONCLUSION

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What Students Should Learn From Chapter 13

1.

The „Group‟ is the basic social unit. Status, gender and kinship determine how the group operates.

2.

Gender is a culturally based interpretation while sex is biologically derived.

3.

Archaeologists can identify large spatial and temporal differences in material goods and technology. Using ethnographic research, they can relate certain tasks to different divisions of labor, and correlate those to female and male decision making. Thus, a greater understanding of these larger social and economic patterns is gained when the patterns of male and female activities are investigated.

4.

Inferring what women and men did is difficult from the archaeological record.

Bioarchaeology can give insights into differences in dietary matters and workloads, but often strong empirical generalizations of historically linked ethnographic analogies are needed.

5.

Socially recognized relationships through which individuals are related by ties of real or imagined descent and marriage are called Kinship networks. Like gender, kinship plays a role in understanding the choices people made in the distant past.

6.

House placement and spacing reflect social grouping patterns, while genetic studies of human remains can provide information on post-marital residence.

7.

Culturally determined criteria establish social status, Status refers to the privileges, rights and duties that delineate interpersonal relations.

8.

„Achieved status‟ in society comes from the accomplishments of an individual in life, while „ascribed status‟ is attached to the individual at birth. A key element to understanding political organization is to recognize the differences between the two.

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83

9.

In egalitarian societies, all people have equal access to important resources, and high positions are acquired through achieved status.

10.

Ranked societies exhibit a hierarchical structure, with unequal access to basic resources.

Ascribed status is in place at birth and assures a ranked order of privilege.

11.

Ranked and egalitarian societies are often studied by examining mortuary remains.

These studies assume that the patterning of funerary remains reflect the status(es) of the individual in life.

12.

Trade networks reflect the geographic extent of economic patterns, non-residential groups, and political authority. Trade can be inferred by determining whether artifacts are made of locally available raw materials or from materials far distant to their recovery location.

13.

Obsidian, clay and temper source studies can reveal the spatial scale of the economic or political organization.

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Chapter 13 Lecture Suggestions

1.

Examine the roles of men, women, and children in the ethnographic account of your choice. Illustrate the differences and similarities in activities, and which appear to be dominated by males and which by females. Address the role of children in the archaeological record through analogy with the ethnographic literature.

2.

Use ethnographic information to illustrate the differences between matrilocal and partilocal residences. Explore the concept of bride price and bride service in determining residence patterns.

3.

Compare and contrast different kinship systems. For example, examine how a hypothetical bilateral descent group of grandparents, parents and grandchildren compares to the same lineage interpreted from both a patrilineal and matrilineal descent group view.

4.

Explore the concept of the change through time from egalitarian to ranked societies.

Examine the potential causes and possible archaeological evidence for that change.

Include information about increasing social complexity in rank development (see also chapter 15 of the text).

5.

Examine prehistoric trade patterns associated with the Hopewell or later Mississippian Cultures. Include information about trade in obsidian, Knife River flint, mica, copper, and ocean shells.

6.

Present a lecture on the various obsidian sources in North America. Include an XRF analysis of each source, and indicate which trace elements work best as indicators of point of origin. Link the identification of obsidian from archaeological sources to possible prehistoric trade routes or networks.

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85

Key Terms, Individuals and Concepts

Achieved Status

Indian Knoll

Androcentric

Kinship

Ascribed Status

Matrilineage

Band

Matrilineal Descent

Berdaches

Matrilocal Residence

Bilateral Descent

Mississippian

Bilocal Residence

Moieties

Cargo System

Patrilineage

Chiefdom

Patrilineal Descent

Clans

Patrilocal Residence

Codices

Petrographic Analysis

Direct Acquisition

Political Organization

Down-the–line Trade

Ranked Societies

Egalitarian Societies

Shell Midden

Exotics

Social Organization

Gender Ideology

Southeastern Ceremonial Complex

Gender Role

Status

Hopewell

Temper

INAA (Instrumental Neutron Activation

XRF (Energy Dispersive X-ray Florescence)

Analysis)

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Chapter 13 InforTrac Exercises

1.

Ask students to search for „Mississippian‟ and „Moundville‟ to locate an article by Knight that examines differences in status as reflected by investigations of archaeological midden deposits in Alabama. After reading the article, ask students to summarize the author‟s arguments regarding the use of the two mounds, and the status of the individuals that inhabited those two locations.

2.

Have students search for „Trade Goods‟ and „Archaeology‟ to locate the article by Fishel about trade materials in the Mississippian interaction sphere. After reading the article, ask student to write a short paper about the evidence the author cites as proof of a Middle Missouri – Mississippian trade association.

3.

Have the students search „Archaeology‟ and „Trade‟ and „Canada‟ to find the news report “Up Front” discussing Pat Sutherland‟s investigation into possible Viking contact with the Dorset culture of Canada‟s arctic. Ask the students to briefly summarize Sutherland‟s findings.

4.

