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Chapter 9
Gender, Gender Identity, Gender Expression, and Sexism
A. Define gender, gender identity, gender expression, and gender roles.
Gender refers to the social and psychological characteristic associated with being female or male (McCammon & Knox, 2007, p. 112).
Gender identity is a person’s internal psychological self-concept of being either a male or a female, or possibly some combination of both.
Gender expression concerns how we express ourselves to others in ways related to gender that include behavior and personality.
Gender roles are the “attitudes, behaviors, rights, and responsibilities that society associates with” being male or being female (Yarber et al., 2010, p. 127).
Gender-role socialization is the process of conveying what is considered appropriate behavior and perspectives for males and females in a particular culture.
B. Discuss the theoretical approach of social constructionism and its application to the social construction of gender.
Social constructionism is the theoretical approach that social reality is constructed by how people think about situations as they interact with others.
The social construction of gender “looks at the structure of the gendered social order as a whole and at the processes that construct and maintain it” (Lorber, 2010, p. 244).
C. Identify some of the variations in gender, including intersex and transgender people.
Eight variables contribute to gender, of which six are physical and two psychological. An intersex or pseudohermaphrodite is a person who has some mixture of male and female predisposition and configuration of reproductive structures.
Transgenderism includes people “whose appearance and/or behaviors do not conform to traditional gender roles” (Crooks & Baur, 2011, p. 129). Transgender groups include transsexuals, transvestites, drag queens, drag kings, and female impersonators.
D. Recognize and discuss traditional gender-role expectations and stereotypes as they affect people over the life span, and assess the impacts of sexism on both men and women.
Parents treat boys and girls differently from the moment they’re born. Early genderrelated differences include emotional expression and aggression.
Adolescence is a time of gender intensification, a period of “increased pressures for gender-role conformity” (Hyde, 2007, p. 202). Masculinity and femininity “refer to the ideal cluster of traits that society attributes to each gender” (Carroll, 2010, p. 74).
There are disadvantages for both women and men who adhere strictly to genderrole stereotypes. Women enter fields of work where they earn less, continue to do most of the work at home, and experience the stress of demands to be beautiful. Men experience performance demands, pressure not to express emotions, and shorter life spans.
Practitioners working with men should understand their special issues and pressures. Social workers should strive to identify the gender-role stereotypes that men maintain, understand the diversity of “masculinities,” and emphasize men’s strengths.
Gender-role socialization varies depending on one’s cultural background.
E. Examine some of the differences between men and women, including abilities and communication styles.
Debate continues concerning differences in male and female ability levels, especially in the areas of verbal, mathematical, and spatial skills.
Women and men demonstrate different patterns of interruption when communicating. Women are better at understanding nonverbal cues.
It is important to remember that men and women are more similar than dissimilar and to appreciate individual differences.
F. Discuss the issues of economic inequality, sexual harassment, sexist language, rape and sexual assault, battered women, and the empowerment of women.
Women generally earn less than men in virtually every job category. Hispanic and African American women commonly earn less than white women.
Women tend to be clustered in lower-paying, female-dominated occupations.
Unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal and physical conduct of a sexual nature constitute sexual harassment when this conduct explicitly or implicitly affects an individual’s employment, unreasonably interferes with an individual’s work performance, or creates an intimidating, hostile, or offensive work environment.
Sexual harassment is common and results in a number of negative effects.
Suggestions for confronting sexual harassment include confronting your harasser, being assertive, documenting occurrences, talking to others about the problem, getting witnesses, and following the established complaint process.
Sexist language generally differentiates women from men in a negative or unfair manner. Sexist language should be avoided.
A sexual assault involves any unwanted sexual contact where physical force is used.
Theoretical views of sexual assault include the victim-precipitated, rapist psychopathology, and the feminist perspectives.
Certain characteristics tend to characterize rapists, although they come from virtually all walks of life. Rapist types include anger, power, and sadistic.
Date rape is very common.
Rape survivors tend to experience a rape trauma syndrome, a dimension of posttraumatic stress disorder that involves both an acute phase and a long-term reorganization phase.
Empowering rape survivors involves addressing emotional issues, reporting to the police, and exploring medical status.
The battering of women by significant others is very common in the United States and Canada.
Battering is a catchall term reflecting various types of physical and emotional abuse. Battering involves power and control, and can be linked to poverty-related stress.
The battering cycle involves stress escalation, the abusive explosion, and making up.
Women tend to stay in battering relationships because of economic dependence, lack of self-confidence, lack of power, fear of the abuser, guilt, feeling isolated with nowhere to go, fear for her children, and love.
