Making a City

Architectural thesis: ‘Making a city’ – how craftworkers are positioned in the Senegalese urban and economic sectors

This work represents an architectural thesis creating a purely imagined space in Senegal. By drawing on the notions of humanitarian architecture, I attempt to respond to the crisis being caused by the conflict between the ever-increasing push towards a western-style urbanity, and the reliance placed on informal economies that has served the people of Senegal well for decades.

The fundamental aim for this design is to promote

Background and basis of the project

The issues of economic and social inequality within societies poses a serious challenge to modern civilization, particularly in developing countries.1 Once this inequality is formed in cities, informal economies have tendency to develop as a means of survival for those who find themselves marginalized and excluded from formal economic systems. For the duration of this project, I will use the term informal economy to refer to an economic activity that is not regulated via the national government, and which operates outside of formal regulatory frameworks. This phenomenon is distinctly visible in developing countries where unstable economies and poverty are present.

Informal economies in Senegal are ubiquitous and occupy a critical position in the country's socio-economic landscape. Despite government efforts to formalize the economy, informal activity remains common, particularly in urban regions, serving as a vital source of income and employment for many individuals who lack access to formal jobs or education. According to a report by the International Labour Organization (ILO), informal employment accounts for 96.4% of the active population.2

However, Senegal is undergoing rapid urbanization, with the urban population projected to reach 53% of the total population by 2030.3 It is accompanied by a process of Westernization evident in the proliferation of Western-style shopping malls, supermarkets, and modern high-rise buildings, a trend that is noted by sources including the World Bank, The Conversation, The Guardian, and The New York Times, and various other reputable news sources. While the process has brought great economic growth and improved living standards, it has also had negative impacts on traditional cultures and way of life and has exacerbated social inequality. Some fear in Senegal, like many other nations, rapid urbanization is pushing traditional culture towards extinction.

Westernization has also proliferated into the economic sectors. As Laura Livesay, an Illinois State University researcher, writes in her article ‘Social Capital in Senegal: Bane or Boom?’, Senegal is experiencing a rearrangement of and change to its economic model. She focuses her work on the notion of social capital, which she refers to as a networks, relationships, and trust that people have with each other in a community, an idea commonly associated

In the context of informal economies, social capital plays an important role in facilitating economic activity and enabling individuals and groups to overcome the challenges faced due to the nature of the economy itself. Although a typical aspect of these prevalent informal economies in Senegal, social capital is currently ‘keep[ing] the local economy from substantial growth”.5 Western-style society, with its emphasis on formal institutions, regulations, and structure, will continue to experience difficulties such as above, when attempting to accommodate the informal nature of Senegalese economies.

As noted by the International Monetary Fund, "As countries move up the income ladder, the size of the informal sector tends to decline”.6 By disrupting and halting economic growth, it is clear to see that the types of society being erected will struggle to preserve the beauty and importance of the previously resistant informal sectors, in reality meaning the diminishing or potentially eradication of the subsectors.

But with such a huge proportion of the country’s population relying on these sectors for their livelihoods, it would be devastating to witness their demise. I believe policies and funding aimed at supporting informal economies and

promoting formalisation should be prioritised and considered part of a broader effort to promote sustainable, inclusive development. Failing to preserve informal economies would have significant socioeconomic consequences, disproportionately for the most vulnerable members of society. This could potentially result in increased poverty, unemployment, and social exclusion, exacerbating existing inequalities and potentially leading to political instability and overall disrupt.

A report by the International Labour Organization (ILO) titled "Women and Men in the Informal Economy: A Statistical Picture." emphasizes the need to create policies that support integration of informal economies into formalised systems. It states that "the integration of the informal economy into the formal economy is an important objective of development policies".7 It is argued that that policies and strategies that arise should aim to create an enabling environment for informal economic activities to not only continue but become integrated, rather than seeking to suppress or eliminate them from society. The report further states that "governments [] need to find ways to integrate informal workers and enterprises into formal economic systems, which can increase productivity and improve working conditions, while contributing to broader economic growth and development objectives".8

A physical solution?

Humanitarian aid is provided to developing countries and is often coupled with the design of architectural infrastructure. Humanitarian architecture is a term used to refer to a design trend that focuses on local, available architectural and urban solutions to aid people in crises, with the goal of improving quality of life, and assessing social value.9 It is important to note however that social value should ‘be considered at every stage of the project, not just building design’.10 This encompasses the consultation and construction processes as well, giving the surrounding community a voice and passageway for change and input, in order to ensure specific needs are catered for.11 In my project, I will take the crisis in need of aid being the potential dismantling of informal economies.