Ask students to search for „Kinship” and „Archaeology‟ to locate the article by Peregrine that examines politics and kinship in Chacoan society. After reading the article, ask students to summarize the arguments presented by the author regarding matrilocal residence, descent, and political organization in the Chacoan world. (This article was the basis for discussion in the text.)

5.

Ask students to search for „Social Status‟ and „Burial‟ to locate an article by Dinn relating to burial patterns in medieval England. After reading, ask to summarize the patterns of interment noted by the author, including the information about social status and gender in relation to burial location.

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Chapter 13 Internet Exercises

1.

Ask students to visit www.doaks.org/Gender/gen03.pdf and read the article by Brumfiel that examines gender roles and identities among the Aztec. Afterward, have the students write a short paper about the use of symbols and artifactual evidence argued by the author to represent male and female genders among the Aztec.

2.

Ask students to search the web for information regarding Hopewell Trade Routes and the Hopewell Interaction Sphere. Ask them to write a short paper about the types of exotic material traded and where those exotics originated. In addition, ask them to summarize the status of the individuals that are associated with the exotics in the archaeological record.

3.

Ask students to visit www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3904/is_200010/ai_n8912759/pg_5, to read the article by Pleger that examines social complexity in Late Archaic/Woodland burials in the western Great Lakes region. After reading, ask students to prepare a short paper on the evidence the author presents for the presence or absence of increasing social complexity at the two sites examined.

4.

Ask students to visit www.doaks.org/GoldandPower/GoldandPower05.pdf and read the article by Fernández and Quintanilla that examines power symbols in prehistoric Puerto Rico. After reading, ask the students to summarize the evidence that the authors present for social stratification. In addition, ask them to include a sort discussion about the conditions that must have been present for social stratification to occur.

CHAPTER 14: THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE MIND

I.

PREVIEW

II.

INTRODUCTION

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III.

WHAT‟S A SYMBOL?

Looking Closer: Exploring the Symbolic Dimensions of Circumpolar Architecture

IV.

THE PEACE PIPE AS RITUAL WEAPON

V.

EXPLORING ANCIENT CHAVIN COSMOLOGY

1.

Animal Symbolism in Chavin Iconography

2.

Where Did Chavin Cosmology Come From?

3.

The Role of Cosmology in Andean Civilization Looking Closer: Mapping Culture: How Traditional Place Names Encapsulate Inuit Knowledge About Landscapes

VI.

BLUEPRINTS FOR ANARCHAEOLOGY OF THE MIND

VII.

UPPER PALEOLITHIC CAVE ART

A.

Art or Magic?

B.

Shamanism?

C.

The Cave of Lascaux Looking Closer: The Discovery of Lascaux

VIII.

CONCLUSION

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What Students Should Learn From Chapter 14

1.

Proponents of processual archaeology were initially optimistic about understanding all aspects of the human condition through archaeological study, however, efforts to interpret symbolic constructs and the „archaeology of the mind‟ during the 1970s and 1980s were not met with enthusiasm.

2.

The study of perception, classification and description of the universe, the nature of the supernatural, and the philosophies, values and principles of human societies fall under the prevue of Cognitive archaeology. These studies also include the ways in which the supernatural or human values are expressed in art and through symbolic links.

3.

Thee study of ancient modes of thought requires interpretations of objects, symbols and acts that, by cultural convention, stand for something else with which they may have no logical connection. Lacking an ethnographic context, there is no real way to connect meanings to symbols.

4.

Archaeologists attempt to understand past religions, which are a specific set of beliefs based on an individual‟s relationship to the supernatural. Religious beliefs can be displayed in everyday life through rituals, including prayer, music, feasting, sacrifices, and taboos. Ritual is therefore a manifestation of the abstract ideas of religion, and one of the easiest ways for archaeologists to study ancient religions.

5.

Archaeologists also attempt to understand cosmology, or how cultures explain their universe. This includes how these cultures view origin and development, how the various parts of the universe fit together, and what laws are obeyed.

6.

Where archaeologists have ethnographic information that appears closely related to the archaeological record, they may be able to extrapolate from the ethnographic example to the archaeological example. However, there is always the chance that the symbol does not now mean what it did in the past.

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7.

Iconography is a culture‟s expression of abstract ideas in art and writing systems. It can also be used to reconstruct religious beliefs and other ideas expressed in art.

8.

The study of ancient iconography and other manifestations of a culture‟s cosmology must adhere to the rigors of scientific analysis. Otherwise, the study of ancient symbols runs the risk of becoming a confusing free-for-all.

9.

When ethnographic information is not available, the archaeologists must be more restrained in their interpretations, shifting their focus from the specific meanings of certain symbols to the general character of thought itself.

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Chapter 14 Lecture Suggestions

1.

Explore the differences and similarities between multiple Native American creation stories and examine the commonalities that appear to follow linguistic ties.

2.

Examine the symbolic meanings of some of our modern material culture. Look at the meanings of certain forms of jewelry (engagement and wedding rings, navel and nose rings, etc.) or displays of political iconography and what they convey about the individual to society in general, and subsets of society in particular.

