Animal Behavior 12th Edition by Dustin Rubenstein & John Alcock - COMPLETE | TEST BANK

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Animal Behavior 12th Edition by Dustin Rubenstein ISBN-10 0197564917 ISBN-13 978-0197564912 Test Bank for Animal Behavior 12th Edition by Dustin Rubenstein.

ISBN-10 0197564917 ISBN-13 978-0197564912

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Test Bank for Animal Behavior 12th Edition by Dustin Rubenstein & John Alcock

Chapter: 1. An introduction to animal behavior Chapter: 2. The integrative study of behavior Chapter: 3. The developmental and genetic bases of behavior Chapter: 4. The neural basis of behavior Chapter: 5. The physiological basis of behavior Chapter: 6. Avoiding predators and finding food Chapter: 7. Territoriality and migration Chapter: 8. Principles of communication Chapter: 9. Reproductive behavior Chapter: 10. Mating systems Chapter: 11. Parental care Chapter: 12. Principles of social evolution Chapter: 13. Social behavior and sociality Chapter: 14. Human behavior.

W.Docs Chapter- 1. An introduction to animal behavior

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Test Bank to accompany

Animal Behavior, International Twelfth Edition John Alcock, Linda Green, Paul Nolan, Stefanie Siller, and Dustin Rubenstein Chapter 1: An Introduction to Animal Behavior Multiple Choice Questions 1. “If female lizards with reddish throats produce more eggs than females with orangish throats, then the reddish throat is an evolved adaptation.” This statement a. is true, because this species has variation, a critical requirement for the evolution of adaptations by natural selection. b. is false, because females with orangish throats could still have more offspring that live to reproduce than females with reddish throats. c. is false, because there is no guarantee that females with reddish throats are the best for the long-term preservation of this species. d. could be true or false, because we cannot tell without knowing whether reddish females outnumber orangish females in this species.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 1.1.1 Identify the conditions required to produce evolutionary change through natural selection and examine these conditions using the gene’s eye view.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 2. The statement “Lemmings disperse from areas of high population density because they inherited this ability from a lemming-like ancestor in the past” is a hypothesis about a. evolved function. b. genetics and development. c. evolutionary history. d. adaptive value.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 1.1.3 Consider how proximate and ultimate levels of analysis can be used to provide an integrative understanding of the development, mechanism, adaptive value, and evolutionary history of a behavior.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 3. The infanticide hypothesis, which posits that infanticide is a reproduction-enhancing tactic practiced by males, is called a hypothesis because it a. can be proven. b. is an explanation based on limited evidence that can be tested. c. is mutually exclusive to any other potential explanations. d. is a basic principle that can be applied widely.

Answer: b

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Learning Objective: 1.1.2 Review how researchers use the scientific method to test hypotheses and predictions related to a potentially adaptive behavior in order to consider its fitness costs and benefits, evaluate its adaptive value, and identify why it evolved.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 4. In order for Darwinian natural selection to cause evolutionary change, a population must contain individuals that differ hereditarily in some characteristic because a. in a population without this kind of variation, the species is doomed to extinction. b. when all individuals have the same genes, then all individuals are exactly alike in all respects. c. uniform populations are evolutionary dead ends. d. unless there is variation of this sort, parents cannot pass on their advantageous attributes to their offspring.

Answer: d Learning Objective: 1.1.1 Identify the conditions required to produce evolutionary change through natural selection and examine these conditions using the gene’s eye view.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 5. We observe variation in a population of lizard with respect to how fast individuals can run.

We attempt to select for the ability to run slowly, not quickly. After six generations of selective breeding of only the slowest with the slowest, the mean running speed of the lizards has not changed. What is the appropriate scientific conclusion based on this work? a. After six generations of artificial selection, the frequency of slow runners in the population has remained unchanged. b. After six generations of artificial selection, the frequency of slow runners in the population has increased. c. The differences between the lizards in running speed in the original population were not caused by genetic differences among them. d. The results are invalid because the researchers failed to maintain enough variation in running speed in their selected lineage, so evolutionary change was impossible.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 1.1.1 Identify the conditions required to produce evolutionary change through natural selection and examine these conditions using the gene’s eye view.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 6. We observe a frog that carries its babies on its back away from where the eggs hatched. Here are two questions about this observation: X. Does the frog do this to move the babies to a place where they will be safer and more likely to survive?

Y. Does the frog have specific morphological traits that enable it to hold and transfer its babies in this way?

Which of the two is a proximate question? a. X, because it considers the adaptive value or function of the trait b. Y, because it asks about the developmental mechanisms that influence the components of the animal

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c. Both X and Y, because they look at the immediate and mechanistic causes of the behavior d. Neither X or Y, because they both take an adaptive or evolutionary approach to look at the ultimate causes of the behavior Answer: b Learning Objective: 1.1.3 Consider how proximate and ultimate levels of analysis can be used to provide an integrative understanding of the development, mechanism, adaptive value, and evolutionary history of a behavior.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 7. We observe a frog that carries its babies on its back away from where the eggs hatched. Here are two questions about this observation: X. Does the frog do this to move the babies to a place where they will be safer and more likely to survive?

Y. Does the frog have specific morphological traits that enable it to hold and transfer its babies in this way?

Which of the two is an ultimate question? a. X, because it considers the adaptive value or function of the trait b. Y, because it asks about the developmental mechanisms that influence the components of the animal c. Both X and Y, because they look at the immediate and mechanistic causes of the behavior d. Neither X or Y, because they both take an adaptive or evolutionary approach to look at the ultimate causes of the behavior Answer: a Learning Objective: 1.1.3 Consider how proximate and ultimate levels of analysis can be used to provide an integrative understanding of the development, mechanism, adaptive value, and evolutionary history of a behavior.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 8. Which is an example of a Darwinian puzzle? a. Salmon can smell a few molecules of chemicals in the stream in which they were born. b. Adult birds scream in pain when caught by a predator. c. If two or even three eggs are added to a bird’s nest, the adult birds often can rear them successfully along with their own chicks. d. Bats can catch moths in complete darkness thanks to their ability to hear echoes from their own cries.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 1.1.2 Review how researchers use the scientific method to test hypotheses and predictions related to a potentially adaptive behavior in order to consider its fitness costs and benefits, evaluate its adaptive value, and identify why it evolved.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding

9. Consider the following observation: Male song sparrows sing more at dawn than during any other time the day.

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W.Docs Chapter- 1. An introduction to animal behavior

TB - Animal Behavior (12E, Rubenstein)

With regard to this observation, the statement “Males sing to provide accurate information to mates about their physical condition” is an example of a. a causal question. b. a prediction. c. test evidence. d. a hypothesis.

Answer: d Learning Objective: 1.1.2 Review how researchers use the scientific method to test hypotheses and predictions related to a potentially adaptive behavior in order to consider its fitness costs and benefits, evaluate its adaptive value, and identify why it evolved.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 10. Consider the following observation: Male song sparrows sing more at dawn than during any other time the day.

With regard to this observation, the statement “Males that receive a ‘care package’ of extra food the day before should produce more songs during the dawn hour than those that do not receive supplemental food” is an example of a. a causal question. b. a prediction. c. test evidence. d. a hypothesis.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 1.1.2 Review how researchers use the scientific method to test hypotheses and predictions related to a potentially adaptive behavior in order to consider its fitness costs and benefits, evaluate its adaptive value, and identify why it evolved.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 11. Consider the following observation: Male song sparrows sing more at dawn than during any other time the day.

With regard to this observation, the statement “What is the evolved function of the pattern of song production by the song sparrow?” is an example of a. a causal question. b. a prediction. c. test evidence. d. a hypothesis.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 1.1.2 Review how researchers use the scientific method to test hypotheses and predictions related to a potentially adaptive behavior in order to consider its fitness costs and benefits, evaluate its adaptive value, and identify why it evolved.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 12. If an adaptation is the product of natural selection, the trait will a. provide a net reproductive gain for individuals that possess the attribute.

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b. raise the reproductive success of individuals more than any other alternative that has appeared in the species over evolutionary time. c. enhance the survival of the fittest individuals in the species. d. help preserve the species as a whole against the risk of extinction.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 1.1.1 Identify the conditions required to produce evolutionary change through natural selection and examine these conditions using the gene’s eye view.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 13. Deceptive signaling is widespread in nature. For example, certain orchids lure pollinator wasps to them with flower petals that smell like receptive female wasps. This case is a Darwinian puzzle because a. the proportion of orchid flowers that set fruit as result of successful pollination is low. b. the time and energy spent on these orchids reduces the capacity of the wasp population to grow, since the deceptive plants slow the ability of male wasps to fertilize all the eggs of their females. c. it is unknown why orchid flowers evolved to smell like the females of certain wasps. d. natural selection ought to favor discriminating behavior on the part of male wasps so that they do not waste time, energy, and even sperm on orchid flowers.

Answer: d Learning Objective: 1.1.1 Identify the conditions required to produce evolutionary change through natural selection and examine these conditions using the gene’s eye view.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 14. In what way does the theory of descent with modification differ from the theory of evolution by natural selection? a. Organisms can evolve even if natural selection is not responsible for the changes that occur. b. Descent with modification applies only to large animals and plants and not to smaller organisms, like bacteria and protozoans. c. The theory of descent with modification is designed to explain why organisms have evolved adaptations, whereas natural selection explains why organisms can persist unchanged over long periods of evolutionary time. d. Descent with modification provides an account of the evolutionary events that took place as a modern species evolved from ancestral ones; natural selection theory provides a means for why some changes spread through a species while others did not.

Answer: d Learning Objective: 1.1.1 Identify the conditions required to produce evolutionary change through natural selection and examine these conditions using the gene’s eye view.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 15. The existence of workers among honey bees and other eusocial insects is considered a Darwinian puzzle because a. these workers are largely sterile and so should be eliminated over time by natural selection. b. Darwin felt that the self-sacrificing behavior of these insects could not be explained by the theory of group selection.

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c. the self-sacrificing workers do not live as long as the queens of the same species of eusocial insects. d. queens with a large worker force produce more reproductive sons and daughters than those with a small worker force.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 1.1.1 Identify the conditions required to produce evolutionary change through natural selection and examine these conditions using the gene’s eye view.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 16. In a gene-centered view of evolution by natural selection a. organisms with alleles for the most adaptive traits have higher survival and reproduction and thus are able to pass on these traits to their offspring. b. evolution is synonymous with natural selection, in which individuals that reproduce more cause a population or species to evolve over time. c. evolution is a change in gene frequency within a population, where only genes (not organisms) replicate themselves. d. natural selection is a process that aims to maximize traits that will perpetuate the species’ survival.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 1.1.1 Identify the conditions required to produce evolutionary change through natural selection and examine these conditions using the gene’s eye view.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 17. Refer to the figure.

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W.Docs Chapter- 1. An introduction to animal behavior

TB - Animal Behavior (12E, Rubenstein)

Colonial swallows and ground-nesting gulls both exhibit predator mobbing behavior, while solitary nesting swallows and kittiwakes do not. Which relationship indicated on the phylogeny illustrates convergent evolution? a. A b. B c. C d. None of the above.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 1.2.3 Consider the use of the comparative approach for understanding cases of convergent and divergent evolution.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 18. Refer to the figure.

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W.Docs Chapter- 1. An introduction to animal behavior

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Which relationship indicated on the phylogeny illustrates divergent evolution? a. A b. B c. C d. None of the above.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 1.2.3 Consider the use of the comparative approach for understanding cases of convergent and divergent evolution.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding Short Answer Questions 19. Select a behavioral trait that has been discussed in class, and describe a plausible evolutionary scenario for how that trait was produced, incorporating the three conditions (or tenets) of the theory of natural selection.

Answer: Answers will vary with traits, but they should describe variation in the trait, identify heritable component(s) of that variation, and then describe a selective advantage for survival and/or reproduction that would increase the frequency of the trait in the population.

Learning Objective: 1.1.1 Identify the conditions required to produce evolutionary change through natural selection and examine these conditions using the gene’s eye view.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying

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W.Docs Chapter- 1. An introduction to animal behavior

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20. What are the proximate and ultimate explanations for the adaptive value of a male langur’s harming the offspring of females in his group?

Answer: The infanticide hypothesis describes a proximate cause: promotion of ovulation in the female langurs, which increases reproductive opportunity for the male langur. The ultimate explanation would point toward a higher number of offspring by a male who engages in infanticide compared with a male that joins a new group but does not kill any existing offspring.

Learning Objective: 1.1.3 Consider how proximate and ultimate levels of analysis can be used to provide an integrative understanding of the development, mechanism, adaptive value, and evolutionary history of a behavior.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 21. A researcher is interested in understanding the different alarm calls and responses given by Japanese tits to different predators. The researcher hypothesizes that Japanese tits give different alarm calls depending on the type of predator that they see (for instance, a snake versus a crow) in order to illicit a different antipredator response. Briefly describe how the researcher could study this behavior using an observational, an experimental, and a comparative approach, and note a cost and benefit of each approach.

Answer: 1) Observational: the researcher could watch the Japanese tits in their natural environment and record when a call is given, what the call is, and how the tits react. A benefit to this approach is that it is a basic and easy way to define and record the animals’ behaviors. A cost is that the observations are all correlational, and the researcher must be cautious about drawing any causal conclusions. 2) Experimental: the researcher could present different models to the tits, including predators they are familiar with, predators they are not familiar with, and animals that would not be considered predators, and assess their different calls and behavioral responses. A benefit to this approach is that the researcher can establish a more direct causal relationship between the type of predator and the bird’s response. A cost is that especially in the field, the experiment must be designed carefully to account for other variation that could be accounting for the bird’s responses instead. 3) Comparative: the researcher can use a phylogeny to look at if closely related species have a similar behavioral response to predators. A benefit to this approach is that the researcher can generate ideas beyond a single species. A cost to this approach is that is requires a resolved phylogeny that correctly describes the historical relationships among the species.

Learning Objective: 1.2.1 Compare the various applications for using an observational, experimental, or comparative approach in the study of animal behavior.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying.

22. Refer to the figure.

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W.Docs Chapter- 1. An introduction to animal behavior

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The graph displays the impact of gull behavior on crows foraging for chicken eggs (mock gull eggs) that were placed outside, on the border, or inside the gull colony. Do the data below support the predator distraction hypothesis?

Answer: Yes, the data demonstrate that with decreasing distance to the gull colony, the mock gull eggs are protected with increased gull mobbing behavior (red). This results in lower predation rates on the eggs (blue).

Learning Objective: 1.2.2 Using the example of mobbing in black-headed gulls, review the evidence collected by each approach to support the proposed adaptive hypothesis for the behavior.

Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing

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Test Bank to accompany

Animal Behavior, International Twelfth Edition John Alcock, Linda Green, Paul Nolan, Stefanie Siller, and Dustin Rubenstein Chapter 2: The Integrative Study of Behavior Multiple Choice Questions 1. I say that a white-crowned sparrow sings a distinctive dialect because its genes influenced how its song system was assembled, which in turn made dialect learning possible. You say that it sings the song because of the operation of the robust nucleus of the arcopallium, which sends signals to the bird’s vocal control apparatus, the syrinx.

Who is correct? a. I am wrong because learning is environmentally determined, not determined by the bird’s genes. b. You are wrong because the bird’s vocal apparatus is called the larynx, not the syrinx. c. We both may be right because our two hypotheses offer two different proximate levels of analysis of dialect singing. d. We both may be right because our two hypotheses offer two complementary levels of analysis, one proximate and the other ultimate.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 2.2.1 Connect the underlying molecular mechanisms to the neurophysiological changes involved in the process of song learning.

Bloom’s Level: 2.Understanding 2. Research results showed that in zebra finches, the sonograms of the songs of a father and his sons reveal a close match unless a son has been deafened early in life. These results best support which hypothesis? a. The genetic differences hypothesis b. The acoustic stimulus hypothesis c. The environmental adaptation hypothesis d. The recognition hypothesis Answer: b Learning Objective: 2.1.3 Consider the interactive impact of genetics, acoustic stimuli, and social experiences on song learning.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 3. White-crowned sparrows evolved from an ancestral species that possessed the capacity for song learning. This is an example of a(n) a. developmental explanation. b. physiological explanation.

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c. adaptive value explanation. d. explanation relating to evolutionary history.

Answer: d Learning Objective: 2.3.1 Link phylogenetic hypotheses and evolutionary history to subsequent conclusions about the evolution of song learning.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 4. It is difficult for a sparrow to learn a dialect, which enables females to mate with only those males with good dialects so as to increase the song competence of their offspring.

This is an example of a(n) a. developmental explanation. b. physiological explanation. c. adaptive value explanation. d. explanation relating to evolutionary history.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 2.4.4 Evaluate the hypotheses that male song signals to females as evidence of local adaption, developmental history, and/or individual condition and health.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 5. Males in different populations have different forms of certain genes that influence the development of the song system. This is an example of a(n) a. developmental explanation. b. physiological explanation. c. adaptive value explanation. d. explanation relating to evolutionary history.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 2.1.1 Identify the contribution of genetic differences to song dialects across different geographic scales.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 6. The ability to sing the local dialect enables a bird to communicate more effectively with neighboring males. This is an example of a(n) a. developmental explanation. b. physiological explanation. c. adaptive value explanation. d. explanation relating to evolutionary history.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 2.4.3 Explain the role of song type matching in male-male competition and its relationship to social stability.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 7. Males in different populations are exposed to different songs, an experience that influences the kind of song that the birds learn. This is an example of a(n) a. developmental explanation. b. physiological explanation.

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c. adaptive value explanation. d. explanation relating to evolutionary history.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 2.1.2 Assess the role of early life social experiences and interactions on vocal development.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 8. The differences among dialects are environmentally determined, not genetically controlled. This is an example of a(n) a. developmental explanation. b. physiological explanation. c. adaptive value explanation. d. explanation relating to evolutionary history.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 2.1.1 Identify the contribution of genetic differences to song dialects across different geographic scales.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 9. Males in different populations have song systems in their brains that operate slightly differently. This is an example of a(n) a. developmental explanation. b. physiological explanation. c. adaptive value explanation. d. explanation relating to evolutionary history.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 2.2.2 Describe the song control system and recognize the function of important brain regions such as the HVC in the learning experience.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 10. Young adult white-crowned sparrows are motivated to match their song as closely as possible to that of their neighbors. This is an example of a(n) a. developmental explanation. b. physiological explanation. c. adaptive value explanation. d. explanation relating to evolutionary history.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 2.4.3 Explain the role of song type matching in male-male competition and its relationship to social stability.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 11. Young white-crowned sparrows are remarkably good at remembering the sounds produced by adult white-crowned males singing around them. If the learning abilities of these birds evolved by Darwinian natural selection, specific conditions must have applied to the species in the past. Which of the following statements about those conditions is incorrect?

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a. There must have been variation in the memory skills of individuals. b. Any changes that took place in the past must have promoted greater population stability in this bird. c. Better than average song “rememberers” must have been able to pass on their abilities to their offspring. d. Better than average song “rememberers” must have had more surviving offspring on average than the typical sparrow at that time.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 2.3.2 Compare the arguments and evidence for the competing hypotheses of song learning evolution in birds.

Bloom’s Level: 3.Applying Short Answer Questions 12. In a study by Nowicki et al. (2002), the researchers compared brain development and song learning in two groups of nestling swamp sparrows: an experimental group that was given 30 percent less food, and a control group. Their results showed that the experimental group displayed lower HVC volume and lower song copy quality. What hypothesis was Nowicki et al. (2002) testing, and what is the proposed reasoning for their findings?

Answer: They were testing the nutritional stress hypothesis. The experimental birds suffered from lower nutritional quality and higher developmental stress, which resulted in reduced song complexity and reduced brain development of the HVC. Learning Objective: 2.4.4 Evaluate the hypotheses that male song signals to females as evidence of local adaption, developmental history, and/or individual condition and health.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 13. Researchers produced three sonograms from male zebra finches: a father and two sons. One of the sons had been deafened early in life. The intact young male’s song exactly matched that of his father; the deafened male produced a rudimentary sub-song.

Why were these sonograms made? What aspect of the scientific process are they related to?

Answer: The sonograms constituted test evidence, data, from an experiment designed to determine the effects of early deafening on male song learning; the results enabled the researchers to conclude that the learning process involved the male bird’s ability to hear himself and his father sing.

Learning Objective: 2.1.2 Assess the role of early life social experiences and interactions on vocal development.

Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing 14. Researchers produced three sonograms from male zebra finches: a father and two sons. One of the sons had been deafened early in life. The intact young male’s song exactly matched that of his father; the deafened male produced a rudimentary sub-song.

Outline the complete scientific process for which the sonograms are only one part.

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Answer: The experiment must have been initially imagined as part of a prediction: “If we do an experiment in which we deafen a young male, it will not be able to hear itself sing and thus should not be able to acquire a good copy of its father’s song.” This prediction must have been derived from a hypothesis: “Zebra finch males must be able to hear themselves sing (or hear their fathers sing) if they are to eventually come to sing their father’s song.” This hypothesis must have been developed in response to a causal question: “In the zebra finch, why do sons tend to sing like their fathers?”

Learning Objective: 2.1.2 Assess the role of early life social experiences and interactions on vocal development Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing 15. There are several hypothesized benefits to a bird that can sing the local dialect.

Describe two hypotheses that explain the adaptive benefit of learning to sing from one’s neighbor.

Answer: The adaptive hypotheses explain the acoustic, social, and/or ecological benefit to learning one’s song from the local environment. The hypotheses are the following: environmental adaptation hypothesis, recognition hypothesis, information-sharing hypothesis, sexual selection hypothesis, and geographic matching hypothesis.

Learning Objective: 2.4.1 Identify the environmental conditions under which diverging song dialects and acoustic flexibility would be adaptive.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 16. In cooperatively breeding birds, songs provide information about the group as well as individual identity, whereas birds with smaller breeding groups (most often composed of only kin) have songs that provide group identity without individual distinction. Why? Answer: According to the information-sharing hypothesis, species with larger breeding groups have expanded repertoires of calls to interpret information about kin and social groupings. If a species has small breeding groups that are almost always kin, all individuals learn the “family” call and utilize it to recognize the group. In larger groups of kin and non-kin, individual birds learn both their natal songs and additional calls as they join with other birds.

Learning Objective: 2.4.2 Describe the importance of song in social recognition of neighbors and information sharing with relatives.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 17. Describe the neurophysiological changes that occur when a young male bird is exposed to its own species’ song for the first time.

Answer: Sensory signals travel to the song control center in the brain and alter the expression of genes like ZENK, leading to changes in cell biochemistry that modify the song control system.

Learning Objective: 2.2.1 Connect the underlying molecular mechanisms to the neurophysiological changes involved in the process of song learning.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding

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Test Bank to accompany

Animal Behavior, International Twelfth Edition John Alcock, Linda Green, Paul Nolan, Stefanie Siller and Dustin Rubenstein Chapter 3: The Developmental and Molecular Bases of Behavior Multiple Choice Questions 1. When someone says that there is a gene for a behavior, they most likely mean that a. the gene is solely responsible for the development of that behavior. b. individuals with different forms of that gene exhibit different behaviors. c. the role of the environment in affecting the development of the behavior is relatively small. d. the behavior is unlikely to respond to selection, since there is no variation in the species.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 3.1.1 Recognize that genetic variation interacts with environmental changes—both social and ecological—to influence the development and expression of behavioral traits.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 2. Is an adaptation a “genetically determined” phenotype? Why or why not? a. No, because the development of every phenotype requires more than genetic information. b. No, because adaptations are only revealed when individuals interact with the environment. c. No, because half of every phenotype is composed of genes, while the other half is environmental. d. Yes, because only hereditary traits can enable an individual to adapt to changing conditions.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 3.3.1 Consider how environmental conditions during development can influence behavior and fitness later in life.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 3. Could social and solitary phenotypes ever occur in the same species strictly because of environmental differences that affected the development of the two phenotypes? a. No, because both genetic and environmental factors are necessary for development of every phenotype. b. No, because this is equivalent to saying that the two traits are environmentally determined, which is incorrect. c. Yes, because as polyphenisms illustrate, some differences in gene-environment interactions are caused only by differences in the environment side of the interaction. d. Yes, because the environment is absolutely essential for the development of every phenotype, especially behavioral ones.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 3.3.2 Explain the role and adaptive value of developmental (irreversible) and reversible plasticity in generating behavioral variation.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding.