Battering also occurs in gay and lesbian relationships. Domestic violence shelters and programs can provide a wide range of services to help battered women.
Empowering a battered woman involves making her feel safe, offering support, encouraging expression of feelings, focusing on strengths, furnishing information, reviewing alternatives, establishing a plan, and advocating for rights and services.
G. Present strategies for combating sexism and achieving sexual equality.
You can combat sexism and achieve sexual equality by identifying gender-role stereotypes, placing less emphasis on the need to conform to stereotypes, enhancing assertiveness, encouraging freedom in adult domestic relationships, and confronting discriminatory laws and regulations.
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We sat, to rest, on benches in the old Place d’Armes. I looked at those Pontalba buildings, that faded, dilapidated, ramshackle row, and remembered how fine and imposing it was, in my day, and how I had wished that father would take one of those elegant houses,
Eliza Ripleywhere we would be so near the French market, and the shop of beads and shells, and monkeys and parrots.
We strolled up Royal Street, and the little girl saw the house in which the Boufords lived, sixty years ago. The saucy child ventured to remark she always had thought I visited nice people, but they must have lived in shabby houses. I did not notice her comment, but proceeded to point to the balcony where I stood to see a Mardi Gras procession, a frolicsome lot of the festive beaux of the period, and to catch the bonbons and confetti they threw at us from the landeaus and gaily decked wagons. It was long after the Mardi Gras of the thirties, and long, long before the Mardi Gras of to-day, a kind of interregnum, that the young fashionable men were turning into a festival. I recall Mrs. Slocomb’s disgust when Cuthbert fell ill of pneumonia, after his exposure that day. Cuthbert Slocomb was chubby and blond, and with bare neck and short sleeves, tied up with baby blue ribbon, a baby cap similarly decorated, he made a very good counterfeit baby, seated, too, in a high chair, with a rattle to play with. The “mamma” had long black ringlets and wore a fashionable bonnet. I have forgotten, if in fact I ever knew, what youth represented the mamma. There were no masks, but the disguises with paint, powder and wigs were sufficient to make them unrecognizable. If Cuthbert Slocomb had not been ill, I probably would not have known the “baby.”
A N O C .
During that visit I went to the cemetery Decoration Day. Mind you, I have seen about forty Decoration days, North—but this one in my own Southland, among my own beloved dead, has been the only Decoration Day I have ever seen in a cemetery. (I wish my feelings were not quite so strong.) Phine and I stood beside the tomb that contains the dust of Gen. Albert Sidney Johnston, a man I had known well, a contemporary and valued friend of my father’s, a man whose children and grandchildren were dear to me. We saw the solemn procession file in, and halt a little beyond us. The band played “Nearer, My God, to Thee,” and hundreds of voices joined in the musical prayer. I could not sing, I never could, but I could weep, and my eyes were not the only moist ones in the assembly. Such a throng of sober, sad people there was, such a lot of veterans, many in shabby, weather-stained gray, that bore evidence of hard service....
Phine had kept track of the people from whom I had been so long separated that age had obliterated means by which I could recognize
them. As a veteran, in the shabby old gray (I felt like taking everyone such by the hand), approached, Phine caught my arm and whispered “Douglas West,” and at the same moment his eye met mine with a flash of recognition. I had not seen Douglas for over thirty years. And weren’t we glad to meet? on that ground, too, so sacred to both of us. And didn’t we meet and meet and talk and talk, many times thereafter, in Phine’s dear little parlor on Carondelet Street? Indeed, we did.
Later on, Phine whispered, “You knew that man, I’ll tell you who he is after he passes us.” A quite tottering, wrinkled, old man passed. I gave him a good stare, shook my head. I did not know, nor think I ever had known him. It was A. B. Cammack—who would have believed it? He was a bachelor in 1850, the time when I thought a man of thirty was an old man. We happened to be fellow passengers on that fashionable A No. 1 steamboat, Belle Key. I was a frisky young miss, and Mr. Cammack was, as I say, an old bachelor. He did not know, nor want to know anybody on the boat, but it happened he was introduced to our small party, at the moment of sailing, so we had a reluctant sort of bowing acquaintance for the first day or so. Broderie Anglaise was all the rage. Any woman who had time for frivolité, as the Creoles called tatting, was busy working eyelets on linen. Of course I had Broderie, too. Mr. Cammack gradually thawed, and brought a book to read to me while my fingers flew over the fascinating eyelets. The book, I distinctly remember, was “Aunt Patsy’s Scrap Bag,” a medley of silly nonsensical stuff, written by a woman so long dead and so stupid while she lived that nobody even hears of her now, but Mr. Cammack was immensely entertaining and witty, and we roared over that volume, and his comments thereon. I have often dwelt on that steamboat episode, but I doubt if it ever gave him a moment’s thought. I really think if it had been like my meeting with Douglas West we might have had quite a bit of fun, living again that week on the Belle Key. A hearty laugh, such as we had together, so many years before, might have smoothed some of the wrinkles from his careworn face, and a few crow’s feet out of mine. But he never knew, possibly would not have cared if he had known, that we almost touched hands in the crowd on that Decoration Day.