3.

Present a study of prehistoric rock art in the New World. Examine the number of stylistic variations identified by researchers, and explain how rock art can be quantified.

Associate the ethnographic record with the rock art where possible.

4.

Explore the cosmology evident in some prehistoric puebloan ruins by using analogies from modern Pueblo ethnologies. Include differences and similarities seen in the archaeological record with their modern counterparts.

5.

Examine the role of ritual and symbolism in modern hunter-gatherer and horticultural groups using published ethnographies.

6.

Explore the use of cenotes and caves as ritual locations among the lowland Maya.

Similarly, you can consider the meanings associated with the ball courts in the prehistoric American Southwest and Central America.

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Key Terms, Individuals and Concepts

Chavin Cognitive Archaeology Cosmology Hopewell Interaction Sphere Iconography Lascaux Magdalenian Oracle Religion Ritual Shaman Structuralism Symbol Sympathetic Magic Totem Upper Paleolithic Vision Quest

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Chapter 14 InfoTrac Exercises

1.

Ask students to search for „Medicinal‟ and „Pictographs‟ to locate the article by Boyd and Dering that examines the possible connection between psychoactive plants and rock art in the Pecos River region of Texas. After reading, have the students prepare a short paper examining the evidence presented by the authors regarding the connection between the rock art and religious practices.

2.

Ask students to search for „Ritual‟ and „Archaeology‟ to locate an article by Van Dyke about late Chacoan architecture and landscapes. After reading the article, ask students to summarize the similarities and differences between the Classic and Late Bonito construction phases, and how the author interprets these as both reinforcing and altering ancient puebloan ideology.

3.

Ask students to search for „Totemism‟ and „Ritual‟ to locate the article by Coulam and Schroedl. After reading the article about totemism during the Late Archaic in the American southwest, ask students to write a short paper examining the evidence presented by the authors about the use of split twig figures as totems, as opposed to personal talismen.

4.

Ask students to search for „Shaman‟ and „Casas Grandes‟ to locate an article by VanPool that discusses iconography and the identification of shamen on pottery. After reading, ask students to prepare a short report about the symbols the author interprets as representing shamanistic activity, and why type of evidence she presents to support her conclusions.

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Chapter 14 Internet Exercises

1.

Ask students to visit www.brandonu.ca/Library/CJNS/7.2/Hultkrantz.pdf, an article by Hultkrantz relating to the cosmology of a plains Shoshonean group. After reading the article, ask students to prepare a short paper examining the evidence presented by the author for an overlay of plains cosmology over an older Great Basin derived belief system.

2.

Ask the students to visit the Inuit Heritage Trust website (www.ihti.ca) and access the link to “Taloyoak – Stories of Thunder and Stone” through the links tab. Have the students summarize the main ideas behind this project focusing on archaeology and oral history.

3.

Ask students to visit www.lib.uci.edu/libraries/exhibits/meso/sacred.html at the University of California, Irvine, and read about the realms of the sacred in Mesoamerica.

After following the links and reading the texts, ask students to write a comparison between the different cultural groups represented based on the presented interpretations of the codices ideographic, pictographic, and phonetic iconography.

4.

Ask students to visit http://mc2.vicnet.net.au/home/cognit/web/index.html, a web site dedicated to cognitive archaeology, by Robert G. Bednarik. After reading the introduction to the web site, ask students to select one of the four articles dealing with cognitive archaeology and prepare a short paper summarizing the arguments presented by the author for the development of human cognition.

5.

Ask students to visit www.une.edu.au/Arch/ROCKART/MMRockArt.html, a web site by M.J. Morwood that examines contemporary approaches to the study of rock art. After reading the introduction, follow the links to the information about rock art dating, analysis, and the ethnography of rock art. After reading the sections, ask students to produce a short paper summarizing the three sections.

CHAPTER 15: UNDERSTANDING KEY TRANSITIONS IN WORLD PREHISTORY

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I.

PREVIEW

II.

INTRODUCTION

III.

EVOLUTIONARY STUDIES

A.

Unilineal Cultural Evolution

B

How “Evolution” Became a Dirty Word

C.

The Return of Evolution

IV.

WHY WERE PLANTS DOMESTICATED?

A.

The Unilineal Paradigm: Childe and Braidwood

B.

The Materialist Paradigm: Population Pressure Looking Closer: Hunter-Gatherers as Optimal Foragers Looking Closer: Hot Stuff! The Domestication of Peppers (Capsicum sp.) in the New World

C.

A Social Perspective

D.

The Origins of Agriculture in the near East

E.

Comparing the Paradigms

V.

WHY DID THE ARCHAIC STATE ARISE?

A.

The Irrigation Hypothesis

B.

The Warfare and Circumscription Hypothesis

C.

A Multicausal Theory

D.

The Role of Ideology in State Formation

E.

The Maya: A Case Study in State Formation Looking Closer: How the Maya Reckoned Time

F.

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So, What Explains the Origins of the Maya State?

