History magazine december 2016

December Issue

THE HISTORY MAGAZINE

“Darkness cannot drive out darkness; only light can do that. Hate cannot drive out hate; only love can do that.”

Martin Luther King, Jr

CONTENTS: The Atom Bomb: Too Harsh on a Harsh Enemy?

Page 3

By Matthew Smith

A 20th Century Dream – Shattered

Page 6

By Rudo Makoni

Power Struggles in the Development of the

Page 10

English Legal System

By Camille Houghton-Grimshaw

The Beatles and Britain

By Amos Wynn

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Page 12

The Atom Bomb: Too Harsh on a Harsh Enemy?

By Matthew Smith

The atomic bombings on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 remain one of the most talked about events in history. The use of the weapons sparks such a debate; it is almost impossible to achieve consensus on the issue. Some people believe that it was wrong to use a weapon that was capable of killing 100,000 people with the flick of a finger. Hisatsune Sakomizu hailed the Americans ‘very cruel people’ for what they did. Others believe it was the right thing to do at the time. Whatever the argument, both have valid points.

However, the argument still remains unresolved. Was such use of force necessary? And even more so, could such devastation have been avoided?

By the summer of 1945, the Nazis had surrendered in the west, and all eyes peered to the east. The Empire of Japan was the only obstacle left standing, denying world peace. It was agreed between the Allied leaders that they wanted a quick end to the war. The Japanese were not a weak obstacle. At its peak, the Empire had sprawled across South East Asia, spilling into Oceania. It was the infamous Japanese surprise attack on Pearl Harbor that brought the Americans into the war.

However, by the summer of 1945, this once great Empire was barely a shadow of what it once was. A series of campaigns in the Pacific had turned the tide of the war. By now, defeat was inevitable - it was just a question of when.

Many Allied commanders were unwilling to allow thousands of servicemen and women to perish in the final moments of the war, and rightly so. The casualties at Okinawa and Iwo Jima had far exceeded the predictions made by the American leadership. Five weeks into the campaign on Iwo Jima, the Marines had suffered 24,000 casualties, just to capture an island one-third the size of Manhattan. It was clear that a full scale invasion of the Japanese Home Islands was just too economically and physically demanding.

Japan is eighteen times bigger than Iwo Jima; it does not take a military tactician to figure out how devastating such an attack could be. The Allies needed a quick and conventional end.

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The Japanese armed forces during the Second World War were among the most brutal in modern history. Whether it be the infamous banzai charge, the gruesome kamikaze attacks, or the pure devotion to fight to the last breath- the Japanese had a ruthless reputation. Captain Hogan described the Japanese as ‘animals but great soldiers’.

Their allies in the west were morally no better, the Nazis committed horrific crimes too. However, the Japanese were different to the Nazis. Their reputation far outstretched the Germans militarily, and many of the atrocities of the Nazis were only revealed after the war.

for the reconstruction of Japan, just like they had for Europe. To completely destroy the little infrastructure the Japanese had left would not suit these interests.

The Allies had no idea of the scale of the devastation this weapon was capable of.

They knew full well it was bigger than anything used before, but the damage that would occur for years after its use was a mystery. It is surprising that the first nuclear device ever denoted was in July 1945.

The bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki took place just over a month later. This shows signs of naivety from the American leadership, and maybe even optimism.

It was the fanatical devotion to fight to the end that was a problem for the Allies. As already discussed, Japan was on the brink of collapse by 1945. However, the Japanese showed no signs of surrender. They were committed to fight till the end, and as Private Buckthorpe put it, ‘they wouldn’t give in’. It’s worth pointing out that the Allies called for an unconditional Japanese surrender in the Potsdam Declaration, the alternative being ‘prompt and utter destruction’ for the Empire of Japan. Of course, the Japanese chose to ignore this ultimatum.

It cannot be forgotten that this kind of weapon had never been used before, and the Americans were the only ones to have access to it. Therefore, the rushed attempt to use this weapon is somewhat understandable. However, as we know, the use of this weapon would prove to be much more catastrophic than was initially believed. As Robert Lewis, co-pilot of the Enola Gay, flew away from his target, he gasped to his fellow airmen, ‘My God, what have we done?’

A continuation of the war, for another twelve months, would have been much more devastating than any atomic bomb at the time. Not only military, but also civilian losses would have been unimaginable. Max Hastings comments that every day the war continued, prisoners, slaves and civilians of the Japanese empire were dying in their ‘thousands’.