Humanitarian architecture can help preserve informal economies by incorporating existing informal economies into the design of public spaces and infrastructure, or potentially by designing new spaces specifically to support and/or integrate informal economic activity. To give a simplified example, a typical market could be designed with the needs of informal traders in mind, for example giving access for sellers to basic amenities like clean

water, toilets, and waste disposal areas, as well as security measures to protect against theft and other crime. This can help to formalize informal economic activity; by improving working conditions and safety for the vendors, and contributing to economic growth of the industry.

Secondly, Humanitarian architecture incorporates sustainable design principles, such as the use of locally-sourced material, the inclusion of local enterprises in the construction, and the promotion of energyefficient and environmentally-friendly building practices. This helps to reduce the impact of urban development on the natural environment and surrounding community, while also promoting local economic development and preserving traditional building techniques and architectural styles.

Overall, this project aims to holistically approach urban design and planning, and take into account the needs of informal economic actors with the aim of helping to create more equitable and sustainable urban environments, supporting the continued existence and development of informal economies. In particular, my project aims to aid one particular subsector of the informal economy – crafting and creative industries.

Case study

The Polyvalent Cultural Centre is a community-based, educational institution located in this southernmost village of Senegal. The centre serves as a platform for cultural exchange, artistic expression, and community development activities. It is a hub for the preservation and promotion of the diverse cultural heritage, including music, dance, storytelling, and traditional crafts.12

The centre is based in a modern, environmentally-inclusive building that incorporates sustainable design principles, such as the use of renewable energy sources and locally sourced materials, principles associated with the realisation of humanitarian architectural projects. ‘From bricklayers to women and volunteer participation will show a learnable technology for a sustainable development’ 13, the project aims to improve living conditions via the building process. The facility includes ‘five one-story buildings with a museum, offices, training rooms, and a developed yard for outdoor activities and local community meetings’.14 The facility was built by Balouo Salo, a non-profit organization.15 These NGOs often are the providers of humanitarian architecture funding and, as noted by Livesay in the

article ‘Social Capital in Senegal: Bane or Boom?’, have the ability to fund projects like this and ‘link top and bottom’ due to their intermediary societal positions between government and citizens; providers and consumers.16

The building was constructed mostly using locally sourced natural materials such as laterite soil, clay, sand, polypropylene bags, plastic film, wood, recycled ceramics, straw, and cut grass. The construction process utilized low-tech techniques inspired by vernacular architecture (referring to a style of construction based on local traditions, materials and techniques, and reflects the needs and values of the local people). The specialists involved used it as an opportunity to integrate and educate the local community in sustainable low-tech construction techniques, strengthening the identification of future users with the new facility and equipping the local community with new skills to gradually improve knowledge and living conditions in their environment.17 ,

(source: image courtesy Balouo Salo – humanitarian organization, found in ‘Vernacular and low-tech technologies in humanitarian architecture on the example of Senegal’ Jounral article by Robert Idem)

The importance and history of crafting in Senegal

Craft making in Senegal has a rich history, dating back throughout centuries. The country's cultural heritage has influenced the development of many traditional crafts, including but not limited to weaving, pottery, wood carving, and jewellery making. Senegal's craft industry has evolved over time to incorporate modern techniques and materials, resulting in an intense contemporary art scene.

Senegal has a long tradition of weaving textiles, particularly in the northern regions of the country. The Fulani people are known for their intricate cotton weavings. The Wolof people are renowned for their use of raffia and natural fibres to forge baskets and other goods. Pottery making also bears importance in Senegal, with many of the oldest known pottery fragments in West Africa discovered in the country.

Crafting is often considered part of the informal economy because it typically operates outside of formal systems of production, distribution, and sales. In many cases, goods are produced by individuals or groups of artisans who lack access to formal training, capital, or markets. Crafts can be sold in informal settings such as street markets, bazaars, or fairs, and often

involve cash transactions that are not reported to taxing authorities. As a result, craft industries are often excluded from official economic statistics. They are not subject to the same regulations, protections, or benefits as formal sector workers.

Recently, Senegal's craft industry has faced challenges due to competition from cheap imports a lack of government support and protection due to the informal nature of its economy. However, there are efforts to revive traditional crafts through initiatives such as the Dakar Arts and Crafts Festival (Festival des Arts et Métiers de Dakar), and the establishment of craft markets and cooperatives.

