History november 2015 edition

Winstanley College

History Magazine November 2015 Edition “One damned thing after another“

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Contents: Editorial ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..3 Toppling the Statues………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………….4-6 What We Don’t Know About the Holocaust………………………………………………………………………………..7-9 A Brief History of Sport………………………………….…………………………………………………………………………….10-13 Pirates of the Past and Present………………………………………………………………………………………..………….14-17 The Science of History…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..18-19 Life in Saigon During the 1960s………………………………………….……………………………………………………..20-22 Stalin’s Rule…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...23-25 A History of Death……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….26-28 Ra-Ra-Rasputin……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………29-31 Archaeological VS. Written Evidence…………………………………………………………………………………………32-34 Maggie’s Milk Myth……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..35-36 I Saw Magna Carta………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………….37-39 Breaking News in the History Society………………..……………………………………………………………..……………40 Who’s Who in the History Society……………………………………………………………………………………………………41 Please note that any views or opinions expressed in this magazine are the views of the author, and do not necessarily reflect the opinions of Winstanley College, or its History Society.

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Editorial: “History is just ‘One damned thing after another’” Arnold Toynbee Hello and welcome to the October 2015 edition of the History Magazine, courtesy of some magnificent writers and a hard-working editorial team!

take your fancy? Delving into the world of political and religious destruction of symbols and it’s rich history throughout time?

We’re just starting to get to grips (or reacquaint ourselves) with a college workload, and yet history still seems to find itself into the news and in our minds.

Maybe for the main course, a tale of pirates will enthrall and entice, spinning swashbuckling shanties of the most sinister pirates? Or maybe you’d rather forgo a main, after all, the article on death rituals may just put you off your dinner?

The migrant crisis has divided the EU as vast numbers continue to cross over to Europe from the Mediterrane- And to finish, maybe you’ll have a an. Countries struggle with the influx, dessert of fierce debate about the and targets are ever increasing. science of history, and whether archaeology or texts can tell us the most The debate over Jeremy Corbyn’s leadership caused furore over the UK, about the past? possibly dividing the party, and certainly the college, with the Labour party’s future still unpredictable.

There’s all that and more in this halfterm’s issue of the History Magazine.

I wonder what the future will bring?

You know you want to…

So sally forth and read!

Our students have been making history in their articles as well, with a myriEmma Porter ad of periods and opinions to sate even the most picky historical appe- Editor—in—Chief tites.

Maybe, a starter of iconoclasm will 3

Toppling the Statues Looking at the History of Iconoclasm How many symbols of the British monarchy can you find in your town?

For a start, there’s the royal coat of arms on post boxes and post vans. There’s the coat of arms over the Magistrates’ Court and the Infirmary. There’s the Queen’s head on every coin in every pocket and on the stamps of every letter.

What would happen to all these symbols if we became a republic? More so than that, what would happen to them if the Queen were deposed in a full-scale, no-holdsbarred revolution? Maybe we would paint over the coat of arms, or chip them off the walls. Perhaps we might try to erase all memory of the royalty by toppling statues of past monarchs, or claim them for our own by painting them different colours. The creative possibilities are endless.

any dramatic change of power or thinking. It can be seen throughout history from the Byzantine Empire, to the French revolution, to the Second World War, to as recently as the conflict in Ukraine. In a world where an image can speak a thousand words, studying the destruction of these symbols gives an historian a unique insight into the views of the people and rulers of the time.

Many examples of iconoclasm were historically carried out for religious rather than political reasons. Possibly the best example of this was the Iconoclastic Controversy that gripped Byzantine society for a hundred years, in which two sects of the Church were divided over the worship of idols. The Iconoclasts argued that the worship of idols was prohibited by the first commandment, a crime that was punished in the Bible with the destruction of entire cities. However, the Iconophiles claimed that only icons of God Iconoclasm, the destruction of symbols for were prohibited because God was invisible, religious or political purposes, accompanies so any representation of Him was false. An 4

icon of Jesus, on the other hand, would not be false because he was the concrete embodiment of God. In 726, Emperor Leo III came out in support of the Iconoclasts, which resulted in all religious icons being destroyed and the persecution of the Iconophiles. The Iconoclasts passed in and out of power until 843, when the worship of icons was officially endorsed by the widow of Emperor Theophilus.

son (formerly Notre Dame Cathedral) and the infamous Place de la Revolution.

In recent months many of us will have been, unwittingly, involved in debate over iconoclasm ourselves. For example, during the recent conflict in Ukraine in excess of a hundred statues of Soviet leaders have been destroyed, most notably the Vladimir Lenin monument in Kiev. The statue was a symbol of Communist Russia’s control of Ukraine A very different example of iconoclasm oc- and the protestors argued that it should curred some nine hundred years later in have been removed after the Ukraine gained France as the peasants rebelled against the its independence in 1991. Decommunisation Ancien RÊgime that had starved, worked laws that banned Soviet and Communist th and taxed them to breaking point. On 12 symbols were drafted from 2002 to 2013, July 1789, the poor rebelled against taxes which drew heavy criticism on the grounds imposed by the crown on goods by burning of freedom of speech. One statue of Lenin the Barriere de la Conference tollhouse on was reclaimed by protestors when they the outskirts of Paris. However, the mob did painted it yellow and blue, the colours of not simply torch the building. Accompanying the Ukrainian flag. While the redecorating them were a team of stonemasons who did give the statue a rather pop art feel, the were designated the task of decapitating a political statement was serious. nearby statue, which was a symbol of royal power, and chipping the fleur de lis from its Finally, there was the debacle over the Conshield as a clear message to the aristocracy. federate flag in South Carolina. After the raTwo days later a mob stormed the Bastille, cially motivated shootings of black parishan aggressive symbol of royal power, despite ioners in a church in Charleston, activists fothe fact that the prison held only seven pris- cused on the Confederate flag as a symbol oners - four counterfeiters, one sexual devi- of racism in the South. The flag represented ant, one traitor to the Crown and one men- the Southern states that seceded from the tally unstable Irishman who claimed to be Union and began the American Civil War in Julius Caesar. It was the idea of the Bastille defense of slavery. Despite its obvious roots that inspired the Parisian peasants to brave in such a vile institution, the flag was still althe guns and cannons that defended it, not lowed to fly, in 2016, over the Columbia the need to rescue the prisoners. They were courthouse. The argument against the redisplaying their hatred of the King’s power moval of the flag was a classic one; that an to hold whoever he wished in the prison in- attack on the flag was an attack on the heritdefinitely without charge or trial. age of the South and an attack on their history. It surpassed the pro-Confederate proIn another example of the use of symbolism, testors that this was an area of history best 1400 place names were changed in Paris to left in the past. Protesting on both sides was erase evidence of the monarchy and clergy, fierce and the black power movement sucleading to the creation of the Temple of Rea- ceeded in stealing and destroying several 5

Confederate flags from the opposing white power marchers. One activist, Brittany Newsome, was arrested after she climbed the flagpole and removed the flag herself. Eventually, the governor of South Carolina signed new legislation that led to the removal of the flag and signaled a victory of the activists.

Historians often criticize iconoclasm because it fails to preserve the historical, aesthetic and religious value of the symbols. Iconoclasts themselves are often dismissed as common vandals. However, the point of displaying symbols in public places such as coats of arms and statues is to show our collective approval and respect for what they represent. When these symbols represent something that we cannot give our blessing to, such as an oppressive royal family or a history of slavery, it is not unreasonable for us to challenge them. While there is very valid criticism of some displays of iconoclasm, such as attacks on war memorials, the issue with these examples is with the views proposed by the protestors and not with iconoclasm itself. When practiced with respect for others to oppose oppressive ideas, iconoclasm is a direct and effective form of protest.

BY CAMILLE HOUGHTOM-GRIMSHAW

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What We Don’t Know About the Holocaust Moritz Choinowski was a Holocaust survivor.

Prior to the Third Reich, he was a middleaged man in good health. The tailor’s which he owned was flourishing; his political affiliation with the SPD was beneficial to him.

However, on 28th September 1939, the Gestapo dragged him from his home and transported him to the Buchenwald concentration camp. He was stripped naked, given a prisoner uniform with a red-and-yellow triangle (meaning he was a political prisoner and a Jew) and forced to work in a quarry. It was common for him to be beaten. Three times he was subjected to the ruthless punishment commonly referred to as the ’25 blows’. On 19th October 1942, he was thrown into a car and taken to Auschwitz, where he just about avoided being selected for the gas chambers. About two years later he was moved to Dachau. This camp was liberated on 29th April 1945, but by this time he was starving and suffering from Typhus.