The human losses were not the only concern for the Allies. Following a full scale invasion, the infrastructure of Japan would have been completely wiped out. The Allies had plans

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However, this argument progresses beyond 1945, and even to the modern day. The fact that the bombs remain the only nuclear weapons to have ever been used in warfare is crucial. So then, what would have happened if the bombs were not used?

Although it sounds foolish, such a concept is actually very worrying. The war would have dragged on, thousands, probably millions would have lost their lives. However, that is not the real concern.

As already discussed, the Americans were quick to ‘test’ this new weapon on a real target. Therefore, if it was not used on Japan then it would have still been used, but at a later date.

Following the devastation of the previous war, the late 1940s were quiet years concerning official conflict.

However, in 1950 this changed. On 25th June 1950, sanctioned by Moscow and Beijing, North Korea launched an invasion of South Korea.

The western world erupted. Following failed attempts at ceasefire, twenty-one countries contributed to the defence of South Korea under the UN, with the United States making up 88% of the military personal. The conflict was to last for three years, and produced millions of casualties.

Also by 1950, nuclear weapons had improved massively. By 1952, the US had tested their first thermonuclear device: the Soviets not far behind in 1953. These devices are capable of unimaginable destruction.

The US testing of 1952, ‘Ivy Mike’, produced a yield of over four hundred and fifty times more powerful than the bomb dropped on Nagasaki.

The debate over Hiroshima and Nagasaki has been raging for years, and probably will rage on for many more. Had the Allies chosen to invade the Japanese Home Islands, the results remain a mystery. However, it is certain that millions would have perished. The country of Japan would have been destroyed. But most of all, the world would not have seen what a terrifying weapon it had produced, before it was too late.

“As Robert Lewis, co-pilot of the Enola Gay, flew away from his target, he gasped to his fellow airmen, Had the bombings on Hiroshima and Nagasaki not taken place, it is more than likely that they would have taken place during the Korean War instead. Some would argue a military target over a civilian target is more justifiable. However, this is not the case. By 1950, the American Nuclear monopoly was no more. The Soviets had tested their first atomic bomb in 1949.

Therefore, the use of the weapon by either side would have been met with similar consequences.

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A 20th Century Dream – Shattered Arguably the most prominent figure in black history, The Rev. Martin Luther King Jr has been cited worldwide as an ambassador of the civil rights movement. The legacy he left behind still inspires people young and old, decades after his assassination. Equality, peace, service and humility - these are all concepts MLK championed throughout his political career.

2016 marks the year that King has been dead longer than he’s been alive, however his legacy is still etched in our memories. His part in the civil rights movement from leading silent protests in the Memphis sanitation water strike to providing leadership in the Montgomery bus boycott of 1955 was instrumental. August 2016 marked the 53rd anniversary of King’s iconic ‘I have a dream speech’ – although things have progressed since then, can one truly come to the conclusion that MLK achieved his lifelong dream?

By Rudo Makoni

When King delivered his speech it had been 187 years since Jefferson stated in the Declaration of Independence, ‘we hold these truths to be selfevident, that all men are created equal’ and 100 years since Lincoln declared the Emancipation Proclamation. Although these words seemed clear enough, African-American are still not free and equal to his white counterparts in his country.

Although much progress has been made since then, one could argue that anything could count as progress. Jim Crow laws were widespread in the South keeping African-Americans isolated and humiliated. Lynchings and beatings were still far too common.

However, African Americans became professionals, mayors and public figth The date was 28 August 1963. Martin ures all across America. Although the Luther King was standing on the steps of wake of the 2016 presidential election the Washington monument facing the re- meant heartbreak for many, it brought flection pool and a crowd of 250,000 peoalong the first Latina senator in history ple. It was a sweltering day in America’s and the first black female senator capital. Many people reported passing out from heat exhaustion (or perhaps excite- since 1999. Jim Crow is but a remnant in history books and coursework titles. ment) when lining up. It was then as the sun was at its highest point when he de- One African-American of mixed heritlivered his speech. It was seventeen age grew up to be elected to the Illiminutes long, but the real scope of the nois State House, the United States speech lasted five short minutes. Those Senate and made it all the way to the five minutes promised unrivalled optimism White House. The capacity of Barack to many African Americans all over the Obama to become President was country, a hope that things would be difmade possible by King and his comferent at some point.