(source: image courtesy ‘Edmond Fortier and textile production in West Africa, 1900-1910’ published via Adire African Textiles)

Master plan

Drawing from the key points mentioned so far, I present my idea for a cultural space in/near Dakar, Senegal. The broadest aim of this space is to increase awareness of the importance and magnitude of the crafting sector in Senegal, as well as to provide a framework towards the partial formalization and organization of a classically primarily informal sector.

My model proposes a site with two main areas:

Gallery: Art galleries can be a powerful tool for increasing education about the importance of informal economies in making a nation via the showcase of the diverse cultural and economic practices that shape social fabric of society. By showcasing the creative products of informal economies, galleries can help to raise awareness of the role that informal economies play in the social and economic development of a nation, as well as highlighting the importance of preserving and supporting these practices.

Through the display of art and artifacts produced by informal economies, I aim to create dialogue surrounding the cultural significance and economic value of these practices. By engaging with visitors and facilitating discussions around the contributions of informal economies to national identity and economic development, this gallery can help to foster an understanding and appreciation of the role that informal economies play in society.

Moreover, the galleries can help to promote the inclusion of informal economies in public policy discussions by spreading awareness of the challenges faced by informal entrepreneurs, and therefore advocating for the recognition of their contributions to society. By partnering with informal economy stakeholders, such as artists and artisans, galleries can help to promote greater participation and engagement of these actors in policy-making processes.

Ultimately, these galleries should serve as a platform for promoting a more inclusive and participatory approach to economic development that recognizes the importance of informal economies in shaping the cultural, social, and economic fabric of a nation. By fostering a greater appreciation , it can help to promote a more equitable and sustainable economic development, and contribute to the creation of a more prosperous and inclusive society.

1: Art Gallery and Stage

Stage: The aim of this project includes using the stage as a space to share oral histories and stories, including the informal economy of storytelling into the mix. Oral histories of working conditions within informal economies can serve as powerful tools for raising awareness of the position of informal economies in society. By documenting and sharing the experiences of informal workers, these oral histories shared can help to shed light on the overlooked contributions that informal economies make to the larger economy.

Oral histories can highlight the unique challenges and struggles that informal workers face on a daily basis, including issues related to job security, health and safety, and access to resources and a support service. By bringing these issues to the forefront of public discourse, oral histories can help to mobilise and evoke support for policies and initiatives that address the needs and rights of informal workers, as well as promote greater understanding and respect for their contributions to society.

Area 2: Market space and workshop space

Market space: I aim to help formalise an economy by providing a platform for transactions and business to occur in a transparent and regulated manner, leading to increased trust and confidence among participants (increased social capital), which can encourage more businesses to operate within the formal sector. Additionally, these formalised transactions can generate a paper trail that helps to document economic activity and facilitate tax collection. As such, this market can play an important role in promoting economic growth and development of the area by helping to expand the formal sector.

When an economy is formalized, businesses and workers are more likely to be registered and regulated by the government. This can help to provide job security by providing workers with legal protections, such as minimum wage laws, health and safety regulations, and the right to form trade unions, among many other benefits. Formal businesses are more likely to provide benefits such as sick leave, vacation time, and retirement plans, aspects of the formal national economy, which can help to provide workers with a greater sense of financial security.

In addition, formalisation can help to increase access to credit and financial services. Formal businesses are often required to maintain financial records and pay

taxes, which can help to establish a credit history and make it easier to obtain loans and other financial services.

It can help to improve working conditions by promoting compliance with labour laws and regulations. Formal businesses are more likely to provide safe working environments, training and skills development programs, and opportunities for career advancement. This can help to improve the quality of life for workers and their families, contributing to overall socioeconomic development.

Workshops: The cardinal significance of craft workshops cannot be overemphasized in upholding traditional techniques and their perpetuity through generations. Workshops afford a forum for the transmission of knowledge, skills, and values from accomplished artisans to apprentices, tourists and enthusiasts, thereby ensconcing that these traditions are not lost to time. By preserving and propagating these techniques, craft workshops can contribute to the cultural patrimony of a society and reinforce the conservation of its artistic identity.

The workshops in this project aim to provide opportunities for experimentation and innovation while adhering to traditional techniques. By assembling master artisans and burgeoning craftspeople, they can establish a dynamic milieu that spurs the exchange of ideas and the development of novel approaches. This can engender the creation of new-fangled products and designs that build on the bedrock of traditional techniques, all while captivating the interest of contemporary and tourist audiences.