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VI.

CONCLUSION

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What Students Should Learn From Chapter 15

1.

Unilineal Evolution in the nineteenth century claimed that differences among modern people were

the result of the differential progress that different human groups had

made toward “modernity,” which was defined as a western European middle class lifestyle.

2.

Living “primitives” were seen as evidence of human cultural evolution. For some scholars, “primitive” people were seen as still “back in the stone age”.

3.

Charles Darwin, in his work On the Origin of Species, did not use the term “evolution”.

He did provide social Darwinists with a scientific explanation why some peoples had not made progress, as well as the expectation that primitive peoples would all become extinct.

4.

Human progress, as suggested by Social Darwinism, is based on competition. This theory was used to justify racism, the excesses of capitalism, and global imperialism in the nineteenth century.

5.

Unilineal cultural evolution was rejected by American anthropology. It was replaced by historical particularism, seeking to understand each culture, not as a stage in human evolution, but within itself.

6.

The processual agenda in archaeology, with its emphasis on adaptive processes, has brought back an interest in evolutionary processes by examining regularities in human behavior. Some patterns in human cultural evolution are evident. In particular, increasing population densities are associated with major changes in economy and social/political organization.

7.

The origins of agriculture appear to have resulted from: 1) climate changes at the end of the Pleistocene that were favorable to plant domestication, 2) population growth that

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caused foragers to use less efficient resources, including small seeds, and 3) the existence of plants that responded to human foraging by becoming more productive.

8.

The appearance of archaic states may be in response to: 1) population growth and the resultant need to intensify agriculture, 2) coordination of mechanisms of social integration, such as ideology and trade, and 3) the potential to control productive resources. The specific character of the archaic state depends on many factors, including environment, importance of trade and warfare, and ideology.

9.

Archaeology uses specific historical sequences to determine what conditions are necessary and sufficient to explain major cultural evolutionary transitions. These historical sequences are constructed through a more humanistic approach to prehistory.

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Chapter 15 Lecture Suggestions

1.

Examine the evidence for the domestication of early cultigens in the Americas. Include the different types of maize (Zea maize) found throughout central and northern America during different time periods.

2.

Explore the differences in dental caries between prehistoric hunter-gatherer groups and those associated with a significant amount of horticulture. Are there other skeletal indications relating to the change from hunter-gatherers to more sedentary agricultural pursuits?

3.

Examine the variation in skeletal elements of wild versus domesticated species of animals. As an example, look at the differences in element size between wild and domesticated sheep in the Fertile Crescent.

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Key Terms, Individuals and Concepts Affinal Ancestor Worship Archaic State Carrying Capacity Charles Darwin Chinampas Civilization Coevolution Comparative Method Density-Equilibrium Model Ethnocentric (Ethnocentrism) Fertile Crescent Hilly Flanks Theory Historical Particularism Horticulture Ideology Intensive Agriculture Irrigation Hypothesis Natufian Natural Selection Neolithic Oasis Theory Optimal Foraging Theory Population Pressure Return Rate Social Darwinism Teosinte Tribal Societies Unilineal Cultural Evolution Warfare and Circumscription Hypothesis

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Younger Dryas

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Chapter 15 InfoTrac Exercises

1.

Ask students to search for „Animals„ and „Domestication‟ to locate the article by Zeder describing the domestication of goats in the Zagros Mountains. After reading the selection, have students summarize the author‟s arguments for identification of initial domestication in the Zagros Mountains.

2.

Have the students search „Horticulture‟ and „Canada‟ to find the article by Katzenberg et al. addressing stable isotope evidence for maize horticulture and paleodiet in southern Ontario. Ask the students to sum the methods used and how the evidence was interpreted.

3.

Have students search for „Dogs‟ and „Domestication‟ to locate the article by Morey reporting on that subject. After reading, ask students to summarize the author‟s arguments regarding the different theories of dog domestication.

4.

Ask students to search for „Mexico‟ and „Agricultural‟ and „Archaeological‟ to locate the article by Fisher et al. that describes the formation of an Archaic State based on agricultural intensification. After reading the selection, have students prepare a short report outlining the authors‟ arguments regarding the increasing cultural complexity and agriculture.

5.

Have students search for „Domestication‟ and „Archaeology‟ to locate an article by Odell that examines changes in technology associated with increasing sedentism and domestication of crops. After reading the article, ask students to prepare a short report summarizing the arguments that the author uses as evidence for an increase in sedentism through time in North America.

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Chapter 15 Internet Exercises

1.

Ask students to write a short paper about the role agriculture played in the ascension and decline of the Mayan city states using resources located on the internet.

2.

Ask students to read the e-papers http://httpserver.carleton.ca/~bgordon/Rice/papers/chun97.htm, and http://httpserver.carleton.ca/~bgordon/Rice/papers/zhang6.htm, dealing with early rice cultivation and domestication in China. Afterward, have them write a short paper outlining the timescale and evidence presented for rice domestication

3.