His fellow inmates were so weak that they could hardly acknowledge the US forces that came to free them. A teenage survivor re7

members how he ‘watched the people sing and dance with joy, and they seemed to me as if they’d lost their minds. I looked at myself and couldn’t recognise who I was.’

Choinowski was one of the few who celebrated. He’d gone through over two thousand days in concentration camps. As he cried with relief, he even asked a fellow inmate: ‘Is this possible?’

His question was about the fact of liberation: could his pain really be over? Was he actually free? How could he have survived despite the odds? It’s also about the Holocaust itself. Totalitarianism, total war and the Holocaust were the result of decisions made by millions of rational, educated men and women. Who allowed Buchenwald, Auschwitz and Dachau to be built? How could millions of humans deliberately and knowingly enslave, torture and slaughter millions of other human beings? These questions continue to haunt us even today in the 21st century.

So often we blame events like the Holocaust on the leaders, in this case Hitler. We’re forgetting that it wasn’t Hitler who killed every single victim of the Holocaust. From the civil servants to the SS guards, everyone is responsible. But these things did happen in the heart of an enlightened Europe. Some of the best historical minds have devoted their lives to explaining those horrific years.

though Nazi concentration camps are mainly associated with killing Jews, at this time Dachau accommodated political prisoners (mainly Communists). They even wore their own clothes and were fed to a decent standard. Their guards were just policemen.

We must challenge what we think we know if we are to understand the Holocaust. Precision is key. On the afternoon of 2nd April 1945, when Allied troops entered Dachau they were shocked to see piles of corpses and tens of thousands of prisoners, all barely alive. Think of Dachau six years earlier. On 31st August 1939, the day before the start of the war, the barracks were clean and beds neatly made. Slave labour and severe abuse was common, but the violence was controlled and few inmates died.

death camps. Although significant, the concentration camps were peripheral to the Nazis’ anti-Jewish policy.

The only way to understand the Holocaust is through an integrated history. This is the historical approach that takes in the perspecThe Nazi concentration camps were differ- tives of all participants, environments and ent from deaths camps like Chelmno and contexts; looking from multiple angles at Sobibor. They pre-date the war by six years. once. Each phrase of the Holocaust has to They were built all over Europe and there be exhaustively examined in its entirety. was a total of 1127 concentration camps.

Then we can hope to answer Choinowski’s 1.7 million people died in them. Although a question. million people died at Auschwitz, it’s imThere is no such thing as a ‘typical’ prisoner portant not to forget or ignore the people or even a guard. It’s important to be specific locked up elsewhere. Concentration camps about time and place. Depending on the were strongly linked and integrated into year, only between 10 and 30 per cent of wider Nazi society. Although they were run the inmates of concentration camps were by the SS, they were no secret (unlike the Jewish. Jews were over-represented in death camps). They were lawless areas but camps, for sure, as they were only 1% of part of the horror was that there was a German population in 1933. More imgreat deal of planning which went into mak- portantly, most of the six million Jews killed ing them sustainable and durable. were killed in ditches, fields, mobile vans or

Six years earlier than that, in 1933, it was set up in an abandoned munitions factory.

This was less than two months after Hitler became chancellor of Germany. Even

Some say that the Jews admitted defeat and marched helplessly to their deaths. But what they fail to appreciate is what prisoners really faced in the camps. The SS guards went to extreme lengths to reassure victims that the gas chambers were just shower rooms and that coffee and food would be served once they were clean. Prisoners who had suspicions had few ways to object. They were starving and therefore disorientated.

Direct confrontation with the SS was suicide and even being indirect about it was idiotic.

Escaping the camp would be near impossi8

ble, as well as being problematic: for every prisoner who escaped, many more would be killed in punishment. Resistance is scarce in all totalitarian regimes and the camps provided barren grounds for its growth. Some prisoners did try to defy the tormentors, aware that they were condemned to death; they took any chance to shout political slogans or snatch a rifle from a guard and fight back. But this resistance was doomed.

The Holocaust did not end in 1945.

Choinowski, who was liberated in 1945, struggled with his injuries until his death in 1967. After a period in a camp for displaced people, he settled in Munich. His health had been destroyed; he was in constant pain from the scars of the SS beatings and was unable to work in many jobs. If the question he asked was, ‘is this possible?’ perhaps his follow up should be, ‘was there any meaning to all that suffering?’ In one of his final letters to his daughter he declared: ‘Humanity has learned nothing from the wars, on the contrary, almost all nations are arming once more for warfare and that will probably be the end for humanity.’ I urge you to listen.

BY OLIVER CALLAGHAN

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A Brief History of Sport in the UK

Throughout history Britain has played a major part in world events. We have been invaded and we have invaded. We have had plenty of wars, from civil to world. We’ve had fantastic leaders like Churchill and Atlee and we've had many dreadful leaders from Thatcher to Blair but in Britain we've always had a love for sport.

Roman

discovered but were believed to be in London and Colchester. Another Roman pastime was watching Gladiators in the arena.

Gladiators were usually slaves that had been trained up to fight. The Roman Sports show how similar they were to us, as today racing and fighting are still popular sports.

Medieval

In the terrible times of Medieval Britain the Even dating back as far as Roman times, idea of sports was basically watching knights sport has been a part of life. With Britain fighting. Events like jousting were usually under control from the Roman Empire many participated by richer people as only they new ideas came with them. This includes could afford to do so. The lower classes new ideas about medicine and hygiene and were ill and suffering with disease during they brought us sport. medieval times, so they didn’t compete in sports due to lack of health and wealth. ArA big entertainment in Roman Britain was chery was another popular event and not thought to have been chariot racing, the just a happy tale in Robin Hood. Sports simiFormula 1 of its day. This is only known belar to cricket and golf now were also played cause of mosaics at the venues, known as’ during this period. circus’, physical evidence has never been 10

Tudor Like in medieval times, the upper classes continued to joust but in this period lots of modern sports started to take form.

that needed to be followed. 30 November 1872 saw the FA organise the first official international against Scotland.

In 1879 one of the biggest competitions in British history began, The All England CroOne of those sports was real tennis. Unlike quet and Lawn Tennis Club (better known as today it was played in large room indoors Wimbledon) announced a tennis tournaand could bounce off the walls. In fact, this ment for amateurs would take place. The sport was one of the favourites played by competition had only 22 competitors but Henry the Eighth and he even had his own this was the start of Wimbledon’s associacourt at Hampton Court palace, with people tion with Tennis instead of croquet like bestill playing this version there today. fore. 5 years later saw, for the first time, However, in 1512 a certain amount of sports women allowed to compete at Wimbledon.

Although the women's competition was were banned by law as the government held only after the men's had finished. wanted people to spend less time playing games and more time working.

At The Oval on 29th August 1882 England lost a Cricket match against Australia. A jour1800 nalist called the match “the Ashes” symboliThis was the era of the Industrial Revolution, cally due to it being an unexpected loss for Queen Victoria, the great stink and a major England. During the trip to Australia the gap between the rich and the poor. AltEngland captain Ivo Bligh vowed to bring hough at the start of the century professionhome England’s ashes. It was in a friendly al sport was an in-existent by the end we match on Christmas Eve that England was had associations for the majority of big given a terracotta urn for winning so then sports today adding a set of rules to sporting Australia would have something to win back. events.

Since then England and Australia have competed over it despite the original Ashes nevThe first cricket team was at Hambledon, Hampshire, during the 1760’s, but it was on- er leaving Lords. ly in 1835 that the ICC gave Cricket formal The last major event of this century was the rules to follow, rules still standing today. first women’s football match. The game was The 26th October 1886 saw the birth of the between north and south, with the north Football Association, the governing body of wining 2-1.

English football. A man named Ebenezer 1900 Morley was behind its creation, after he The 20th century was a mixed time for Britwrote to a newspaper saying he believed football needed a solid set of rules and laws ain, we saw two terrible world wars but 11

both wars were victorious for Britain. We also saw a struggle for power politically. The end of World War Two saw the first major rise of the Labour Party. To the country they created things such as the NHS and Nationalisation. This century also saw the Conservatives spend 18 years in power in the 80’s and 90’s re-privatising everything. This century was also the defining century for sport!

London hosted its second Olympics in 1948.