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But do these successes really mean that King’s “dream” really came true? The true crux of his vision for his fellow brothers and sisters was this: a United States where every single person has equal opportunity – culturally, educationally, politically and economically - to contribute positively in society and develop themselves to their full potential, regardless of their ethnicity or heritage. This ideology assumes that, all other things being equal, African Americans should have access to the same opportunities as white Americans. Yet a study by Brandeis University revealed that “The gap between Black and white household [accumulated] wealth quadrupled from 1984 to 2007, totally discrediting the conventional wisdom that the U.S. is slowly and fitfully moving towards racial equality, or some rough economic parity between the races. When measured over decades, Blacks are being propelled economically downward relative to whites at quickening haste”. White families typically have assets worth $100,000 (£69,000), up from $22,000 in the mid-1980s. African-American families’ assets stand at just $5,000 (£3,950), up from around $2,000. A quarter of black families have no assets at all.

The study monitored more than 2,000 families since 1984. As long as the polarisation of wealth and the absence of equal economic opportunity continues to widen, the dream is not fulfilled.

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There are other factors which act as a stumbling block for black Americans, like the criminal justice system. I think that until we as a society don’t see a need for such a legal category as hate crime, the dream can’t possibly be fulfilled. Police brutality is on a frightening rise in America.

Sources from The Guardian to The Washington Post have reported to a staggering amount of black lives lost in the hands of policemen, ranging from 865-940. Philando Castile, Freddie Gray and Alton Sterling – just to name the ones that were publicized on twitter. The Black Live Matter movement is an international activist movement that cultivated from the death of Trayvon Martin, in 2013, a young black man who died at the hands of a white police officer. It campaigns against violence and systemic racism toward black people. Let that sink in. A movement founded three years ago is still fighting for racial equality in ‘the land of the free’. Black Americans were incarcerated in state prisons at an average rate of 5.1 times that of white Americans, the report said, and in some states that rate was 10 times or more. The US is 63.7% white, 12.2% black and 16% Hispanic, according to the most recent census. However black Americans make up 39% of the prison population, with whites making up 40% and Hispanics making up 19%. The imbalance between ethnicities are clear, and until the unjust prosecution of black Americans ends the “dream” cannot be fulfilled.

“I think that until we as a society don’t see a need for such a legal category as hate crime, the dream can’t possibly be fulfilled.”

They say that education is the key success, yet America constantly keeps its black citizens locked out. Racial segregation in the US is still a big problem, the amount of schools where 1% or less of the student body population is white has more than doubled in the last 18 years.

According to the UCLA Civil Rights project, the South is the least segregated region for black students, northern states being far more segregated, with New York being the worst. May 2016 marked the 63rd anniversary of the Brown vs. Board of Education establishing that ‘separate public schools for black and white students to be unconstitutional’, which this segregation in the north is a direct violation of. Predominantly black/Latino students often attend schools that have less experienced teachers, are less likely to offer college prep courses and have fewer resources to their benefit. The issue with many city schools in the US is that they select their pupils from neighbourhoods which have been kept predominantly white due to gentrification and racist housing systems, thus making the schools predominantly white. With race and class being intricately linked, many of these black students unable to attend good ‘white’ schools are six times as likely to be from poverty stricken homes – making it harder to break that chain.

The problem at the core of all these issues is the idea that freedom and economic opportunity are substitutable; that freedom is economic opportunity. If the immense discrepancy in income and assets can’t be minimised, will the Black man ever be truly free? King instigated a vast development in the freedom, but for many his work is not entirely finished.

With significant progress being made, the average African American is still trailing far behind his white sisters and brothers in many areas, ranging from education to prosecution.

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Power Struggles in the Development of the English Legal System

By Camille Houghton-Grimshaw

A few days ago I found myself stumped by a question from one of the history teachers which out of law and history I thought to be the most similar subject to politics? I found this difficult to answer, even once I had gone away and thought about it a little more, because I had thought of law and history themselves as being greatly intertwined with each other. In England in particular, the same power struggle between the Monarchy, the Nobility, and the Church that had given birth to the modern political system had also given birth to the modern legal system. Understanding the development of the legal system through this power struggle is therefore a key to understanding the dynamics of power in past and present politics in England.

