On Gender and Sexuality in the Inca Civilization

N E D G ER N O EXUA S LIT D N Y A

IN A CI T H E IN C N VIL O I T IZA

BY ALEX LOPEZ

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WORKS CITED Brousset, Sophia. “Recovering Lesbianism in Pre-Colonial Andean Peru.” Laidlaw Scholars Network, 1 Sept. 2021, laidlawscholars.network/documents/recovering-lesbianism-inpre-colonial-andean-peru.

Horswell, Michael J. (Michael Jenkins). Decolonizing the Sodomite : Queer Tropes of Sexuality in Colonial Andean Culture.

1st ed., University of Texas Press, 2005.

Sigal, Peter Herman. Infamous Desire : Male Homosexuality in Colonial Latin America. University of Chicago Press, 2003.

Silverblatt, Irene. Moon, Sun, and Witches : Gender Ideologies and Class in Inca and Colonial Peru. Princeton University Press, 1987.

Yupangui, Diego de Castro, and Ralph Bauer. An Inca Account of the Conquest of Peru. University Press of Colorado, 2005.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction

Introduction to Gender and Sexuality in the Inca Civilization

... 1

Discussion of Alternate Terms

... 2

Inca Civilization: History and Conquest

Key Term Discussions

... 3-4 ... 5

Homosexuality in the Inca Empire

... 6

Gender Roles in Andean Society

... 7

Third-Gender in Andean Culture

... 8

Thesis Conclusions The Effect of Colonization

... 9-10

THESIS STATEMENT The institutions of sexual preference and gender identity that were prominently embedded in the culture of the Inca civilization as proved in the empire’s religious practices and social hierarchies were destroyed by the heteronormative principles that developed through colonization in the Andean region.

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INTRODUCTION TO GENDER AND SEXUALITY IN THE INCA CIVILIZATION

The Inca empire is the focus of this Zine as it contains rich evidence regarding the institutions of sexual preference and gender identity which can be explored through many facets of the society. Religion is the primary societal structure that incorporates discussions on sexuality and gender, but these conversations can also sprout from art and class systems. Emphasizing the profound roots of sexual identity through the Inca civilization allows for significant development towards understanding the destructive effect colonization had on living in identities outside of heteronormativity. Exploring the institutions of gender within Inca culture leads towards modern knowledge of the effect of colonization on promoting equality. The Inca empire provides a rich context for discovering these cultural structures, creating a stronger ground for modern-day communities fighting for justice and equality to stand on by establishing historical roots in their causes.

This Zine will begin by defining alternate terms that more accurately represent sexuality and gender within an Inca context.

Discussion of these terms will be placed throughout, allowing for modern perspectives to understand these historical roots through specific language that most passionately responds to them. The Zine will continue by creating audience knowledge of Inca history and colonization, which is imperative to the understanding of the place of sexuality and gender in Inca society. The next three discussions of the Zine will navigate gender and sexuality through the three key terms of homosexuality, gender roles, and gender identity (understood in the Inca context as thirdgender). These three factors are key in exploring the way that the Inca civilization societal structures were effected by colonization. The closing conversation will address how colonization and the ancestry of the Inca civilization in Lima affected the institutions of gender and sexuality.

A L T E R N A T TERMS E quariwarmi

understood as “men-women” shamans

primary example of gender identity outside of binary in the Inca civilization instrumental to spiritual practices (role as shamans)

ayllu

refers to an ethnic unity of families which comprise subunits of Inca society

its genealogical structure began with male-female hierarchical equality evolved into political structure with male dominance regardless, helps illustrate gender roles and institutional equality in Inca civilization

yanantin

expression for perfect gender symmetry

defines equality of men and women in Andean gender structures

their unity is integral in understanding gender dualism and equality in Inca civilization

tinkuy

combination of complimentary opposites

ritual practice for achieving harmony between opposites

berdache

in indigenous contexts, a man who adopts the role of a woman

subject to scholarly debates on its relationship and place in third-gender discussions early understandings of transsexual identity

A discussion of alternate terms for sexuality and gender in ancient civilization translations and studies is necessary in order to completely understand the place of queer theory in ancient culture.

This information largely comes from Horswell 149-150, Sigal 27-31, and Silverblatt 217-225

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1438

The Inca civilization was founded in 1438 and flourished for around 100 years, stretching across South America’s Pacific coast. The large empire includes parts of modern-day Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina. Their capital city of Cuzco was where the empire began, eventually becoming an important cultural and spiritual center, and flourishing into the contemporary hub of Inca descendants. The Andean civilization was innovative not only in its complex and astonishing architecture but also in its vast system of roads connecting the stretched regions of the people back to Cuzco.