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4. Over the course of its lifetime, worker honey bees change behavioral states multiple times, from a young adult that cleans cells to a nurse bee to a forager. What causes a worker honey bee to go through these different behavioral stages? a. These stages are the result of changes in gene expression that are based entirely on the bee’s age. b. Changes in the interplay between brain gene expression and the bee’s social environment produce behavioral variation over the honey bee’s life. c. Honey bees progress from one stage to another based on the current population density of the hive. d. Each behavioral stage is induced by the different protein and nutritional substrates that honey bees eat throughout their lifetime.

Answer: b Learning Objective. 3.1.1 Recognize that genetic variation interacts with environmental changes—both social and ecological—to influence the development and expression of behavioral traits.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 5. Homeobox genes, which are critical for the developmental organization of bodies, are found in species as diverse as humans and fruit flies. This shared set of genes indicates that a. humans and fruit flies are actually closely related to one another. b. homeobox genes evolved independently multiple times in many different organisms. c. humans and fruit flies are under similar selective pressures that have led to the evolution of genes with similar functions. d. these genes originated in a distant common ancestor and have been retained due to their usefulness.

Answer: d Learning Objective: 3.2.2 Consider the evidence and evolutionary consequences for finding shared molecular pathways and gene networks between divergent species.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 6. Young and colleagues studied the genetic mechanisms underlying the differences in social behavior in monogamous prairie voles and polygynous montane voles. Which constitutes a hypothesis? a. They asked whether vasopressin, which stimulates V1a receptors in the brains of prairie voles, is responsible for activating the male reward system, causing them to maintain pair bonds. b. They suggested that male prairie voles would have more V1a receptors in their brains than male montane voles. c. They knew that the V1a receptor protein, crucial to the vasopressin-based system of pair bonding, is encoded by the avpr1a gene. d. They found that differences in vasopressin receptor expression and reproductive behavior was directly related to the length of microsatellite repeats in the promoter of avpr1a.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 3.2.1 Using the example of the vasopressin system, describe the causal link between variation in gene regulation, reproductive behavior, and fitness outcomes.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding

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7. Young and colleagues studied the genetic mechanisms underlying the differences in social behavior in monogamous prairie voles and polygynous montane voles. Which constitutes a prediction? a. They asked whether vasopressin, which stimulates V1a receptors in the brains of prairie voles, is responsible for activating the male reward system, causing them to maintain pair bonds. b. They suggested that male prairie voles would have more V1a receptors in their brains than male montane voles. c. They knew that the V1a receptor protein, crucial to the vasopressin-based system of pair bonding, is encoded by the apr1a gene. d. They found that differences in vasopressin receptor expression and reproductive behavior was directly related to the length of microsatellite repeats in the promoter of avpr1a.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 3.2.1 Using the example of the vasopressin system, describe the causal link between variation in gene regulation, reproductive behavior, and fitness outcomes.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 8. Young and colleagues studied the genetic mechanisms underlying the differences in social behavior in monogamous prairie voles and polygynous montane voles. Which demonstrates the crucial role that genetic regulatory regions play in the evolution of behavior? a. They asked whether vasopressin, which stimulates V1a receptors in the brains of prairie voles, is responsible for activating the male reward system, causing them to maintain pair bonds. b. They suggested that male prairie voles would have more V1a receptors in their brains than male montane voles. c. They knew that the V1a receptor protein, crucial to the vasopressin-based system of pair bonding, is encoded by the apr1a gene. d. They found that differences in vasopressin receptor expression and reproductive behavior was directly related to the length of microsatellite repeats in the promoter of avpr1a.

Answer: d Learning Objective: 3.2.3 Recognize the crucial role of genetic regulatory regions in the study of evolutionary development.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 9. Immature blackcap warblers that have never migrated exhibit migratory restlessness in the fall. Isolated young birds whose parents orient due west also orient west, while isolated young birds whose parents orient to the south also orient south. This provides evidence that a. the social environment is critical for determining migratory orientation. b. birds whose parents orient to the west had higher reproductive success than birds orienting in another direction. c. evolution acts to separate bird populations during migration so as to minimize competition for resources. d. genetic differences underly the migratory behavior of different blackcap warbler populations.

Answer: d Learning Objective: 3.1.2 Explain the evidence that is necessary for demonstrating a causal relationship between a gene and a behavior.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding

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Short Answer Questions 10. Refer to the figure.

DNA methylation, an epigenetic modification which alters DNA accessibility and impacts gene expression, influences the morphological and behavioral development of growing honeybee larvae. Explain how the data shown, which compare caste development in honeybees injected with a control (left) versus an enzyme that controls DNA methylation (right), support or refute this hypothesis.

Answer: These experimental data show that unlike the control treatment, in which most larvae developed into workers, most larvae injected with the RNAi for the enzyme that controls DNA methylation developed into queens. This experiment suggests that this epigenetic process is related to the differential development of queens and workers in honeybees.

Learning Objective: 3.1.3 Consider how different genetic and epigenetic factors affect the regulation of gene expression and influence the production of behavior.

Bloom’s Level: 5. Evaluating 11. Refer to the graph.

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Based on the results in the graph, describe an experiment to test for a genetic basis, specifically the role of vasopressin and the avpr1a gene, on the monogamous mating system of prairie voles.

Answer: To test the role of avpr1a on mating system, we could experimentally increase vasopressin 1a receptor proteins by adding copies of the avpr1a gene to the brain in males of monogamous prairie voles. We would then evaluate a measure of monogamous behavior, such as the amount of time spent in contact with a familiar female, or partner, versus an alternative behavior, the amount of time spent with an unfamiliar female, or stranger. If the monogamous mating system of prairie voles has a genetic basis based on the action of vasopressin, then males with extra copies of the avpr1a gene should display increased monogamous behavior by spending more time with a familiar female. If vasopressin does not play a role, then males should show no special preference for a familiar female compared to a stranger. It would be important to compare not only the role of avpr1a in different brain regions, but also to compare the behavior of these voles to males given copies of a different gene in the same regions to serve as a control.

Learning Objective: 3.2.1 Using the example of the vasopressin system, describe the causal link between variation in gene regulation, reproductive behavior, and fitness outcomes.

Bloom’s Level: 6. Creating 12. In dung beetles, males utilize two distinct mating approaches. Large males produce horns that are used in male-male competition for resources and access to females. Small males, however, lack horns and instead try to sneak by the large males to reach females. Adult body size, horn length, and mating approach are influenced by the nutritional conditions that larvae experience. Is this an example of behavioral polyphenism or behavioral polymorphism? Explain.

Answer: This is an example of a behavioral polyphenism, because the same genotype produces discrete phenotypes under different developmental conditions.

Learning Objective: 3.3.2 Explain the role and adaptive value of developmental (irreversible) and reversible plasticity in generating behavioral variation.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding.

13. In dung beetles, males utilize two distinct mating approaches. Large males produce horns that are used in male-male competition for resources and access to females. Small males,

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however, lack horns and instead try to sneak by the large males to reach females. Adult body size, horn length, and mating approach are influenced by the nutritional conditions that larvae experience.

Statement: Nutritional conditions during development influence expression of the insulin receptor gene, which impacts horn growth and mating approach in males.

What is this statement called? Explain.

Answer: This is a hypothesis, as it provides a proximate explanation for differences in mating behavior and morphology of male dung beetles that connects the beetle’s developmental environment to its phenotype.

Learning Objective: 3.3.3 Understand how environmental cues and genetic mechanisms influence alternative behavioral phenotypes.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding.

14. In dung beetles, males utilize two distinct mating approaches. Large males produce horns that are used in male-male competition for resources and access to females. Small males, however, lack horns and instead try to sneak by the large males to reach females. Adult body size, horn length, and mating approach are influenced by the nutritional conditions that larvae experience.

Statement: Based on what we know about polyphenisms, it is likely that these phenotypes evolved in discrete, nonoverlapping environmental conditions.

Is this an accurate statement? Explain.

Answer: This is an accurate statement. The existence of discrete environmental conditions such as categories of food may select for developmental switches that produce a limited number of discrete phenotypes. Polyphenisms are rare because many environmental conditions instead vary continuously, which would favor phenotypes that also vary by degree.

Learning Objective: 3.3.1 Consider how environmental conditions during development can influence behavior and fitness later in life.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding.

15. Explain how regulatory regions are critical for modulating behavioral differences. Provide an example of a study species, describing how variation in a specific gene leads to behavioral differences in that species.

Answer: Evo-devo studies have demonstrated that the mechanisms that regulate expression of genes, such as transcription factors, are crucial to the evolution of differences between species.

By altering the regulatory regions of genes, these mechanisms can produce a multiplicative effect where the change in one gene alters the way in which many other genes work. Examples from the textbook could include blackcap warblers, mice, or voles. In warblers, researchers found that variation in the length of a microsatellite in the regulatory region of adcyap1 was linked to their migratory behavior. In oldfield mice and deer mice, researchers found that variation in expression of the vasopressin (avp) gene in the brain was related to nest-building behavior. In prairie voles and montane moles, researchers found that variation in the length of a microsatellite

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in the regulatory region of avpr1a was directly related to vasopressin receptor expression and reproductive behavior.

Learning Objective: 3.2.3 Recognize the crucial role of genetic regulatory regions in the study of evolutionary development.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying.

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Test Bank to accompany

Animal Behavior, International Twelfth Edition John Alcock, Linda Green, Paul Nolan, Stefanie Siller and Dustin Rubenstein Chapter 4: The Neural Basis of Behavior Multiple Choice Questions 1. Stimulus filtering is an adaptation in the star-nosed mole because a. this property of its nervous system helps the mole population secure the energy base on which the species depends. b. individuals vary hereditarily in the way in which the mole’s cerebral cortex analyzes sensory inputs from the animal’s nose. c. individuals that ignore some categories of potential sensory inputs forage on worms more effectively than they would otherwise. d. some star-nosed moles leave more copies of their genes to the next generation than others.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 4.3.3 Demonstrate the importance of stimulus filtering in the process of natural selection.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 2. Tinbergen found that when young herring gull chicks are exposed to a painted stick with a red dot on the end, they give a pecking response. The chick’s pecking response is an example of a. code breaking, where a fixed action pattern is exploited by another species. b. an instinctual response that is learned by watching other gulls get food from their parents. c. an adaptation that has likely evolved in response to low food availability in the environment. d. an innate behavior, which does not require previous experience with the cue to elicit the behavioral response.

Answer: d Learning Objective: 4.1.1 Describe the relationship between stimuli and instinctual responses, and identify how instincts can be exploited by other species.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 3. Refer to the figure.

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Which sound frequency (kHz) are the male flies most sensitive to? a. 2 b. 5 c. 10 d. 20 Answer: c Learning Objective: 4.3.3 Demonstrate the importance of stimulus filtering in the process of natural selection.

Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing 4. Refer to the figure.

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The reaction of the female fly to sounds of _______ kHz best illustrates the concept of stimulus filtering. a. 2 b. 5 c. 10 d. 20 Answer: a Learning Objective: 4.3.3 Demonstrate the importance of stimulus filtering in the process of natural selection.

Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing 5. Refer to the figure.

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If the data collected for the graph were not gathered simply to describe the hearing abilities of the fly, then (for the biologists who did the research) the graph constitutes a a. hypothesis on why the fly species has been able to survive to the present. b. test of a prediction on fly hearing ability, based on the kind of sound frequencies produced by crickets. c. check on the prediction that crickets should have evolved the ability to avoid their fly parasites. d. test of the hypothesis that fly hearing abilities are designed to help the species maintain a stable or growing population.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 4.3.3 Demonstrate the importance of stimulus filtering in the process of natural selection.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 6. Refer to the figure.

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Crickets can most easily hear sound frequencies when the intensity threshold is low. When crickets hear a low frequency sound, they turn toward the source of the sound. When they hear a high-frequency sound, they turn away. The “intensity threshold” on the graph refers to the a. loudest sound of a given sound frequency that a cricket can hear. b. softest sound of a given sound frequency that a cricket can hear. c. most intense response given by a cricket to a given sound frequency. d. least intense response given by a cricket to a given sound frequency.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 4.3.1 Describe the process by which receptor cells acquire and relay sensory information from the environment to produce appropriate motor output for behavioral responses.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 7. Refer to the figure.

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Based on the information in the graph, what would you predict is the sound frequency (kHz) of ultrasonic bat calls? a. 3-kHz, because the intensity threshold is at its highest point and it is a low-frequency. b. 5-kHz, because the intensity threshold is at its lowest point and it is a low-frequency. c. 40-kHz, because there is a dip in the intensity threshold and it is a high-frequency. d. 100-kHz, because the intensity threshold is high, and it is the highest frequency recorded.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 4.3.1 Describe the process by which receptor cells acquire and relay sensory information from the environment to produce appropriate motor output for behavioral responses.

Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing 8. Refer to the figure.

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Based on the information in the graph, what would you predict is the sound frequency (kHz) of male cricket calls? a. 3-kHz, because the intensity threshold is at its highest point and it is a low-frequency. b. 5-kHz, because the intensity threshold is at its lowest point and it is a low-frequency. c. 40-kHz, because there is a dip in the intensity threshold and it is a high-frequency. d. 100-kHz, because the intensity threshold is high, and it is the highest frequency recorded.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 4.3.1 Describe the process by which receptor cells acquire and relay sensory information from the environment to produce appropriate motor output for behavioral responses.

Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing 9. Why is the change in sensitivity of female midshipman fish to the “songs” produced by males of their species a proximate example of stimulus filtering? a. In the seasons when female midshipman fish lack a sensitivity to high frequency elements, they cannot easily detect the sounds that they are able to hear in the summer breeding season. b. These changes in sensitivity are linked to the genetically determined innate releasing mechanisms of the fish. c. The changes in sensitivity to high frequency sounds occur when it is adaptive for females to hear the songs of males eager to spawn with females. d. The greater sensitivity to high frequency sounds enables females to hear sounds that require a different proximate mechanism than the mechanism that enables females to hear lower frequency sound.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 4.3.3 Demonstrate the importance of stimulus filtering in the process of natural selection.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding

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10. Mike May studied the relationship between cricket behavior and the ultrasonic cries of bats.

Which statement constitutes a hypothesis? a. He noticed that the hindwing farther from the source of the ultrasound didn’t make a stroke as deep as the other hindwing of the insect. b. He found that with every burst of ultrasound, the wings of the cricket seemed to stop. c. He asked himself, was this symbiosis another mechanism that enabled the cricket to turn away from the ultrasound produced by a bat? d. He proposed that if the wing farther from the ultrasound did not make a full stroke, it should produce less thrust—inducing a turn toward that side.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 4.3.1 Describe the process by which receptor cells acquire and relay sensory information from the environment to produce appropriate motor output for behavioral responses.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 11. Mike May studied the relationship between cricket behavior and the ultrasonic cries of bats.

Which statement constitutes a prediction? a. He noticed that the hindwing farther from the source of the ultrasound didn’t make a stroke as deep as the other hindwing of the insect. b. He found that with every burst of ultrasound, the wings of the cricket seemed to stop. c. He asked himself, was this symbiosis another mechanism that enabled the cricket to turn away from the ultrasound produced by a bat? d. He proposed that if the wing farther from the ultrasound did not make a full stroke, it should produce less thrust—inducing a turn toward that side.

Answer: d Learning Objective: 4.3.1 Describe the process by which receptor cells acquire and relay sensory information from the environment to produce appropriate motor output for behavioral responses.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 12. When int-1, the interneurons located on each side of a cricket’s body, are experimentally inactivated, the flying cricket does not alter its body orientation in response to ultrasonic stimulation. This finding a. supports the hypothesis that int-1 is part of the neural circuit that responds to a bat’s ultrasound. b. suggests that the ear receptors located on the cricket’s forelegs are less important for detecting ultrasonic calls than the neurons in the central nervous system. c. caused researchers to reject the hypothesis that because these sensory and processing systems are costly, they will be lost in species that no longer need them. d. supports the prediction that the flight path of a cricket is controlled by the position of the hindwing.

Answer: a Learning Objective:4.3.1 Describe the process by which receptor cells acquire and relay sensory information from the environment to produce appropriate motor output for behavioral responses.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding

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13. A simple network of three clusters of neurons in the plainfin midshipman’s hindbrain and spinal cord generate the signals that control the muscle contractions for humming. This is an example of a. a stimulus filter. b. signal patterning. c. a central pattern generator. d. cortical magnification.

Answer: c Learning Objective:4.3.2 Consider the function of central pattern generators in coordinating motor neuronal activity.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding Short Answer Questions 14. Refer to the figure.

In this experiment, monarch butterflies tethered in a flight cage received three treatments impacting the angle of polarized light reaching them from the sky: no filter (top), a vertical filter that did not interfere with the pattern of polarized light (middle), and a horizontal filter that shifted the angle of polarized light (bottom). Based on the data, what hypothesis does this support?

Answer: This data supports the hypothesis that butterflies use cues from the polarized skylight pattern as a compass to maintain their orientation.

Learning Objective: 4.2.3 Describe how monarch butterflies use both UV and polarized light to navigate during migration.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 15. Refer to the figure. © Oxford University Press

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How would you alter this experiment to test the hypothesis that butterflies rely on UV light to orient correctly while migrating?

Answer: By replacing the filter that impacts the angle of polarized light with one that blocks UV light, you could compare the flight orientation of butterflies with no filter (the control) to butterflies unable to use the UV light to navigate.

Learning Objective: 4.2.3 Describe how monarch butterflies use both UV and polarized light to navigate during migration.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 16. Refer to the figure.

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How would you alter this experiment to test the hypothesis that butterfly’s light-sensitive clock mechanism is located in their antennae?

Answer: By removing the antennae or painting the antennae black to block light input, you could compare the flight orientation of butterflies with intact antennae (the control) to those unable to use their antennae to extract light cues.

Learning Objective: 4.3.1 Describe the process by which receptor cells acquire and relay sensory information from the environment to produce appropriate motor output for behavioral responses.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 17. Why would some bird chicks, such as those from estrildid finch species, have elaborate markings inside their throats? Explain the proximate and ultimate cause of the markings.

Answer: The markings are a sign stimulus to the parent’s innate behavior to place food in the mouth of the chick. They are hypothesized to exist as a deterrent to brood parasitism.

Learning Objective: 4.1.1 Describe the relationship between stimuli and instinctual responses, and identify how instincts can be exploited by other species.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 18. When an incubating graylag goose sees a nearby egg-shaped object, a neural network is triggered, causing the bird to go through an egg-retrieval routine consisting of stretching out its neck, tucking the egg under its bill, and rolling the egg carefully back to the nest. In this example, identify the sign stimulus, the fixed action pattern, and the innate releasing mechanism.

Answer: The sign stimulus is the egg-shaped object; the fixed action pattern is the egg-retrieval routine; the innate releasing mechanism is the neural network response for detecting the cue.

Learning Objective: 4.1.1 Describe the relationship between stimuli and instinctual responses, and identify how instincts can be exploited by other species.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding

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19. Despite the lack of brain-controlled neural circuitry, a male praying mantis that has suffered decapitation by a female rotates his body in a circular pattern until encountering the female’s body and then aligns himself with her body to commence copulation. What is the selective advantage of this?

Answer: The female may consume the male’s head while still being receptive to copulation.

There is a clear fitness advantage to males that are capable of this behavior prior to their imminent death.

Learning Objective: 4.2.2 Evaluate the role of command centers in adaptive decision making.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 20. The brain’s somatosensory cortex does not consist of neurons that relay information equally from all parts of the animal’s body. Describe an example of this by identifying a focal animal and the body parts that are disproportionately high in neuron input to the somatosensory cortex.

Answer: An example of this is the star-nosed mole. The sensory structures for appendage 11, the appendages closest to the mole’s mouth, are overrepresented in the somatosensory cortex, so the brain gives more weight to signals coming from this part of the nose.

Learning Objective: 4.3.3 Demonstrate the importance of stimulus filtering in the process of natural selection.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 21. A male moth detects a distant female and begins to fly towards her, but he hears the loud ultrasonic pulses of a hunting bat. The moth decides to employ evasive manoeuvres to avoid the bat, giving up his pursuit of the female moth. What is the ultimate-level explanation for this behavioral decision?

Answer: Natural selection favors moths whose nervous systems organize behaviors into an adaptive set of priorities based on stimuli, responding to the immediate threat of the bat before the possibility of mating with a female moth.

Learning Objective: 4.2.1 Review how natural selection shapes the various sensory inputs used by different animals to make behavioral choices.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 22. The complex, specialized hearing system that noctuid moths use to detect and evade bats is an example of an evolutionary arms race between moths and bats. Describe an example of how natural selection has shaped the evolution of a specialized proximate mechanisms in another moth species in their arms race with bats.

Answer: Examples from the textbook could include tiger moths, which use ultrasonic clicks to interfere with bat’s signal and to signal that they are inedible; silk moths, which create sensory illusions by using their hindwing tails to reflect the bat’s sonar; or earless moth species which possess scales on the wings and thorax that absorb the bat’s ultrasound, providing acoustic camouflage.

Learning Objective: 4.1.2 Apply knowledge of the basic action of neuronal activity to illustrate how moths use external stimuli to evade bats.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying

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Test Bank to accompany

Animal Behavior, International Twelfth Edition John Alcock, Linda Green, Paul Nolan, Stefanie Siller and Dustin Rubenstein Chapter 5: The Physiological and Endocrine Basis of Behavior Multiple Choice Questions 1. After a dry spring, rufous-winged sparrows in the Sonoran Desert wait for summer rainfall to stimulate the onset of reproduction. Sparrows likely use rainfall as an environmental cue because a. rainfall is a predictable cue that ensures that they are primed for reproduction at the same time every year. b. they live near the equator and the small changes in photoperiod are too difficult to use as a cue for reproduction. c. the onset of the monsoon in the summer determines when sparrows migrate north for the breeding season. d. they live in an arid, unpredictable environment where rainfall provides a more informative cue for resource availability and reproductive timing.

Answer: d Learning Objective: 5.2.3 Consider the environmental conditions in which unpredictable cues (such as rainfall and food availability) would be adaptive for regulating behavioral rhythms.

Bloom’s Level: Understanding 2. The naked mole rat lacks a circadian rhythm of activity. The ultimate adaptive significance of this point is that a. because naked mole rats live underground, they are not exposed to daily changes in light intensity and thus have no cues for the entrainment of a circadian rhythm. b. the environment of the naked mole rat is such that queens and kings gain no reproductive advantage by having a sterile work force that is active on a 24-hour schedule. c. naked mole rats are primitive mammals that do not have the sophisticated mechanisms that control circadian rhythms. d. naked mole rats do not have the genetic information that would enable them to develop a brain capable of circadian rhythms.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 5.1.2 Apply evidence of environment-independent and environmentdependent mechanisms to the regulation of circadian rhythms.