Have students read http://macareo.pucp.edu.pe/~jearls/documentosPDF/theCharacter.PDF, a paper by John Earls about the nature of Andean agriculture. After reading the selection ask students to outline the arguments presented by the author regarding the reasons behind the success of indigenous techniques and the failure of western technology to produce similar crop yields.

4.

Ask students to visit search the web for information regarding the domestication of maize, Zea mays. Have them produce a short paper reporting on the earliest dates and locations where corn has been discovered, as well as which wild plant species have been proposed as ancestral to the modern crop.

CHAPTER 16: HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY AND INDUSTRIAL ARCHAEOLOGY: INSIGHTS INTO CANADA’S RURAL, URBAN, AND INDUSTRIAL PAST I.

PREVIEW

II.

INTRODUCTION

III.

HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY: IS IT HISTORY OR IS IT ANTHROPOLOGY?

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A.

Lines of Inquiry in Historical Archaeology

IV.

INTEGRATING DATA SETS: WORKING WITH ARTIFACTS AND WRITTEN DOCUMENTS

A.

Documentary Evidence and the Fallacy of the Written Word

B.

Maps and Pictures – A Special Type of Documentary Evidence Looking Closer: Victorian Art and the Franklin Expedition

C.

Roughing it in the Bush: Using Artifacts to Illustrate Life in 19th Century Canada Looking Closer: Historic Artifacts as Temporal Types

V.

THE THEORETICAL DIMENSIONS OF HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY

A.

Ideas in Things: The Meaning of Everyday Objects

B.

„Lawn and Order‟: Homes, Gardens, and Symbolism

C.

Big Brother Architecture: Social Relations at a Canadian Fur Trade Fort

D.

You Are What You Eat: Food as a Symbol of Social Status

E.

„Heavy Metal Bands”: Material Culture and Social Change Archaeological Ethics: Conserving a 16th Century Basque Whaling Boat

VI.

INDUSTRIAL ARCHAEOLOGY: EXAMINING CANADA‟S INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE

A.

The Origins of Industrial Archaeology In Her Own Words: Reflections on Industrial Archaeology

B.

Industrial Archaeology as Heritage Practice

C.

Areas of Research in Industrial Archaeology

D.

The Rideau Canal as a Socio-Technical System

VII.

CONCLUSION: THE FUTURE OF HISTORCAL ARCHAEOLOGY AND INDUSTRIAL ARCHAEOLOGY

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What Students Should Learn From Chapter 16

1.

Historical Archaeology examines the material remains and written records of past societies.

2.

Five lines of inquiry currently define how historical archaeology is practiced in Canada and the United States, and these approaches can be particularizing or generalizing.

3.

Different forms of documentary evidence are used by historical archaeologists to investigate sites and time periods. Various forms of documentation are produced for specific audiences and to be read by a certain audience, and can bias the information contained in the document.

4.

Historical archaeologists use a variety of theoretical approaches to interpret their data.

5.

Industrial archaeology uses artifacts and documentary evidence to study remains of industry and infrastructure. Industrial archaeologists work with other specialists to preserve Canada‟s industrial heritage, and study industrialization as a long-term process.

6.

Most of the historical and industrial archaeology in Canada is undertaken by government agencies and culture resource management companies.

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Chapter 16 Lecture Suggestions

1.

Use historical documentation and archaeological information to explore the archaeology of industrial sites.

2.

Examine some of the information available from archaeological investigations on the Canadian Fur Trade. What types of information are available from archaeology are not available from the written accounts and other historic records?

3.

Use historical documentation to examine historic site locations around your local community. Based on the written records, what types of information could be added by excavating even a small portion of the area under consideration?

4.

Many diaries are available from the westward migration across the Great Plains to areas in California, Washington, and Oregon during the 19th century. Using some of those types of documents, contrast the reality of the actual recorded experiences of families with what has become the idealized modern notion of the pioneer family. Explain how archaeology and bioarchaeology have allowed archaeologists to dispel some of the misconceptions about this period in American history.

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107

Key Terms, Individuals and Concepts

Historical Archaeology Historiography Index Fossil Industrial Archaeology Mind Set Organizational Structure Particularizing Socio-Technical System Text-Aided Archaeology

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Chapter 16 InfoTrac Exercises

1.

Ask students to search for „Historical Archeology‟ to locate an article by Deetz about the archaeology of a Virginia Plantation. After reading the selection, ask students to prepare a short paper comparing the information gleaned from archaeological investigations to that available from the historical documentation.

2.

Have students search for „Industrial Archaeology‟ to locate the article by Campion dealing with the historical archaeology of the framework knitting industry in England.

After reading, ask students to summarize the information available from historical documents and ethnographic information, and to contrast that information with the information gathered from the archeological examination of the extant properties.

3.

Ask students to search for „Foodways‟ and „Colonial‟ to locate the document by Lawrence relating to the excavations of 19th century whaling stations in Tasmania. After reading, ask students to summarize the author‟s conclusions regarding the comparison of historical records with artifactual materials recovered from the sites.