This was the first Olympics for 12 years as the 1940 and 1944 games were cancelled due to World War Two. From 1806 until 1963 an annual Cricket event was the Gentlemen against the players. This was when amateur public school students played professional players.

1966 saw an historic World Cup win for England, winning it on home soil. A Geoff Hurst 1908 saw London host the Olympic Games hat trick won England the ultimate trophy in where Great Britain finished top of the medworld football, beating rivals West Germany als table. Only 22 sports were in these 4-2. games, which was originally due to be held in Rome.

In 1969 the Women’s Football Association is founded; two years later the FA lifted the On Christmas Day 1914, English and German ban on women paying on football league soldiers in the trenches put their weapons grounds. Finally in 1972 the first official indown as a game of football was played in no ternational game is played, with England man’s land. It was an amazing event bebeating Scotland 3-2. tween enemies for a short time with football for once bringing peace.

In 1992 the woman’s football league begins and by the end of the decade and century A year after an English women’s team played the FA plans to make it an elite league and its first International match against France, national side, with Hope Powell appointed the FA decided to ban women from playing first official coach of England’s women’s football on football league grounds in 1921. side.

1936 saw Fred Perry win his consecutive 2000 third Wimbledon title but a few short years after that war was declared. World War Two The United Kingdom hosted its first multihit Wimbledon badly, due to its close posi- sporting event since the 1948 Olympics as tion near the heart of London which was in Manchester held the 2002 Commonwealth danger from the Blitz. 14,000 home around games.

Wimbledon was bombed and on 11th OctoThe new Wembley stadium was completed ber 1940 centre court was hit and the dein 2007, after several years at the Millennistroyed stand was only repaired in 1947 deum stadium, the FA cup could finally return spite the tournament still taking place the with Chelsea playing Manchester United. year before.

England could also return home as well after 12

years of playing in various stadiums around the country during Wembley’s construction.

Since it was built is has also played host to two Champions League finals, the biggest competition in European football! As well as this, it is also the home of the Rugby League Challenge Cup and other huge sporting events.

The London Olympics as a whole was a fantastic success. Especially one great Saturday, remembered as Super Saturday, a day where team GB had 12 gold medal winners. From the rowing team to more iconic moments like the victories of Mo Farah, Jessica Ennis and Greg Rutherford in the athletics. The London Olympics was a fantastic event, showing off all that is great in British sport One event it couldn’t host was the Women’s and Britain as a whole. football European Championships in England. With 29,092 at the stadium and a fur- Since the Olympics Britain has held the Rugther 2.9million viewing on TV, the tournaby league World Cup as well as the more rements opening match pulled in a great cent Rugby Union world cup. Sport is truly crowd. Sadly the national side couldn’t get just a big part of British history as wars and further than the group stages. the Monarch. We may not of always of been best at it, it may have been at some points The 21st century has seen a lot of change at against the law and it may not have always Wimbledon. The 2007 tournament saw the been available to the lower classes, but it’s first use of technology with hawk eye being always been present in some sort of form. used on centre court and court 1. 2009 saw another positive change at Wimbledon as

BY AMOS WYNN the roof on centre court was completed meaning matches could continue in any condition. A roof is currently being constructed on court 1, which is expected to be completed by 2019.

In 2012 Man City won their first league title 44 years, a goal from Argentine Sergio Augero in the last minute saw City beat local rivals Manchester United to the premiership title.

Once again, Wimbledon held a tournament as part of the London Olympics. Andy Murray won the gold, a year later he became the first British man in 77 years to win the men's singles at Wimbledon.

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Pirates of the Past and Present

Rulers of the sea, commandeering vessels and their cargo; pirates aren’t merely stories of Hollywood blockbusters or fairy-tale novels. The years 1650-1720 were often described as the golden age of piracy. The threat of attacks, especially on the Mediterranean Sea and Caribbean islands was very real, with treasures including gold and silver, rubies and emeralds often being looted, and victims being forced into slavery or labour.

There were two types of pirates in operation, the Buccaneers and Corsairs. The Buccaneers inhabited the Caribbean islands of Tortuga and Hispaniola. Whilst on these islands the inhabitants saw large Spanish ships sailing back and forth, carrying gold and silver to Europe. Governors of the island paid the buccaneers to raid these ships and retrieve their prized cargos. The captain Sir Henry Morgan, a Welshman who’d be sanctioned by England led some of these attacks as head of the Jamaican fleet. His most notable achievement was capturing Panama City with 30 ships and 1200 men. However, 14

on word of the attack most of panama’s treasure had been locked away, meaning the attack was not as successful as perceived.

In addition to this, Spain and England had established peace, therefore to appease the Spanish a warrant for Morgan’s arrest was sent out. He was taken back to England and charged with piracy. However, King Charles had just led England into war with Holland and bad relations with Jamaican’s could affect the lucrative sugar trade. Therefore, the expertise of Henry Morgan was sought after, he was knighted. He was made lieutenant governor of Jamaica where he lived out the rest of his life.

The Corsairs carried out attacks in the Mediterranean Sea. Muslim Corsairs built defences along the barberry ports of Algers, Tripoli and Tunis, whilst Christian Corsairs resided on Malta. Both groups used galleys to attacks ships, their powerful oars gave them the advantage of being quick. If their victims were not rich enough to pay ransom, they

were then made to work as slaves or as oarsmen.

three more times, adhering the Blackbeard’s relentless nature.

The profession of piracy, and the main successes that were to be had was down to the size of the ship. The ships held more crew than normal meaning victim ships were largely outnumbered. The addition of more canons than normal ships, also added to the success of various attacks.

More interesting however, is the female pirates that ruled the seas. It was illegal for women to be aboard pirate ships, therefore when Anne Bonney and her friend Mary Read decided to join the piracy trade on board Calico Jack’s boat, they adopted the persona of their fellow male shipmates, dressing up and acting like men. However, in 1720 Calico Jack’s ship and crew were captured and sent to England for trial, where all were sentenced to death. By claiming pregnancy both Bonney and Read manged to escape death and instead were given life imprisonment.

Edward Teach, better known as Blackbeard was an English pirate, commanding a ship of 300 men. In 1717 Blackbeard commandeered the French vessel la Concorde Blackbeard, the most On the other end of the specand re-named it feared pirate of all time. trum, is Ching Shih, a formi‘Queen Anne’s Redable Chinese pirate, and arvenge’, equipping it with 40 canons and terguably the most successful rorizing the Atlantic and Caribbean in it for a pirate of all time. A former year until it ran aground. He was regarded prostitute, she was regarded as looking like the devil in battle, with pistols for her beauty; she was capChing Shih, the strapped to his chest, and flints set alight in tured in 1801 and made to formidable fehis bearded, covering him in a wrath of dark male pirate be wife of the pirate captain smoke. This terrifying appearance made Zheng Yi. She was made his most of his victims subdue rather than face equal and in time grew up a fleet of around battle. On the 22nd November 1718 he was 1200 ships and controlled approximately cornered by two navy vessels.

70,000 men. Her main targets were ships unfortunate enough to sail the southern ChiDespite most of his men being on shore, nese coast.

Blackbeard fought, to what ended up being his death. He was shot multiple times, and Whilst controlling her impressive fleet, she had his head chopped off and mounted onto enforced strict codes of honour onto her the navy ships as bounty. The remainder of men. All goods and money seized was prehis body was tossed into the ocean, where sented to the fleet and registered before belegend has it swam around the navy ships ing redistributed. The capturing ship received 20% of the loot, and the rest went 15

into a collective fund for the entire fleet. Anyone who withheld plunder faced whipping; repeat offenders or those who concealed large amounts would be beheaded. Additionally, she ensured that any female captives be treated with upmost care. Any beautiful women were aloud as wives, and those less favourable were to be released, unharmed on shore. If any of her pirates raped a female prisoner, they were to be executed.

In 1810 the emperor of the Qing dynasty offered her international pirate amnesty in return for peace. She was allowed to keep her wealth and a small fleet, whilst her men were allowed to keep their treasure, and as many did, join the naval fleets. She spent the remainder of her life establishing a successful gambling house and died in 1844 at the age of 69 after a very efficacious life.

Today many are equipped with armed guards. Each ship usually has four on board who are fully trained in how to handle pirate attacks and has previous experience in the army or royal marines. Many ships also carry sonic weapons known as a long range acoustic device. They are similar to ones used to control large crowds, emitting an intolerable direct beam of sound; however the telegraph reports that “the device can be hard to focus on a fast moving skiff”. Additionally, BAE operating systems developed lasers in 2011, which can be shone directly at the pirate ships, blinding them and distorting their vision.