Bloom’s Level: Understanding

3. Refer to the figure.

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In these figures, each horizontal line represents 1 day, and each vertical line represents a halfhour on a 24-hour timescale. Dark marks indicate periods of cricket calling. The bars at the top and middle represent the lighting conditions. The top figure demonstrates that in a constant light (LL) environment, male crickets a. are unable to maintain a regular cycle of calling. b. call continuously throughout the day due to the constant light input. c. maintain a daily cycle of calling and noncalling that starts slightly later each day. d. reset their calling cycle to start a few hours before the lights go off and continue until a few hours before the lights go on.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 5.1.2 Apply evidence of environment-independent and environmentdependent mechanisms to the regulation of circadian rhythms.

Bloom’s Level: Analyzing 4. Refer to the figure.

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The top figure’s findings best support the proximate-level hypothesis that a. crickets use the light and dark as environmental cues to entrain their circadian rhythm. b. crickets have an internal clock that maintains a regular cycle of calling in the absence of environmental cues. c. it is adaptive for male crickets to have a circadian rhythm in order to match female activity and increase chances of reproduction. d. the molecule juvenile hormone (JH) is responsible for regulating the cricket’s circadian rhythm.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 5.1.1 Compare the competing hypotheses on how clock mechanisms regulate behavioral priorities.

Bloom’s Level: Applying 5. Refer to the figure

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The most significant feature of this record for persons studying circadian rhythms is the a. demonstration that this species has a 24-hour circadian rhythm. b. absence of a circadian rhythm under the special conditions of the experiment. c. randomness in the time at which daily activity began. d. persistence of an activity period in the absence of daily environmental cues.

Answer: d Learning Objective: 5.1.2 Apply evidence of environment-independent and environmentdependent mechanisms to the regulation of circadian rhythms.

Bloom’s Level: Understanding 6. Refer to the figure.

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Top: An illustration of the single plotted actogram depicts the circadian rhythm of calling in Australian black field cricket during the day schedule, which shows the male crickets were kept constant in light for 24 hours. Bottom: An illustration of the single plotted actogram depicts the circadian rhythm of calling in Australian black field cricket during the day and night schedule, which shows the male crickets were kept constant in light for 12 hours and the next 12 hours, male crickets were subjected to dark.

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W.Docs Chapter- 5. The physiological basis of behavior

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W.Docs Chapter- 5. The physiological basis of behavior

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The bottom figure demonstrates that in an alternating light and dark environment, male crickets a. are unable to maintain a regular cycle of calling. b. call continuously throughout the day due to the constant light input. c. maintain a daily cycle of calling and noncalling that starts slightly later each day. d. reset their calling cycle to start a few hours before the lights go off and continue until a few hours before the lights go on.

Answer: d Learning Objective: 5.1.2 Apply evidence of environment-independent and environmentdependent mechanisms to the regulation of circadian rhythms.

Bloom’s Level: Analyzing 7. Refer to the figure.

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W.Docs Chapter- 5. The physiological basis of behavior

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The bottom figure’s findings best support the proximate-level hypothesis that a. crickets use the light and dark as environmental cues to entrain their circadian rhythm. b. crickets have an internal clock that maintains a regular cycle of calling in the absence of environmental cues. c. it is adaptive for male crickets to have a circadian rhythm in order to match female activity and increase chances of reproduction. d. the molecule juvenile hormone (JH) is responsible for regulating the cricket’s circadian rhythm.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 5.1.1 Compare the competing hypotheses on how clock mechanisms regulate behavioral priorities.

Bloom’s Level: Applying 8. Refer to the figure.

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This figure shows the hourly changes in the production of messenger RNA (mRNA) encoded by the PK2 gene in mice exposed to a light-dark cycles of 12 hours of light and 12 hours of darkness (LD), complete darkness for 2 days (2DD), and complete darkness for 8 days (8DD).

How do these results support the hypothesis that PK2 is a clock messenger? a. The production of PK2 depends on the amount of daylight that is available. b. PK2 is produced in a circadian pattern independent of light-dark cues. c. A mutation in certain key clock genes disrupts the circadian rhythm of PK2 production. d. Prolonged periods of darkness increase the expression of the gene that produces PK2.

Answer: b.

Learning Objective: 5.1.3 Consider the hormonal, molecular, and neural components of master clock mechanisms and their role in regulating circadian behavior.

Bloom’s Level: Applying.

9. If the per gene is key to regulating circadian rhythms, we can predict that a. the per gene acts independently of neurons in the SCN to modulate daily behaviors. b. the per gene must be a newly evolved mechanism that is not present in more primitive animals. c. per expression should increase continuously over time if no environmental cues are provided. d. animals with low per expression, and thus little PER protein production, should not have a circadian rhythm.

Answer d.

Learning Objective: 5.1.3 Consider the hormonal, molecular, and neural components of master clock mechanisms and their role in regulating circadian behavior.

Bloom’s Level: Understanding.

10. Refer to the figure.

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In this graph of marine iguana foraging start times, what pattern emerges between when iguanas forage in the intertidal zone versus the subtidal zone? a. Marine iguanas switch every few weeks between foraging in the intertidal zone throughout the day, and only foraging in the subtidal zone around midday. b. Marine iguanas forage equally between the intertidal and subtidal zone at any time of day. c. Marine iguanas initially forage primarily in the intertidal zone but switch to foraging in the subtidal zone as temperatures get cooler. d. Marine iguanas switch between foraging in the intertidal zone at night, and the subtidal zone during the middle of the day.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 5.2.2 Evaluate evidence for the influence and interaction of predictable environmental cues (such as light-dark, tidal, lunar, and seasonal cycles) on behavioral rhythms.

Bloom’s Level: Analyzing 11. Refer to the figure.

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What environmental cues are the iguanas using to regulate their foraging behavior? a. Lunar cycles and availability of moonlight b. Changes in daily temperature and day length c. The interaction between diurnal and tidal cycles d. Rainfall and changes in food availability Answer: c Learning Objective: 5.2.2 Evaluate evidence for the influence and interaction of predictable environmental cues (such as light-dark, tidal, lunar, and seasonal cycles) on behavioral rhythms.

Bloom’s Level: Applying 12. Refer to the figure.

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These results, showing the change in testis length in male red crossbills over time, support the hypothesis that crossbills a. are reproductively opportunistic birds that maintain full reproductive capacity throughout the year. b. have an underlying reproductive cycle that is dependent on photoperiod. c. only use seed abundance, an unpredictable environmental cue, to determine reproductive capacity. d. do not rely on environmental cues to entrain their reproductive cycle.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 5.2.2 Evaluate evidence for the influence and interaction of predictable environmental cues (such as light-dark, tidal, lunar, and seasonal cycles) on behavioral rhythms.

Bloom’s Level: Applying 13. What is a photoperiod? a. The duration of light in 24 hours b. The period of light in 12-hour intervals c. The increase in light over a series of 24-hour periods d. The variation in light that occurs during daytime Answer: a Learning Objective: 5.2.1 Establish that cues used to fine-tune or entrain behavioral rhythms are those that are most information for the specific environment.

Bloom’s Level: Remembering 14. John Wingfield and his coauthors made the following statement early in their article on testosterone and the challenge hypothesis: “The prevailing ‘challenge’ hypothesis asserts that testosterone and aggression correlate only during periods of heightened interactions between males.” This statement is a a. definition of the challenge hypothesis. b. prediction derived from the challenge hypothesis. c. statement about the evidence that supports the challenge hypothesis.

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d. scientific conclusion.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 5.3.3 Describe the bidirectional relationship between hormones and behavior and review how it is shaped by natural selection.

Bloom’s Level: Understanding 15. Testosterone is apparently a very costly hormone for males to produce and use. Why, then, has natural selection resulted in the males of some many species investing in the production and use of this hormone? a. Because natural selection cannot override the effects of shared ancestry—because male animals share a common ancestor that used testosterone adaptively, they continue to do so today b. Because testosterone helps ensure that males will be motivated to search for and to find all the receptive females of their species, thereby increasing the odds that the females will all be able to produce some offspring c. Because under a variety of circumstances, the hormone makes is possible for males to be either aggressive or sexually motivated in ways that increase individual genetic success d. Because males that are able to pay the price for producing and using testosterone are demonstrating that they are able to overcome this handicap, which means that they are genetically worthy members of the breeding stock for their population Answer: c Learning Objective: 5.3.3 Describe the bidirectional relationship between hormones and behavior and review how it is shaped by natural selection.

Bloom’s Level: Applying Short Answer Questions 16. Refer to the figure.

Describe an experiment to test the hypothesis that PK2 is a key clock messenger responsible for regulating circadian behaviors. Base your experiment on the results shown below, which show

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activity levels for rats in two treatment groups. Explain your predictions if the hypothesis is supported, and if the hypothesis is not supported. Note that rats are usually active during the nighttime, and PK2 production is normally high during the daytime and low during the nighttime.

Answer: To test the role of PK2 on circadian rhythms, we could experimentally alter the production of PK2 in the rat’s brain. Because PK2 production is normally high during the daytime and low at night, we would inject PK2 in the rat’s brain during the nighttime. As a control, we would inject a subset of rats with a saline solution. We would then measure the percent of time rats were active during the day and during the night. If the hypothesis is supported, we would predict that rats injected with PK2 would alter their circadian rhythm and become less active at nighttime and more active during the daytime, while the control group would continue to show more activity at night. If the hypothesis is not supported, we would predict that rats injected with PK2 would show no difference in activity patterns from the control group.

Learning Objective: 5.1.3 Consider the hormonal, molecular, and neural components of master clock mechanisms and their role in regulating circadian behavior.

Bloom’s Level: Creating

17. Describe an example of a species that uses a predictable environmental cue other than photoperiodism to determine either circadian or circannual rhythms. Specify the species, the environmental cue it uses, and the behavioral rhythm that changes based on that cue.

Answer: From the textbook, possible answers include: Atlantic marsh fiddler crabs use lunar cycles to determine foraging and mating behavioral cycles; Galápagos marine iguanas use the interaction between diurnal and tidal cycles to change foraging behavior from intertidal foraging to subtidal foraging when high tide takes place at midday; banner-tailed kangaroo roots use lunar cycles to avoid foraging when moonlight is available to aid predators; African lions use lunar cycles to determine when to hunt during the day or night depending on the amount of moonlight available to aid their prey; nocturnal marine worms use moonlight cues to entrain a circalunar clock that synchronizes reproductive cycles and influences mating behavior.

Learning Objective: 5.2.2 Evaluate evidence for the influence and interaction of predictable environmental cues (such as light-dark, tidal, lunar, and seasonal cycles) on behavioral rhythms.

Bloom’s Level: Applying 18. In a study on golden-mantled ground squirrels from North America, young raised in an environment with constant darkness and temperature entered into hibernation the same time each year. In a similar study on stonechats from Kenya, offspring raised in an environment with constant temperature and photoperiod maintained an annual reproductive cycle, but this cycle shifted out of phase over time. What information about the two species’ environments most likely explains this difference in experimental results between the squirrels and stonechats?

Answer: Kenya is an arid, unpredictable environment. In these cases, unpredictable cues such as rainfall are more reliable and informative indicators for food availability and the onset of reproduction than changes in photoperiod. Thus, while both the stonechats and the squirrels have an internal circannual clock mechanism, the stonechats shifted because they did not have seasonal rainfall cues to entrain their reproductive cycle on.

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Learning Objective: 5.2.1 Establish that cues used to fine-tune or entrain behavioral rhythms are those that are most informative for the specific environment.

Bloom’s Level: Applying 19. What is the difference between a hormone’s activational effect and a hormone’s organizational effect?

Answer: An activational effect is a rapid but temporary regulatory effect of a hormone that enables an individual to modify their response to a stimulus. An organizational effect is a permanent change during development that alters the individual’s physiology and behavior.

Learning Objective: 5.3.1 Compare organizational versus activational effects of hormones on mediating behavioral responses.

Bloom’s Level: Remembering 20. Apply the reproductive readiness hypothesis to explain why some songbirds are able to respond to environmental conditions suitable for raising offspring, even when the conditions are presented outside of the traditional breeding season. What is the ultimate explanation for the birds’ response?

Answer: Some songbird species have been observed to maintain high levels of LH hormone throughout the year, which results in gonads that are relatively ready for action whenever the birds are exposed to good rain and food availability. The RR hypothesis asserts that this persists because it gives a fitness advantage in unpredictable environments.

Learning Objective: 5.2.3 Consider the environmental conditions in which unpredictable cues (such as rainfall and food availability) would be adaptive for regulating behavioral rhythms.

Bloom’s Level: Applying 21. The occurrence of heightened chronic stress can cause an individual to produce and continue to release stress hormones, such as glucocorticoids, that eventually damage the affected individual’s immune system. Why has such an obviously costly response evolved?

Answer: Perhaps because under brief, acute stress a hormonal response is beneficial in that the hormone prepares the animal’s body to cope with stress in the “expectation” that negative conditions will not last long. But when, in rare cases, stressful conditions persist, the continued release of stress hormones has a damaging effect. On average, stress hormones raise the fitness of the individual even though occasionally they have the opposite effect. When animals experience chronic stress, they will often adjust their behavior in order to reduce the concentration of glucocorticoids.

Learning Objective: 5.3.4 Consider the environmental and social conditions in which hormonal responses may be adaptive or maladaptive.

Bloom’s Level: Applying 22. Describe the physiological process that explains the following: After mating, a male quail will stare at his female partner for hours. Experiments show that castrated males with testosterone implants exhibit this same staring behavior, but castrated males without implants do not. Furthermore, when testosterone-implanted males are injected with an aromatase inhibitor, they no longer exhibit the staring behavior.

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Answer: After mating, the gene for aromatase becomes more active. Aromatase converts testosterone into estradiol, which binds to estrogen receptor proteins and produces the biochemical changes that cause a male to stare.

Learning Objective: 5.3.2 Demonstrate how hormones act in concert with genes, receptors, and other molecules to shape behavior.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying

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Test Bank to accompany

Animal Behavior, Twelfth Edition John Alcock, Linda Green, Paul Nolan, Stefanie Siller and Dustin Rubenstein Chapter 6: Avoiding Predators and Finding Food Multiple Choice Questions 1. Refer to the following paragraph.

In the evening, males of a species of bee (Idiomelissodes duplocincta) form sleeping clusters in which dozens or hundreds of bees perch close together overnight. An assassin bug kills bees at these sleeping sites, but usually only one or two bees per night. (A) The bees do not join forces to fight the bug when one appears, so it may be that a bee joins the cluster to lessen the risk that it will be one of the unlucky ones killed at random. (B) The same sort of clustering of defenseless prey occurs in spadefoot frog tadpoles; hundreds of tadpoles swim and feed together in pools containing carnivorous water beetles that attack and kill them. (C) In contrast, males of other bees in the genus Idiomelissodes are larger and more capable of deterring a predator on their own, and they sleep apart.

Which sentence in the paragraph contains an example of divergent evolution? a. A b. B c. C d. None of the above Answer: c Learning Objective: 6.1.3 Evaluate the costs and benefits of active and passive social defense strategies used by individuals in groups.

Bloom’s Level: Applying 2. Refer to the following paragraph.

In the evening, males of a species of bee (Idiomelissodes duplocincta) form sleeping clusters in which dozens or hundreds of bees perch close together overnight. An assassin bug kills bees at these sleeping sites, but usually only one or two bees per night. (A) The bees do not join forces to fight the bug when one appears, so it may be that a bee joins the cluster to lessen the risk that it will be one of the unlucky ones killed at random. (B) The same sort of clustering of defenseless prey occurs in spadefoot frog tadpoles; hundreds of tadpoles swim and feed together in pools containing carnivorous water beetles that attack and kill them. (C) In contrast, males of other bees in the genus Idiomelissodes are larger and more capable of deterring a predator on their own, and they sleep apart.

Which sentence in the paragraph contains an example of convergent evolution? a. A

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b. B c. C d. All of the above Answer: b Learning Objective: 6.1.3 Evaluate the costs and benefits of active and passive social defense strategies used by individuals in groups.

Bloom’s Level: Applying 3. Refer to the following paragraph.

In the evening, males of a species of bee (Idiomelissodes duplocincta) form sleeping clusters in which dozens or hundreds of bees perch close together overnight. An assassin bug kills bees at these sleeping sites, but usually only one or two bees per night. (A) The bees do not join forces to fight the bug when one appears, so it may be that a bee joins the cluster to lessen the risk that it will be one of the unlucky ones killed at random. (B) The same sort of clustering of defenseless prey occurs in spadefoot frog tadpoles; hundreds of tadpoles swim and feed together in pools containing carnivorous water beetles that attack and kill them. (C) In contrast, males of other bees in the genus Idiomelissodes are larger and more capable of deterring a predator on their own, and they sleep apart.

Sentence A most closely describes the a. confusion effect hypothesis. b. signal deception hypothesis. c. selfish herd hypothesis. d. dilution effect hypothesis.

Answer: d Learning Objective: 6.1.3 Evaluate the costs and benefits of active and passive social defense strategies used by individuals in groups.

Bloom’s Level: Understanding 4. Refer to the following paragraph.

In the evening, males of a species of bee (Idiomelissodes duplocincta) form sleeping clusters in which dozens or hundreds of bees perch close together overnight. An assassin bug kills bees at these sleeping sites, but usually only one or two bees per night. (A) The bees do not join forces to fight the bug when one appears, so it may be that a bee joins the cluster to lessen the risk that it will be one of the unlucky ones killed at random. (B) The same sort of clustering of defenseless prey occurs in spadefoot frog tadpoles; hundreds of tadpoles swim and feed together in pools containing carnivorous water beetles that attack and kill them. (C) In contrast, males of other bees in the genus Idiomelissodes are larger and more capable of deterring a predator on their own, and they sleep apart.

Males of other bees in the genus Idiomelissodes most likely do not also form sleeping clusters because a. there is a cost to forming such large groups, such as being easier to target by predators. b. they are more highly evolved and no longer need social defense strategies.

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c. males of Idiomelissodes duplocincta do not admit males of other species into their groups. d. there is minimal benefit derived from residing in such large groups; the males of Idiomelissodes duplocincta are simply making the best of a bad job.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 6.1.3 Evaluate the costs and benefits of active and passive social defense strategies used by individuals in groups.

Bloom’s Level: Applying 5. In order to test the selfish herd hypothesis, this researcher should determine if a. the assassin bug’s efficiency decreases as the bee group size increases. b. bees that are painted to cover their stripes are more likely to be attacked by the assassin bug. c. bees near the periphery of the sleeping cluster are more likely to be targeted by the assassin bug than those near the center. d. bees that are not attacked are more closely related to one another than those that are targeted.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 6.1.3 Evaluate the costs and benefits of active and passive social defense strategies used by individuals in groups.

Bloom’s Level: Applying 6. If a foraging tactic is “optimal,” this behavior a. helps to maintain the population at a level likely to promote the long-term survival of the species. b. supplies a fitness benefit to individuals. c. is an efficient way to collect food. d. confers more fitness on individuals than any other alternative trait in the population.

Answer: d Learning Objective: 6.1.4 Apply optimality theory to understand the evolution of an optimal antipredator behavior.

Bloom’s Level: Understanding 7. Refer to the figure.

The figure shows a matrix of fitness payoffs for interactions between two behaviorally different types of gulls: those that always fish for themselves and those that sometimes steal fish from others. P stands for the baseline fitness that a gull derives when it fishes for itself. B is the fitness

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gained by a thief when it steals a fish from a fish-for-self type. C is the fitness cost associated with an attempt to steal a prey.

What causal question is the model designed to answer? a. How can a hereditary thief phenotype spread in a population of fish-for-self types? b. What are the fitness costs and fitness benefits of fish-for-self versus thief phenotypes? c. When can group selection cause evolutionary change to take place? d. What are the circumstances under which maladaptive traits can take over a population?

Answer: a Learning Objective: 6.2.4 Identify the adaptive basis of foraging behaviors using game theory, considering genetically based frequency-dependent selection as well as flexible conditional strategies.

Bloom’s Level: Applying 8. Refer to the figure.

The figure shows a matrix of fitness payoffs for interactions between two behaviorally different types of gulls: those that always fish for themselves and those that sometimes steal fish from others. P stands for the baseline fitness that a gull derives when it fishes for itself. B is the fitness gained by a thief when it steals a fish from a fish-for-self type. C is the fitness cost associated with an attempt to steal a prey.

What is the significance of the fact that in a population composed entirely of thieves, the average fitness payoff for a thief is P – C, whereas in a population composed entirely of fish-for-self types, the average payoff is P? a. It tells us that fish-for-self types will become more common over time. b. It tells us that the spread of a trait depends not on its absolute fitness effect but rather on its fitness effect relative to an alternative trait. c. It tells us that the thief phenotype is an evolutionarily maladaptive trait. d. It tells us that the thief phenotype is costly for the population as a whole.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 6.2.4 Identify the adaptive basis of foraging behaviors using game theory, considering genetically based frequency-dependent selection as well as flexible conditional strategies.

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The figure shows a matrix of fitness payoffs for interactions between two behaviorally different types of gulls: those that always fish for themselves and those that sometimes steal fish from others. P stands for the baseline fitness that a gull derives when it fishes for itself. B is the fitness gained by a thief when it steals a fish from a fish-for-self type. C is the fitness cost associated with an attempt to steal a prey.

If B were greater than C, the solitary phenotype would a. perpetuate itself but not increase over time. b. increase steadily over time. c. disappear from the population over time. d. increase until it made up 50 percent of the population.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 6.2.4 Identify the adaptive basis of foraging behaviors using game theory, considering genetically based frequency-dependent selection as well as flexible conditional strategies.

Bloom’s Level: Applying 10. You read that a foraging tactic is “optimal” only if it is the most efficient way of acquiring calories from the environment. This is _______ because _______. a. true; this will enable the species to grow and avoid extinction b. true; selection favors traits that have large benefits c. false; species that collect food too efficiently run the risk of destroying the resource base needed for that species d. false; sometimes animals gain more fitness by sacrificing some foraging efficiency in order to better avoid predators Answer: d Learning Objective: 6.2.2 Describe how the landscape of fear influences foraging and other behavioral decisions, representing a tradeoff between survival and food acquisition.

Bloom’s Level: Applying 11. A conditional strategy is unquestionably an adaptation when individuals able to switch tactics a. leave some surviving descendants to carry their genes into the next generation. b. leave more surviving offspring than individuals with any other available strategy. c. are better able to adjust to changing conditions than other members of their species. d. experience a net gain in fitness from their behavioral flexibility.

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Answer: b Learning Objective: 6.2.4 Identify the adaptive basis of foraging behaviors using game theory, considering genetically based frequency-dependent selection as well as flexible conditional strategies.

Bloom’s Level: Applying 12. A seed-eating bird forages solitarily. A behavioral biologist who is formulating a hypothesis is likely to consider this an example of a. game theory. b. optimality theory. c. group selection theory. d. conditional strategy theory.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 6.2.1 Consider the use of optimal foraging models to predict how animals maximize fitness while foraging, and recognize how these models can be refined to better fit the data.