Furthermore, workshops can serve as an instrument for economic empowerment for artisans and their communities by facilitating access to training, resources, and markets. They can assist artisans in honing the skills and knowledge necessary to create high-calibre products that are in demand. This can result in augmented income and ameliorated livelihoods for artisans and their families, while also being able to contribute to the advancement of local economies.

In summary, craft workshops and teaching opportunities are indispensable for the preservation and propagation of traditional techniques, the cultivation of innovation, and the economic empowerment of artisans and their communities. By creating a platform for the transmission of knowledge, experimentation, and collaboration, these workshops play a pivotal role in safeguarding the perpetuation of traditional techniques and promoting the artistic and cultural affluence of Senegalese society.

PLANS, VIEWS AND RENDERINGS

Stage

Market Gallery

A central location for craft markets – tourists will know where to go to purchase souvenirs and crafts. Formalised and put ‘on the map’.

REMARKS

Central ‘hub’ feel, brings the community into a centralized space.

Constructed with aid of local companies to help local businesses

Construction materials are sustainable and cheap. Wooden rods can be locally sourced and bonded to create the ‘frame’ of the building. Open air in order to not trap the heat from the region. Floor is made from sand/clay. The booths would be the sole driver for imported materials, but could also be adapted to require local wood and bricks.

The central stage and bleacher style seating allows for guest speakers and performers.

Double sided market booth – interior is a lockable space to provide a sense of safety to the vendors.

Workshops can easily occur and the bars provide a viewing space for many to watch.

Examples of the kinds of images in the gallery

This art gallery will function as a vital tool for enhancing awareness about the pivotal significance of informal economies in forging a nation's identity by exhibiting the assorted cultural and economic practices that influence a society's social construct. Through the display of creative products and practices of informal economies, the gallery will establish a discourse surrounding the cultural relevance and economic value of these practices, while encouraging visitors to participate in dialogues that promote a more comprehensive understanding of the multifarious contributions of informal economies to national identity and economic progress..

Here, I include some examples of artwork and photography that could aid this cause and provoke meaningful dialogue.

1. Senegalese Glass Painting ‘Afrocentric Hairstyles’.

This mixed media piece speaks to the importance of hairstyling in Senegalese culture, by placing emphasis on the beauty of the women's’ hair. The work also showcases the vibrant and intricate fabrics that the women of the region adorn themselves in, speaking to the skill of textile workers.

Painting by Alioune Diagne shows a hairdresser working on the street.

This image captures the sense of intimate community in the spaces where infroal economies such as hairdressing occurs. It also speaks of the working conditions faced by the labourers.

(source: image courtesy ‘At home in Africa’ on Pinterest)

(source: image courtesy ‘Must-see art from Senegal's Biennale: Sculptures of sugar, paintings of old postcards’ article by Nick Roll on GPB.org)

Edmond Fortier and textile production in West Africa, 1900-1910

These photographs taken in the early 20th century depict the prevalence of informal, creative economies in society them. The photos, taken across West Africa, capture the daily lives of cloth makers and dyers, and show certain aspects of the industry, whilst hiding others. These thought-provoking images also show the typical gender imbalance in the sectors..

(source: images courtesy ‘Edmond Fortier and textile production in West Africa, 1900-1910’ published via Adire African Textiles)

Subheading: Examples of the crafts

The importance of encompassing a multitude of industries under the versatile term 'craftwork' cannot be overstated, as it serves to acknowledge and venerate the diversity of creative practices that abound within a society. The employment of this allencompassing terminology affords a panoramic view of a wide spectrum of creative endeavours, woodworking, and jewellery making, among others, thereby underlining both the commonalities and

acknowledgement of diversity is indispensable in propagating the cultural identity of a society and underscoring the opulence of its creative heritage.

Moreover, the term 'craftwork' engenders the development of a shared idiom and comprehension facilitates the cultivation of collaborations, exchange of knowledge and ideas, and concerted endeavours towards shared objectives. The versatility of the term also allows for the promotion of inter-industry undertakings, such as the advocacy of sustainable practices or the formation of shared spaces for

Weavers and Textiles

The multifaceted history of weaving and textiles in Senegal is a tapestry of cultural syncretism, artistic ingenuity, and economic progress. The roots of this vibrant industry can be traced back to the early days of the trans-Saharan trade routes, when textiles and other goods were exchanged between West Africa and the Arab world. Over time, these interactions gave rise to the rich cultures of weaving and textile production that have continued to flourish in Senegal and beyond.