Along with these defences is the use of water cannons, razor wire and caged fences, boat traps; to entangle the pirates, antitraction foam, and a foul smelling and irritant liquid, which causes burning sensations.

Paul and Rachel Chandler a British couple Piracy became a real problem for many govwere ernments and heavily armed naval ships beheld for gan to accompany cargo ships in order to ransom protect them. Many pirates were captured in 2009 and sentenced to death, with their bodies for 388 covered in tar and hung outside of castle days, walls as a deterrent to others contemplating after the profession.

Paul and Rachel Chandler, victims Somalian of their piracy. yacht Even today, in the 21st century our seas was aren’t rid of pirates. Piracy in the present “boarded by armed Somali pirates” the day comes in the forms of high powered guardian reported. The foreign office speed boats, AK-47’s and hand grenades. doesn’t submit to kidnappers demands, Since 2009-2014 there have been 2100 pirate attacks, usually taking place in Indone- meaning the couple had to pay a large ransia, Somalia, coast of Iraq, south china and som of £440,000 in return for their freedom Niger delta. So how are we able to defend our ships?

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However, since the implementation of these devices and the intervention of armed forces, the number of pirate attacks has plummeted drastically. NATO, the EU, and countries like India and Russia have deployed military naval warships to operate the coasts, and maritime patrol aircrafts also patrol the area. The Kenyan government too has stepped in, seizing many ports were the pirates launch from.

more detrimental effect. Crews are subjected to brutal violence, and physiological stress, whilst the cargos worth hundreds of thousands of pounds are at risk of becoming possessions of Somalian pirates. Piracy isn’t to be regarded as a thing of the past, it is as real as ever, and our seas and its patrons must be protected at all costs.

BY CLAIRE BRINDLE

However, despite the successes of 2013, there were only two reported pirate hijackings in the first eight months, compared to 2008 and 2009 where there were dozens.

The issue has arguably not gone away. The cost of such defences may soon become an issue, combined with the decline in attacks, the attitude to security may relinquish, leading to opportunities for pirate attacks to occur one more. Thorpe warns that “Somalia is not going away.

Eventually our friends will get through again.

They have proved to be resilient and they are incredibly imaginaSomalian pirates of today tive,”.

Pirates aren’t merely the paraphernalia of fairy tales, regarded as rum drinking rulers of the sea. They posed a real threat, and had detrimental effects on economy and crew safety. Whilst some implemented codes of conduct, many killed unmercifully, regarding a ships bounty more than victims lives. Similarly, the pirates of today pose an arguably 17

The Science of History

It is one of the oldest clichĂŠs in the book that history and the sciences are separate entities and never the two shall meet.

However, like many clichĂŠs, this is not exactly true. History, as the study of past events, cannot be fully appreciated and explored without the intellectual and practical act of systematically studying the evidence and theories proposed through observation and experiment.

from his wanderings from Troy to Italy and the war between Troy and the Latins. The poem tied together stories to form this epic that instantly tied together Rome and the mythologies of Troy and legitimised the Julio-Claudian dynasty as heroes of Rome.

However, this is what it was designed to do. Allegedly commissioned by Augustus, it would have been more surprising if it did not flatter the Emperor.

Although history has traditionally been highly literary based, leaps in historical knowledge are now being made through scientific processes. In its classical form, history was considered a form of literature.

Historians including Euripides, Virgil and Voltaire also doubled as famous writers: transposing their historical thought into the written word. Although this is still true, the purpose of literature produced has changed. For example the Aeneid composed by Virgil, tells the story of Aeneas

Since the turn of the 19th century, history has begun a scientific revolution. Although in depth books, articles and other forms of media are composed and distributed, their purpose has shifted to a more subjective, analytical and evaluative piece that is designed to inform people. Much in the same way a scientific paper would. Although story of heroism, bravery and tragedy are still told, the roots are now deeply rooted in fact with analysis of ideas provided to give an explanation of events.

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The subject of historical archaeology illustrates this notion well. Historical archaeology examines archaeological evidence with reference to the written word. Archaeology examines material remains including landscape, buildings, pots, jewellery and bones.

With reference to the written word, deductions and inferences can be made to the applications of these physical remains. Documentary records of the finds and their supposed uses are created. Again, much like a scientific paper does. In this instance, there is no creative flair that is attributed to history being an ‘art’; it is a factual record with articulated scrutiny.

There can be no definitive answer to if history is a science or not. Aspects of it including anthropology and archaeology are decidedly scientific practices whereas reading a book about history is more literary based practise.

However, history is not just a story. It is the collective and personal accounts of people from years gone by that have been recorded. Although ‘good’ history requires a mastery of language to establish points and explanations, it is entirely dependent on the methods of process of science to analyse and synthesise the facts. Without scientific practice the story of history is just that: a story.

If we are to categorise history as a science, it BY HANNAH SCHOLES would make sense that it would lie within one of the two main areas of science: natural science or social science, rather than the humanities. Natural science typically involves the study of the physical world through observational evidence. The basic needs of humans (food, shelter and procreation) have not been changed for millennia.

In this regard, it could be argued that the progression of the human race through time obeys laws in the same way a pencil falling obeys the law of gravity.

History could also be considered a social science. The study of human society and social relationships is the crux of what history is.

Indeed anthropology, archaeology and sociology are all classed as social sciences. There would be no history without the study of mankind and what brought us the where we are today. Anthropology and archaeology, in particular, address this point.

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Life in Saigon during the 1960’s

Fellow historians will know of the atrocity that was the Vietnam War. We’ve heard about the inhumane hardships out in the open forests of the battle fields, but what about inner-city life? My initial perception of Vietnam was that it was nothing but a vast farmland that went on for miles and miles with peasant like people in conical hats, unbeknown to what life was like living in Saigon at the time of the mid 1960’s. Saigon, a southern Vietnamese city, was able to adapt and thrive on the obligation of capitalism that was enforced by the Americans who were sent by President Johnson in 1965. The idea to prevent an invasion of ideology by simply imposing another opposing system is nothing but ironic and highlights America’s ignorance to communism and freedom to diplomatic decisions.

could be profoundly confused at your global location. ‘Have I fallen through a portal and into America’ you would probably ask yourself. Not only were military vehicles there to assert American presence but the civilian takeover was more astonishing.

Volkswagens, Mercedes Benz and Chevrolets decorated the streets; new office buildings made out of modern and cheap design bordered the roads. The Vietnamese individual has evolved into a street vendor. He lurks on every street corner with American whiskey and cigarettes to survive in the rat race implemented by his customers, trying to put in the back of his mind the news that they just torched down his native village.

Everyone is trying to sell them something or buy something from them.

The effect of adopting a new culture means abandoning the rich and historical old one.

If you crossed through Saigon in 1967 you 20

There would be nothing native to buy but flowers, edibles and firecrackers from Tet time – no lasting souvenir to appreciate and remember the authenticity of Vietnam.

port. You would be proud of your western ally when you see him attending to an elderly man who is given a referral to an X-ray clinical centre for the attention he needs.

Then again, cynical facts show that there are only 16 of these medical centres he has The environment out in rural fighting areas been told to go to in the whole of Vietnam were destroyed by American Napalm which and the likelihood that this gentleman canobliterated the green landscape, water supnot afford travel or treatments means that plies and crops, which is still the cause of he won’t make it. mutation problems and a high cancer rate from those whose ancestors lived off the land there. So not only had the environmen- Toothbrushes are given to children to imtal state of the countryside devastated long prove their dental hygiene. ‘Wow that’s term but as a result of the boom in services good and for free too? What could go wrong from photo-copying to film development; with that?’ you may wonder to yourself, but Westernised tailoring, dry cleaning, Ameri- once again the tactless effort to dead end can TV Radio and newspapers it created a policies mean that the toothbrushes aren’t smog problem. used as toothbrushes – these aliens appliances make far better toys for Vietnamese children.