In spite of Mr Bumble’s oft-quoted assertion in ‘Oliver Twist’ that “the law is an ass”, the law is an essential social structure in British politics that ensures that, for the most part, citizens can expect to have themselves and their property protected in return for respecting the persons and property of other citizens. The exact origins of the law in England are somewhat unclear; it cannot be the case, as traditional social contract theory may have suggested, that the people of what became England gathered together in prehistoric times to formally agree to a social contract.

The origins of the law and the basic legal principles upon which it operates today can, however, be traced back beyond feudalism to the Anglo Saxon era, and the greatest phase of its development in the 11th, 12th, and 13th 9

centuries are rooted in the dynamics of a power struggle between the church and secular powers, and the King and more localised powers that have been a theme of English history.

The concept of devolved political power is by no means a new idea in England, and a system of highly localised government was the norm for most of English history. The arrangement that existed under the feudal system was that vassals of the King, the Barons and Knights, paid homage and fealty to the King and were allowed to hold land for him and received his protection in return. A similar arrangement existed when it came to the Knight or Baron enfeoffing land to the peasants attached to it in order for them to work it. This system for the most part failed to maintain law and order not only because of the absence of a police force, which was not developed until many centuries later, but because there was little incentive for the local Baron or Knight to protect the peasants over whom he effectively ruled, nor were there many limits upon the power he held over them.

Justice was far removed from the idea of reason upon which it rests in theory today, as a lack of means of gathering evidence and the highly religious nature of society meant that trials tended to take the form of ordeals originating mainly in the Anglo Saxon era that looked to God to decide guilt or innocence. A commonly used ordeal was to tie the defendant right thumb to left toe, left thumb to right toe, and throw them into a pond to see if they sank or floated. The innocent were held to be the ones who sank, although they might well have been left in the pond after sinking anyway, whilst most defendants floated because of the difficulty of sinking in such a position, and so were dragged out and punished. In the later 11th century William II reportedly only abolished trial by ordeal because fifty men accused of killing his deer passed an ordeal and were acquitted, while the church effectively abolished trials by ordeal in 1215 (the same year in which the Magna Carta was signed) when it forbade the clergy from participating in them.

The rational, systematic approach of Canon law (the laws of the church) laid the foundations of the modern legal system by establishing many of the basic principles upon which the law operates. One example of a principle descended from Canon law in the modern legal system is that the defendant must be guilty not only of the Actus Reus, the physical element of a crime, but also the Mens Rea, the guilty state of mind. Before this key development to be held guilty of a crime the defendant needed only the Actus Reus, and so could be found guilty of a crime even if they had not intended the consequence, or had not even forseen the risk of it happening. This development stemmed from the ability of the church to appreciate the difference between internal crimes (what might be called “though crime”) and external crimes that involved physical actions, and to appreciate that there was some crossover between the two.

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This allowed the development of defenses that dispute the Men's Rea element of a crime, such as the defence of diminished responsibility, which argues that a medical condition played a substantial part in the conduct of the defendant because it caused them to have an abnormality of mental functioning. Great emphasis was put by Canon law upon the judge placing himself in the position of the defendant in order to consider if he would have acted in a similar way in the same circumstances (an objective test), or to consider if the defendant had personal awareness that their conduct was not right, or that it would bring about the consequence (a subjective test). The five aims of sentencing used in the modern court system, such as rehabilitation and protection of the public, also stem directly from the aims the church wanted to achieve in punishing criminals. For example, the pillory publicly shamed a criminal so that they would be unlikely to commit the crime again, and protected the public by making it known that the person in the pillory was a disreputable character.

By introducing reason into the legal process the church played a great part in the development of the law from a highly localised system based largely upon luck that worked only in favour of the powerful into a more centralised, fairer system.

The idea of the equality of souls in Christianity acted as a check, albeit a small one, upon the power of Barons as the concept of “citizens” became synonymous with the concept of “souls”, each imbued with an equal worth before God. This would eventually inform the concept of equality before the law. The church became a key means of escaping the interests of secular local powers because its authority was centralised to a greater

degree in Rome, and church councils to decide legal issues became more frequent beginning in the second half of the 11th century. This was something that Rome encouraged, as it strengthened the power of the Pope over secular rulers. Secular rulers, seeing the power that centralised justice gave to the church by using the law as the expression of a sovereign will, found that by centralising justice they could themselves exert more power over feudal Lords.

The concept of “citizens” became synonymous with the concept of “souls”.