Additionally, the empire can be notably characterized by their spirituality, textiles, agriculture, and language. The Inca civilization saw many leaders, all of whom expanded the borders of the empire further along the coastline and contributed to their societal advancements.

Francisco Pizarro was a Spanish conquistador who was primarily responsible for the conquest and decline of the Inca civilization. Pizarro first made contact with the empire on his second voyage to the new world where he made contact with the Inca City of Tumbes. His initial exploitation of the city brought Pizarro back to Spain, where Spanish King Charles V endorsed the conquest of the unknown civilization.

1528

Both pages of information largely come from Yupanqui xiii-xv, 1-9.

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1524 1532

The Inca Civil War began in 1524 with the untimely deaths of the Sapa Inca, or leader of the Inca empire, Huayana Capac and his heir. This death left halfbrothers and eldest sons of Huayana Capa, Huascar and Atahualpa, with control over southern and northern territories, respectively. However, the brothers ended up in a fight over dominance of the Andean civilization throne. This divide in leadership between the two regions of the empire created the grounds for a brutal civil war. The war lasted 8 years, ending in 1532 with the murder of Huascar by Atahualpa, who inhereted complete control of the throne. This event, however, is connected to Pizarro’s discovery of the civilization. The Inca Civil War, in its brawls, demolished the Inca City of Tumbes which led conquistador Pizarro inwards, towards the heart of the Inca civilization.

The Inca Civil War is intertwined with the arrival of Pizarro and his men. Since Atahualpa was the Saca Inca of the empire towards the end of the Inca Civil War, Pizarro lured and captured him in 1532. This capture is known as the Battle of Cajamarca, fought on November 16, 1532. In fear of losing the throne to his brother during his capture, who remained alive in captivity, Atahualpa ordered the murder of his brother. However, Atahualpa himself was murdered

by Pizarro in 1533. With the Atahualpa’s death, Pizarro and his men moved towards Cuzco where they established their dominance and claim to territory.

1535

1532 1533

On January 18, 1535, Pizarro founded the city of Lima, Peru. Now, the descendants of the Inca civilization populate Lima and the surrounding areas of Peru.

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KEY TERM DISCUSSIONS HOMOSEXUALITY IN THE INCA EMPIRE

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GENDER ROLES IN ANDEAN SOCIETY

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THIRD-GENDER IN ANDEAN CULTURE

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HOMOSEXUALITY IN THE INCA EMPIRE The concept of yanantin is essential to romantic and sexual relationships in the Inca empire. It resides within the understanding that the goal of marriage is to symmetrically align men and women.

However, within the marital relationship a part of yanantin there are four pairs: male-male, male-female, female-male, and female-female.

Horswell understands the significance of these pairings by stating “The four-part construction of relationships corresponds to the fourpart construction of the Andean cosmos and the four-part division of the Inca empire…” (Horswell 147). Through this knowledge, it can be concluded that the same-sex pairings on yanantin are equally as important as the heterosexual ones, all playing an equal role in representing the four divided parts of Andean cosmos and society.

This backdrop provides a perfect introduction to the discussion of homosexuality in the Inca Empire.

Historians’ first knowledge of same-sex tendencies comes from religious practices and artwork such as ceramics that indicate sexual activity between two people of the same sex. Some religious practices required gender fluid citizens like huacsas (to be discussed in more detail later) to perform same-sex acts. Additionally, there are pieces of ceramics that contain depictions of homosexual intimacy.

The research I have compiled on understanding Inca same-sex sexuality is largely focused on lesbianism. The ability of lesbianism to flourish in Andean culture comes from the gender equality within social structures called ayllus (to be discussed in more detail later).

Women and men in ayllus were seen as equal in reproduction of the community, allowing for lesbian relationships to exist since there is no reliance on men. As long as the whole of society had both men and women to complete specific tasks, same-sex relationships in general were able to exist in ayllus.

The combination of same-sex practices in yanantin, religion, artwork, and ayllus in the Inca empire contribute to the powerful idea that homosexual relationships were able to freely exist.

This information largely comes from Horswell 147 and Brousset’s paper

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GENDER ROLES IN ANDEAN SOCIETY

Ayllus are essentially families to the Incas, acting as entities of power within the society and informing modern historians about the social structure that results from their relationship. The ayllu social structure in the Inca civilization undergoes many dynamic changes as it evolves through different understandings. For example, geographic institutions of ayllu in the empire feature significant equality between men and women, as, through marriage, both share equal parts within their land and livelihood. On the contrary, political institutions of ayllu in Andean civilization contain male dominance, as a single figurehead is necessary for relationships between political units. Despite these differences, ayllu is predominantly a structure that captures the equality between male-female power holdings primarily through the concepts of yanantin and tinkuy.