In the modern era, Senegal's textile industry has undergone significant changes and challenges, driven in part by the forces of globalization, urbanization, and changing consumer preferences. Despite these challenges textile production remains a vital part of the country's cultural heritage and economic landscape, providing livelihoods for many artisans and workers and contributing to the country's development. There has recently been a growing recognition of the importance of the textile industry to Senegal's cultural and economic identity, leading to efforts to support the industry. These efforts have included initiatives to revitalise traditional techniques, foster innovation, collaboration and creativity, and connect local artisans with new markets and consumers. There is also a growing interest in the potential of textiles to contribute to sustainable development and social change, through initiatives such as fair, local trade, eco-friendly production, and the empowerment of women and marginalized communities.

(source: image courtesy ‘The Weavers of Senegal’ on the Noma Collective)

Jewellers and Goldsmiths

From the early days of the trans-Saharan trade routes, when gold, silver, and other precious metals were exchanged between West Africa and the Arab world, to the present day, jewelry making has been a vital part of Senegal's cultural heritage and economy. Over time, Senegal's jewelry making traditions have evolved and adapted to changing styles and tastes, incorporating new materials, techniques, and designs.

Today, the country's jewelry makers continue to create stunning pieces that reflect the diversity and richness of Senegalese culture and materials, drawing on a wide range of influences, from traditional motifs and symbols to contemporary trends and global fashion. Despite the challenges posed by globalization, Senegal's jewellery makers have remained resilient, finding new ways to innovate and adapt. This has included embracing new technologies and materials, such as 3D printing and recycled metals, as well as exploring new distribution channels, such as e-commerce and social media.

(source: image courtesy ‘Senegal's Stunning Gold Jewelry ... And The Controversial Women Who Wore It’ on NPR.org)

Shoemakers

Senegal has a long history of shoemaking known for its intricate designs, high-quality materials, and traditional techniques. Shoemakers in the past used locally sourced materials like leather from livestock and hides, dyed with natural pigments from plants. Despite facing challenges such as competition from cheap imports and decline in demand for traditional footwear, shoemakers continue to use both traditional and modern methods to create unique designs.

(source: image courtesy Rukmini Callimachi / AP Photo, found on syruacuse.com)

Street Hairdressers

From the start of colonialism, when African hairdressing traditions were suppressed and derided by European authorities, street hairdressing has been a vital part of Senegal's cultural heritage. Senegal’s hairdressing traditions have adapted to changing styles and trends, incorporating new techniques, tools, and products.

Today, the country's street hairdressers continue to create stunning hairstyles that reflect the diversity and richness of Senegalese culture, drawing on a wide range of influences, from traditional styles and patterns to contemporary fashion and global popular culture.

Despite the challenges posed by poverty, lack of resources, and limited access to formal training, Senegal's street hairdressers have remained resilient and resourceful, finding new ways to innovate and adapt. This has included developing their own unique styles and methods, using improvised tools and materials, and establishing networks and associations to support and promote their work.

(source: image courtesy Flickr on Pinterest ‘Hair Salon, Dakar, Senegal’ )

Concluding statements

Drawing on the reasoning mentioned, the is a point to argue that informal economies must be partially formalised in order to adapt to the ever-urbanising country. In order to find a method that fits this, I have created a space that uses sustainable and community-friendly principles in order to construct a space that can use its centrality to become a hub for craft trade and learning, as well as a place for reflection and consideration.

The slight formalisation I include is based on a central area for trade, that can be added to local maps and online sites. It can also be included in transport networks to allow for increased foot flow. By keeping many people working together in a small space, collaboration and learning can occur, but also the sharing and distribution of costs of resources such as security measures, sanitation and waste disposal.

*This paper represents my own work in accordance with university regulations*

1. Idem, Robert, Katarzyna Zielonko-Jung, and Aleksandra Karpińska. “Vernacular and Low-Tech Technologies in Humanitarian Architecture on the Example of Senegal.” Architectus 70, no. 2 (April 2022): 71–80. doi:10.37190/arc220207. This article examines the use of humanitarian architecture in Senegal, and I draw upon it for its case studies included.