As part of his power struggle with the church Henry II seized upon this means of exerting power by issuing a Declaration at the Assize of Clarendon in 1166 that judges should travel the country deciding cases using laws that would be created in Westminster. The creation of law centrally instead of locally was a key development in the centralisation of power in England, allowing the Monarch to exercise more authority nationally. In turn, more central power was given to the Parliament, which had developed out of Councils held by the King and his tenants in Chief, as opposed to the King by the Magna Carta in 1215.

A great many changes have come about since the 13th century in the development of the legal system in England, but the centralisation of power to undermine feudalism that began in earnest as Henry II took on ideas from Canon law in reorganising the legal system can be seen as the development that created the foundations of the legal system in England.

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Studying these developments reveals clearly how intertwined history, politics, and law are in England because of the shared history of the legal and political systems, and because of the impact that developments in law have had upon politics, and vice versa. I cannot claim to be any closer to establishing which out of history, politics, and law are the most closely related, but I can say that to understand contemporary politics or law a good understanding of their shared history goes a long way.

The Beatles and Britain: What Happened to Politics Whilst the Biggest Band of the Century was on the Rise?

By Amos Wynn

Part 1 (1940-1964): Britain. We’re a small but strange nation with a pig loving (now ex) Prime Minister. Our Government Opposition has more division than GCSE maths. We wasn't apart of the EU, or as it was then the ECC. We’re friends with our fat, gun loving American cousins and there is scandal in Parliament.

Things are similar to 1960’s Britain. Labour were divided between Bevanites and Gaitskellites, we had American relations and Parliament was full of scandal. Did the Prime Minister do perverted things to pigs?

Britain has given the world Shakespeare, Dickens and Jeremy Clarkson. Landmarks like Big Ben and Buckingham Palace. Sporting stars like Gerrard, Beckham, Murray, EnnisHill, Wilkinson, Jimmy Bullard! Most of all Britain gave the world John, Paul, George and Ringo, better known as The Beatles, the world’s greatest band.

The 1940s was an important decade. Richard Starkey (Ringo Starr) was born 7th July 1940.

John Lennon was born 9th October 1940. Paul McCartney was born June 18th 1942 and George Harrison born February 25th 1943.

The 1940’s also saw the end of war, India’s independence and Labour’s 1945 election victory under Clement Attlee’s leadership.

During their time in power, the NHS was introduced in 1948 (something the Conservatives want to destroy) and started nationalisation (something destroyed already.) The unity of the War time coalition (where Attlee had been Churchill’s deputy) continued with 12

consensus, an agreement between Government and Opposition.

By 1951, Labour began struggling with image problems with Chancellor Hugh Gaitskell and Health-secretary Aneurin Bevan clashing over prescription charges and the Korean War. Labour lost the 1951 election with 26 fewer seats to Churchill’s rejuvenated Conservatives despite remaining 0.8% ahead in votes. That narrow victory opened the door to a Conservative thirteen year dominance, remaining in power until 1964.

The Conservatives continued consensus, keeping popular policies like the Welfare state and working towards full employment. This became known as Butskellism, with Conservative Butler continuing Labours Gaitskell’s polices.

When Churchill stepped down as Prime Minister in 1955, his apprentice Anthony Eden took over. With Eden’s popularity, the Conservatives won the 1955 election against a divided Labour.

Defeat spelled the end of Attlee's political career with right winger Gaitskell becoming Labour leader. During his reign (19551963) Gaitskell clashed with Bevan again over nuclear weapons and foreign policy (not much disagreement.) The shite state

of Labour meant they could not capitalise on Conservative cock ups like the 1956 Suez crisis, the failed conflict over Egypt’s independence and control of Suez Canal. This balls up in foreign affairs spelled the end for Eden, tarnished Britain’s reputation and weakened American relations.

In 1957, 16 year old Paul McCartney was introduced to John Lennon (who was performing with his band the Quarrymen at St Peter’s church Woolton.) Within seven months, McCartney had joined and George Harrison was recruited after performing ‘Raunchy’ to Lennon on a top deck of a bus. The famous Cavern club also opened, somewhere The Beatles played 292 times.

Harold MacMillan also replaced Eden, rebuilding Anglo-American relations after Suez and creating economic stability going from austerity to affluence gaining him the nickname SuperMac (originally as a joke.) Mac’s popularity won the 1959 election with people never having it so good, especially the now known Beatles who got their first booking at the Casbah coffee dance club.