Bloom’s Level: Applying 13. A seed-eating bird forages in groups with competitive companions. A behavioral biologist who is formulating a hypothesis is likely to consider this an example of a. game theory. b. optimality theory. c. group selection theory. d. conditional strategy theory.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 6.2.4 Identify the adaptive basis of foraging behaviors using game theory, considering genetically based frequency-dependent selection as well as flexible conditional strategies.

Bloom’s Level: Applying 14. Smaller seed-eating birds select smaller seeds than larger seed-eating birds do. A behavioral biologist who is formulating a hypothesis is likely to consider this an example of a. game theory. b. optimality theory. c. group selection theory. d. conditional strategy theory.

Answer: d Learning Objective: 6.2.4 Identify the adaptive basis of foraging behaviors using game theory, considering genetically based frequency-dependent selection as well as flexible conditional strategies.

Bloom’s Level: Applying 15. A certain fish-eating hawk that lives by large lakes can capture more pounds of fish per unit time if it were to hunt farther from shore instead of staying close to the shoreline. The hawk, however, does stay close to the shoreline. This demonstrates that a. natural selection theory is probably not applicable in this case.

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b. optimal foraging theory is probably not applicable in this case. c. an optimal foraging hypothesis based on maximizing caloric intake alone is probably incorrect in this case. d. the fish species found close to the shoreline in large lakes are more nutritious than those in the center.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 6.2.1 Consider the use of optimal foraging models to predict how animals maximize fitness while foraging, and recognize how these models can be refined to better fit the data.

Bloom’s Level: Applying 16. If a population is subject to frequency-dependent selection, then a. two alternative forms of a trait can persist indefinitely in the population. b. the rarer of two forms of a trait will become somewhat rarer in the next generation. c. the frequency of an adaptation will become greater over time, depending on the extent to which individuals with that trait out-reproduce individuals with the alternative attribute. d. neither form of the trait is considered an adaptation but instead these forms are kept in the species to provide flexibility, should the environment change.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 6.2.4 Identify the adaptive basis of foraging behaviors using game theory, considering genetically based frequency-dependent selection as well as flexible conditional strategies.

Bloom’s Level: Applying 17. Refer to the figure.

Northwestern crows fly to 5 meters high (indicated by the arrow) to drop whelks in an effort to open and eat them. Based on the figure, crows should prefer to choose a. large whelks, because their high caloric benefit outweighs their high cost in handling time. b. large whelks, because they require the lowest handling time for the highest energy benefit.

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c. medium whelks, because they provide the optimal balance between energy benefit and cost in handling time. d. small whelks, because they are easiest to find and therefore have the lowest cost in search time.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 6.2.1 Consider the use of optimal foraging models to predict how animals maximize fitness while foraging, and recognize how these models can be refined to better fit the data.

Bloom’s Level: Analyzing 18. Refer to the figure.

The study that produced this figure was most likely testing the hypothesis that a. crows choose to forage on different sized whelks depending on their individual fitness and body size. b. crows that choose to forage on optimally-sized whelks maximize their reproductive success. c. choosing to eat the optimally-sized whelk is an adaptive foraging strategy for crows. d. crow foraging strategy is mediated by the landscape of fear and antipredator behavior.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 6.2.1 Consider the use of optimal foraging models to predict how animals maximize fitness while foraging, and recognize how these models can be refined to better fit the data.

Bloom’s Level: Applying 19. Following the cognitive buffer hypothesis, we can predict that a. species with larger relative brain size are more likely to occur in regions with higher environmental variation. b. species that engage in food caching are more likely to occur in predictable environments. c. better cognitive ability is a tradeoff with reproductive success d. species found in harsh, unpredictable environments are more likely to be impacted by landscapes of fear, at the expense of efficient foraging.

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Answer: a Learning Objective: 6.2.3 Review the relationship between cognitive ability and foraging behavior, as well as the role that environmental predictability and harshness play in shaping this relationship.

Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing Short Answer Questions 19. Observation: You observe “shaky leaf walking” in a video of a Madagascaran mantid (one of about 1,800 species, a member of one of dozens of genera of mantids, which constitute one of eight families of mantids).

Hypothesis: The behavior is effective as camouflage because it makes the mantid look like a dried leaf blown about on the leaf litter of the forest floor or a trembling leaf on a low-lying shrub.

State a prediction from this hypothesis that could be tested via additional observation.

Answer: (Answers will vary.) The mantid should be the size and shape of dried leaves in its actual habitat.

Learning Objective: 6.1.1 Review the various strategies used by solitary individuals to evade predation by either blending into their backgrounds or signaling to predators.

Bloom’s Level: Creating 20. Observation: You observe “shaky leaf walking” in a video of a Madagascaran mantid (one of about 1,800 species, a member of one of dozens of genera of mantids, which constitute one of eight families of mantids).

Hypothesis: The behavior is effective as camouflage because it makes the mantid look like a dried leaf blown about on the leaf litter of the forest floor or a trembling leaf on a low-lying shrub.

State a prediction that could be tested via an experiment.

Answer: (Answers will vary.) In experiments with caged insect-eating birds, individual mantids placed on the appropriate background should take much longer to find than those placed on a nonleafy substrate.

Learning Objective: 6.1.1 Review the various strategies used by solitary individuals to evade predation by either blending into their backgrounds or signaling to predators.

Bloom’s Level: Creating 21. Several hundred male bees will sometimes gather in the evening to sleep on the dried stems of a shrub. A predatory assassin bug sometimes visits the bees and kills some as they are settling down. Present three hypotheses on the possible adaptive, antipredator value of these sleeping aggregations. For each hypothesis, present a piece of evidence that would enable you to reject the hypothesis.

Answer:

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Hypothesis 1. The improved vigilance hypothesis: More bees mean more eyes which means sooner detection of the assassin bug which means faster dispersal of bees from danger. Evidence that rejects hypothesis: The bees do not disperse after settling down to sleep even when some of their fellow bees are under attack.

Hypothesis 2. The selfish herd hypothesis: The bees aggregate in order to use other individuals as living shields behind which to hide. Evidence that rejects hypothesis: The bees do not jostle or compete for the safer central positions within the group.

Hypothesis 3. The dilution-effect hypothesis: The bees aggregate in order to lower the risk of being unlucky victims of the assassin bug on a given evening. Evidence that rejects hypothesis: Larger sleeping groups attract proportionately more predators, so that the risk of dying is the same no matter what the size of the group.

Learning Objective: 6.1.3 Evaluate the costs and benefits of active and passive social defense strategies used by individuals in groups.

Bloom’s Level: Creating Questions 22–23.

In the “Finding Food” episode of his series Trials of Life, Sir David Attenborough features a hummingbird species that feeds almost exclusively on the nectar of the Heliconia flower. He explains that each hummingbird has a circuit that takes it from one plant to another, with the bird arriving regularly at a given flower after a set period. It could take 30 minutes, more or less, to complete the round trip.

22. In the “Finding Food” episode of his series Trials of Life, Sir David Attenborough features a hummingbird species that feeds almost exclusively on the nectar of the Heliconia flower. He explains that each hummingbird has a circuit that takes it from one plant to another, with the bird arriving regularly at a given flower after a set period. It could take 30 minutes, more or less, to complete the round trip. In one sentence, explain why the following statement could be wrong: “The bird is behaving optimally because it is getting enough energy to continue making its foraging circuit.”

Answer: Because an optimal forager maximizes its fitness as a result of its behavioral decisions, merely taking in enough calories to survive may not be optimal, particularly if there are factors other than caloric intake that affect a forager’s fitness.

Learning Objective: 6.2.1 Consider the use of optimal foraging models to predict how animals maximize fitness while foraging, and recognize how these models can be refined to better fit the data.

Bloom’s Level: Applying.

23. In the “Finding Food” episode of his series Trials of Life, Sir David Attenborough features a hummingbird species that feeds almost exclusively on the nectar of the Heliconia flower. He explains that each hummingbird has a circuit that takes it from one plant to another, with the bird arriving regularly at a given flower after a set period. It could take 30 minutes, more or less, to complete the round trip. The hummingbird does not immediately insert its beak into many Heliconia flowers but hesitates before approaching the flowers more closely. How might this hesitation still be consistent with at least one optimal foraging hypothesis? (Consider the different factors that might contribute to true optimality.)

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Answer: If optimality involves a consideration of the risks facing a forager, then a hesitation that permitted the hummingbird to check a flower for hidden predators, especially bird-eating snakes, might enhance the individual’s fitness even while decreasing the rate of nectar intake.

Alternatively, if by checking the flower the hummingbird was able to better position its bill within the flower, an increase in pre-insertion time might lead to more efficient removal of the flower’s nectar.

Learning Objective: 6.2.1 Consider the use of optimal foraging models to predict how animals maximize fitness while foraging, and recognize how these models can be refined to better fit the data.

Bloom’s Level: Applying.

24. Caro (1986) presented several hypotheses for stotting behavior in the Thomson’s gazelle: (a) Alarm signal hypothesis: Gazelles stot to communicate predation risk to conspecifics. (b) Confusion effect hypothesis: If several gazelles stot simultaneously in a group while fleeing, then the predator may become confused. (c) Social cohesion hypothesis: Gazelles stot to attract conspecifics to join them. (d) Attack deterrence hypothesis: Gazelles stot to signal their vigor to potential predators.

Choose one of the above hypotheses, and design an observational study to test this hypothesis against the others. What findings would support this hypothesis over the others? What findings would lead you to reject this hypothesis?

Answer: Answers will vary. For each hypothesis, we would observe stotting behavior and ask 1) what is the social environment in which stotting occurs, and 2) who is the signal directed towards? Alarm signal hypothesis: This hypothesis would be supported if 1) stotting occurs only in groups of gazelles, and 2) the signal is directed at conspecifics. The hypothesis would be rejected if 1) stotting occurs in solitary gazelles, or 2) the signal is directed at the predator.

Confusion effect hypothesis: This hypothesis would be supported if 1) stotting occurs only in groups of gazelles, and 2) the signal is directed at the predator. The hypothesis would be rejected if 1) stotting occurs in solitary gazelles, or 2) the signal is directed at conspecifics. Social cohesion hypothesis: This hypothesis would be supported if 1) stotting occurs only in solitary gazelles and 2) the signal is directed at conspecifics. The hypothesis would be rejected if 1) stotting occurs in groups, or 2) the signal is directed at the predator. Attack deterrence hypothesis: This hypothesis would be supported if 1) stotting occurs only in solitary gazelles, and 2) the signal is directed at the predator. The hypothesis would be rejected if 1) stotting occurs in groups, or 2) the signal is directed at conspecifics.

Learning Objective: 6.1.2 Compare the predictions and supporting evidence for the various hypotheses used to explain why animals make themselves conspicuous to predators.

Bloom’s Level: Creating

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Test Bank to accompany

Animal Behavior, International Twelfth Edition John Alcock, Linda Green, Paul Nolan, Stefanie Siller and Dustin Rubenstein Chapter 7: Territoriality and Movement Multiple Choice Questions 1. Refer to the figure.

The figure shows flight energetics in great white pelicans that are gliding by themselves, flapping by themselves, or traveling in a group V-formation (indicated by the numbered individuals). What is the mean wingbeat frequency (in wingbeats per minute) of a pelican leading the V-formation? a. 45 b. 60 c. 90 d. 105 © Oxford University Press

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Answer: c Learning Objective: 7.2.3 Consider the costs and benefits that influence migratory decisions and drive the evolution of long-distance migration.

Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing 2. Refer to the figure.

The graph represents a. a hypothesis. b. a prediction. c. test evidence. d. a scientific conclusion.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 7.2.3 Consider the costs and benefits that influence migratory decisions and drive the evolution of long-distance migration.

Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing 3. Refer to the figure.

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This work would be based on optimality theory if the a. researchers expected that pelicans would, when possible, minimize their flight expenses. b. fitness benefit derived from flying in a V-formation exceeded the cost of the behavior. c. researchers had tested the prediction that other large, flock-forming species would also fly in V-formations under some conditions. d. researchers believed that every aspect of pelican behavior was an adaptation, that is, an ideal solution to an environmental problem of some sort.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 7.2.3 Consider the costs and benefits that influence migratory decisions and drive the evolution of long-distance migration.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 4. Refer to the figure.

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“The birds in front of the V are expected to be low-ranking birds that are unable to displace physically superior rivals from the more energy-saving positions in the formation.” This statement is a a. hypothesis. b. prediction. c. test. d. scientific conclusion.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 7.2.3 Consider the costs and benefits that influence migratory decisions and drive the evolution of long-distance migration.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 5. The finding that both great white pelicans and brown pelicans fly in V-formation is an example of a. convergent evolution. b. divergent evolution. c. the comparative method. d. the effects of shared ancestry.

Answer: d

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Learning Objective: 7.2.3 Consider the costs and benefits that influence migratory decisions and drive the evolution of long-distance migration.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 6. If the distribution of individuals over a set of habitats is consistent with ideal free distribution theory, then a. the fitness of individuals in different habitats will be the same. b. some habitats will attract territorial individuals, while others will not. c. the mean survival time of individuals in the different habitats will be different. d. the areas associated with higher fitness will be occupied after habitats linked to lower fitness.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 7.1.1 Consider how ideal free distribution theory can be used to predict which habitat an animal should select in order to maximize its reproductive value.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 7. Passive dispersal is most likely to be used by which type of species? a. Species with male-biased sex dispersal b. Species that are highly mobile, such as bats and birds c. Large terrestrial mammals with low birth rates and lengthy offspring development time d. Marine animals and small insects that produce large amounts of small offspring Answer: d Learning Objective: 7.2.1 By considering a species’ social behavior and ecology, evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of active and passive dispersal.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 8. A bird defends a territory in which there are abundant food sources but also high levels of predation. This is an example of a. payoff asymmetry. b. ideal free distribution. c. economic defensibility. d. resource-holding potential.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 7.1.2 Apply a cost-benefit analysis to determine the fitness trade-offs for establishing and maintaining a territory.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 9. If two cats are introduced into a new home, the one that is brought in a day or two before the other will more strongly defend the space as its territory. This illustrates the a. dear enemy effect. b. payoff asymmetry hypothesis. c. new home’s economic defensibility. d. first cat’s underestimation of its resource-holding potential.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 7.1.3 Evaluate the evidence for the alternative hypotheses explaining the dynamics of territory competition.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding

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10. While studying a species of firefly, you notice that the territories they occupy are constant across the breeding season, even though you observe multiple, short territorial disputes. Despite these quick disputes, you do not observe a single case of a territory actually changing ownership.

This finding supports the a. dear enemy effect. b. payoff asymmetry hypothesis. c. resource-holding potential hypothesis. d. arbitrary contest resolution hypothesis.

Answer: d Learning Objective: 7.1.3 Evaluate the evidence for the alternative hypotheses explaining the dynamics of territory competition.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 11. Male American redstarts (a small species of warbler) that are in the best physical condition typically are found in the species’ preferred habitat. Individuals in worse condition tend to be found in scrubby, secondary growth. This statement supports the a. dear enemy effect. b. payoff asymmetry hypothesis. c. resource-holding potential hypothesis. d. arbitrary contest resolution hypothesis.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 7.1.3 Evaluate the evidence for the alternative hypotheses explaining the dynamics of territory competition.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 12. Even when an intruder is far away, territorial male Broadley’s flat lizards will charge them aggressively. However, when a familiar neighbor approaches, territorial males allow these individuals to get much closer. They will also pursue them for a much shorter span than an unfamiliar intruder. This finding illustrates the a. dear enemy effect. b. payoff asymmetry hypothesis. c. resource-holding potential hypothesis. d. arbitrary contest resolution hypothesis.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 7.1.3 Evaluate the evidence for the alternative hypotheses explaining the dynamics of territory competition.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 13. Refer to the figure.

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Based on these results, which habitat is most preferred by the shorebirds? a. 5 b. 6 c. 6 and 7 are equally preferred d. 7 Answer: b Learning Objective: 7.1.1 Consider how ideal free distribution theory can be used to predict which habitat an animal should select in order to maximize its reproductive value.

Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing 14. Refer to the figure.

Based on the ideal free distribution theory, you may predict that a. the birds that are able to secure a territory on the preferred habitat have the highest reproductive success.

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b. this shorebird exhibits sex-biased dispersal; while one sex remains on the preferred habitat, the other sex disperses amongst the other areas in order to reduce inbreeding. c. the most preferred habitat also has the highest amount of intraspecific competition. d. birds already established on the preferred habitat are in better condition and thus able to maintain their territories from any intruders.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 7.1.1 Consider how ideal free distribution theory can be used to predict which habitat an animal should select in order to maximize its reproductive value.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 15. Refer to the figure.

Based on resource-holding potential, redstarts with the best competitive ability should be found in the a. wet forest. b. mangrove. c. citrus. d. scrub.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 7.1.2 Apply a cost-benefit analysis to determine the fitness trade-offs for establishing and maintaining a territory.

Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing 16. Refer to the figure.

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Does this result support ideal free distribution? Why or why not? a. Yes, because individuals have equal fitness regardless of their habitat. b. Yes, because males and females in the high-quality habitat have the same fitness. c. No, because individuals residing in different habitats do not have the same fitness. d. No, because males and females do not have the same fitness even when they reside in the same habitat.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 7.1.2 Apply a cost-benefit analysis to determine the fitness trade-offs for establishing and maintaining a territory.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 17. The inbreeding avoidance hypothesis is used to explain a. sex-biased dispersal, in which one sex disperses farther than the other. b. long-distance migration, which involves movement to and from the same location. c. passive dispersal, in which organisms use wind or water currents to help them move. d. resource-holding potential, or the ability of a territorial animal to win a fight against a rival.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 7.2.1 By considering a species’ social behavior and ecology, evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of active and passive dispersal.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding Short Answer Questions 18. How does understanding migratory behavior and connectivity between a species’ breeding and wintering grounds help improve conservation efforts? Use an example to support your answer.

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Answer: By understanding a species’ migratory behavior, we can ensure that the habitats and resources that they rely upon for migration are preserved. Information about migratory connectivity in species that are experiencing population declines in parts of their ranges can help pinpoint locations that are in need of the greatest conservation efforts. In addition, information about how climate will influence migratory connectivity will be important for predicting future responses to climate change. Examples from the textbook could include: the golden-winged warbler, where severe conversion of native forest in one population’s northern South American wintering area has led to population declines; monarch butterflies in the oyamel fir forests in the mountains of Mexico, where woodcutting and logging threaten their microhabitat and survival; or red knots in the Delaware Bay, where a decline in horseshoe crab eggs due to overharvesting led to lower survival of red knots that stopped here during their route.

Learning Objective: 7.2.4 Review the evidence for individual- and population-level variation in migratory behavior and migratory connectivity, and understand its implications for conservation.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 19. Using an example from the textbook or class, describe two potential costs and one potential benefit of territoriality. What is necessary in order for territoriality to evolve?

Answer: Examples will vary. Costs could include energetic costs (via defending or monitoring the territory), opportunity or time costs (such as foregoing foraging in order to guard the territory), and risk costs of injury or death. Benefits could include ability to use resources (food or mates) on the territory without disruption, or production of more offspring. In order for territoriality to evolve, the benefits must outweigh the costs.

Learning Objective: 7.1.2 Apply a cost-benefit analysis to determine the fitness trade-offs for establishing and maintaining a territory.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 20. Explain the similarities and differences between dispersal and migration.

Answer: Migration involves annual movement away from and subsequent return to the same location. Dispersal is a permanent move from one location to another. Both can be costly because individuals have to secure extra energy for their travels (energetic costs), they run the risk of falling prey to predators in the unfamiliar area through which they are moving (risk costs), and while they are moving, they cannot invest time in other activities (time costs).

Learning Objective: 7.2.3 Consider the costs and benefits that influence migratory decisions and drive the evolution of long-distance migration.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 21. Describe two environmental cues that animals use to navigate during migration.

Answer: Answers could include any of the following: the earth’s magnetic field, celestial cues (such as the stars or sun), landmarks (such as forests or bodies of water), olfactory cues, sound cues, or infrared radiation Learning Objective: 7.2.2 Examine the various environmental cues and mechanisms that animals use for long-distance navigation and migration.

Bloom’s Level: 1. Remembering

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W.Docs Chapter- 8. Principles of communication

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Test Bank to accompany

Animal Behavior, International Twelfth Edition John Alcock, Linda Green, Paul Nolan, Stefanie Siller and Dustin Rubenstein Chapter 8: Principles of Communication Multiple Choice Questions 1. The evolution of communication requires a. fitness benefits for both the sender and the receiver. b. signal perception by the receiver and signal production by the sender. c. the relay of information via cues. d. selection pressure only on the sender of a signal.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 8.1.2 Distinguish between the use of signals and cues in the exchange of information between individuals.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 2. The elbow orchid sends a deceitful signal to a male wasp, who will sometimes mistakenly fly to the orchid, mistaking it for a female. Why does this maladaptive male response persist, despite the costs it incurs in time and energy? a. The fitness gains that male wasps gain on average for responding to the signal outweigh the fitness losses of those individuals that are deceived. b. The male wasp’s response is a by-product of a different adaptation, so it persists despite its fitness costs. c. The orchid’s signal is recently evolved, and wasps haven’t yet adapted in response. d. The elbow orchid is relaying a multicomponent signal, which contains additional beneficial information for the wasp.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 8.3.3 Contrast the two hypotheses explaining the evolution of deceitful signaling and maladaptive behavioral responses.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 3. White-tailed deer raise their tails when they spot a predator approaching; the predator typically gives up its pursuit once it knows that the faster prey species has seen it. This is an example of a. cueing. b. eavesdropping. c. honest signaling. d. deceitful signaling.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 8.1.1 Use a cost-benefit approach to compare the fitness consequences of honest signaling, deceitful signaling, and eavesdropping.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding

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4. The American kestrel is a small falcon that is occasionally taken as prey by larger birds. It has two large spots on the back of its head that somewhat resemble large eyes. This is an example of a. cueing. b. eavesdropping. c. honest signaling. d. deceitful signaling.

Answer: d Learning Objective: 8.1.1 Use a cost-benefit approach to compare the fitness consequences of honest signaling, deceitful signaling, and eavesdropping.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 5. Both the sender and receiver of a signal benefit from the transfer of information. This is an example of a. cueing. b. eavesdropping. c. honest signaling. d. deceitful signaling.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 8.1.1 Use a cost-benefit approach to compare the fitness consequences of honest signaling, deceitful signaling, and eavesdropping.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 6. A hunting owl hears the rustling of a mouse while it is foraging. This is an example of a. cueing. b. eavesdropping. c. honest signaling. d. deceitful signaling.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 8.1.1 Use a cost-benefit approach to compare the fitness consequences of honest signaling, deceitful signaling, and eavesdropping.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 7. Refer to the figure.

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These findings about the male red-collared widowbird’s tail length and red collar show that a. a male’s red collar area and tail length are unrelated. b. resident males have a longer tail but a smaller red collar area than floater males. c. males with a larger red collar area also have a shorter tail length. d. as a male’s tail length increases, his red collar area also increases.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 8.3.2 Use a cost-benefit analysis to assess the fitness benefits and production, maintenance, and trade-off costs of honest signals.

Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing 8. Refer to the figure.

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W.Docs Chapter- 8. Principles of communication

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Based on these findings, the male red-collared widowbird’s tail length and red collar are a. deceitful signals because they incur a cost to the receiver. b. honest signals because males are incapable of cheating the system by investing in both traits. c. badges of status because they indicate the male’s dominance status. d. redundant signals because they increase robustness of the same information.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 8.3.2 Use a cost-benefit analysis to assess the fitness benefits and production, maintenance, and trade-off costs of honest signals.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 9. Refer to the figure.