2. Ministry of Artisanry and the Transformation of Informal Sectors, “Senegal’s Integrated National Strategy for the Formalization of the Informal Economy (SNIFEI) and Operational Action Plan for the Transformation of the Informal Sector (PAOTSI).” Strategy: Senegal’s Integrated National Strategy for the Formalization of the Informal Economy (SNIFEI) and Operational Action Plan for the Transformation of the Informal Sector (PAOTSI), May 26, 2022.

https://www.ilo.org/empent/areas/ef/WCMS_849817/lang--en/index.htm#:~:text=In% 20Senegal%2C%20various%20statistical%20studies,sector%2C%20including%20t he%20rural%20world

. This is a statistical report of Senegal, and I extract figures for employment from it.

3. UN Habitat, “Republic of Senegal: PSUP Site.” Republic of Senegal | PSUP Site, 2019.

https://www.mypsup.org/countries/Senegal#:~:text=Senegal%20has%2C%20in%20 recent%20decades,town%20or%20city%20by%202030

. This is another statistical report of Senegal, and I use this for figures for population dynamics and predicitons.

4. Livesay, Laura, "Social Capital in Senegal: Bane or Boom?" (2011). Capstone Projects – Politics and Government. 8. https://ir.library.illinoisstate.edu/cppg/8 This article from Laura Livesay, a researcher at Illinois State University, examines the role of social capital in Senegal amidst changing factors.

5. Livesay, Laura, "Social Capital in Senegal: Bane or Boom?" (2011). Capstone Projects – Politics and Government. 8. https://ir.library.illinoisstate.edu/cppg/8

6. Alexander, Thomas F. “The Global Informal Economy: Large but on the Decline.” IMF, October 30, 2019.

https://www.imf.org/en/Blogs/Articles/2019/10/30/the-global-informal-economy-large -but-on-the-decline

. This article speaks of the tendencies of informal economies as a country begins the process of development.

7. Women and men in the informal economy: a statistical picture (third edition) / International Labour Office – Geneva: ILO, 2018.

https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/documents/publication/ wcms_626831.pdf

This article puts a figure to the statistics of informal economies, and also describes the measures that must be taken to preserve them.

8. Women and men in the informal economy: a statistical picture (third edition) / International Labour Office – Geneva: ILO, 2018.

https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/documents/publication/ wcms_626831.pdf

9. “Polyvalent Cultural Center in Senegal.” Architecture in Development, August 4, 2021. https://architectureindevelopment.org/project/1093.

This website has an interactive showcase of the Polyvalent cultural centre, which I use to help explain the reasoning behind and features of the building.

10. Sennewald, Bea. “Humanitarian Architecture: Creating Social Value for Communities

- Design & Build Review: Issue 63: August 2021.” Design & Build Review, August 16, 2021.

https://designbuild.nridigital.com/design_build_review_aug21/humanitarian_architecture _social_value

This article talks about how architecture can be used to create social value within communities.

11. Sennewald, Bea. “Humanitarian Architecture: Creating Social Value for Communities

- Design & Build Review: Issue 63: August 2021.” Design & Build Review, August 16, 2021.

https://designbuild.nridigital.com/design_build_review_aug21/humanitarian_architecture _social_value

12. Idem, Robert, Katarzyna Zielonko-Jung, and Aleksandra Karpińska. “Vernacular and Low-Tech Technologies in Humanitarian Architecture on the Example of Senegal.”

Architectus 70, no. 2 (April 2022): 71–80. doi:10.37190/arc220207.

13. “Polyvalent Cultural Center in Senegal.” Architecture in Development, August 4, 2021. https://architectureindevelopment.org/project/1093

14. Idem, Robert, Katarzyna Zielonko-Jung, and Aleksandra Karpińska. “Vernacular and Low-Tech Technologies in Humanitarian Architecture on the Example of Senegal.”

Architectus 70, no. 2 (April 2022): 71–80. doi:10.37190/arc220207.

15. Idem, Robert, Katarzyna Zielonko-Jung, and Aleksandra Karpińska. “Vernacular and Low-Tech Technologies in Humanitarian Architecture on the Example of Senegal.”

Architectus 70, no. 2 (April 2022): 71–80. doi:10.37190/arc220207.

16. Livesay, Laura, "Social Capital in Senegal: Bane or Boom?" (2011). Capstone Projects – Politics and Government. 8. https://ir.library.illinoisstate.edu/cppg/8. This article from Laura Livesay, a researcher at Illinois State University, examines the role of social capital in Senegal amidst changing factors.

17. Idem, Robert, Katarzyna Zielonko-Jung, and Aleksandra Karpińska. “Vernacular and Low-Tech Technologies in Humanitarian Architecture on the Example of Senegal.”

Architectus 70, no. 2 (April 2022): 71–80. doi:10.37190/arc220207