Yanantin represents the idea of symmetrical harmony in gender, most easily understood from the metaphor of a mirror. For example, the left hand in a mirror looks identical to the right one, illustrating perfect dualistic symmetry. However, the relationship between a male and a female is not identical in the mirror. The ultimate goal of yanantin is to symbolically achieve the symmetry between the gender binary.

“Tinkuy mediates and produces difference out of the union of complementary opposites” (Horswell 259) according to author Horswell, who writes one of the most significant literature on Andean gender and sexuality. Tinkuy is where the dualistic harmony of yanantin begins through its role as a marriage ritual. The importance of tinkuy comes from its ability to bring opposites towards harmony, ultimately connected to yanantin in their combined recognition of the equality in the duality of gender.

The combination of the two ideas of yanantin and tinkuy powerfully recognizes the emphasis that the Inca civilization placed on establishing equality between women and men. This equality translates most significantly to the institutions of ayllu, as it is maintained by author Silverblatt that despite the male dominance in the political structure, gender duality was so strong in Andean structures of ayllu that no factors which contribute to the oppression of women in modern contexts stem from Inca culture.

This information comes from Horswell 149, 259, Sigal 28-33, and Silverblatt 217-225

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THIRD-GENDER IN ANDEAN CULTURE Imperative to the discussion on third-gender presence in Andean culture and its relationship to modern understandings of transsexuality and gender fluidity is initial knowledge regarding what third-gender refers to in an Inca context. Third-gender as an idea references any possible combination or expression of gender identity that breaks the binary. There are two examples of third-gender institutions in the Inca empire, quariwarmi and chuqui chinchay.

These pieces of evidence differ in nature but illustrate the same idea that fluid gender identity in the Inca civilization was common and accepted.

Our knowledge of the appearance of the chuqui chinchay comes from translations and interpretations of poems, oral histories, and artwork. The story begins in a time of great change for the Inca empire, where an animal painted with all colors was brought to the Andean city of Cuzco. This apex predator, referred to as an apo, was found to be “a mountain deity of the jaguars who was the patron of dual-gendered indigenous peoples” (Horswell 1). The story ends here, concluding that the chuqui chinchay was a significant figure to the Andean people as it was summoned in a significant time for the empire. This gender fluid god of the Inca civilization was wildly worshiped and accepted in the culture, paving the way for huacsas, human actors within the ceremonies of the chuqui chinchay that explore third-gender identities themselves.

Quariwarmi, as mentioned on page 2, are men-women shamans or religious figures that maintain fluidity within their gender identity.

These people were the huacsas, respected within Inca civilization because of their relationship with the revered chuqui chinchay and their representation of third-gender presence. The concept of yanantin also defined on page 2 understands a male-female relationship as a mirror, achieving symmetrical harmony. The quariwarmi, as author Horswell maintains, is the epitome of this experience, with the powerful understanding that combinations of male and female identities within one physical and emotional body create the perfect unity.

This information largely comes from Horswell 1, 149-150 and Sigal 56-57

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Effect of

Colonization

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Colonization in the Inca empire began in 1532 with the arrival of Francisco Pizarro in the middle of the Inca Civil War. The capture and eventual murder of Inca leader Atahualpa allowed Pizarro to take control of the civilization, destroying precious artwork, textiles, architecture, and language that would eventually have allowed historians to truly view the society of the Andean region. Our modern understanding of the Inca empire results from surviving snippets into their lives that come to us only as a byproduct of colonization. Within the context of gender and sexuality, colonization from the West contained heteronormative principles that dominated over the expression of gender fluidity and same-sex sexuality in the Inca empire.

Francisco Pizarro and his men came to the Andean region from Spain, which contains a rich religious history of institutions against sexual exploration and gender fluidity. Their heteronormative perspectives led to their increased decimation of Inca culture surrounding outside identities. This destruction prevents contemporary society from truly knowing the power of sexuality and gender in the empire. Furthermore, colonization inhibits modern minority institutions from using historical roots to build upon their fights for equality and justice.

Overall, colonization severely limits our ability to recognize the structures of gender and sexuality in the Inca empire. However, the glimpses into the civilization that we are able to understand introduces us to the world of homosexuality, gender roles, and third-gender identities that break from heteronormative binaries and patriarchal dominance.

In this Zine I have examined gender and sexuality in the Inca civilization through three key lenses of homosexuality, gender roles, and gender fluidity/transsexuality. In this conclusion, I explored how the colonization of the Inca empire severely affected modern understandings of these topics. In further studies, I would hope to see these ideas more profoundly studied across all ancient civilizations, as understanding these past institutions allows for contemporary ones to have rich roots which provides support towards their activism.

This information largely comes from Yupanqui xiii-xv, 1-9