These results show that a. ground-nesting warblers beg more than tree-nesting warblers. b. some ground-nesting warblers, such as the black-and-white and Louisiana waterthrush, beg at lower frequencies than tree-nesting warblers. c. both tree-nesting and ground-nesting warbler chicks beg at a high sound frequency. d. tree-nesting warblers beg at a lower sound frequency than ground-nesting warblers.

Answer: d Learning Objective: 8.3.4 Consider the circumstances in which eavesdropping can evolve and persist, and evaluate the subsequent influences on sender behavior.

Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing 10. Refer to the figure.

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Calls at higher frequencies do not travel as far as calls at lower frequencies. This suggests that the begging frequencies of ground-nesting warblers are a. an adaptation to evade eavesdropping by predators due to their higher nest exposure. b. non-adaptive per se, but the by-product of another adaptive trait. c. an honest signal that communicates the chick’s health to its parents. d. an adaptation that evolved in an ancestor of both tree and ground nesting warblers.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 8.3.4 Consider the circumstances in which eavesdropping can evolve and persist, and evaluate the subsequent influences on sender behavior.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 11. Refer to the figure.

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These findings most directly support the a. by-product hypothesis, in which the pseudopenis developed as a by-product of some other adaptive change that had positive fitness effects. b. extra-androgen hypothesis, which states that the female pseudopenis develops as a result of the exposure in utero to elevated androgens. c. submission hypothesis, which states that the pseudopenis signals subordination or willingness to bond with other individuals. d. social-bonding hypothesis, which states that the pseudopenis promotes the formation of cooperative coalitions.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 8.3.1 Compare adaptive and non-adaptive explanations for the pseudopenis display in female hyenas.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 12. Refer to the figure.

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Based on these results, the push-up threat display of male side-blotched lizards is a(n) a. deceitful signal that males use to fake a greater strength than they actually possess. b. signal that other rival males eavesdrop on, thus incurring a cost to the displaying male. c. honest signal that advertises the male’s fighting capacity. d. cue that transfers information but did not coevolve between the sender and receiver.

Answer: c.

Learning Objective: 8.3.2 Use a cost-benefit analysis to assess the fitness benefits and production, maintenance, and trade-off costs of honest signals.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 13. According to Gould’s “panda principle” a. selection can only act on traits that already exist. b. signals can evolve even when they are maladaptive. c. communication coevolves between signal senders and receivers. d. sensory systems are under selection to optimize behaviors according to the specific environment.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 8.2.1 Evaluate the use of proximate and ultimate explanations for the evolution of signals under the preexisting trait hypothesis.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 14. A spider researcher, Pia Stålhandske, knew that males of Pisaura mirabilis offer their mates a nuptial gift—a prey item, such as a cricket—whose acceptance by the female is critical for male mating success. Males wrap their generally dark-colored food gifts in white silk.

Stålhandske wondered if the males wrapped their gifts to make them look like the white, silk-

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covered egg sacs that mated females make and protect by holding them in their jaws until the spiderlings hatch.

The last sentence in the paragraph above constitutes a. a causal question. b. a hypothesis. c. a prediction. d. test evidence.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 8.2.2 Connect the role of a sensory drive to sensory exploitation and the evolution of signals via preexisting biases.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 15. A spider researcher, Pia Stålhandske, knew that males of Pisaura mirabilis offer their mates a nuptial gift—a prey item, such as a cricket—whose acceptance by the female is critical for male mating success. Males wrap their generally dark-colored food gifts in white silk.

Stålhandske wondered if the males wrapped their gifts to make them look like the white, silkcovered egg sacs that mated females make and protect by holding them in their jaws until the spiderlings hatch.

What theory was Stålhandske using to explore this species’ courtship behavior? a. Sensory exploitation b. Ritualization c. Signal d. Descent with modification Answer: a Learning Objective: 8.2.2 Connect the role of a sensory drive to sensory exploitation and the evolution of signals via preexisting biases.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 16. A spider researcher, Pia Stålhandske, knew that males of Pisaura mirabilis offer their mates a nuptial gift—a prey item, such as a cricket—whose acceptance by the female is critical for male mating success. Males wrap their generally dark-colored food gifts in white silk.

Stålhandske wondered if the males wrapped their gifts to make them look like the white, silkcovered egg sacs that mated females make and protect by holding them in their jaws until the spiderlings hatch.

Which prediction might Stålhandske have felt could be correct, given her presumption that males might be making their nuptial gifts look like egg sacs? a. The time for a female to accept a nuptial gift should be less for prey covered in silk that has been experimentally colored brown instead of white. b. Natural silk-covered prey should not be comparable in light reflectance to silken egg sacs. c. Females should be prepared to accept silken egg sacs that had been taken from them and offered back as if they were nuptial gifts. d. Males that offer nuptial gifts should be larger than males that fail to do so.

Answer: c

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Learning Objective: 8.2.2 Connect the role of a sensory drive to sensory exploitation and the evolution of signals via preexisting biases.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying Short Answer Questions 17. What information is communicated through the waggle dance of the honeybee? Give a plausible hypothesis for the origin of this behavior.

Answer: The bee conveys both the distance and the compass direction to the food source. The dance may have evolved from pre-existing behavior that was crucial in nest-finding, or it may have evolved incrementally in previous lineages that developed mechanisms to share information about nectar quality, direction, and distance.

Learning Objective: 8.1.3 Integrate how animals convey referential information about their environment, and the way in which this influences their fitness.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 18. Refer to the figure.

Each data point on the graph represents a population of guppies. What can be inferred from the data concerning the female guppies’ interest in orange foods and the male guppies’ orange coloring? State a hypothesis for why males are orange.

Answer: The foraging preference for orange foods varies between populations, and the female preference for orange males is correlated with the strength of the preference for orange foods.

Hypothesis: Males evolved orange coloring to exploit females’ pre-existing bias for orange.

Learning Objective: 8.2.2 Connect the role of a sensory drive to sensory exploitation and the evolution of signals via preexisting biases. © Oxford University Press

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Bloom’s Level: 5. Evaluating 19. Elaborate male traits that are used in mate choice of birds in a given species B are entirely absent in distantly related sister taxon, A. However, males of species A that are artificially altered to possess these elaborate traits are preferred by females of species A. Which is more likely to have evolved first in species B, the male trait or the female preference?

Answer: Female preference is likely to have preceded the eventual evolution of the elaborate male traits. (Students could also answer that the male trait may have been lost and regained while these populations evolved into multiple species, and that the female preference is a holdover from an ancestor with elaborate male traits).

Learning Objective: 8.2.3 Consider how scientists determine if a signal evolved via preexisting traits versus preexisting preferences.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 20. In animal communication, why does it benefit a sender to use honest signaling for body size and shape?

Answer: The sender who relies on honest signaling can minimize negative encounters with individuals of higher and lower rank. In the absence of signaling, an individual needs to interact directly with others to determine rank, introducing opportunity to become injured or sick.

Learning Objective: 8.3.2 Use a cost-benefit analysis to assess the fitness benefits and production, maintenance, and trade-off costs of honest signals.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 21. How does a sensory drive contribute to sensory exploitation and the evolution of signals via preexisting biases?

Answer: Sensory drives are under natural selection to optimize the ability to detect certain signals within the specific environment. This leads to a bias for detecting some things more than others. This bias can then be exploited by the signal sender.

Learning Objective: 8.2.2 Connect the role of a sensory drive to sensory exploitation and the evolution of signals via preexisting biases.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 22. Female spotted hyenas have a pseudopenis that is used in greeting displays. Describe a potential hypothesis for the evolution of the pseudopenis if the pseudopenis is non-adaptive, and if the pseudopenis is adaptive.

Answer: If the pseudopenis is non-adaptive, it may have developed as a by-product of another adaptive change that had positive fitness effects and may have resulted in high testosterone levels in females (by-product hypothesis). If the pseudopenis is adaptive, it may be used to signal subordination or willingness to bond with other individuals (submission hypothesis), or promote the formation of cooperative coalitions (social-bonding hypothesis).

Learning Objective: 8.3.1 Compare adaptive and non-adaptive explanations for the pseudopenis display in female hyenas.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding

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Test Bank to accompany

Animal Behavior, International Twelfth Edition John Alcock, Linda Green, Paul Nolan, Stefanie Siller and Dustin Rubenstein Chapter 9: Reproductive Behavior Multiple Choice Questions 1. Male fifteen-spined sticklebacks that shake their body frequently when courting also provide more nest fanning of their eggs, and are preferred by females. This is an example of a. direct benefits. b. the good genes model of sexual selection. c. the runaway selection model of sexual selection. d. the chase-away selection model of sexual selection.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 9.3.1 Explain how male traits and behaviors provide an honest signal of direct or indirect benefits that females can use to choose mates.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 2. Male satin bowerbirds that build well-constructed bowers also perform better on cognitive tests, and have higher mating success. This is an example of a. direct benefits. b. the good genes model of sexual selection. c. the runaway selection model of sexual selection. d. the chase-away selection model of sexual selection.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 9.3.1 Explain how male traits and behaviors provide an honest signal of direct or indirect benefits that females can use to choose mates.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 3. Female widowbirds that prefer to mate with long-tailed males produce long-tailed sons and daughters that also prefer males with long tails. This is an example of a. direct benefits. b. the good genes model of sexual selection. c. the runaway selection model of sexual selection. d. the chase-away selection model of sexual selection.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 9.3.3 Compare the processes and fitness consequences of the runaway versus chase-away models of sexual selection to explain the evolution of exaggerated male traits.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 4. Female fruit flies prefer to mate with large males. This mate choice lowers the female’s longevity and reduces survival of her offspring. This is an example of a. direct benefits.

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b. the good genes model of sexual selection. c. the runaway selection model of sexual selection. d. the chase-away selection model of sexual selection.

Answer: d Learning Objective: 9.3.3 Compare the processes and fitness consequences of the runaway versus chase-away models of sexual selection to explain the evolution of exaggerated male traits.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 5. A male spider that amputates his own sperm-transferring pedipalps during copulation so as to block the female’s genital opening is an example of a. male–male competition. b. cryptic female choice. c. male parental investment. d. runaway model of sexual selection.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 9.2.3 Review the various methods of postcopulatory sexual selection, and consider the different ways that males attempt to reduce sperm competition.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 6. Female chicks eject a larger proportion of semen from low-ranking males than from highranking males. This is an example of a. male–male competition. b. cryptic female choice. c. male parental investment. d. runaway model of sexual selection.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 9.2.3 Review the various methods of postcopulatory sexual selection, and consider the different ways that males attempt to reduce sperm competition.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 7. Refer to the figure.

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W.Docs Chapter- 9. Reproductive behavior

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Based on these results, which sex has greater reproductive variance? a. Females b. Males c. Males and females are the same d. Cannot be determined from the data Answer: b Learning Objective: 9.1.2 Use the fundamental asymmetry of sex to explain how reproductive variance generates differential selection on traits, reproductive behaviors, and parental investment.

Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing 8. Refer to the figure.

The graph on the right illustrates the concept of a. parental investment. b. sexual dimorphism. c. anisogamy. d. reproductive skew.

Answer: d Learning Objective: 9.1.2 Use the fundamental asymmetry of sex to explain how reproductive variance generates differential selection on traits, reproductive behaviors, and parental investment.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 9. Refer to the figure.

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Based on these results, sexual selection pressure is likely higher on which sex? a. Females b. Males c. Males and females are the same d. Cannot be determined from the data Answer: b Learning Objective: 9.1.2 Use the fundamental asymmetry of sex to explain how reproductive variance generates differential selection on traits, reproductive behaviors, and parental investment.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 10. Persons studying male bluegill (a type of fish) reproductive behavior have discovered three different methods of male reproduction: territoriality, sneaking, and satellite behavior. We hypothesize that these long-standing differences are hereditary. Which of the following predictions would follow from this hypothesis? a. Sneaking males should have sneaking sons. b. The reproductive success of the three types must be different. c. The environment should have no effect on the development of sneaking behavior. d. The presence of satellite males should lower the fitness of those females whose eggs they fertilize.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 9.2.2 Differentiate the bases and fitness outcomes of conditional mating tactics versus alternating mating strategies.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 11. If we hypothesize that the behavioral differences among bluegill (a type of fish) males are the product of a conditional strategy, which of the following predictions would follow from this hypothesis? a. Territorial males should have territorial sons. b. The reproductive success of the three types could be different. c. The environment should have no effect on the development of satellite behavior.

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d. The presence of satellites should increase the fitness of those females whose eggs they fertilize.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 9.2.2 Differentiate the bases and fitness outcomes of conditional mating tactics versus alternating mating strategies.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 12. Males of the marine isopod Paracerceis sculpta come in three sizes: large alphas, medium betas, and small gammas. When the average fitness of each type was measured, researchers found that there were no statistically significant differences among the three types. This suggests that these three male sizes are an example of a. a conditional mating tactic. b. an alternating mating strategy. c. intersexual selection. d. cryptic female choice.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 9.2.2 Differentiate the bases and fitness outcomes of conditional mating tactics versus alternating mating strategies.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 13. Males of the marine isopod Paracerceis sculpta come in three sizes: large alphas, medium betas, and small gammas. When the average fitness of each type was measured, researchers found that there were no statistically significant differences among the three types. The lack of a fitness difference between the three male phenotypes suggests that the behavioral differences among them are hereditary because a. all phenotypes are 50 percent genetic and 50 percent environmental. b. the three phenotypes are three adaptations maintained because of their equal fitness effects. c. the three phenotypes appear to be three tactics controlled by a single conditional strategy. d. the three phenotypes have to be hereditary if they are to help the species improve over time.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 9.2.2 Differentiate the bases and fitness outcomes of conditional mating tactics versus alternating mating strategies.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 14. Sexual selection a. explains the evolution of ornaments and armaments in males, but not in females in species with sex role reversal. b. can only act on traits not under natural selection. c. can lead to the evolution of elaborate traits if they help one sex gain an advantage in mating, even if they also lead to lower survival. d. is similar to natural selection in that it acts on traits that increase an individual’s relative reproductive success and survival.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 9.1.1 Define sexual selection and describe its relationship to natural selection.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding

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15. Why are females more likely to care for young than males in a non-sex role reversed species? a. Male paternity is less certain than female paternity, and males gain more by mating with multiple partners. b. Female reproductive success depends on maximizing both the number of mates and the number of offspring produced. c. Females enhance their fitness more by investing in current offspring, while males enhance their fitness more by investing in future offspring. d. Reproductive competition is highest in females, leading to stronger sexual selection for greater investment in parental care.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 9.1.2 Use the fundamental asymmetry of sex to explain how reproductive variance generates differential selection on traits, reproductive behaviors, and parental investment.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 16. In a species with sex role reversal, males contribute more parental investment than females.

In this species, you could also predict that a. there will be more sexually active males than females. b. there will be equal reproductive variance in males and females. c. females are more likely to be larger and have ornaments to compete for mates. d. sexual selection will be weaker than natural selection.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 9.1.3 Consider the circumstances of sex role reversal in mate competition, and the impacts of sexual and social selection on female traits in sex role-reversed and more traditional systems.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 17. Refer to the figure.

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These results show that a. species with male-biased operational sex ratios are more common. b. female-biased operational sex ratios are more likely to occur in warmer environments. c. the operational sex ratio shifts from male-biased to female-biased over the season. d. there is higher mating success in males in the beginning of the season compared to the end of the season.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 9.1.3 Consider the circumstances of sex role reversal in mate competition, and the impacts of sexual and social selection on female traits in sex role-reversed and more traditional systems.

Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing 18. Refer to the figure.

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These findings illustrate a. Bateman’s principle, where males have higher reproductive variance than females due to sex differences in mating behavior. b. that sex roles can be dynamic and shift over the course of a single breeding season. c. female parental investment impacts the operational sex ratio during the breeding season. d. that sex role reversal is more likely to occur in species in predictable environments.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 9.1.3 Consider the circumstances of sex role reversal in mate competition, and the impacts of sexual and social selection on female traits in sex role-reversed and more traditional systems.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 19. Refer to the figure.

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Marion Petrie derived a number of predictions regarding the role of a male peacock’s eyespots.

Which prediction does this data most directly support? a. Males should differ genetically in ways related to their survival chances. b. Male behavior and ornamentation should provide accurate information on the survival value of the males’ genes. c. Females should use this information to select mates. d. The offspring of the chosen males should benefit from their mother’s mate choice.

Answer: d Learning Objective: 9.3.1 Explain how male traits and behaviors provide an honest signal of direct or indirect benefits that females can use to choose mates.

Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing 20. Refer to the figure.

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Which model of sexual selection does this data support? a. Direct benefits. b. The good genes model of sexual selection. c. The runaway selection model of sexual selection. d. The chase-away selection model of sexual selection.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 9.3.1 Explain how male traits and behaviors provide an honest signal of direct or indirect benefits that females can use to choose mates.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying Short Answer Questions 21. Describe two direct benefits and one indirect benefit that females can gain by being choosy about their mate.

Answer: Direct benefits: females can gain parental care; access to resources or food (such as nuptial gifts); and protection from males. Indirect benefits: females can gain good genes for her offspring that increase their quality or viability; and traits for her sons that make them sexually attractive and have high reproductive success, and preferences for her daughters that make them prefer these appealing males.

Learning Objective: 9.3.1 Explain how male traits and behaviors provide an honest signal of direct or indirect benefits that females can use to choose mates.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 22. Under what conditions would you predict sexual selection to act more strongly on female than male traits?

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Answer: When males invest more in offspring than females (either via gametes or parental care), when there are more sexually active females than males (female-biased operational sex ratio), and when females have higher reproductive variance.

Learning Objective: 9.1.3 Consider the circumstances of sex role reversal in mate competition, and the impacts of sexual and social selection on female traits in sex role-reversed and more traditional systems.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 23. Describe two ways that males compete with each other for females after they have already mated.

Answer: Males engage in postcopulatory sexual selection through sperm competition, and through mate guarding. Sperm competition is competition among males with respect to fertilization success of sperm, and can involve removing the sperm of other males, using mating plugs, producing more sperm, or producing more competitive sperm. Mate guarding is a way to reduce the probability that a female mates with another male.

Learning Objective: 9.2.3 Review the various methods of postcopulatory sexual selection, and consider the different ways that males attempt to reduce sperm competition.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 24. Male bedbugs use a spear-like organ to stab females in the abdomen before injecting his sperm, leaving a wound and causing possible infections. How does this harmful male trait persist, despite its negative impact on female fitness? If this species is engaged in a sexual arms race, what prediction can we make about the female bedbug’s physiology or behavior?

Answer: The male’s genes for this violent behavior can spread if they increase the reproductive success of the males that bear them. If this is a sexual arms race, we could predict that females would evolve a counteradaptation to combat the negative effects of mating (female bedbugs have indeed evolved an elastic biomaterial at the site of insemination that helps seal the wound, as well as a novel immune organ to help fight bacterial infection).

Learning Objective: 9.4.3 Review how sexual conflict drives the sexual antagonistic coevolution of male traits and female preferences.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying

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W.Docs Chapter- 10. Mating systems

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Test Bank to accompany

Animal Behavior, International Twelfth Edition John Alcock, Linda Green, Paul Nolan, Stefanie Siller and Dustin Rubenstein Chapter 10: Mating Systems Multiple Choice Questions 1. Kirk’s dik-dik is a small African antelope that usually forms male–female pairs. It is possible that monogamy evolved in this species because males are required to protect offspring from other rival males. This would be an example of the a. mate limitation hypothesis. b. mate guarding hypothesis. c. mate assistance hypothesis. d. infanticide hypothesis.

Answer: d Learning Objective: 10.1.2 Compare the various hypotheses for the evolution of monogamy, emphasizing the inability for either sex to monopolize access to mates or resources.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 2. Kirk’s dik-dik is a small African antelope that usually forms male–female pairs. Males place their scent marks over those of the female, which hides the signals of sexual receptivity that females produce when they are fertile. This finding supports the a. mate limitation hypothesis. b. mate guarding hypothesis. c. mate assistance hypothesis. d. infanticide hypothesis.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 10.1.2 Compare the various hypotheses for the evolution of monogamy, emphasizing the inability for either sex to monopolize access to mates or resources.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 3. Kirk’s dik-dik is a small African antelope that usually forms male–female pairs. If males are experimentally removed from pairs, females wander from their territories into the territories of other males. This finding supports the a. mate limitation hypothesis. b. mate guarding hypothesis. c. mate assistance hypothesis. d. infanticide hypothesis.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 10.1.2 Compare the various hypotheses for the evolution of monogamy, emphasizing the inability for either sex to monopolize access to mates or resources.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding

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4. Kirk’s dik-dik is a small African antelope that usually forms male–female pairs. If males are experimentally removed from pairs, the number of offspring reared by the single female falls sharply due to her inability to provide enough resources. This finding supports the a. mate limitation hypothesis. b. mate guarding hypothesis. c. mate assistance hypothesis. d. infanticide hypothesis.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 10.1.2 Compare the various hypotheses for the evolution of monogamy, emphasizing the inability for either sex to monopolize access to mates or resources.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 5. Genetic monogamy is a. extremely rare. b. the rule (with a few exceptions) among mammals, but not among birds. c. the rule (with a few exceptions) among birds, but not among mammals. d. never found in reptiles.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 10.1.1 Review the costs and benefits of mating monogamously for males and females across different taxa.

Bloom’s Level: 1. Remembering 6. According to the socio-ecological framework, monogamy should evolve when a. resources in the environment are clumped and easily defensible. b. there is a low cost to search for and find individual mates. c. neither sex can monopolize access to mates or resources. d. resources are evenly distributed but females occur in groups.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 10.1.1 Review the costs and benefits of mating monogamously for males and females across different taxa.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 7. According to the socio-ecological framework, resource defense polygyny should evolve when a. resources in the environment are clumped and easily defensible. b. there is a low cost to search for and find individual mates. c. neither sex can monopolize access to mates or resources. d. resources are evenly distributed but females occur in groups.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 10.3.1 Evaluate how the resource needs and grouping decisions of females dictate male reproductive behavior, leading to the formation of either female defense or resource defense polygyny.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 8. According to the socio-ecological framework, female defense polygyny should evolve when a. resources in the environment are clumped and easily defensible. b. there is a low cost to search for and find individual mates. © Oxford University Press

W.Docs Chapter- 10. Mating systems

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c. neither sex can monopolize access to mates or resources. d. resources are evenly distributed but females occur in groups.

Answer: d Learning Objective: 10.3.1 Evaluate how the resource needs and grouping decisions of females dictate male reproductive behavior, leading to the formation of either female defense or resource defense polygyny.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 9. Refer to the figure.

Based on these results, this species most likely exhibits a. polygynandry/promiscuity. b. polyandry. c. monogamy. d. polygyny.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 10.2.2 Review the potential indirect genetic benefits gained by females for their offspring by mating polyandrously. © Oxford University Press

W.Docs Chapter- 10. Mating systems

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Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing 10. Male great tinamous guard a nest into which a female lays an egg from their mating. The next day she mates with a different male; the first male also mates with a different female, which places her egg in his nest. This species exhibits a. polygynandry/promiscuity. b. polyandry. c. monogamy. d. polygyny.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 10.4.1 Identify the different associations that distinguish polygynandrous and promiscuous mating systems.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 11. If you study a pair of European beavers, you will find that all of the young in their colony are genetic offspring of the pair. This species exhibits a. polygynandry/promiscuity. b. polyandry. c. monogamy. d. polygyny.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 10.1.1 Review the costs and benefits of mating monogamously for males and females across different taxa.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 12. Long-term storage of sperm in some species of tortoise allows a female to produce a clutch of eggs with offspring fathered by multiple males. This species exhibits a. polygynandry/promiscuity. b. polyandry. c. monogamy. d. polygyny.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 10.2.1 Differentiate the degree of control over mating between males and females in polyandrous systems, considering the reproductive costs and benefits, as well as the ecological factors, driving the evolution of polyandry.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 13. Red deer males compete to control access to an entire herd of does, meaning that a single male will mate with multiple females, while other males have zero fitness. This species exhibits a. polygynandry/promiscuity. b. polyandry. c. monogamy. d. polygyny.