Not every American attempt in Vietnam was based upon gluttony, policies were put in place to try and benefit the Vietnamese All wars have their profiteers, but it is rarely people (you know, the people who actually seen as being so obvious. It isn’t just the live there). Interviews with the locals reammunition and military back in America vealed that more than anything else they that are caught up in the Industrial Theory wanted education for their children and Complex that are making their money off a after some wait, Fairy Godfather Uncle Sam losing war but every average Joe is benebuilt schoolhouses. However a lack of school fiting too. Part of the joy of an invasion teachers left an abundant amount of empty comes from the prospects of what you can and dirty school buildings that would be ac- do after the war is over and the land is commodating military officers instead. This yours. When the hope of a victory was still was a tactless effort to spreading prosperity expectant, possibilities of enterprise were and morale amongst the inhabitants. rife. Dreams of Americanised high class resorts and villas being opened on the coastline or building low cost living to sell and let Americans tried introducing medical supto the masses were common amongst the 21

American invaders.

Civilians were often left conflicted by their opinion on American presence. If the Americans stay they may lose another cousin, but they will keep the thriving economy, however, if the Americans go they will take their cousins and economy too. The saddest thing about the invasion is that it created a dependency on America and its custom. Civilians were forced into a way of life they couldn’t deny, only to be slapped in the face by it when it left.

On April 30, 1975 at 8:35 a.m., the last Americans departed from Saigon, concluding the United States presence in Vietnam.

People throughout the country are still suffering physically, mentally and economically from this war today.

BY JENNY HAMPSON

22

Stalin’s Rule

Josef Stalin was a complex and introverted individual, who held a strong belief in the power of the ‘iron grip’ in order to keep the power in his hands and out of reach for any opponent or revolutionist. Most fascinating about the brutal dictator, are the western misconceptions on the impact of his rule.

Statistics show Stalin was responsible for around 43,000,000 deaths in his almost 30 year long reign, yet Westerners focus more on the impacts of Adolf Hitler, rather than the impacts Stalin had on Russian Society.

However, even though Stalin’s unscrupulous regime killed millions, he brought Russia notable social reforms which would last through the communist foothold and thereafter.

Prior to Stalin’s control, Russia lagged behind the western world, with a highly backward economy and industry. Industrialism

lagged so greatly that by the late 19th century, workers were using outdated technologies, which could not compete with the western industry and agriculture with its rapidly advancing technology. Yet, Stalin’s Russia soon became a superpower, as he significantly increased the output of the industrial system, propelling the Soviet Union into a highly industrialized state. This assured the people of Russia that Stalin was for the people, advertising the advantages of communism and enrapturing the people with the dazzle of equality and promise.

Stalin not only strengthened Russian economy and competitiveness, but his liberalization of social services was definitely his most admirable change. Contrary to western cultures, Stalin provided women with the same rights and opportunities as men, and it is even said that under his rule, “Girls

23

were given an adequate, equal education and women had equal rights in employment…” (Montefiore.) From changing such a backward stylized society to an equal breeding ground for potential greatness was a magnet for support, compounded by his oppressive grip through the use of pressure and violence, especially his control on political opponents and revolutionists.

Stalin ruled the Soviet Union with a totalitarian grip, eliminating anyone who opposed him. He was a narcissistic megalomaniac, paranoid about any possible uprising against him. In order to prevent this and maintain his iron grip on the people of Russia, Stalin expanded the powers of the secret police and actively encouraged citizens of the Soviet Union to actually spy on each other. This incredulous view on the prosperity of his rule, and his self-entwined personality kept the realms of Russia safely in his hands for many years. This was furthered by the culture he built around himself. Cities were renamed in his honour, historical books on the Russian revolution were rewritten to give him a more prominent role and present his aesthetic in a spellbinding way. Gratifying portraits were painted of the stern-featured man, he was the subject of literature and music, and, magnificently, his name became part of the Soviet national anthem.

Famously, Stalin was behind a series of political purges, beginning in 1934 with the 24

death of Kirov, the leader of the Leningrad Communist Party. His murder was a catalyst to a series of widespread purges, disposing of those suspected of disloyalty; they were killed, sent to prison camps or put on public show trials, where they pleaded guilty to non-existent crimes. The communist elite were also purged, as 93 out of 139 Central Committee members were slaughtered. 81 of the 103 generals and admirals of the armed forces were purged, and around a third of the 3 million members of the communist party were also targeted.

Fascinatingly, Stalin’s focus on an aesthetically pleasing Russia meant that photographs and history books were changed to erase the existence of the people who were arrested. By the late 1930’s, the ‘great terror’ had spread to ordinary Russians, and around 20 million Russians were sent to the gulag, labour camps mostly in Siberia, where assumedly half of them died. This is blatant evidence of a man who will do anything to make sure that his power is not challenged by a political opponent, or by the Russian public. He needed to create unity and certainly strong control was needed to modernise Russia. Without this gel, linking Russia together through fear, the effort to turn a backwards society would not have been so effective, as different ideologies and political views brings unrest, therefore the modernization of Russia would have stalled and squandered due to factions in a newly welded Russia.

Stalin was inarguably a man devoted to complete control, an egomaniac ruling the Soviet Union in a tight fisted yet encompassing approach. Fewer 20th century statesmen embody the 19th century idea of realpolitik than Stalin, and he ensured that any threat to his power was distinguished with suitable reason, and that the people living under his shadow were tricked into the false ideal of communism. However, it is undeniable that his will to keep power and propel the Soviet Nation into a world of greatness left behind a positive smudge on his brutal stain. He set the precedence for equality of gender, and built a sustainable Russia for the people of his reign and the people of the next.

To this day, Stalin’s impact on Russia was utterly seismic; however his requisite actions to keep power have overlooked his compelling feat in revolutionizing a backwards Russia into an elite superpower. It is ignorant to believe that without a dark shadow of fear looming over the Russian society, his ability to transform it into a competitive superpower would not have been as effective, but for the future of Russia, Stalin’s power was needed, or the world would be missing a great constituent. Therefore was Stalin good for Russia? Yes, irrevocably a totalitarian giant. However he left a great stain on Russian society and civilians, but also humanity as a whole, which can never be removed.

BY CAMERON BARNFIELD

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A History of Death

One thing we share with every human throughout time; from the smoky-eyed Egyptians to lead-faced Tudors is the fact that one day the sun will finally set on our finite little lives. And since the first spear was thrown, humanity has had an abnormal obsession with our impending demise and as a result, demised a variety of ways to make our individual deaths a meaningful one.

Actually that’s not completely true, as the closest kin of the deceased would not eat the body; that privilege was left to the attending relatives. Not to say they missed out on all the fun, as close family had the job of embracing the body and leaving the body to decompose for three days (maybe like wine, the fla“Waste not, want not” was the attitude of vour of a the Wari’ people of South America when it corpse is accelcame to death. They were one among a colerated by age). laboration of tribes scattered across the This was followed by a ritual washing and globe that practiced “endocannibalism” or removal of visceral organs. By this time all “feast of the dead”. So if you were part of the second and third cousins would have the Wari’ tribe and your lovely Aunt Betty made an appearance, which meant the ‘bit the dust’ (instead of the flowers and the roasting could begin. tear-stained hymn sheets), the whole family would get together for a roast, with dear old There was means behind the madness, howBetty being the appetizer, the main and the ever, as the Wari’ people believed that condessert! sumption of the flesh would not only as26

suage the family’s grief, but ensure that the spirit of the deceased was being kept in the bodies of its relatives; rather than being left to wonder in the forests alone. Although the Wari’ people of today simply bury their dead after two or three days of mourning, I think even ‘Vanish’ would struggle to get the stains of decomposition out of the living room carpet.

Tibetan Buddhists must have thought it was selfish to use all the nourishments of a corpse for themselves; like a little kid with a loaf of bread, the Buddhists would chop up the dead body into small pieces and feed them to the birds. Or if they’re a bit short of time, sometimes they would leave the body intact and let the vultures do the dissecting. The technical term for this is “Sky Burials” and even today, over 80% of Tibetan Buddhists choose this ritual for their own passing. While this practice may seem barbaric and messy to us, the Buddhists would argue that the body is an empty vessel after death, so it may as well be used to sustain another living creature.

Death doesn’t always have to be a solemn occasion. Traditional Malagasy culture is rooted in respect for its ancestors, and this respect is shown by plucking their strawwrapped ancestors from their tombs and passing them about above dancing heads.

This ritual of Famadihana or “Turning of the

Bones” has been around for three centuries in Madagascar and is seen to aid the decomposition of the dead; a crucial part in the spirit passing onto the afterlife. As well as dancing and live music, the corpses are rewrapped in fresh bandages and then placed in their descendant’s laps for contemplation.

It seems however that the Malagasy people aren’t exactly familiar with the term “rest in peace”.