4.

Ask students to search for „African‟ and „Archaeology‟ to locate the article by Thomas that examines the archaeology and historical records of Andrew Jackson‟s Hermitage Plantation. After reading, ask students to summarize the author‟s conclusions about the lives of African slaves at that location.

5.

Have the students search „Franklin Expedition‟ and „Horowitz‟ to find the article by Horowitz discussing a theory of how some of the sailors died on the ill-fated Franklin expedition in the Canadian arctic. Ask the students to sum up the history of this expedition and outline the author‟s argument for botulism.

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Chapter 16 Internet Exercises

1.

Ask students to visit the National Park Service web site at www.cr.nps.gov/mwac/libi/index.html and read the text by Douglas Scott describing the archaeological investigations of the Little Bighorn National Monument. After reading, have students prepare a short report comparing the common historic view of the Battle of the Little Bighorn with the conclusions reached through archaeological information.

2.

Ask students to visit www.huarchivesnet.howard.edu/0008huarnet/blakey1.htm to read the article by Michael Blakey about the efforts of the descendant community to preserve and interpret the African Burial Ground in New York. After reading, ask students to summarize the activities of the descendant community as well as the presented results.

3.

Have students visit http://www.projectpast.org/vanwinkle/index.html, an extensive web site dealing with investigations of a 19th century sawmill in the Ozark Mountains. After following the links and reading the text, have students compare the information gleaned from historic documentation and local accounts to the information gathered through archaeological investigations.

4.

Ask students to visit the Wilfred Laurier University‟s website (www.wlu.ca) and search for “archaeology” and then “field schools”. Have the students read up on the Ruthren field school and sum up the focus of this historical project.

5.

Have students visit http://www.qaronline.org/default.htm, an extensive web site that documents the investigation of an early 18th century wreck purported to be the Queen Anne‟s Revenge, the flagship of the pirate Blackbeard that sank off the coast of North Carolina in 1718. After reading through the documentation, ask students to write a report summarizing the arguments make by the researchers that support the interpretation of the wreckage as the Queen Anne‟s Revenge.

CHAPTER 17: ARCHAEOLOGICAL ETHICS AND INDIGENOUS ARCHAEOLOGY: EXPLORING WAYS TO PROTECT, RESPECT, AND SHARE CANADA’S DIVERSE

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CULTURAL HERITAGE I.

PREVIEW

II.

INTRODUCTION

III.

WHAT ARE ETHICS?

A. B. C.

Consequentialist Ethics: How Our Actions Affect Others Deontological Ethics: Examining the Goodwill in Action Virtue Ethics: Linking Trust and Obligation

IV.

ETHICS IN ARCHAEOLOGY AND MUSEUM STUDIES

A. B.

“Written in Earth” – Virtue Ethics in Action When Ethics Become Dilemmas: The Problem of Subsistence Digging

V.

THE HISOTRY OF ETHICS IN ARCHAEOLOGY

A. B. C. D.

In the Beginning…

A Call for Professional Standards Some Examples of Ethics Statements in Archaeology Are All These Ethics Statements Saying the Same Thing?

VI.

HERITAGE LEGISLATION IN CANADA

A. B. C. D.

Regional versus National Heritage Legislation Comparing Provincial and Territorial Legislation for Cultural Sites and Property Heritage Legislation and the Sensitive Issue of Human Remains Developing New Repatriation Policies In His Own Words: Marty Magne: A Parks Canada Archaeologist Cultural Resource Management Archaeology: Balancing the Good With the Bad Archaeological Ethics: The Defacing of an Ancient Arctic Petroglyph Site

E.

VII.

INDIGENOUS ARCAHEOLOGY – TAKING ETHICS TO THEIR LOGICAL CONCLUSION

A.

Indigenous Archaeology and the Next Generation of Canadian Archaeologists In their Own Words: Indigenous Archaeology and Why it is Important E. Leigh Syms Paves the Way for Indigenous Archaeology in Canada In His Own Words: A Career Long Commitment to Indigenous Archaeology

B.

VIII.

CONCLUSION: THE FUTURE OF ARCAHEOLOGICAL ETHICS AND INDIGENOUS ARCAHEOLOGY IN CANADA What Students Should Learn From Chapter 17

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111

1. Ethical codes of conduct have become an important part of archaeology is the 21st century, defining acceptable practices, acknowledging obligations, and offering guidelines for dealing with a wide range of issues.

2. Ethic principles are never static but are constantly being re-assessed within changing political and social climates.

3. Heritage legislation places absolute limits on what can and cannot be done with archaeological resources, and exacts penalties for those who break the law.

4. Provincial and territorial legislation has led to the development of the Culture Resource Management (CRM) industry in Canada. CRM assesses the impact of proposed development on archaeological sites. Most archaeology in Canada is currently done by the CRM industry.

5. Concern with ethics in archaeology has contributed to the development of indigenous archaeology. Indigenous archaeology is defined as archaeology by, for, and involving Aboriginal people.