Answer: d

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Learning Objective: 10.3.1 Evaluate how the resource needs and grouping decisions of females dictate male reproductive behavior, leading to the formation of either female defense or resource defense polygyny.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 14. Refer to the figure.

These results illustrate that in this species, a. the absence of a male partner does not significantly impact the number of offspring born, but causes a decline in the number of offspring to emerge from the nest. b. the absence of a male partner causes a significant decline in the number of offspring born and that emerge from the nest. c. the absence of a male partner significantly impacts the number of offspring born, but not the number that emerge from the nest. d. the absence of a male partner does not significantly impact survival of offspring.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 10.1.3 Describe the relationship between biparental care, mate guarding and mate assistance, and the evolution of social monogamy.

Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing 15. Refer to the figure.

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Which hypothesis for monogamy do these results best support? a. The mate limitation hypothesis. b. The mate guarding hypothesis. c. The mate assistance hypothesis. d. The infanticide hypothesis.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 10.1.3 Describe the relationship between biparental care, mate guarding and mate assistance, and the evolution of social monogamy.

Bloom’s Level: 5. Applying 16. Refer to the figure, which shows mean area of comb produced in colonies of a polyandrous bee species. In bees, the comb in the hive is where offspring are reared and food is stored.

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These results best support the a. good genes hypothesis. b. genetic compatibility hypothesis. c. genetic diversity hypothesis. d. inbreeding avoidance hypothesis.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 10.2.2 Review the potential indirect genetic benefits gained by females for their offspring by mating polyandrously.

Bloom’s Level: 5. Applying 17. Refer to the figure below, which shows the mean area of comb produced in colonies of a polyandrous bee species. In bees, the comb in the hive is where offspring are reared and food is stored.

While some members of the genus Apis are highly polyandrous, most other bee species are not.

These results suggest that polyandry evolved in this genus because a. females receive genetic benefits in terms of improved offspring viability by mating multiply. b. increased hive diversity increases productivity of the hive because of a varied workforce. c. increased genetic diversity enhances disease or parasite resistance. d. by mating multiply, females can avoid inbreeding, which would create less heterozygous offspring.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 10.2.2 Review the potential indirect genetic benefits gained by females for their offspring by mating polyandrously.

Bloom’s Level: 5. Applying 18. Male plains zebras defend a harem of females that forms to reduce the risk of predation and avoid harassment by bachelor males. This species exhibits a. female defense polygyny. b. resource defense polygyny. c. lek polygyny.

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d. scramble competition polygyny.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 10.3.1 Evaluate how the resource needs and grouping decisions of females dictate male reproductive behavior, leading to the formation of either female defense or resource defense polygyny.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 19. Male Grevy’s zebras set up territories near water sources where receptive females are likely to cluster. This species exhibits a. female defense polygyny. b. resource defense polygyny. c. lek polygyny. d. scramble competition polygyny.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 10.3.1 Evaluate how the resource needs and grouping decisions of females dictate male reproductive behavior, leading to the formation of either female defense or resource defense polygyny.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 20. Male white-bearded manakins gather in an arena, which contains no resources or practical utility, to display to females on the rainforest floor. This species exhibits a. female defense polygyny. b. resource defense polygyny. c. lek polygyny. d. scramble competition polygyny.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 10.3.2 Describe the alternative explanations for why males congregate at leks and why females prefer specific lekking individuals.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 21. Male thirteen-lined ground squirrels search extensively for females, who are widely distributed and receptive for only a short period during the breeding season. This species exhibits a. female defense polygyny. b. resource defense polygyny. c. lek polygyny. d. scramble competition polygyny.

Answer: d Learning Objective: 10.3.3 Review the costs, benefits, and ecological factors that produce scramble competition polygyny.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding Short Answer Questions 22. Give the primary reason that monogamy in male animals would be considered a Darwinian puzzle.

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Answer: Males generally have sufficient sperm to fertilize a great many eggs, which ought to favor males that mate with a great many egg producers.

Learning Objective: 10.1.1 Review the costs and benefits of mating monogamously for males and females across different taxa.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 23. Polyandry in females might be advantageous if polyandrous females were to secure some genes from their partners that were especially compatible with the genes in their eggs. State a prediction that follows from this hypothesis.

Answer: (Answers may vary.) In order to expand the potential gene pool, the mating partners of females will vary substantially from female to female.

Learning Objective: 10.2.2 Review the potential indirect genetic benefits gained by females for their offspring by mating polyandrously.

Bloom’s Level: 5. Applying 24. In the dark-eyed junco, the offspring of females and their extra-pair mates are more likely to survive to reproduce, and have higher reproductive success, than the offspring of females and their pair-bonded mate. While this could be explained by the good genes hypothesis, it could also be the result of maternal effects (females invest more in eggs sired by extra-pair mates). Describe how you could test if these offspring differences are due to good genes or maternal effects.

Answer: (Answers will vary) One option is to eliminate the possibility of genetic benefits by only allowing one male to sire all the offspring of polyandrous females (by sterilizing the other males). If there is no difference in survival and reproductive success of the offspring of monogamous versus “polyandrous” females, then this supports the good gene hypothesis. If there is a difference, then this must be attributed to maternal effects. Another option is to test the hormone levels in eggs, or egg size, laid by monogamous and polyandrous females to determine if females are investing differently in eggs.

Learning Objective: 10.2.2 Review the potential indirect genetic benefits gained by females for their offspring by mating polyandrously.

Bloom’s Level: 5. Evaluating 25. In addition to indirect genetic benefits, polyandry can evolve due to direct benefits that females receive. Describe three direct benefits that polyandrous females receive.

Answer: Females that mate polyandrously can gain access to additional resources from their partner (additional resources hypothesis). Females can also gain more caregivers to help rear young (additional care hypothesis). Finally, females may create greater uncertainty about the paternity of their offspring (“paternal dilution”), thus reducing the risk of infanticide by males (infanticide hypothesis).

Learning Objective: 10.2.3 Evaluate the hypotheses for the potential direct benefits females obtain by mating with multiple males.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 26. Polygyny, multiple mating by males, is in fact driven by female behavior as a result of predation pressure or food distribution. Describe two types of polygyny, and explain how female behavior and needs determine this type of mating system.

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Answer: (Answers should include two of the following four possible answers) Female defense polygyny: resources are evenly distributed throughout the environment, but females form groups either to access those resources or dilute predation risk. Resource defense polygyny: resources are clumped in the environment, which attract multiple females, and these resources are easily defended by males. Lek polygyny: there are no defensible clusters of resources or females (females are widespread or difficult to monopolize), but females come to search for males.

Females may be attracted to a particular location that she frequents often (hotspot hypothesis), dominant or attractive males (hotshot hypothesis), or she may prefer large groups of males (female preference hypothesis). Scramble competition polygyny: there are no defensible clusters of females, the cost of establishing a territory outweighs the benefits, and females are unlikely to search for males or frequent the same place.

Learning Objective: 10.3.1 Evaluate how the resource needs and grouping decisions of females dictate male reproductive behavior, leading to the formation of either female defense or resource defense polygyny.

Bloom’s Level: 5. Applying

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Test Bank to accompany

Animal Behavior, International Twelfth Edition John Alcock, Linda Green, Paul Nolan, Stefanie Siller and Dustin Rubenstein Chapter 11: Parental Care Multiple Choice Questions 1. In what sense is the male hangingfly’s gift of a fly to his mate rather like parental investment, even if the female does not use the fly to help her produce larger or better eggs? a. The time and energy spent capturing the gift reduce the male’s future potential reproductive output. b. The gift may be used to increase the number of eggs the female produces. c. The gift makes it more likely that that male will have offspring in the future. d. The consumption of the fly means the female may live longer, just as parental investment results in parents living longer.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 11.2.1 Assess the survival and reproductive costs and benefits that influence whether parents invest in current versus future offspring.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 2. The Trivers-Willard hypothesis primarily attempts to explain a. variation in the sex ratio of offspring. b. parent-offspring conflict. c. siblicide and infanticide. d. the decline in reproductive output with age.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 11.1.2 Recognize how environmental and social conditions influence parental manipulation of offspring sex ratio to adaptively invest in young with high reproductive value.

Bloom’s Level: 1. Remembering 3. Ghalambor and Martin (2001) found that a North American species of thrush placed higher value on their current nest full of offspring than did a similar South American species. This differential response is due to a. a more abundant food supply in North America. b. South American birds generally living longer than those in North America. c. South American birds generally laying only one egg per nest. d. higher parasitism rates in North America.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 11.2.1 Assess the survival and reproductive costs and benefits that influence whether parents invest in current versus future offspring.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding

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4. Why do birds make a good group for the study of parental care? a. Polyandry is extremely rare in birds. b. They are found on every continent. c. Both sexes are able to provide for their young. d. They don’t discriminate against their offspring.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 11.2.2 Understand the cost-benefit ratio of parental care decisions for males and females and how this drives the evolution of different parental care systems.

Bloom’s Level: 1. Remembering 5. Refer to the figure.

These results indicate that a. chicks with colored gapes received more food than those with an unaltered gape. b. chicks with gapes colored red received more food than those with a yellow or unaltered gape. c. experimentally altering chicks’ gapes reduced the amount of food that they received. d. experimentally altering chicks’ gapes did not impact the amount of food they received.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 11.1.1 Describe how honest parent-offspring signaling systems enable parents to adaptively adjust care behavior according to offspring quality or need.

Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing

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6. Refer to the figure.

If natural gape coloring is dietary, this experiment was most likely to test the prediction that a. parents preferentially feed offspring with bright red mouths because they are investing in nestlings of high reproductive value. b. parents preferentially feed offspring with bright red mouths because they use this as signature to recognize the chicks as their own. c. parents in low quality habitats preferentially feed red-mouthed male offspring because they are more likely to disperse. d. parents preferentially feed older offspring with more developed red mouths in order to facilitate facultative siblicide.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 11.1.1 Describe how honest parent-offspring signaling systems enable parents to adaptively adjust care behavior according to offspring quality or need.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 7. Refer to the figure.

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If natural gape coloring is dietary, these results support the a. local competition hypothesis. b. local enhancement hypothesis. c. signal of quality hypothesis. d. signal of need hypothesis.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 11.1.1 Describe how honest parent-offspring signaling systems enable parents to adaptively adjust care behavior according to offspring quality or need.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 8. Refer to the figure.

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W.Docs Chapter- 11. Parental care

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If natural gape coloring is hereditary, this experiment was most likely to test the prediction that a. parents preferentially feed offspring with bright red mouths because they are investing in nestlings of high reproductive value. b. parents preferentially feed offspring with bright red mouths because they use this as signature to recognize the chicks as their own. c. parents in low quality habitats preferentially feed red-mouthed male offspring because they are more likely to disperse. d. parents preferentially feed older offspring with more developed red mouths in order to facilitate facultative siblicide.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 11.3.2 Explain the reciprocal selection pressures driving the adaptations and counteradaptations of hosts and brood parasites in a coevolutionary arms race.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 9. Refer to the figure, which shows the provisioning efficiency of female red mason bees.

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9. These findings indicate that a. females have a higher provisioning efficiency than males. b. in the beginning of the season the sex ratio of offspring is skewed male, but by the end of the season the sex ratio is biased towards females. c. at lower provisioning efficiency, the sex ratio of offspring is skewed male, but at higher provisioning efficiency, the sex ratio is biased towards females. d. females that are able to provision more efficiently are more likely to produce sons than daughters.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 11.1.2 Recognize how environmental and social conditions influence parental manipulation of offspring sex ratio to adaptively invest in young with high reproductive value.

Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing 10. Refer to the figure, which shows the provisioning efficiency of female red mason bees.

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These results suggest that a. females invest more in sons because they have higher reproductive value. b. when resources are limited, females invest more in sons because they are more likely to disperse. c. lower quality females invest more in daughters because they are the cheaper sex to produce. d. females adjust which sex they produce according to their body condition and ability to gather resources.

Answer: d Learning Objective: 11.1.2 Recognize how environmental and social conditions influence parental manipulation of offspring sex ratio to adaptively invest in young with high reproductive value.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 11. Refer to the figure.

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These results show the occurrence of nest predation by cowbirds on prothonotary warblers. After cowbirds laid an egg in the nest, the nests were divided into three treatments: 1) The cowbird egg was removed, and the nest opening left as is.

2) The cowbird egg and the nest entrance were left as is.

3) The cowbird egg was removed, and the nest opening was made smaller to prevent cowbirds from entering.

These results show that a. cowbirds repeatedly parasitize nests that they can easily access. b. cowbirds retaliate against hosts if they discover their egg has been destroyed. c. cowbird predation did not significantly impact the reproductive success of the warblers. d. the presence of a parasitic chick significantly reduced survival of the warbler chicks.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 11.3.2 Explain the reciprocal selection pressures driving the adaptations and counteradaptations of hosts and brood parasites in a coevolutionary arms race.

Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing 12. Refer to the figure.

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These results show the occurrence of nest predation by cowbirds on prothonotary warblers. After cowbirds laid an egg in the nest, the nests were divided into three treatments: 1) The cowbird egg was removed, and the nest opening left as is.

2) The cowbird egg and the nest entrance were left as is.

3) The cowbird egg was removed, and the nest opening was made smaller to prevent cowbirds from entering.

What hypothesis do these results support? a. The mafia hypothesis. b. The gradualist shift hypothesis. c. The local competition hypothesis. d. The signal of quality hypothesis.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 11.3.2 Explain the reciprocal selection pressures driving the adaptations and counteradaptations of hosts and brood parasites in a coevolutionary arms race.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying Short Answer Questions 13. Bright red inner mouths in chicks indicate the level of carotenoid pigments in the chicks’ diets. How does the signal of quality hypothesis explain why parents might feed these chicks more than their paler-mouthed siblings?

Answer: Carotenoids are associated with strong immune system function, and chicks with brighter red coloring suggest an individual with a healthier body and higher survival potential.

Learning Objective: 11.1.1 Describe how honest parent-offspring signaling systems enable parents to adaptively adjust care behavior according to offspring quality or need.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying

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14. Assume that the red mouth coloring in chicks is hereditary and not dietary; what might be a different ultimate explanation for why parents preferentially feed red-mouthed chicks?

Answer: If the red coloring is genetic and not dietary, we might hypothesize that parents use the red coloring to identify offspring from brood parasites. Other reasonable hypotheses: signal of good genes/strong development.

Learning Objective: 11.3.2 Explain the reciprocal selection pressures driving the adaptations and counteradaptations of hosts and brood parasites in a coevolutionary arms race.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 15. Explain the parent-offspring conflict in siblicide behavior. In species such as the Nazca booby, why do females lay a second egg if they tolerate high siblicide rates?

Answer: In siblicide, the surviving sibling gains greater access to food resources from the parent, but the parent’s reproductive success decreases. In species that tolerate high levels of siblicide, experiments suggest that the second egg is still laid as reproductive insurance against hatching failure.

Learning Objective: 11.1.3 Consider the potential conflict generated by care decisions between parents and offspring, as well as among siblings, and how ecological factors influence this family conflict.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 16. Is parental care more likely in birds with high adult mortality or low adult mortality? Why is this the case, and what evidence can you provide to support your answer?

Answer: In birds with high adult mortality (such as in North American species), parents are more likely to invest in current offspring with high levels of parental care, as the likelihood of subsequent clutches is small. In birds with low adult mortality (such as in South American species), parents are more likely to have low parental care because they will have future reproductive events.

Learning Objective: 11.2.1 Assess the survival and reproductive costs and benefits that influence whether parents invest in current versus future offspring.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 17. Refer to the figure.

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It is hypothesized that egg guarding evolved in treehoppers three times (labelled 1, 2, and 3).

Imagine if the trait actually appeared in the ancestral population at the base of the tree, labelled Membracinae. What is the minimum number of trait changes that would be necessary to produce the presence of egg guarding depicted in the tree?

Answer: Four. A loss in the branches leading to: Hypsoprorini, Membracini, and Bolbonota, and a gain in the branch leading to Leioscyta.

Learning Objective: 11.2.2 Understand the cost-benefit ratio of parental care decisions for males and females and how this drives the evolution of different parental care systems.

Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing

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18. Considering the costs and benefits to both sexes, when is male parental care more likely to evolve?

Answer: When there is a high cost to female fecundity if she provides parental care for her offspring. Male parental care can be adaptive for males when they are certain of paternity, and when females prefer parentally committed males.

Learning Objective: 11.2.2 Understand the cost-benefit ratio of parental care decisions for males and females and how this drives the evolution of different parental care systems.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 19. Why are parent birds more likely to be able to discriminate among chicks and find their own offspring (often with 80 percent or higher accuracy) in social species compared to solitary nesters?

Answer: There is little chance of making a mistake in solitary nests, so there is little to no selective pressure for signals that assist parent-offspring recognition. In communal nesting birds, the offspring have evolved more complex vocalizations that enable parents to identify their offspring.

Learning Objective: 11.3.2 Explain the reciprocal selection pressures driving the adaptations and counteradaptations of hosts and brood parasites in a coevolutionary arms race.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 20. In some colonial, ground-nesting gulls, young birds sometimes leave their natal nests if they have been poorly fed. On occasion, these chicks move to the nests of adults that aren’t their parents. Researchers found the following: • Gull chicks that abandoned their natal nests weighed much less on average for chicks their age.

• If, however, gull chicks were adopted by nonrelatives, they weighed more on average than unadopted gull chicks.

• Adopted chicks are more likely to survive than chicks that remained in natal nests that failed to supply enough food.

• Parents that adopted nonrelative chicks lost 0.5 chicks of their own on average.

• Less than 10 percent of adult gulls take in a nonrelative chick.

These data were collected to test a hypothesis. What is likely to have been that hypothesis? Was it proximate or ultimate?

Answer: The ultimate hypothesis was that nestlings moved to acquire more resources from their foster parents than they would get from their actual parents in order to increase their survival.

Learning Objective: 11.3.1 Review the circumstances in which accepting parasitic eggs is adaptive to hosts of interspecific brood parasites.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 21. In some colonial, ground-nesting gulls, young birds sometimes leave their natal nests if they have been poorly fed. On occasion, these chicks move to the nests of adults that aren’t their parents. Researchers found the following: • Gull chicks that abandoned their natal nests weighed much less on average for chicks their age.

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• • • •

TB - Animal Behavior (12E, Rubenstein)

If, however, gull chicks were adopted by nonrelatives, they weighed more on average than unadopted gull chicks.

Adopted chicks are more likely to survive than chicks that remained in natal nests that failed to supply enough food.

Parents that adopted nonrelative chicks lost 0.5 chicks of their own on average.

Less than 10 percent of adult gulls take in a nonrelative chick.

Explain why gull parents might be willing to adopt the offspring of other gulls?

Answer: Because adoption is rare (only 10 percent), selection has not favored adults with the capacity to discriminate against young birds that are not their own offspring. The costs of learned recognition, such as making a recognition error and not feeding one’s own offspring, are too high.

Learning Objective: 11.3.1 Review the circumstances in which accepting parasitic eggs is adaptive to hosts of interspecific brood parasites.

Bloom’s Level: 5. Evaluating 22. Describe the two hypotheses for the evolution of specialized interspecific brood parasitism, and provide one piece of evidence supporting each.

Answer: The gradualist shift hypothesis states that the transition from parental behavior to specialized brood parasitism took place in stages, with an intermediate intraspecific phase in which parasites targeted nesting adults of the same species. Evidence for this comes from current species in which females lay their eggs in the nests of other conspecific females, such as the American coot and the zebra finch. In addition, species that parasitize close relatives, such the whydahs and indigobirds that parasitize finch species, support this hypothesis.

The alternative hypothesis states that the transition from parental behavior to specialized brood parasitism was abrupt. Most specialized brood parasites take advantage of species not closely related to them that are much smaller than they are, which supports the hypothesis that ancestral parasites abruptly shifted from normal parental care to exploiting unrelated smaller hosts. In addition, a study using the comparative approach found that the probability was much greater that the ancestor of today’s obligate parasites did not engage in intraspecific parasitism, but instead parasitized other species.

Learning Objective: 11.3.3 Compare the alternative hypotheses explaining the evolution of specialized brood parasitism from parental behavior.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying

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Test Bank to accompany

Animal Behavior, International Twelfth Edition John Alcock, Linda Green, Paul Nolan, Stefanie Siller and Dustin Rubenstein Chapter 12: Principles of Social Evolution Multiple Choice Questions 1. Starlings sometimes assemble in large flocks that, in the evening, rise up in whirling flight together for 15 or 20 minutes in what looks like some kind of display. V. C. Wynne-Edwards suggested that this behavior is indeed a display that enables individual birds to assess just how many fellow starlings are living in the area so that they can adjust their breeding effort in the upcoming breeding season. In this way, they can avoid producing too many chicks and thereby avoid overpopulating their home range. This a group selectionist hypothesis because a. the idea is that starlings could evaluate the size of their local population or group. b. the flight behavior of the flock is something that cannot be explained in terms of any benefits to individuals and, thus, must be beneficial for the group. c. starlings do breed in such a manner as to avoid overpopulation. d. the suggestion is that the birds engage in costly behaviors in order to make decisions that are advantageous for other unrelated starlings.

Answer: d Learning Objective: 12.1.2 Evaluate the arguments for individual versus group selection.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 2. Professor Reynolds claims that when male emperor penguins stand in the Antarctic winter, each with an egg cradled between his feet and his belly, the males’ parental behavior is “altruistic.” Reynolds is _______ because _______. a. correct; the males run some risk of dying during the long incubation period and so incur a fitness cost by being parental b. correct; the behavior, although risky, provides the help that is necessary to preserve the species over time c. incorrect; each male is incubating his own egg, not someone else’s d. incorrect; even though the behavior is costly, males have no option except to behave in this manner because of their high parental hormone levels Answer: c Learning Objective: 12.1.1 Consider altruistic behaviors in light of Darwin’s theory of natural selection.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 3. In the bees, ants, and wasps (Hymenoptera), female workers are very closely related to their reproducing sisters only if their mother has mated with just one male because a. they will share exactly the same genetic information that makes up the paternal contribution to their genome.

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b. all of the daughters of a queen receive one-half their genome from their mother, whose eggs are genetically three-fourths alike. c. all females with the same mother are the product of a union between a haploid egg and a diploid sperm. d. three-fourths of the genomes of sisters come from their mother, and one-fourth come from their father.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 12.2.2 Evaluate the predictions of the haplodiploidy and monogamy hypotheses to explain the evolution of altruistic behavior and eusociality.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 4. In a group of meerkats, a male gives a number of alarm calls that in total save the lives of two sisters as well as three offspring of another sibling. But by giving these alarm calls, the male is exposed to risk of attack from predators and eventually is killed by a hawk. As a result of a shortened life, he does not produce three surviving offspring that he otherwise would have had.