Things got better at the start of the sixties, with the Beatles becoming the most exciting band in Liverpool after their first gig at the Cavern club on the 9th February 1961 with Brian Epstein becoming their manager a year later.

The start of the sixties weren't so positive for the Conservatives, as the cracks in their power began to show with a failed nuclear programme and stop-go economics hindering long term success.

In 1962 MacMillan sacked seven ministers in one night, getting the name ‘Night of the Long Knives.’ This was not well received, making the government and ‘Super Mac’ appear weak. They became targets for satire shows like ‘That Was The Week That Was.’

It may have been a crap year for the Tories but for The Beatles things were getting better, with Ringo replacing Pete Best as drummer. On 11th September they recorded ‘Love Me Do’ at Abbey Road, releasing it on the 5th October. It only reached #17 in the UK charts but gave the world a taste of the greatness to come, with the same song topping the US charts in 1964.

With Britain’s world power fading through decolonisation, MacMillan knew that European Economic Community membership (formed in 1958) was needed, offering incentives to join. Britain’s 1961 EEC application was shat on by French president De Gaulle, rejecting it in 1963 because of Commonwealth commitments and relationship with America.

Another problem for Macmillan was coping with endless scandal. The main one making the headlines was the Profumo affair involving the forty-six year old Secretary of State John Profumo sleeping with nineteen year old Christine Keeler (dirty bastard.) Keeler had also been sleeping with a number of others, including a soviet worker. Profumo lied to Parliament about the affair in 1961; in 1963 he was forced to tell the truth and resign.

The comedy of Conservative errors and medical problems led to MacMillan’s resignation and Alec Douglas-Home (a man with less charisma than Vladimir Putin) took over as Prime Minister in 1963.

Whilst Britain couldn't get into Europe, The Beatles were on top of the world. Releasing their first album ‘Please Please Me’ on 22nd March. They also released their first #1 ‘From Me To You’ on the 11th April 1963 (top for eleven weeks.)

Two more #1’s were released in 1963 with ‘She Loves You’ and ‘I Want To Hold Your

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Hand’; they would also be the closing act of The Conservative’s ‘thirteen wasted years’ the Royal Variety show. After the success of were over whilst the Beatles success had onthe first album, they released their second ly just begun!

‘With The Beatles’ just months after.

1963 also saw Gerry and the Pacemakers, another Merseyside band, release their version of ‘You'll Never Walk Alone’ (a song associated with English football’s greatest team.)

The 1960’s was the era of the affluent youth, with the gap between rich and poor shrinking. Britain was changing as Mods and Rock- Part 2(1964-1980): ers were produced, with both groups clashing at the riot on Brighton beach in May The 1960’s - what a wonderful time it was in 1964, ending in prison sentences.

Britain. It was the time where music reached Whilst it was kicking off in Brighton, The an all-time high, with band like The Kinks, Beatles continued enjoying chart success The Rolling Stones and of course The Beatles with ‘Can't Buy Me Love,’ ‘A Hard Days all topping the charts.

Night’ and ‘I feel fine’ all going to #1. ‘A Hard Days Night’ was also the name of their first The 1960’s also saw the want for change in Britain, showed by Labours 1964 election vicfilm and third album. The fourth album ‘Beatles for Sale’ was also released in 1964 tory showing that the public was fed up with on the 4th December. North London band, Conservatives after thirteen years (I'm fed up The Kinks also enjoyed their first chart suc- with them after six.) Harold's Wilsons Lacess topping the charts with ‘You Really Got bours victory was narrow, only winning by 14 seats and 0.5% of the vote.

Me’.

Following Gaitskell giving up and dying, for- They came into power with a nice gift of mer Shadow Chancellor and Shadow Secre- 750m balance of payment deficit left by the tary Harold Wilson was the man in charge of Conservatives. Wilson came up with the idea Labour beating alcoholic George Brown to of the DEA (department of economic affairs) led by George Brown to try and overcome the position. the massive pile of shite left to them. Wilson Within sixteen months as leader he'd pulled set one of his main aims as strengthening the the party together, leading Labour to elececonomy and modernising Britain. He also tion success through his popular ordinary wanted to develop the welfare state and man image ending Douglas-Homes short have a good relationship with trade unions. reign (his aristocratic image more unpopular than Nick Clegg with students.)