Death isn’t all fun and games though - especially if you’re a Hindu widow. In a custom called “Sati”, when a husband passes away, his widow would immolate themselves on their husband’s funeral pyre. Although this was supposedly a voluntary practice, there have been incidents reported where distraught women have been forcibly dragged into the fire against their will.

It is uncertain when or how this ritual was started, however it is believed that it was used to prevent women poisoning their wealthy husbands and then profiting from their deaths. This practice is most commonly associated with India, however sacrificing a widow on her husband’s funeral is not unique to this culture and has been practiced amongst the Greeks and the Egyptians.

You’ll be relieved to know that the due to the efforts of Hindu reformers like Raja Ram

27

Mohan Roy, the British outlawed this custom in 1829.

You don’t even need to cross the pond to see how seriously death was taken, as it’s hard to find a society more fixated on what took place after death than that of Britain in the Middle Ages. The Office of the Dead - a series of prayers to be said in anticipation of death, at a funeral, or in remembrance of the dead - was a standard part of the Book of Hours, a type of prayer book often owned by wealthy lay men and women. Terrifying encounters between the living and the dead became more popular from the early 1300s.

One common symbol being the story of three living princes who encounter three dead worm-eaten princes, who warn the living what will await them. This close affiliation with death is hardly surprising either, when the high infant mortality rates, famine and disease make death linger closer than their own shadows.

Today death is still an inevitability that plays on the minds on many but is discussed by few. With the average funeral costing £7,600 in the UK, it is unlikely that people will ever stop their endeavour to make their last moments above the ground as meaningful as money and effort can allow.

BY GEORGIA LAVIN

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Ra-Ra-Rasputin Grigory Efimovich Rasputin. An illiterate Siberian peasant. Mystical holy healer. Trusted friend of the last Tsar and Tsarina of Imperial Russia.

His life was undoubtedly hard growing up; the family would have been swamped with excruciating hunger and poverty. He received no education and had little prospects, so he turned to drink. He married a Rasputin is one of the most captivating charpeasant, from a nearby village, named acters throughout all of Russia’s history, his Praskovia. According to their daughter Maphysical appearance in itself made this so, ria, the marriage was an affectionate one, his wild facial hair, hypnotic eyes and his inremembering that her father would leave sistency to dress himself - quite modestly ‘fervent kisses upon her willing lips’. in rags, even while among aristocrats. Mentally, Rasputin was manipulative. He had a This all changed in 1892 with the unfore‘God given’ endowment (so it seemed) to seen departure of Rasputin, who had reread people’s weaknesses and use them to ceived some form of ‘calling’ to wander aimhis advantage. Whether this ability was just lessly from one monastery to the next, trekintellect or something of a more psychic na- king the Russian countryside searching for ture we’ll never know, but it unquestionably God. While at one particular monastery in seized people’s attention. So… how was this Verkhortuye, Rasputin met a hermit named nobody able to climb the ladders of social Brother Makary, who had quite a consideraorder and mould Russian politics into his ble effect on him. He returned to Pokrovskoplayground? ye with his new reputation as a strannik (religious wanderer). Rasputin was a Rural Siberia, Pokrovskoye to be exact, is changed man; the meat eating alcoholic was where it all began; in 1869 Rasputin was exchanged for an eager Russian Orthodox born to a peasant coach driver and his wife. convert.

29

After helping out with the harvest, he was off on his merry way again, this time Rasputin ‘rocked up’ to St Petersburg, to settle down in the heart of Imperial Russia. His popularity and reputation as a mystic grew so much among his holy brothers, that even the Archbishop was convinced Rasputin had the power to control the weather! Nevertheless, fame was too much for him. Rasputin quickly developed his old habit of drinking and picked up an ‘aptitude’ for womanizing.

Poor Praskovia. It was his ‘charm’ that enabled Rasputin to clamber his way into the Russian court, through ‘befriending’ The Black Peril (the courtly nickname for sister act Micila of Montenegro and Anastasia who were fascinated with the occult). He now had contacts both at court and in the church.

10th of October she received a telegram assuring her that “this little one will not die”.

Somehow his temperature dropped and a year later he’d recovered.

These ‘powers’ displayed by Rasputin had their fair share of opposition, the court physician claimed hypnosis, enemies claimed drugs and even Rasputin’s daughter Maria questioned her father’s ‘healing abilities’, describing them to be mesmerizing techniques.

In spite of all this, whatever Rasputin was doing to heal little Alexei seemed to be working, all the while gaining the ultimate trust of the Tsar, so much so the Tsar described him as a “friend.”

His new found influence over the Russian Royals, in particular the Tsarina (that is if you want to believe Boney M!), led to him extending his influence in the government of Finally, on the 1st November 1905 Rasputin Russia. Rasputin was able to manipulate pomet with Tsar Nicholas and Tsarina Alexansitions of power to guarantee only men who dra, they believing his mystical ‘powers’ were loyal to him were appointed and most could cure their son and heir Alexei’s hemoimportantly ensure there were no investigaphilia. This genetic mutation, that meant tions into his past and reputation. Neverthelittle Alexei was in danger of bleeding to less, outside the high society Rasputin fan death every time he fell off his bike, was so club, people saw him as a Voldemort-like figcommon among the aristocracy that it’s ure, referring to him as “The Nameless one.” nicknamed ‘The royal disease’, and is ultiRasputin survived being stabbed in the mately thanks to the inter-marriage breedstomach in 1914, but would not survive a ing that occurred in high society. group of nobles scheming against him.

When an incident occurred in 1907 that A certain enemy of Rasputin was Prince Felix even the best Russian doctors couldn’t fix Yusupov, who had plotted his assassination. him, Rasputin insisted he could heal the According to Pares “Yusupov's plan was to young Alexei through prayer. Remarkably, seek closer acquaintance with the healer the next day he showed signs of improveGrigori Rasputin, and win his confidence. He ment. Additionally, on the 9th October 1912, asked Rasputin to cure a slight malady from Alexei was given the last sacrament while which he suffered.” Rasputin was invited to away at the Romanov’s hunting lodge, Alexthe Yusupov palace on 29-30th December andra in despair appealed to Rasputin, de1916, to join together with Yusupov and the spite him being 1650 miles away. On the Grand Duke Dmitri in the basement… suspi30

cious to say the least. While there Rasputin ‘supposedly’ ate cupcakes filled with cyanide spiked wine. He was unaffected.

Yusupov decided to speed up the process and shot Rasputin in his chest, piercing the stomach. Then a second bullet was fired hitting him in the back, wounding his kidneys. Remarkably, Rasputin succeeded in escaping the basement but was caught up later by the nobles, who bound him in rope and threw him into the river off a bridge.

Even more remarkable, when the body was discovered, Rasputin had escaped the ropes and his cause of death wasn’t from the three bullets in his body, rather hypothermia.

The Tsar and Tsarina were distraught when they heard the news. The Tsarina demanding both be shot immediately because of course with Rasputin gone, who was going to heal their heir the next time he got injured. However, as Yusupov and the Grand Duke were very powerful people to mess with, the Tsar and Tsarina were deterred from the idea. The worse punishment they would suffer was exile. Also they knew of a terrifying prediction made by Rasputin, “if it was your relations who have wrought my death, then no one in your family, that is to say, none of your children or relations will remain alive for two years. They will be killed by the Russian people.” It seemed Rasputin was right. Russia was in turmoil and by 1919 the Romanovs (Russian Royal family) were assassinated.

BY HOLLY GRACE CONWAY

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Archaeological Vs. Written Evidence OK, first things first.

what happened? Point to Written! Without written evidence, we would be stumbling Just how interested are you in the archaeol- around in a fog wondering “How did I get ogy vs. written evidence debate? here?”, “Who is that person?”, “Who am I?!”.

I’m trying to seriously educate the populace (i.e. the approximately 5 people that will ac- Scarily reminiscent of your typical Friday tually read my article), and I can’t do that night in town, I’m sure you recognise. unless you're willing to keep an open mind and at least one eye open. (I’m feeling gen- Then there will be some who advocate for erous. The other can look out in a daydream the underdog, and say that archaeological stupor.) evidence is paramount to understanding the past. Without archaeological evidence, we You with me? would be lost in a sea of knowledge, and might, perhaps, never understand some of Good. the references in the texts, and indeed never confirm written knowledge. But archaeolTo start. ogy is more than a fact checker. It can produce knowledge of society that wouldn’t be Many people have an idea about which evi- written down. For example, there are thoudence is most important in terms of histori- sands of anatomical terracotta votives found cal study. A lot of people may say that in the last several hundred years in Rome, written evidence - documents, texts, that but there is no mention of them in any angraffiti scrawled on the bathroom wall - will cient writing. These tell you about the relibe the most important evidence in terms of gious practices of the period, and it’s not their history. Otherwise how will we know found in the written evidence. Point to the 32

Archaeology!

combing of grids, this is only half the story.