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Chapter 17 Lecture Suggestions

1.

Outline the history of ethics in archaeology from the end of the 19th century to the 21st century. Note some of the key moments that lead to the call for professional and ethical standards in archaeology (e.g. the creation of the Canadian Institute).

2.

Explain the permitting process for cultural resource management archaeologists in your area.

3.

Outline heritage legislation in Canada and how legislation may differ at the provincial, territorial, regional and federal levels. Include the passed and proposed Federal Acts.

4.

Explain the development of indigenous archaeology in Canada. Outline some of the sites and projects undertaken by aboriginal peoples.

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Key Terms, Individuals and Concepts

Agent-Centered Theories Agent- Neutral Theories Anasazi Archaeological Potential Bibliometrics Consequentialist Ethics Cultural Resource Management (CRM) Deontological Ethics Descendent Community Ethics Haudensosaunee Indigenous Archaeology Musqueam First Nations Band Parks Canada

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Chapter 17 InfoTrac Exercises

1.

Ask students to search for „Antiquities Act‟ to locate a two part series by Thompson dealing with the history and politics of the passage of the 1906 Antiquities Act. After reading both sections, ask students to create a timeline outlining the major steps in the passage of this landmark legislation.

2.

Have students search „Cultural Resource Management‟ and „Canada‟ to find the article

by Bennett and Lopoukhine addressing cultural heritage and cultural resource management (CRM) in Canada. Ask the students to sum up this ethics-based conservation program.

3.

Ask students to search for „CRM‟ and „Archaeology‟ to locate the article by Kuhn that surveys newspaper reports relating to CRM archaeology. After reading, ask students to prepare a short paper addressing the variety of negative comments relating to CRM archaeology. Are there ways to counter some of these negative views?

4.

Have students search for „Heritage Management‟ and „Archaeology‟ to locate an article

by Thorley that examines the intercultural value of possessions among Aborigines in northern Australia and Euroaustralian people. After reading the selection, ask students to outline the differences identified between the two cultural value systems by the author, and how this has led to different interpretations of heritage resource management in Australia.

5.

Ask students to search for „Intellectual Property Rights‟ and „Archaeology‟ to locate the article by Nicholas and Bannister. After reading the article, have students summarize the major points presented by the authors regarding the intellectual property rights of Indigenous cultures.

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115

Chapter 17 Internet Exercises

1.

Ask students to visit www.cr.nps.gov/history/hisnps/NPSHistory/antiq.htm to read about the Antiquities Act of 1906 and how it has been used to protect not only archaeological sites and sites of historical importance, but to preserve locations of scientific interest and natural beauty. After reading the information, ask students to prepare a short statement about the uses (or abuses) of presidential power in using the Antiquities Act.

2.

Ask students to visit www.fbi.gov/publications/leb/1997/july971.htm, a web site that describes some of the loss of history and prehistory to looters and others who illegally appropriate archaeological resources. After reading, ask the students to give their opinions about what can be done to decrease the destruction of archaeological information by these individuals.

3.

Have students search for „Ethics‟ and „Canada‟ to find Parks Canada‟s (www.pc.gc.ca) Guidelines for the management of archaeological resources. Ask students to outline and sum up the guidelines.

4.

Ask students to visit www.cr.nps.gov/nr/index.htm to examine the National Park Service web site of the National Register of Historic Places. Ask students to follow the „Find Listed Places‟ link under the Reference Desk heading. Ask them to then search the National Register of their home state and county, and to prepare a list of site and dates registered on the National .Register for that location.

5.

Have students visit www.uiowa.edu/~ainsp/saa2001/ljz.html and read the article by Zimmerman about interacting with Descendant communities in archaeology. After reading, ask students to report on the points that this author makes about the place of descendant communities in archaeological interpretations.

CHAPTER 18: ARCHAEOLOGY’S FUTURE I.

116

PREVIEW

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II.

INTRODUCTION

III.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SCIENCE: PURE OR APPLIED?

IV.

THE GARBAGE PROJECT

A.

How do Archaeologists Collect Trash?

B.

The Archaeology of Us

C.

Myths About America‟s Landfills

V.

FORENSIC ARCHAEOLOGY

A.

Archaeologists as Crime Busters

B.

The Archaeology of Mass Disasters In His Own Words: A Day in the Life of a Forensic Archaeologist in Canada

C.

Archaeology and the World Trade Center In His Own Words: Disaster Archaeology

VI.

REDISCOVERING ANCIENT TECHNOLOGY

VII.

X-BOX ARCHAEOLOGY: COMPUTER MODELLING THE PAST

A.

Using Computers in Archaeology – A History

B.

Virtual Environments: A Tool for Preserving Cultural Heritage

C.

Virtual Environments: An Educational Tool for Exploring Time

D.

Concerns Over How the Past is Represented

E.

Building a 3D Computer Model of a Thule Whalebone House

F.

Simulating Environmental Effects In His Own Words: Laser Scanning Technology: Imaging a Building or a Scratch on a Sword

VIII.