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In 1965 The Beatles were enjoying more success having six #1’s with: ‘Eight Days a week’, ‘Ticket To Ride’, ‘Help’, ‘Yesterday’ (a song composed by McCartney in dream), ‘Day Tripper’ and ‘We Can Work It Out’ topping the UK charts; the US charts or both.

They also released their second feature film ‘Help’ earning $12,066,667 in the box office. 1965 was also the year that they were rewarded MBE’s by the Queen.

Whilst the economy was failing, The Beatles were still releasing #1’s with: Paperback Writer, Yellow Submarine, Eleanor Rigby and Penny Lane. ‘Yellow Submarine’ was the only Beatles song that Ringo provided lead vocals for, and it shot straight to #1. 1966 was also a big year for English football, with England winning the World Cup 4-2 against Germany at Wembley.

1967 saw The Beatles release one of their most famous albums since 1966, Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club. 1967 wasn't all positive for the Beatles, the sad news came through that there manager Brian Epstein died from an overdose, Lennon described him as a ‘beautiful guy.’

Wilson meanwhile was not having such a good time as things had taken a nose dive.

Within one year Labour ratings had dropped from 57% to 27% with Wilson having no direction and the Cabinet lacking knowledge.

In his first few years in charge Wilson wasn't the leader Britain needed, with his cabinet unorganised and the avoidance of collective discussion with him leaving decisions to others.

Despite the sad news, two more #1’s were released with ‘All You Need Is Love’ and ‘Hello, Goodbye’ (the first single after Epstein’s death.) Both ‘Hello, Goodbye’ and its B-side ‘I am the Walrus’ featured in the 3rd film, ‘Magical Mystery Tour.’

Labour had managed to reduce the balance of payment deficit to £250 million whilst the DEA was fully set up. After Douglas-Home’s bad election campaign he was replaced as Conservative leader by Edward Heath, a man whose personal life has come under question many times.

1967 was yet another bad year for Wilsons Labour with yet more headaches being caused by union strikes and the wage freeze continuing. The biggest problem of 1967 was the devaluation of the pound by 14%.

In 1966 Labour remained in power, being re -elected with a higher majority of 96 seats.

The Beatles also released their seventh album ‘Revolver’, the opening song ‘Taxman’ criticising Harold Wilson’s economy with taxes rising. The Kinks also released a song attacking the rising taxes, ‘Sunny Afternoon’ topping the UK charts for two weeks.

1968 saw them produce another album simply named The Beatles (sometimes referred to as the ‘White Album’) and there fourth film ‘Yellow Submarine.’ They also released two more #1’s with ‘Lady Madonna’ and ‘Hey Jude.’

The rising taxes was a result of another Sterling Crisis due to a seamen’s strike stopping trade after Wilson had pissed the unions off with the prices and incomes policy to keep prices down and created wage restraints.

Released on August 30th 1968 in the UK, ‘Hey Jude’ was written by Paul for John’s 15

son Julian following his parents splitting up.

John Lennon had been having an affair with Yoko Ono, he had a quick divorce from his wife Cynthia (who'd he'd met at art college at the age of 17.) Paul wrote the song to reassure Julian after the separation, with the song originally being named ‘Hey Jules’ before changing to the better sounding ‘Hey Jude.’

The Beatles also performed live for the last time in exceptional circumstances, performing on the roof of the recently purchased Apple Offices at 3 Saville Road. It had been 885 days since there last live performance.

Paul McCartney also released a solo-album as well, with the self titled ‘McCartney.’ The following year he brought out a second album named ‘Ram’ before forming a band called Wings, which released many successful albums.

Lennon also embarked on a solo-career after the Beatles, releasing his first album ‘John Lennon/Plastic Ono Band’ in 1970 featuring songs like ‘Working Class Hero.’

The following year Lennon released his secThis performance captured a huge crowd that ond album ‘Imagine,’ which features one of started to gather before they were interrupt- his most famous solo-songs of the same ed by the police. The performance only lasted name.