What about when you analyse the finds?

Then there is the whole debate on whether When you have to speculate and examine, archaeology is an art or a science, which in and theorise, and put this object in a historisome way, is a decider for most people on cal setting? Distinctly historical-like, right? which ‘historical’ evidence is more important.

But despite my clearly truthful protestations on the nature of archaeology, the fact reThis is our way in. mains that I’m supposed to be arguing whether archaeology or written evidence is (Yes, I’m only just starting my argument. I better. like long introductions. So sue me.)

I better start that hadn’t I? (Actually please don’t. I’m currently broke.)

So here’s the next section: SCIENCE OR ART? THE SUPERIOROTY (ALLEGED) OF WRITTEN In the past, when archaeology was develop- EVIDENCE AS DICTATED BY MANY A HISTOing as a subset of classics, to back up eviRIAN SINCE THE DAWN OF HISTORY. dence, it was originally seen as an amateur activity ( the ——-) and it was only when Cool title, huh? colonies were trying to seek inOk, so written evidence’s main selling point dependence in to superiority is the fact that it can actually, the 19th Centulike an old American detective show, tell you ry , archaeology what is happening and make it very clear extried to seek inactly who the murderer is (or what historical dependence of event is happening—potato, potahto) within its own, away two seconds of you starting to read it. from classics and turn it into a sci- Sir Mortimer Wheeler Pretty good, huh? ence. Sir Mortimer Wheeler had So, if for example, when Thucydides writes huge influence on the development of arabout the Athenian empire, you know all chaeology. He helped create the modern about it, and don’t need to wade through method of digging in layers. However, even archaeological evidence. You know all you he was said to have quoted need to know. (There only limited archaeological evidence for this, so. Take that as you “Archaeology is history or it is nothing at all”. will) Is this right? Is archaeology, despite its scientific methods, history? Although there is a distinctly scientific approach, in its methods, such as carbon dating, and methodical

But there’s a flaw with written. A very obvious flaw that’s drilled into your head at GCSE and which college try to gently relieve you off, as there is no way it gets you marks

33

in the exam:

(Don’t sigh like that, there’s only a page and a half to go, suck it up!)

Bias, and falsity.

Written evidence in full of opinion, so sometimes you can never know which way to turn. And it can make up some outright lies.

For example, according to Herodotus, it’s a definite fact that the land of the lotus eaters is a headland in the Gindana tribe’s territory in Libya.

Seriously?

Archaeological evidence now appears to be vastly superior. It doesn’t have to be backed up to be proven, because seeing, is of course believing; and it can tell you new and wonderful things that are never ever mentioned in written sources, like the terracotta votices, and the fact that man has existed for 40,000 years.

(That little discovery came from a cave down south. The oldest human jaw bone in existence. Cool, right? It’s amazing what watching Antiques Roadshow can teach you.)

So you can’t take written evidence at face value. To do so is utter folly, preposterous, and stupid, to half-quote/make-up and snatch comments on the Second Crusade's attack on Damascus.

It can even back up written evidence.

Therefore, the only way to incorporate it, is to use archaeological evidence to back it up. Like Nero’s rotating dining hall. Suetonius was the one who reported that it existed and that it rotated “"day and night, in time with the sky”. Only recently thought to have been found 2009. Ain’t it Rotating Dining Hall grand?

SO TAKE THAT, HA! Archaeology wins. …. …. …

Ok, so it’s not that clear cut.

The problem with archaeological evidence is the fact that sometimes, you’re not too sure what something is. Take this hypothetical which could theoretically happen:

So perhaps, archaeology is vastly superior? Person 1: Look I’ve found a cooking pot!

With only 0.2% of the human history having written histories, this seems to suppose that Person 2: That’s not a cooking pot that’s a it’s time to argue: spittoon!

THE VAST (ALLEGED) SUPERIORITY OF THE ARCHEAOLOGICAL EVIDENCE

Person 1: Cooking Pot! Person 2: Spitoon!

Now the flips side.

Person 1: POT!!

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one you previously thought was the best.

Person 2: ‘TOON!!

(Did that actually make sense? Never mind.)

Person 3: Actually, you’re both wrong. It’s a toilet bowl.

Your decision on which is the best depends on what you are studying. For example, arSee what I’m getting at? chaeological evidence is going to be pretty useless if you want to find out about politiArchaeological finds don’t talk to us, like cal thought in the 19th century or sometexts do. We can only suppose, theorise, thing. That would mostly depend on written and never be certain, as there is always an sources. However, if you’re trying to find out element of doubt. how freedmen lived in ancient Rome, the archaeological evidence can tell you more They can’t contradict themselves like texts about a vaster range of freedmen than the can, like the two pictures of Lenin’s rally, written can. where the poor schumck TrotI should know. sky’s been obliterated out of hisI had to write an essay on the subject. tory. (Though that’s not a text.

So, to wrap up the 10 minutes of your life Two text contrayou’ll never get back. dicting would be the two accounts Neither is better, intrinsically than the other. of an ancient It depends on your area of study. They’re fire, but I can acboth making pieces in a giant jigsaw that tually get a picnever quite adds up. ture for Trotsky).

Trotsky removed However. archaeolBut we don’t want it to anyway, that takes ogy also can’t tell us the human stand point. away half the fun.

The feelings of people then, which can tell us something about their lives or social

BY EMMA PORTER morals at the time.

So, there are flaws here too.

Where does that leave us?

A JIGSAW PUZZLE You can’t elevate one above the other. It doesn’t work. Or, you can’t elevate one too far above the other, and you have to be prepared for the other to rise back above the 35

Maggie’s Milk Myth Famously known for being both the longest serving and only female Prime Minister; but notoriously dubbed, “Thatcher, Thatcher, milk snatcher”. Was Margaret Thatcher’s milk escapade truly shameful?

duced the Education Act of 1944 (though, passed by Labour under the World War coalition). Most importantly, it provided free secondary schooling but also stated that, “ regulations made by the Minister shall impose upon local education authorities the Nine years prior to her election victory in 1979, Margaret Thatcher, who became Sec- duty of providing milk”. Fundamentally, the retary of State for Education under Edward introductory of free milk was to aid in child development, help provide a daily dose of Heath, was, so they say, responsible for a decision that would cement the left’s view vital vitamins which so many children went of her for generations to follow. Even today, without and to simply prompt the public we scrutinize Mrs. Thatcher's efforts. How- that the government were attempting to ever, many do not remember her refusal to make democratic changes post World War. negotiate with Palestine or her misgovern- Briefly, the falsehood story explains that ment of BP oil but, instead, remember her ill Thatcher independently spearheaded the -treatment of free milk. Nevertheless, the withdrawal of free milk, and did so willingly. facts show that perhaps both the Conserva- Whereas, many forget, it was originally Latives and Thatcher herself deserve somebour, under the leadership of Harold Wilson what of an apology. in 1968, that initially withdrew the giving away of free milk to secondary schoolers.

In reality, it was actually the Conservative Originally opposing the abolishment, acparty, specifically R.A. Butler, who intro36

cording to her memoirs and archives, Lady Thatcher herself had argued in cabinet against getting rid of scrapping free milk altogether. It was a policy driven by the Treasury, first under Iain Macleod, then Anthony Barber. Margaret Thatcher, with reluctance, said "I think that the complete withdrawal of free milk for our school children would be too drastic a step and would arouse more widespread public antagonism than the saving justifies."

ings and books. She thought things like free school meals and milk were for social services and nothing to do with education.