CONCLUSION

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117

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What Students Should Learn From Chapter 18

1.

Public support is important to virtually all aspects of modern archaeology.

Archaeologists today recognize the importance of sharing some insights about the archaeological record with the public.

2.

Although perceived as a “pure” science, archaeologists are finding new methods to apply the techniques of archaeology to new problems, such as the analysis of contemporary trash and landfills to help resolve the nation‟s garbage problem.

3.

Forensic archaeologists work with law enforcement, providing training and recovery of materials from potential crime scenes in a legal context. Others are using archaeology to recover information about ancient technologies that benefit developing nations.

4.

Virtual reality, computer modeling, and laser scanning offer archaeologists with a means of reconstructing archaeological sites, and visualizing archaeological data in new and exciting ways.

5.

The future of archaeology depends on our ability to engage the public in archaeological research. This can be done through web-based presentations, public education, and outreach programs.

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119

Chapter 18 Lecture Suggestions

1.

Outline William Rathje‟s reasoning for beginning the Garbage Project and some of the key findings of this project over the years.

2.

Explain the differences between “pure” scientific research and public oriented research at a specific site location. Challenge the students to come up with ways to do both while maintaining a tightly disciplined investigation.

3.

Compare various examples of applying computer modeling to archaeological data or site reconstruction. Outline how computer modeling can help us better understand various archaeological questions.

4.

Examine the protection afforded to Aboriginal religious locations under the various federally mandated archaeologically related laws. Ask the students if they think that Aboriginal religious locations are being protected by current legislation, or is more protection needed? If more is needed, how can we balance the need for their protection against the requirements of a rapidly growing modern nation?

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Key Terms, Individuals and Concepts

Applied Science Computer Modeling Disaster Archaeology Forensic Archaeology Illuminance Laser Scanning Technology Luminance Mark Skinner Peter Dawson and Richard Levy Pure (Basic) Science Richard Gould Therkel Mathiassen Tucson Garbage Project Virtual Environment William Rathje

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121

Chapter 18 InfoTrac Exercises

1.

Ask students to search for „Public Archaeology‟ to locate an article by Pokotylo and Guppy that examined public opinion about the archaeological heritage of British Columbia, Canada. After reading, ask students to write a short essay about the misperceptions of the general public about the archaeological record, and what methods may be undertaken to change the public‟s understanding.

2.

Have students search for „Forensic Archaeology‟ to locate an article by Hunter et al. that describes the use of archaeological techniques in modern crime scene investigation.

After reading the article, ask students to write a short report about the transfer of methods from archaeology to the medic-legal sector of law enforcement and some of the difficulties encountered.

3.

Have students search „Forensic Archaeology‟ and „Canada‟ to find an article by Mathewes addressing the application of palynology in forensic investigations in Canada.

Ask students to sum up the author‟s main ideas about how palynology can contribute to archaeological and anthropological forensic contexts.

4.

Ask students to search for „Public Archaeology‟ and „Graduate‟ to locate an article by Weisman and White that discusses the education of archaeology graduate students in public archaeology. After reading the selection, have the students write a short synopsis of the educational endeavors taken by the University of Southern Florida to produce students that are trained in both contract archaeology and public archaeology.

5.

Ask students to search for „Spiritual‟ and „Archaeology‟ to locate an article by Ruppel et al that examines African spiritual spaces on the American landscape. After reading, ask the students to summarize the use of space in spiritual contexts as revealed in the article.

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Copyright © 2009 by Nelson Education Ltd.

Chapter 18 Internet Exercises

1.

Have students visit www.jpac.pacom.mil/CIL/CIL_Home.htm, the web page of the Central Identification Laboratory (CIL). After reading the welcome page, have students follow the links to both the anthropology page and the archaeology page. After reading, ask student to outline the methods of assessment used in the field during recovery of human remains by the Forensic Archaeologists and the criteria used by the Forensic Anthropologists at CIL to establish identity.

2.

Ask students to visit www.saa.org/publications/saabulletin/17-1/SAA24.html and read the article by Furguson describing the increasing involvement of Native American Tribes in archaeology and cultural resource management. After reading, ask students to report on the efforts made by Native American groups to become involved in archaeological issues, as well as some of the problems faced by these groups.

3.

Have students visit www.sacredsites.com and select “Americas” and then “Canada” to find a list of sacred sites in Canada. Ask the students to pick and summarize the significance of two or three of these sacred places.

4.

Ask students to visit www.saa.org/publications/saabulletin/16-1/SAA9.html and read the article by Welch detailing the White Mountain Apache Heritage Program. After reading, ask students to draw comparisons between the White Mountain cultural resource management program as outlined and the historic preservation laws presented in Chapter 17.

5.

Have students visit crm.cr.nps.gov/archive/22-3/22-03-2.pdf and read the information by Chapman about the debates surrounding the Bighorn Medicine Wheel. After reading the article, ask students to summarize the controversies about the Medicine Wheel from the perspectives of the Native Americans, the Forest Service, and commercial interests.

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