What was the direct fitness cost to the male for his alarm-calling altruism? a. 0 b. 0.25 c. 1.5 d. 1.75 Answer: c Learning Objective: 12.1.3 Use the concept of the coefficient of relatedness to explain the evolution of altruistic behavior between relatives.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 5. In a group of meerkats, a male gives a number of alarm calls that in total save the lives of two sisters as well as three offspring of another sibling. But by giving these alarm calls, the male is exposed to risk of attack from predators and eventually is killed by a hawk. As a result of a shortened life, he does not produce three surviving offspring that he otherwise would have had.

What was the indirect fitness benefit to the male for his alarm-calling altruism? a. 0 b. 0.25 c. 1.5 d. 1.75 Answer: d Learning Objective: 12.1.3 Use the concept of the coefficient of relatedness to explain the evolution of altruistic behavior between relatives.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 6. In a group of meerkats, a male gives a number of alarm calls that in total save the lives of two sisters as well as three offspring of another sibling. But by giving these alarm calls, the male is exposed to risk of attack from predators and eventually is killed by a hawk. As a result of a shortened life, he does not produce three surviving offspring that he otherwise would have had.

What was the inclusive fitness of this individual? a. 0 b. 0.25

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c. 1.5 d. 1.75 Answer: d Learning Objective: 12.1.3 Use the concept of the coefficient of relatedness to explain the evolution of altruistic behavior between relatives.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 7. In a group of meerkats, a male gives a number of alarm calls that in total save the lives of two sisters as well as three offspring of another sibling. But by giving these alarm calls, the male is exposed to risk of attack from predators and eventually is killed by a hawk. As a result of a shortened life, he does not produce three surviving offspring that he otherwise would have had.

According to Hamilton’s rule, is this alarm-calling behavior adaptive? a. Yes, because the direct fitness cost of the behavior was lower than the indirect fitness benefit. b. Yes, because the indirect fitness cost of the behavior was lower than the direct fitness benefit. c. No, because the direct fitness cost of the behavior was higher than the indirect fitness benefit. d. No, because any behavior that results in no direct fitness benefit is not adaptive.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 12.1.3 Use the concept of the coefficient of relatedness to explain the evolution of altruistic behavior between relatives.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 8. If someone were to say the reason a bee population contains genetic variation is to enable natural selection to select the best hereditary variants, George C. Williams would say that this claim is a. true, because without hereditary differences, natural selection is blocked. b. false, because selection can cause change even in genetically uniform populations. c. false, because some populations are known to exist without genetic variation. d. false, because it implies that genetic variation will be maintained in populations for future benefit even if the variant alleles reduce the fitness of individuals at present.

Answer: d Learning Objective: 12.1.2 Evaluate the arguments for individual versus group selection.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 9. Bob gives up a chance to marry and have a family in order to go to work in a distant country.

Had he married, he would have had two surviving offspring. He sends money back to his sister, who as a result produces five surviving offspring instead of the two she would have had without Bob’s assistance. What was Bob’s cost to himself in units of direct fitness (such as children)? a. 1 b. 1.5 c. 2 d. 3 Answer: a Learning Objective: 12.1.3 Use the concept of the coefficient of relatedness to explain the evolution of altruistic behavior between relatives.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying

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10. Bob gives up a chance to marry and have a family in order to go to work in a distant country.

Had he married, he would have had two surviving offspring. He sends money back to his sister, who as a result produces five surviving offspring instead of the two she would have had without Bob’s assistance. What was Bob’s benefit to himself in units of indirect fitness (such as children)? a. 0.5 b. 0.75 c. 1.5 d. 3 Answer: b Learning Objective: 12.1.3 Use the concept of the coefficient of relatedness to explain the evolution of altruistic behavior between relatives.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 11. Bob gives up a chance to marry and have a family in order to go to work in a distant country.

Had he married, he would have had two surviving offspring. He sends money back to his sister, who as a result produces five surviving offspring instead of the two she would have had without Bob’s assistance. According to Hamilton’s rule, Bob’s decision was a. adaptive. b. maladaptive. c. adaptable. d. adaptationist.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 12.1.3 Use the concept of the coefficient of relatedness to explain the evolution of altruistic behavior between relatives.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 12. One of the main benefits ascribed to using multilevel selection to explain the evolution of complex social behavior is that it a. combines individual- and group-level selection into a single framework. b. provides a more accurate calculation of the contribution of alleles to the next generation. c. produces clear and testable hypotheses to understand the evolution of social behaviors. d. can be used to understand the evolution of eusociality.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 12.2.1 Compare and contrast the arguments for inclusive fitness theory with multilevel selection to explain the evolution of complex social behavior.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Remembering 13. One of the main benefits ascribed to using inclusive fitness theory to explain the evolution of complex social behavior is that it a. combines individual- and group-level selection into a single framework. b. provides a more accurate calculation of the contribution of alleles to the next generation. c. produces clear and testable hypotheses to understand the evolution of social behaviors. d. can be used to understand the evolution of eusociality.

Answer: c

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Learning Objective: 12.2.1 Compare and contrast the arguments for inclusive fitness theory with multilevel selection to explain the evolution of complex social behavior.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Remembering 14. What is wrong with the following statement: “An adaptation is a trait whose fitness benefits (B) exceed its costs (C).” a. An adaptation can have higher C than B if the trait helps the species survive. b. The benefits associated with an adaptation must be greater than the costs, and in addition the trait must help individuals to survive. c. The benefits associated with an adaptation must be greater than the costs, and in addition the difference between B and C must be greater than that associated with any other alternative trait. d. The benefits associated with an adaptation must be greater than the costs, and in addition the trait must be more common than any other alternative trait in the population.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 12.1.3 Use the concept of the coefficient of relatedness to explain the evolution of altruistic behavior between relatives.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 15. Refer to the figure.

These results demonstrate that a. policing behavior of workers increases the reproductive skew between queens. b. workers with higher degrees of relatedness exhibit less effective policing behavior. c. the better workers are at policing, the less workers are able to gain direct fitness. d. queen overproduction is more likely to occur in colonies with low policing and a large number of workers’ sons.

Answer: c

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Learning Objective:12.3.1 Review the various forms of policing behavior used in conflicts over breeding opportunities and resources.

Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing 16. Refer to the figure.

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W.Docs Chapter- 12. Principles of social evolution

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These results indicate that a. polyandry evolved from a single common ancestor. b. the ancestral species of each eusocial group was monogamous. c. altruism only occurs in polyandrous species. d. haplodiploidy inheritance explains the evolution of eusociality.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 12.2.2 Evaluate the predictions of the haplodiploidy and monogamy hypotheses to explain the evolution of altruistic behavior and eusociality.

Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing 17. Refer to the figure.

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W.Docs Chapter- 12. Principles of social evolution

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What hypothesis do these results support? a. The monogamy hypothesis for the evolution of eusociality. b. The haplodiploidy hypothesis for the evolution of eusociality. c. The kin selection hypothesis for the evolution of altruism. d. The group selection hypothesis for the evolution of altruism.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 12.2.2 Evaluate the predictions of the haplodiploidy and monogamy hypotheses to explain the evolution of altruistic behavior and eusociality.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying Short Answer Questions 18. Explain why the coefficient of relatedness is important for biologists studying the evolution of altruism.

Answer: Measures of inclusive fitness are based in part on the degree to which two individuals are related, and the genetic consequences of helping for an individual depend on the helped individual’s coefficient of relatedness with the helper. Without the coefficient of relatedness, we couldn’t accurately calculate the costs and benefits of altruism.

Learning Objective: 12.1.3 Use the concept of the coefficient of relatedness to explain the evolution of altruistic behavior between relatives.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 19. The activity of N2RB gene declines in older mice and causes a decline in learning ability.

Some have suggested that this is beneficial, because it means older mice cannot forage as efficiently as they once did, which frees up resources for the next generation. How is this hypothesis based on group selection?

Answer: The trait of interest is said to cause individuals to sacrifice some reproductive opportunities in order to help another generation of (unrelated) mice to grow and reproduce.

Learning Objective: 12.1.2 Evaluate the arguments for individual versus group selection.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 20. Compare the monogamy hypothesis and the haplodiploidy hypothesis for the evolution of eusociality. Describe one prediction for each hypothesis.

Answer: The monogamy hypothesis states that sterile workers and eusociality are more likely to evolve in systems with lifetime monogamy because it ensures that siblings are highly related.

One prediction is that the ancestral species for today’s eusocial species should be monogamous.

The haplodiploidy hypothesis states that the relatedness asymmetries generated by haplodiploid inheritance promotes the evolution of altruism in females because they are more related to their sisters than to their offspring. One prediction that is sterile workers should bias their help toward their reproductive sisters rather than toward their brothers.

Learning Objective: 12.2.2 Evaluate the predictions of the haplodiploidy and monogamy hypotheses to explain the evolution of altruistic behavior and eusociality.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding

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Test Bank to accompany

Animal Behavior, International Twelfth Edition John Alcock, Linda Green, Paul Nolan, Stefanie Siller and Dustin Rubenstein Chapter 13: Social Behavior and Sociality Multiple Choice Questions 1. Refer to the figure.

The point of the prisoner’s dilemma diagram is to a. illustrate the adaptive value of cooperation between two individuals. b. show that under most circumstances, reciprocity would probably be selected against. c. predict that altruism rather than reciprocity explains why animals cooperate. d. show why reciprocity is so common and widespread in the animal kingdom.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 13.1.2 Using the prisoner’s dilemma model, demonstrate how reciprocity with non-kin could evolve, and consider the impacts of this behavior on social structure and individual fitness.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 2. Kin selection theory is most useful in helping explain a. cooperative hunting by the members of a lion pride. b. reciprocity that occurs by hunting in groups of lions. c. altruism exhibited by some hunting lions in a group. d. the exploitation of some helpful lions by others in their pride.

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Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 3. The prisoner’s dilemma describes a. the decision faced by aphids taken captive by slave-making ants over whether to escape or to cooperate with the ants. b. a model of decisions regarding defection or cooperation with another individual. c. reproductive decisions faced by animals at the edge of their species’ range regarding whether to hybridize with another species or continue searching for a member of their own. d. “buyer’s remorse” by a member of a mated pair, wishing to choose a different mate but facing the high costs of searching.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 13.1.2 Using the prisoner’s dilemma model, demonstrate how reciprocity with non-kin could evolve, and consider the impacts of this behavior on social structure and individual fitness.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 4. Honeyguides (a small African bird) lead humans to bees’ nests so the humans will make the wax honeycomb available to them. Similarly, cleaner fish remove ectoparasites from other reef fish. These are examples of a. selfishness. b. kin selection. c. reciprocity. d. altruism.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 13.1.2 Using the prisoner’s dilemma model, demonstrate how reciprocity with non-kin could evolve, and consider the impacts of this behavior on social structure and individual fitness.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 5. Vampire bats need to eat often, and their only food is blood. When one bat is unsuccessful at gaining a meal, it returns to a communal roost where another, often unrelated, bat is likely to give it a small amount of food. Work by Carter and Wilkinson (2015) suggests that this arrangement meets the conditions needed for a. selfishness. b. kin selection. c. reciprocity. d. altruism.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 13.1.2 Using the prisoner’s dilemma model, demonstrate how reciprocity with non-kin could evolve, and consider the impacts of this behavior on social structure and individual fitness.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 6. The fungus Ophiocordyceps manipulates the behavior of worker ants by infecting them with fungal spores, causing them to descend to the understory where conditions for fungal development are optimal, but the ants die. This is an example of

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a. selfishness. b. kin selection. c. reciprocity. d. altruism.

Answer: a Learning Objective: 13.1.3 Contrast the costs and benefits of selfishness versus spite in animal behavior.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 7. Behavioral syndromes are a. personality defects that lead to lower fitness. b. ecological constraints that may promote helping behavior. c. maladaptive social behaviors. d. behaviors that are consistent across contexts.

Answer: d Learning Objective: 13.2.3 Review the proximate and ultimate explanations for differences in animal personalities, and how these could influence individual social roles in cooperatively breeding societies.

Bloom’s Level: 1. Remembering 8. In reciprocity, we hypothesize that an individual engages in a selfless act because they will be “repaid” by the recipient in the future. This expectation is likely to occur in all of the following scenarios, except: a. when individuals are long-lived and the likelihood of meeting again is high. b. when an individual has observed a potential recipient helping others. c. when the individuals are different species and can distinguish their payoff from the arrangement. d. when the recipient can cheat and avoid repaying the altruistic act.

Answer: d Learning Objective: 13.1.2 Using the prisoner’s dilemma model, demonstrate how reciprocity with non-kin could evolve, and consider the impacts of this behavior on social structure and individual fitness.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 9. Refer to the figure.

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Primary helpers are less likely to survive and reproduce the following year than secondary helpers. Based on the results shown here, we can predict that primary helpers are a. related to the breeders and gain direct benefits through their helping effort. b. unrelated to the breeders and gain direct benefits through their helping effort. c. related to the breeders and gain indirect benefits through their helping effort. d. unrelated to the breeders and gain indirect benefits through their helping effort.

Answer: c Learning Objective: 13.2.1 Demonstrate the roles of both direct and indirect benefits of helping and group living in the evolution of cooperative breeding.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 10. Refer to the figure.

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Primary helpers are less likely to survive and reproduce the following year than secondary helpers. Based on the results shown here, we can predict that secondary helpers are a. related to the breeders and gain direct benefits through their helping effort. b. unrelated to the breeders and gain direct benefits through their helping effort. c. related to the breeders and gain indirect benefits through their helping effort. d. unrelated to the breeders and gain indirect benefits through their helping effort.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 13.2.1 Demonstrate the roles of both direct and indirect benefits of helping and group living in the evolution of cooperative breeding.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 11. Refer to the figure.

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Due to conservation efforts, this population of Seychelles warblers increased from 1959 to 1990.

How does the relationship between the number of birds and number of territories change over this period? a. The number of birds and number of territories increase at the same steady rate as one another over time. b. The number of birds and number of territories increase together at first, but the number of birds then begins to greatly outnumber the number of territories. c. The number of birds consistently outnumbers the number of territories throughout the period, but at different amounts in different years. d. The number of birds increases steadily throughout the period, while the number of territories oscillates.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 13.2.2 Consider how territory availability, habitat quality, and environmental stability impact dispersal decisions and subsequently influence the evolution of cooperative breeding.

Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing 12. Refer to the figure.

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Due to conservation efforts, this population of Seychelles warblers increased from 1959 to 1990.

Following the ecological constraints hypothesis, in what year would you predict that helping behavior began to occur in this population? a. 1960 b. 1967 c. 1973 d. 1985 Answer: c Learning Objective: 13.2.2 Consider how territory availability, habitat quality, and environmental stability impact dispersal decisions and subsequently influence the evolution of cooperative breeding.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 13. Refer to the figure.

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Based on these results from a study on 267 species of birds, we can conclude that a. cooperatively breeding species have lower kin structure. b. there is no relationship between mating system and breeding system. c. cooperative breeding is more likely to evolve in polyandrous species. d. cooperative breeding in birds is linked to monogamy.

Answer: d Learning Objective: 13.3.2 Examine the relationship between sexual conflict and reproductive conflict in group-living species that vary in social structure.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 14. Refer to the figure.

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Horizontal bars represent the maximum life spans of three successive generations in each species. The blue shaded areas are the mean reproductive spans. These results indicate that compared to other primates, humans a. start reproducing at a similar age. b. have longer postreproductive survival. c. reproduce for a longer portion of their lives. d. overlap more in reproductive span between each generation.

Answer: b Learning Objective: 13.3.3 Describe the ways that individuals mitigate reproductive conflict in animal societies.

Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing 15. Refer to the figure. © Oxford University Press

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Horizontal bars represent the maximum life spans of three successive generations in each species. The blue shaded areas are the mean reproductive spans. What hypothesis do these results support? a. The life-history hypothesis. b. The pay-to-stay hypothesis. c. The kin selection hypothesis. d. The grandmother hypothesis.

Answer: d Learning Objective: 13.3.3 Describe the ways that individuals mitigate reproductive conflict in animal societies.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying Short Answer Questions

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16. Why do lions hunt together? In your answer, indicate the fitness payoffs for individuals of the group conferred by the behavior of mutual benefit.

Answer: Each member of the team gains more meat per individual per day as a result of combining forces to capture prey. All individuals therefore gain a fitness benefit.

Learning Objective: 13.1.1 Describe mutually beneficial behaviors, both within and among species.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 17. Why do lions hunt together? In your answer, indicate the fitness payoffs for individuals of the group conferred by the behavior of reciprocity.

Answer: Though some individuals may suffer injury by helping their companions capture dangerous prey, they are later rewarded when others help them capture prey in return. These individuals incur an initial cost of helping, but receive a delayed fitness benefit.

Learning Objective: 13.1.2 Using the prisoner’s dilemma model, demonstrate how reciprocity with non-kin could evolve, and consider the impacts of this behavior on social structure and individual fitness.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 18. Why do lions hunt together? In your answer, indicate the fitness payoffs for individuals of the group conferred by the behavior of (nonreciprocal) altruism.

Answer: Some individuals take risks that reduce their fitness, such as tackling dangerous prey to help their companions, with the consequence that the fitness of these other individuals is raised.

In this case, it is likely that their companions are relatives, so that the while the individuals incur a direct fitness cost, they gain an indirect fitness benefit.

Learning Objective: 13.1.2 Using the prisoner’s dilemma model, demonstrate how reciprocity with non-kin could evolve, and consider the impacts of this behavior on social structure and individual fitness.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 19. Why do lions hunt together? In your answer, indicate the fitness payoffs for individuals of the group conferred by the behavior of selfishness.

Answer: Some lions simply follow others that do the actual risk-taking and expending of energy when capturing prey; these individuals, in effect, parasitize the efforts of their companions.

These lions gain a fitness benefit while others incur a fitness cost.

Learning Objective: 13.1.3 Contrast the costs and benefits of selfishness versus spite in animal behavior.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying 20. There are many costs and benefits to cooperative breeding. Select two of the proposed hypotheses and explain how they apply to cooperative breeding: kin selection hypothesis, group augmentation hypothesis, ecological constraints hypothesis, life history hypothesis, benefits-ofphilopatry hypothesis, temporal variability hypothesis.

Answer: (The provided list of hypotheses can be omitted or shortened to match instructor’s needs and coverage in the course). See page 447 in the text for a brief description of each hypothesis.

This question could also be adapted by asking students to “Explicitly highlight an example from class that supports your answer.”

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Learning Objective(s): 13.2.1 Demonstrate the roles of both direct and indirect benefits of helping and group living in the evolution of cooperative breeding.

13.2.2 Consider how territory availability, habitat quality, and environmental stability impact dispersal decisions and subsequently influence the evolution of cooperative breeding.

Bloom’s Level: 2. Understanding 21. Refer to the figure.

The female white-fronted bee-eater has several options to choose among when deciding to reproduce. What factors affect whether the female stays in her natal territory?

Answer: If one or both of her parents have disappeared from the natal site, she is unlikely to remain as a helper because her relatedness to the offspring is low. If she is courted by a dominant male with an established territory and helpers, she will leave the natal site to breed. If only

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subordinate males are available, she will be a non-participant or remain at the natal site as a helper (to her parents).

Learning Objective: 13.2.2 Consider how territory availability, habitat quality, and environmental stability impact dispersal decisions and subsequently influence the evolution of cooperative breeding.

Bloom’s Level: 1. Remembering 22. Refer to the figure.

Based on the data in the figure, describe why female Polistes wasps are more likely to be helpers to a foundress rather than establish their own nest as a solitary foundress. What type of social interaction does this helping behavior illustrate, and why?

Answer: Solitary foundresses have similarly low reproductive output compared to helper foundresses that only succeed in subordinate egg laying opportunities, but they have much lower reproductive success compared to helpers that inherit an established colony. These females have 2−4 times more offspring than the solitary foundress. This helping behavior is one of mutual benefit, because by helping the dominant female, the subordinate can inherit the nest and derive future reproductive benefits.

Learning Objective: 13.1.1 Describe mutually beneficial behaviors, both within and among species.

Bloom’s Level: 4. Analyzing 23. Describe the relationship between the grandmother hypothesis and reproductive senescence, and provide an example of a species that illustrates this hypothesis.

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Answer: Reproductive senescence is where individuals invest less in reproduction as they age.

The grandmother hypothesis furthers this by suggesting that because older females no longer capable of breeding can gain indirect fitness by helping their existing offspring reproduce, selection should favor postreproductive survival. One possible example of this is killer whales, where because females are less likely to produce offspring as they age, older females become helpers instead, aiding their daughters in rearing their grand-offspring. Killer whales also have the longest postreproductive life span of any nonhuman animal, thus supporting the grandmother hypothesis.

Learning Objective: 13.3.3 Describe the ways that individuals mitigate reproductive conflict in animal societies.

Bloom’s Level: 3. Applying

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Test Bank to accompany

Animal Behavior, International Twelfth Edition John Alcock, Linda Green, Paul Nolan, Stefanie Siller and Dustin Rubenstein Chapter 14: Human Behavior Multiple Choice 1. Which hypothesis is based on group-selection theory? a. Adoption provides assistance for offspring of relatives, thereby enjoying an indirect fitness benefit. b. An adopter gains by demonstrating wealth, which makes the head of the family more attractive to potential partners in polygynous societies. c. An adopter acquires offspring who will help produce material wealth for his or her family. d. An adopter benefits his or her society by providing assistance to an individual otherwise likely to die or be a burden to the tribe or clan.

Answer: d 2. Which hypothesis is based on kin-selection theory? a. Adoption provides assistance for offspring of relatives, thereby enjoying an indirect fitness benefit. b. An adopter gains by demonstrating wealth, which makes the head of the family more attractive to potential partners in polygynous societies. c. An adopter acquires offspring who will help produce material wealth for his or her family. d. An adopter benefits his or her society by providing assistance to an individual otherwise likely to die or be a burden to the tribe or clan.

Answer: a 3. Which hypothesis is based on natural-selection theory? a. Adoption provides assistance for offspring of relatives, thereby enjoying an indirect fitness benefit. b. An adopter gains by demonstrating wealth, which makes the head of the family more attractive to potential partners in polygynous societies. c. An adopter acquires offspring who will help produce material wealth for his or her family. d. An adopter benefits his or her society by providing assistance to an individual otherwise likely to die or be a burden to the tribe or clan.

Answer: c

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4. Which hypothesis is based on sexual-selection theory? a. Adoption provides assistance for offspring of relatives, thereby enjoying an indirect fitness benefit. b. An adopter gains by demonstrating wealth, which makes the head of the family more attractive to potential partners in polygynous societies. c. An adopter acquires offspring who will help produce material wealth for his or her family. d. An adopter benefits his or her society by providing assistance to an individual otherwise likely to die or be a burden to the tribe or clan.

Answer: b 5. What significance can we attach to the fact that the verbal ability scores of adopted children are more similar to those of their biological parents than to their those of their adoptive parents? a. This shows the importance of early experience in shaping a child’s behavior. b. This demonstrates that environment is more important than genetics in the development of a person’s verbal abilities. c. This constitutes a scientific conclusion that the correlation between verbal ability scores of biological parents and the children that have been reared by others is about 0.35. d. This is contrary to the idea that people experiencing different environments should exhibit different behaviors.

Answer: d

Short Answer 6. When choosing between two males of the same age but different heights, a young, unmarried woman selects the taller individual. What are some of the possible adaptive values of her choice?