On and on we strolled, past a grand monument to the memory of Dr. Choppin, whom I knew so well, and loved too, girl fashion, when he was twenty, and who sailed away, boy fashion, to complete his medical education in Paris. Maybe if we had met, in the flesh, on that Decoration Day, it might have been a la Cammack. We never did meet, after that memorable sailing away, but he has a tender niche in my heart even yet, and I was pleased to see some loving hand had decorated that sacred spot....
Phine and I strolled about after the ceremonies were completed. She had a toy broom and a toy watering pot in the keeper’s cottage, and was reluctant to leave before she had straightened and freshened the bouquets we had placed on the tombs of the dead she loved, and swept away the dust, and watered the little grass border again.
A year ago she herself fell asleep and was laid to rest in the lovely cemetery, and with her death the last close tie was broken that bound me to New Orleans.
Eliza Moore, tenth of the twelve children of Richard Henry and Betsey Holmes Chinn, was born in Lexington, Kentucky, on the first day of February, 1832.
Three years later Judge Chinn moved his family to New Orleans, where he continued the practice of law until his death in ’47.
On August 24, 1852, Eliza Chinn and James Alexander McHatton were married in Lexington, and for ten years thereafter they lived at Arlington plantation on the Mississippi, a few miles below Baton Rouge, leaving hastily in ’62, upon the appearance of Federal gunboats at their levee.
During the remainder of the war they lived almost continuously in army ambulances, convoying cotton from Louisiana across Texas to Mexico.
In February, 1865, they went to Cuba, and lived there until the death of Mr. McHatton, owning and operating, with mixed negro and coolie labor, a large sugar plantation—“Desengaño.”
After her return to the United States Mrs. McHatton was married to Dwight Ripley, July 9, 1873, and the remainder of her life was passed in the North. In 1887 Mrs. Ripley published “From Flag to Flag”—a narrative of her war-time and Cuban experiences, now out of print.
The reminiscences which make up the present volume have been written at intervals during the last three or four years. The final arrangements for their publication were sanctioned by her the day before she passed away—on July 13, 1912, in the eighty-first year of her age.
UNLIKE ANY OTHER BOOK.
Being the Authentic Experiences of a Confederate Major’s Wife who followed her Husband into Camp at the Outbreak of the War. Dined and Supped with General J. E. B. Stuart, ran the Blockade to Baltimore, and was in Richmond when it was Evacuated. Collected and edited by M L A . 12mo. Cloth, $1.25 net; postage additional.
“The people described are gentlefolk to the back-bone, and the reader must be a hard-hearted cynic if he does not fall in love with the ingenuous and delightful girl who tells the story.” New York Sun.
“The narrative is one that both interests and charms The beginning of the end of the long and desperate struggle is unusually well told, and how the survivors lived during the last days of the fading Confederacy forms a vivid picture of those distressful times.” Baltimore Herald.
“The style of the narrative is attractively informal and chatty Its pathos is that of simplicity It throws upon a cruel period of our national career a side-light, bringing out tender and softening interests too little visible in the pages of formal history ” New York World
“This is a tale that will appeal to every Southern man and woman, and can not fail to be of interest to every reader. It is as fresh and vivacious, even in dealing with dark days, as the young soul that underwent the hardships of a most cruel war.” Louisville Courier-Journal.
“The narrative is not formal, is often fragmentary, and is always warmly human.... There are scenes among the dead and wounded, but as one winks back a tear the next page presents a negro commanded to mount a strange mule in midstream, at the injustice of which he strongly protests.” New York Telegram.
“Taken at this time, when the years have buried all resentment, dulled all sorrows, and brought new generations to the scenes, a work of this kind can not fail of value just as it can not fail in interest Official history moves with too great strides to permit of the smaller, more intimate events; fiction lacks the realistic, powerful appeal of actuality; such works as this must be depended upon to fill in the unoccupied interstices, to show us just what were the lives of those who were in this conflict or who lived in the midst of it without being able actively to participate in it. And of this type ‘A Virginia Girl in the Civil War’ is a truly admirable example.” Philadelphia Record.
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK.
THE GREATEST LIVING ACTRESS.