42 minutes but they got what they'd wanted, an ending to their next film ‘Let It Be.’ Also in 1971, Heaths government introThe first song played at this performance was duced two major acts bringing in the Immi‘Get Back,’ there first #1 of 1969. Other #1’s gration Act and The Industrial Relations Act. included ‘The Ballad of John and The Industrial Relations Act said unions had Yoko’ (written by Lennon on his honeymoon to Yoko Ono), ‘Something’ (the only #1 where to register and needed secret ballots to arGeorge Harrison sung lead vocals) and ‘Come range strikes. This was unpopular and Together’ (written as a political rallying cry for caused a march to protest against the act. pro-drugs activist Timothy Leary.) These songs The Conservatives also made a huge error were a part of the Abbey Road album. when they undermined themselves by naOn 10th April 1970 The Beatles split up following Paul McCartney leaving the band. The tionalising Rolls Royce but refused to bail two final Beatles #1’s were ‘Let It Be’ and ‘The out Upper Clyne Shipbuilders. They made Long Winding Road’ recorded in 1969 but re- things worse for themselves in 1972 when leased in 1970 following the bands splitting, they did a u-turn on their decision and both songs topped the US charts. bailed out the shipbuilders.

1970 also saw the end for the Labour government, despite being confident of victory they Things got worse in 1972 when the miners went on strike in January and February as lost in a shock defeat to Heath’s Conservatives. well as the economic growth being poorly In the same year George Harrison released a stimulated when the chancellor cut taxes solo-album, ‘All Things Must Pass’ which Rin- dramatically. go Starr played the drums on. The same year In 1973, with his new band Wings, McCartStarr also released to albums of his own, ney recorded the Bond song ‘Live & Let ‘Sentimental Journey’ and ‘Beaucoups of Blues.’

Die.’ This song is possibly one of the best 16

known Bond songs and could be the best known Wings song as well.

To deal with the economy Britain applied for a IMF loan, which was paid off after North Sea Oil was discovered in 1977.

As well as a new Bond film, 1973 also saw a significant decision for Britain as we joined the EEC. After being rejected a number of times, Heath had finally got Britain accepted only for the country to decide to leave 43 years later.

1977 also saw Labour make an agreement with the Liberals named the Lib Lab pact.

This was were the Liberals would agree with Labour and in return they would get to see proposals.

In 1974 the miners were causing trouble again with a 16 week strike, this was one of the final nails in the Conservatives coffin as they were defeated in the election.

The following year, the Lib Lab came to end as the cracks in Callaghan’s government began to show.

1978 saw the biggest crisis of them all, The Winter Of Discontent. This was when there was a mass amount of strikes in protest against the wage freeze. The situation was not helped by Callaghan saying ‘Crisis?

What crisis?’

Wilson won 1974 election for Labour with a majority of three but increased that a few months later in October to strengthen their position.

During the months between the elections they made some great progress ending the three day week that had come in under Heath. They also made positive economic changes as well as giving the miners an increase.

In 1979 the pound had to be devalued and Labour's time in power came to an end. It could've been completely different as Callaghan could've called the election before the Winter of Discontent but chose not to.

On 4th May 1979 Britain would change forever. This was the day Maggie Thatcher would become the first female Prime Minister (if she was female.) This was the end of post-war consensus and the end of enjoyment. Thatcher took post-war consensus and shoved it in the bin. 1980 was the true end for the Beatles.

The same year as Labour regained power, John Lennon and Paul McCartney briefly grew close once again as they played music together on one occasion early on in the year.

Only a few years after joining EEC membership was already a touchy subject with a referendum being held on its future in 1975 with 62% voting to remain.

On December 8th the great John Lennon was assassinated, being shot several times by jealous fan Mark Chapman. Lennon once said “I don't know which will go first, rock and roll or Christianity”. He was right The Beatles will never be forgotten, and their music will live on.

In 1976 Wilson resigned resigned as Prime Minister with James Callaghan taking over.

Callaghan had a tough task ahead of him with inflation at 16% and unemployment reaching one million.

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Last December The Beatles were added to music website Spotify, showing their music is still loved now. McCartney and Starr are the only remaining Beatles, after Harrison sadly passed away in 2001 from cancer.

During their time the Beatles had a huge 26 #1’s, earning a place in British history with the band still bringing in 82 million income into Liverpool every year! Between the 26th and 30th of August Liverpool enjoyed International Beatles week showing there huge impact.

Britain now is similar to post-war in many ways; one way that certainly isn't the same is that we don't have a band as big as The Beatles.

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History Magazine December 2016 Thank you to everyone who contributed President

Camille Houghton-Grimshaw

Vice-President

Rudo Makoni

Head of Editorial

Lauren Banks

Editorial Team

Lucy Fisher, Larissa Jennings, Hannah Hills

Design Work

Poppy Halliwell

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