There is no denying that Margaret Thatcher should be associated with terms such as controversialism or extremism; but she should not be directly associated with the withdrawal of free milk. Although she perhaps had a collective responsibility whilst the act was being discussed, she was not the sole perpetrator and even discrediting Retrospectively, Thatcher was (sadly) corthe proposal. When people debate about rect. Derived from this decision was mass Margaret Thatcher, always keep what she uproar; predominantly from Labour supsaid in mind: “I always cheer up immensely porters but, what about the poor children if an attack is particularly wounding because who would go without their daily free milk? I think, well, if they attack one personally, it Was all that bad? means they have not a single political arguDepending on who you ask, there is no right ment left.” or wrong answer. Some go the extent of

BY LIAM JENNISON claiming that, “banning it was probably the only good thing Thatcher ever did.”; Others simply state that Thatcher was inhumane for doing so. However, Mrs Thatcher was asked to find savings of almost £9 million, in terms of today: £~90 million. In 1971, free milk for primary school children cost £14m a year twice as much as was being spent on school books. Worryingly, as the facts show, free milk was viewed as a bigger priority than school books. Nevertheless, Margaret Thatcher wanted to change this and proposed that funding should be concentrated upon providing better buildings and overall better schooling conditions. Her biographer, John Campbell, said she took the view it was more important to spend money on build37

I Saw Magna Carta

One of our very own Ex- Winstanley students had the fortunate opportunity to view the union of the four copies of Magna Carta in existence, 800 years after their creation in 1215, at the British Library on 3rd February.

Aidan – who was recently offered a place at Oriel College, Oxford, to study History – was one of just 1215 lucky winners who got to be among the first to view the union of the four surviving original copies of Magna Carta, after having entered the competition online. 43,715 people from 20 countries had made the same application as Aidan, but he was one of the lucky 1215 to be given the chance. Apparently, according to one of the British Library staff, that's the same odds as being selected 38

for the Olympic Opening Ceremony. Each winner was given two tickets for the event.

Wanting to make the most of his trip to London, Aidan – being the dedicated Medieval historian he is – visited Temple Church (founded by the Templars as their English Headquarters) where William Marshall – a crucial figure to the Plantagenets – is buried. Marshall was eulogized upon his death by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Stephen Langton, as the "best knight that ever lived."

The event at the British Library was made even more special by the attendance of historian Dan Jones, who recently published ‘Magna Carta: The Making and Legacy of the Great Charter’. He was invited to give a lecture to the attendees on the ancient document.

The unification of the four copies was the

first time they had ever been brought together in one place in their 800 year history, and so this was a fitting way to mark the 800 year anniversary of their creation, held at the British Library in collaboration with Lincoln Cathedral and Salisbury Cathedral.

The Library made it a fully furnished occasion, staffed by people dressed in medieval attire, some with weapons, others playing musical instruments. The exhibition of the unified charters was held in a dark room, in no doubt to preserve the copies of Magna Carta, for merely three days before they were moved to the House of Lords for a day, then returned to their rightful homes (two copies are kept by the British Library, one by Lincoln Cathedral, the other at Salisbury Cathedral).

Magna Carta is considered a major stepping stone towards parliamentary democracy in the United Kingdom and charts the principle that no-one, including the monarchy, was above the law, although it was not the first charter of its type created by a monarch.

Henry I, in 1100, issued the Coronation Charter to limit the power of the monarchy and establish rights of the clergy and nobles.

It’s potency as a charter however was limited, as ‘it was conveniently forgotten and/or ignored by four Kings, and almost one Queen, over the course of the next century’.

Like the Coronation Charter before it, Magna Carta failed initially to some extent. Within two months of its signing, Pope Innocent III had annulled it, claiming it was illegal and sealed under duress. However, with the innovative ideal of the monarch being subject to Common Law, Magna Carta and its democratic ideals could not be ignored, especially with thirteen copies created and distributed nationwide, a figure that later rose to 250.

With seventeen known to have survived, the four that were unified at the British Library Each of the winners that in February are believed to be among those attended was awarded with a first thirteen copies. certificate with a wax seal, reminiscent of that on Magna Figure 1 clearly demonstrates the validity of Magna Carta in modern society, and how Carta.

800 years on its fundamental democratic Despite studying the Magna Carta and its principles still resonate in everyday life, derelevance about five years ago in school, I spite the social advances made since 1215. had largely forgotten its importance – and Further charters were made throughout the being a prospective History undergraduate, I remainder of the 13th century that comprise thought I’d better brush up on my to make what is termed ‘the Great Charter’ knowledge of it, inspired by Aidan’s visit. I nowadays, and it is three clauses from the 13th century statute that still resonate today hope I’m not the only one in this boat… in England and Wales.

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Magna Carta outlined basic rights with the principle that no-one was above the law, including the king: It charted the right to a fair trial, and limits on taxation without representation.

It inspired a number of other documents, including the US Constitution and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

Only three clauses are still valid - the one guaranteeing the liberties of the English Church; the clause confirming the privileges of the City of London and other towns; and the clause that states that no free man shall be imprisoned without the lawful judgement of his equals.

Figure 1 – the BBC news website outlines the legal significance of Magna Carta In detail, these clauses (using the numbering system from the 1297 statute) state that: I. FIRST, We have granted to God, and by this our present Charter have confirmed, for Us and our Heirs for ever, that the Church of England shall be free, and shall have all her whole Rights and Liberties inviolable. We have granted also, and given to all the Freemen of our Realm, for Us and our Heirs for ever, these Liberties underwritten, to have and to hold to them and their Heirs, of Us and our Heirs for ever.

Figure 2 – Wikipedia article outlining the clauses remaining on statute in England and Wales today It is therefore clear that Aidan has laid witness to perhaps the most important democratic document to have ever existed in the United Kingdom up to the modern day, for it is impossible to know whether they will even exist for the ninth centenary of Magna Carta.

The British Library are continuing to celebrate the 800th anniversary of Magna Carta with a host of events between March and September of this year which can be found at http://magnacarta800th.com/events/ british-library/ - perhaps Aidan’s visit will inspire you to get to know where democracy comes from, and delve more into the realms of political history of both Britain and other nations across the world, in an era where democracy is not universal.

BY HARRY GRIFFITHS

IX. THE City of London shall have all the old Liberties and Customs which it hath been used to have. Moreover We will and grant, that all other Cities, Boroughs, Towns, and the Barons of the Five Ports, as with all other Ports, shall have all their Liberties and free Customs.

XXIX. NO Freeman shall be taken or imprisoned, or be disseised of his Freehold, or Liberties, or free Customs, or be outlawed, or exiled, or any other wise destroyed; nor will We not pass upon him, nor condemn him, but by lawful judgment of his Peers, or by the Law of the land. We will sell to no man, we will not deny or defer to any man either Justice or Right.

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)

ety i c So y r sto i H (

BREAKING

NEWS!

New Vice President and President: It’s an immense pleasure to welcome Camille Houghton-Grimshaw as our new Vice President of the History Society! After braving the e-mail to send a compelling application, and facing a harrowing meeting with other candidates, history society members and teachers to determine her qualities, she has succeeded in taking her place at the top table of the History SocieCamille Houghtonty.

Grimshaw, Our new

Keir Martland, the History Society President

Along with our president, Keir Martland, and a sparkling new team, she will help to create a thriving community for college history lovers and we wish her all the best

Successful Corbyn!

Thursday 24th September also brought an eager and argumentative bunch to debate over the qualities of Jeremy Corbyn and whether the Labour Party would sink or swim with him at helm. There was a Thursday 24th Sephuge turnout for the event, culminating in an almost unanimous agreement that tember brought a horde of parents and prospective students to the college, and, by the looks of Jeremy Corbyn is good for the labour the crowds, we got a few history converts! Tutor party. Your thoughts? Many thanks to Matthew Fisher commented “I thought our stuAlex Aspinwall and Cameron Barnfield dents were excellent ambassadors for the defor the attack on Corbyn, and Leonie Bramwell and Keir Martland for the de- partment. They spoke so passionately, and it was lovely to see so many of our new and profence of Corbyn. Well done all! spective students embracing history”

Open Evening:

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Who’s Who in the History Society 2015-2016 PRESIDENT

Keir Martland

VICE PRESIDENT

Camille Houghton-Grimshaw

SOCIAL MEDIA CO-ORDINATOR Hannah Scholes DEBATE CO-ORDINATOR

Oliver Callaghan

QUIZ CO-ORDINATOR

Corinne Campbell

DRAMA/SCHOOLS COORDINATOR

Kathryn Murphy

HISTORY MAGAZINE EDITOR

Emma Porter

MAGAZINE EDITORIAL TEAM

Victoria Lipska, Ryan Boorman, Rose Mennell, Holly Glover, Abby White, Victoria Hadfield, Ellie Wright, Holly Conway

PHOTOGRAPHER

Martha Lloyd

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