Answer: (Answers will vary.) Tall men have genes that make them more protective of their mates than short men are. Tall men may be healthier and more physically fit and would produce stronger, healthier offspring. Tall men may be more confident and therefore more successful in their careers, making them better providers.

7. What makes the study of human twins valuable for understanding the genetic causes of behavior?

Answer: Comparing certain characteristics of twins enables us to test the hypothesis that some differences among individuals are genetically determined.

8. What two areas of the human cerebral cortex are known to be associated with language? What does each do?

Answer: The two areas of the human cerebral cortex that are known to be associated with language are Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area. Broca’s area is associated with the ability to speak. Wernicke’s area is associated with comprehending spoken language.

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9. How does the energy requirement of human brain tissue compare to that of muscle tissue?

Answer: Brain tissue requires 16 times as much energy to maintain as an equivalent weight of muscle tissue.

10. What adaptive function of language skill was championed by Geoffrey Miller?

Answer: Geoffrey Miller believed that skill in language comes into play during what he calls “verbal courtship.”

11. Name two male facial features that some studies have found that women refer.

Answer: Women prefer men with a prominent chin and strong cheekbones.

12. At what age do men have the highest "market value"?

Answer: Men have the highest market value in their 30s.

13. A seed-eating bird forages in groups with competitive companions. This is an example of a. game theory. b. optimality theory. c. group selection theory. d. conditional strategy theory.

Answer: a 14. Smaller seed-eating birds select smaller seeds than larger seed-eating birds do. This is an example of a. game theory. b. optimality theory. c. group selection theory. d. conditional strategy theory.

Answer: d 15. A certain fish-eating hawk that lives by large lakes can capture more pounds of fish per unit time if it were to hunt farther from shore instead of staying close to the shoreline. The hawk, however, does stay close to the shoreline. This demonstrates that a. natural selection theory is probably not applicable in this case. b. optimal foraging theory is probably not applicable in this case. c. an optimal foraging hypothesis based on maximizing caloric intake alone is probably incorrect in this case. d. the fish species found close to the shoreline in large lakes are more nutritious than those in the center.

Answer: c

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16. If a population is subject to frequency-dependent selection, then a. two alternative forms of a trait can persist indefinitely in the population. b. the rarer of two forms of a trait will become somewhat rarer in the next generation. c. the frequency of an adaptation will become greater over time, depending on the extent to which individuals with that trait outreproduce individuals with the alternative attribute. d. neither form of the trait is considered an adaptation but instead these forms are kept in the species to provide flexibility, should the environment change.

Answer: A

Short Answer Questions 17–21.

Observation: You observe “shaky leaf walking” in a video of a Madagascaran mantid (one of about 1,800 species, a member of one of dozens of genera of mantids, which constitute one of eight families of mantids).

Hypothesis: The behavior is effective as camouflage because it makes the mantid look like a dried leaf blown about on the leaf litter of the forest floor or a trembling leaf on a low-lying shrub.

17. State a prediction from this hypothesis that could be tested via additional observation.

Answer: (Answers will vary.) The mantid should be the size and shape of dried leaves in its actual habitat.

18. State a prediction that could be tested via an experiment.

Answer: (Answers will vary.) In experiments with caged insect-eating birds, individual mantids placed on the appropriate background should take much longer to find than those placed on a nonleafy substrate.

19. State a prediction that could be tested via the comparative method. (Use a legitimate example of the comparative method based on the phenomenon of convergent evolution.)

Answer: (Answers will vary.) The shaky leaf walking trait should appear in two or more families of mantids separated phylogenetically by other families whose members do not exhibit the trait; the several families in which shaky walking appeared independently should share similar ecological pressures, such as living on leaf litter and having predators that hunt visually.

20. State a prediction that could be tested via the comparative method. (Use a legitimate example of the comparative method based on the phenomenon of divergent evolution.)

Answer: (Answers will vary.) Closely related mantids in the same family that do not share similar ecological pressures should exhibit different modes of walking, with shaky walking restricted to leaf-based habitats, while species that habitually search for prey on tree trunks or at flowers should not walk in this manner.

21. State a prediction that illustrates illegitimate use of the comparative method. After stating your prediction briefly, explain why this prediction would not be accepted by many behavioral biologists.

Answer: (Answers will vary.) The shaky walking trait should be present only in camouflaged,

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leaf-like mantids that are hunted by birds and live in areas where the background matches their appearance. This prediction fails to recognize that cases in which two or more closely related species share the same trait as a result of a recent shared ancestor do not constitute powerful comparative support for hypotheses on the adaptive value of a given trait. Shared ancestry as a cause for similar traits is not the same as the independent evolution of the trait in response to a particular ecological pressure via convergent evolution. The mantids in question may have retained a particular trait from a common ancestor, which provides an explanation in terms of evolutionary history rather than adaptive value, per se.

22. Several hundred male bees will sometimes gather in the evening to sleep on the dried stems of a shrub. A predatory assassin bug sometimes visits the bees and kills some as they are settling down. Present three hypotheses on the possible adaptive, antipredator value of these sleeping aggregations. For each hypothesis, present a piece of evidence that would enable you to reject the hypothesis.

Answer: Hypothesis 1. The improved vigilance hypothesis: More bees = more eyes = sooner detection of bug = faster dispersal of bees from danger. Evidence that rejects hypothesis: The bees do not disperse after settling down to sleep even when some of their fellow bees are under attack.

Hypothesis 2. The selfish herd hypothesis: The bees aggregate in order to use other individuals as living shields behind which to hide. Evidence that rejects hypothesis: The bees do not jostle or compete for the safer central positions within the group.

Hypothesis 3. The dilution-effect hypothesis: The bees aggregate in order to lower the risk of being unlucky victims of the assassin bug on a given evening. Evidence that rejects hypothesis: Larger sleeping groups attract proportionately more predators, so that the risk of dying is the same no matter what the size of the group.

Questions 23–24.

In the “Finding Food” episode of his series Trials of Life, Sir David Attenborough features a hummingbird species that feeds almost exclusively on the nectar of the Heliconia flower. He explains that each hummingbird has a circuit that takes it from one plant to another, with the bird arriving regularly at a given flower after a set period. It could take 30 minutes, more or less, to complete the round trip.

23. In one sentence, explain why the following statement could be wrong: “The bird is behaving optimally because it is getting enough energy to continue making its foraging circuit.”

Answer: Because an optimal forager maximizes its fitness as a result of its behavioral decisions, merely taking in enough calories to survive may not be optimal, particularly if there are factors other than caloric intake that affect a forager’s fitness.

24. The hummingbird does not immediately insert its beak into many Heliconia flowers but hesitates before approaching the flowers more closely. How might this hesitation still be consistent with at least one optimal foraging hypothesis? (Consider the different factors that might contribute to true optimality.)

Answer: If optimality involves a consideration of the risks facing a forager, then a hesitation that permitted the hummingbird to check a flower for hidden predators, especially bird-eating snakes, might enhance the individual’s fitness even while decreasing the rate of nectar intake.

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Alternatively, if by checking the flower the hummingbird was able to better position its bill within the flower, an increase in pre-insertion time might lead to more efficient removal of the flower’s nectar.

25. Name two female features that some studies have found that men prefer.

Answer: Some studies have found that men prefer women with large breasts and a waist circumference that is smaller than hip circumference.

26. What is the "Ovulatory Shift Hypothesis"?

Answer: The Ovulatory Shift Hypothesis states that women experience elevated sexual attraction to men with characteristics that reflect male genetic quality when the women are most fertile.

27. In about what percentage of pre-industrial human societies was men having multiple wives culturally sanctioned? About what percentage of men in such cultures actually had multiple wives?

Answer: In 80% of pre-industrial human societies, men having multiple wives was culturally sanctioned. Out of a range of 0-70%, on average only 12% of those men actually had multiple wives, with a median of 5.

28. What are the usual rates of extra-pair paternity in humans?

Answer: In humans, extra-pair paternity is rarer than it once was. It is now at less 6.

When choosing between two males of the same age but different heights, a young, unmarried woman selects the taller individual. What are some of the possible adaptive values of her choice?

Answer: (Answers will vary.) Tall men have genes that make them more protective of their mates than short men are. Tall men may be healthier and more physically fit and would produce stronger, healthier offspring. Tall men may be more confident and therefore more successful in their careers, making them better providers.

29. What makes the study of human twins valuable for understanding the genetic causes of behavior?

Answer: Comparing certain characteristics of twins enables us to test the hypothesis that some differences among individuals are genetically determined than 2%.

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Test Bank - Animal Behavior 12th Edition by John Alcock, Linda Green, Paul Nolan, Stefanie Siller & Dustin Rubenstein - Complete, Elaborated and Latest Testbank.All (1-14) Chapters included and Updated

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Test Bank to accompany

Animal Behavior, Eleventh Edition John Alcock, Linda Green, Paul Nolan, and Dustin Rubenstein Chapter 1: An Introduction to Animal Behavior Multiple Choice 1. “If female lizards with reddish throats produce more eggs than females with orangish throats, then the reddish throat is an evolved adaptation.” This statement a. is true, because this species has variation, a critical requirement for the evolution of adaptations by natural selection. b. is false, because females with orangish throats could still have more offspring that live to reproduce than females with reddish throats. c. is false, because there is no guarantee that females with reddish throats are the best for the long-term preservation of this species. d. could be true or false, because we cannot tell without knowing whether reddish females outnumber orangish females in this species.

Answer: b 2. The statement “Lemmings disperse from areas of high population density because they inherited this ability from a lemming-like ancestor in the past” is a hypothesis about a. evolved function. b. evolutionary history. c. genetics and development. d. adaptive value.

Answer: b 3. The theory of plate tectonics (which explains the current and past positions of the continents in terms of the movements of huge geologic plates on Earth’s surface) is called a theory because it a. has been shown via repeated tests to be true. b. is an explanation that is potentially falsifiable. c. is an explanation that can be applied widely, to every continent, past and present. d. is an explanation that needs to be tested.

Answer: c 4. In order for Darwinian natural selection to cause evolutionary change, a population must contain individuals that differ hereditarily in some characteristic because a. in a population without this kind of variation, the species is doomed to extinction. b. when all individuals have the same genes, then all individuals are exactly alike in all respects. c. uniform populations are evolutionary dead ends.

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d. unless there is variation of this sort, parents cannot pass on their advantageous attributes to their offspring.

Answer: d 5. We observe variation in a population of lizard with respect to how fast individuals can run. We attempt to select for the ability to run slowly, not quickly. After six generations of selective breeding of only the slowest with the slowest, the mean running speed of the lizards has not changed. What is the appropriate scientific conclusion based on this work? a. After six generations of artificial selection, the frequency of slow runners in the population has remained unchanged. b. After six generations of artificial selection, the frequency of slow runners in the population has increased. c. The differences between the lizards in running speed in the original population were not caused by genetic differences among them. d. The results are invalid because the researchers failed to maintain enough variation in running speed in their selected lineage, so evolutionary change was impossible.

Answer: c 6. We observe a frog that carries its babies on its back away from where the eggs hatched. Below are two questions about this observation: X. Does the frog do this to move the babies to a place where they will be safer?

Y. Why does the frog expend time and energy moving its offspring from the place where they were “born”?

Which of the two is a true causal question? a. X, because this is the more specific of the two questions b. X, because we can test this idea but not the idea presented in Y c. Y, because this statement tells what we should expect to find in nature d. Y, because it is not a hypothesis itself but could be answered by a hypothesis Answer: d 7. It makes sense to separate the results of an experiment from the scientific conclusion of a research project because a. the data were collected not as an end in and of themselves but to help evaluate a hypothesis. b. the scientific conclusion should refer to what ought to have been collected in the way of data, not the actual data themselves. c. the dictionary defines scientific conclusion as “a proven result,” and the results of an experiment are rarely completely certain. d. it is good to keep all the experimental items, the design of the experiment, the methods used, the expected results, and the actual collected data in one single category.

Answer: a 8. Which is an example of a Darwinian puzzle? a. Salmon can smell a few molecules of chemicals in the stream in which they were born.

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b. Adult birds scream in pain when caught by a predator. c. If two or even three eggs are added to a bird’s nest, the adult birds often can rear them successfully along with their own chicks. d. Bats can catch moths in complete darkness thanks to their ability to hear echoes from their own cries.

Answer: c Questions 9–12.

Consider the following observation: Male song sparrows sing more at dawn than during any other time the day.

9. Males sing to provide accurate information to mates about their physical condition.

This is an example of a. a causal question. b. a prediction. c. test evidence. d. a scientific conclusion.

Answer: d 10. Males that receive a “care package” of extra food the day before should produce more songs during the dawn hour than those that do not receive supplemental food. This is an example of a. a causal question. b. a prediction. c. test evidence. d. a scientific conclusion.

Answer: b 11. What is the evolved function of the pattern of song production by the song sparrow?

This is an example of a. a causal question. b. a prediction. c. test evidence. d. a scientific conclusion.

Answer: a 12. If an adaptation is the product of natural selection, the trait will a. provide a net reproductive gain for individuals that possess the attribute. b. raise the reproductive success of individuals more than any other alternative that has appeared in the species over evolutionary time. c. enhance the survival of the fittest individuals in the species. d. help preserve the species as a whole against the risk of extinction.

Answer: b 13. Contest resolution that is mediated by harmless, non-contact threat displays is a Darwinian puzzle because

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a. the winners of these interactions have nevertheless expended time and energy asserting control of certain resources that they could use if they win. b. the winners of these interactions would benefit from injuring or killing those competitors that would again return to challenge them for key resources. c. the losers of these interactions concede defeat without actual fighting and thereby may prematurely give up resources that would raise their fitness. d. the losers’ refusal to fight strips the species of the means by which it could remove excess individuals from the population.

Answer: c 14. Deceptive signaling is widespread in nature. For example, certain orchids luring pollinator wasps to them with flower petals that smell like receptive female wasps. This case is a Darwinian puzzle because a. the proportion of orchid flowers that set fruit as result of successful pollination is low. b. natural selection ought to favor discriminating behavior on the part of male wasps so that they do not waste time, energy, and even sperm on orchid flowers. c. time and energy spent on orchids reduces the capacity of the wasp population to grow, since the deceptive plants slow the ability of male wasps to fertilize all the eggs of their females. d. it is unknown why orchid flowers evolved to smell like the females of certain wasps.

Answer: b 15. In what way does the theory of descent with modification differ from the theory of evolution by natural selection? a. Organisms can evolve even if natural selection is not responsible for the changes that occur. b. Descent with modification applies only to large animals and plants and not to smaller organisms, like bacteria and protozoans. c. The theory of descent with modification is designed to explain why organisms have evolved adaptations, whereas natural selection explains why organisms can persist unchanged over long periods of evolutionary time. d. Descent with modification provides an account of the evolutionary events that took place as a modern species evolved from ancestral ones; natural selection theory provides a means for why some changes spread through a species while others did not.

Answer: d 16. Although some male crab spiders find and mate with adult female crab spiders, others that find immature females remain with them even though the subadult females are incapable of mating until they become adults. This behavior is a Darwinian puzzle because a. the genetic basis for this behavior is difficult to establish with clarity. b. mating is instinctive in spiders and therefore all males should behave the same way; either mating with adult females exclusively or guarding subadult females exclusively.

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c. males that guard subadult females cannot use the time to find receptive mature females. d. evolutionary biologists would argue that subadult female spiders should not interfere with the ability of males to find mature females.

Answer: c 17. Male monogamy is a Darwinian puzzle because a. females could benefit from receiving sperm and assistance from more than one male. b. polygynous males generally have access to more eggs to fertilize than monogamous males. c. females that mate with just one male have offspring with lower genetic diversity than the offspring of polyandrous females, which harms the species as a whole. d. although sexual selection favors monogamy in males, natural selection does not.

Answer: b 18. Workers in honey bees and other eusocial insects are considered Darwinian puzzles because a. these workers are largely sterile and so should be eliminated over time by natural selection. b. Darwin felt that the self-sacrificing behavior of these insects could not be explained by the theory of group selection. c. the self-sacrificing workers do not live as long as the queens of the same species of eusocial insects. d. queens with a large worker force produce more reproductive sons and daughters than those with a small worker force.

Answer: a

Short Answer 19. Select a behavioral trait that has been discussed in class, and describe a plausible evolutionary scenario for how that trait was produced, incorporating the three conditions (or tenets) of the theory of natural selection.

Answer: Answers will vary with traits, but they should describe variation in the trait, identify heritable component(s) of that variation, and then describe a selective advantage for survival and/or reproduction that would increase the frequency of the trait in the population.

20. What are the proximate and ultimate explanations for the adaptive value of a male langur’s harming the offspring of females in his group?

Answer: The infanticide hypothesis describes a proximate cause: promotion of ovulation in the female langurs, which increases reproductive opportunity for the male langur. The ultimate explanation would point toward a higher number of offspring by a male who engages in infanticide compared with a male that joins a new group but does not kill any existing offspring.

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21. Refer to the figure below.

The graph displays the impact of gull behavior on crows foraging for chicken eggs (mock gull eggs) that were placed outside, on the border, or inside the gull colony. Do the data below support the predator distraction hypothesis?

Answer: Yes, the data demonstrate that with decreasing distance to the gull colony, the mock gull eggs are protected with increased gull mobbing behavior (red). This results in lower predation rates on the eggs (blue).

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Test Bank to accompany

Animal Behavior, Eleventh Edition John Alcock, Linda Green, Paul Nolan, and Dustin Rubenstein Chapter 2: The Integrative Study of Behavior

Multiple Choice 1. I say that a white-crowned sparrow sings a distinctive dialect because its genes influenced how its song system was assembled, which in turn made dialect learning possible. You say that it sings the song because of the operation of the robust nucleus of the arcopallium, which sends signals to the bird’s vocal control apparatus, the syrinx.

Who is correct? a. I am wrong because learning is environmentally determined, not determined by the bird’s genes. b. You are wrong because the bird’s vocal apparatus is called the larynx, not the syrinx. c. We both may be right because our two hypotheses offer two different proximate levels of analysis of dialect singing. d. We both may be right because our two hypotheses offer two complementary levels of analysis, one proximate and the other ultimate.

Answer: c 2. Research results showed that in zebra finches, the sonograms of the songs of a father and his sons reveal a close match unless a son has been deafened early in life. Someone says that the causal question underlying this research was “Do zebra finches acquire their song by learning?” This statement is _______ because _______. a. incorrect; the work was really done to establish that the songs were instinctive b. incorrect; the question is actually a hypothesis, not a causal question c. correct; zebra finches do learn their songs, as clearly shown by the sonograms d. correct; by learning their songs from their fathers, males are likely to sing a song attractive to females Answer: b 3. White-crowned sparrows evolved from an ancestral species that possessed the capacity for song learning. This is an example of a. a developmental explanation. b. a physiological explanation. c. an adaptive value explanation. d. an explanation relating to evolutionary history.

Answer: d 4. It is difficult for a sparrow to learn a dialect, which enables females to mate with only those males with good dialects so as to increase the song competence of their offspring.

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This is an example of a. a developmental explanation. b. a physiological explanation. c. an adaptive value explanation. d. an explanation relating to evolutionary history.

Answer: c 5. Males in different populations have different forms of certain genes that influence the development of the song system. This is an example of a. a developmental explanation. b. a physiological explanation. c. an adaptive value explanation. d. an explanation relating to evolutionary history.

Answer: a 6. The ability to sing the local dialect enables a bird to communicate more effectively with neighboring males. This is an example of a. a developmental explanation. b. a physiological explanation. c. an adaptive value explanation. d. an explanation relating to evolutionary history.

Answer: c 7. Males in different populations are exposed to different songs, an experience that influences the kind of song that the birds learn. This is an example of a. a developmental explanation. b. a physiological explanation. c. an adaptive value explanation. d. an explanation relating to evolutionary history.

Answer: a 8. The differences among dialects are environmentally determined, not genetically controlled. This is an example of a. a developmental explanation. b. a physiological explanation. c. an adaptive value explanation. d. an explanation relating to evolutionary history.

Answer: a 9. Males in different populations have song systems in their brains that operate slightly differently. This is an example of a. a developmental explanation. b. a physiological explanation. c. an adaptive value explanation. d. an explanation relating to evolutionary history.

Answer: b

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10. Young adult white-crowned sparrows are motivated to match their song as closely as possible to that of their neighbors. This is an example of a. a developmental explanation. b. a physiological explanation. c. an adaptive value explanation. d. an explanation relating to evolutionary history.

Answer: b

Short Answer Questions 11−15.

Young white-crowned sparrows are remarkably good at remembering the sounds produced by adult white-crowned males singing around them. If the learning abilities of these birds evolved by Darwinian natural selection, specific conditions must have applied to the species in the past.

Determine whether each of the following statements about those conditions is correct or incorrect.

11. There must have been variation in the memory skills of individuals.

Answer: correct 12. The sparrow species must have been threatened by extinction at some point.

Answer: incorrect 13. Better than average song “rememberers” must have been able to pass on their abilities to their offspring.

Answer: correct 14. Better than average song “rememberers” must have had more surviving offspring on average than the typical sparrow at that time.

Answer: correct 15. Any changes that took place in the past must have promoted greater population stability in this bird.

Answer: incorrect 16. Refer to the figure below.

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What is the proposed reasoning in Nowicki et al. 2002 for why the experimental group displayed lower values for each of the data sets? (Note: The birds in the experimental group were given 30 percent less food than the birds in the control group.)

Answer: The experimental birds suffered from lower nutritional quality and higher developmental stress, which resulted in reduced song complexity and reduced brain development of the HVC. Questions 17–18.

Researchers produced three sonograms from male zebra finches: a father and two sons.

One of the sons had been deafened early in life. The intact young male’s song exactly matched that of his father; the deafened male produced a rudimentary sub-song.

17. Why were these sonograms made? What aspect of the scientific process are they related to?

Answer: The sonograms constituted test evidence, data, from an experiment designed to determine the effects of early deafening on male song learning; the results enabled the researchers to conclude that the learning process involved the male bird’s ability to hear himself and his father sing.

18. Outline the complete scientific process for which the sonograms are only one part.

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Answer: The experiment must have been initially imagined as part of a prediction: “If we do an experiment in which we deafen a young male, it will not be able to hear itself sing and thus should not be able acquire a good copy of its father’s song.” This prediction must have been derived from a hypothesis: “Zebra finch males must be able to hear themselves sing (or hear their fathers sing) if they are to eventually come to sing their father’s song.” This hypothesis must have been developed in response to a causal question: “In the zebra finch, why do sons tend to sing like their fathers?”

19. There are several hypothesized benefits to a bird that can sing the local dialect.

Describe two hypotheses that explain the adaptive benefit of learning to sing from one’s neighbor.

Answer: The adaptive hypotheses explain the acoustic, social, and/or ecological benefit to learning one’s song from the local environment. The hypotheses are the following: environmental adaptation hypothesis, recognition hypothesis, information-sharing hypothesis, sexual selection hypothesis, and geographic matching hypothesis.

20. In cooperatively breeding birds, songs provide information about the group as well as individual identity, whereas birds with smaller breeding groups (most often composed of only kin) have songs that provide group identity without individual distinction. Why? Answer: According to the information-sharing hypothesis, species with larger breeding groups have expanded repertoires of calls to interpret information about kin and social groupings. If a species has small breeding groups that are almost always kin, all individuals learn the “family” call and utilize it to recognize the group. In larger groups of kin and non-kin, individual birds learn both their natal songs and additional calls as they join with other birds.

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Test Bank to accompany

Animal Behavior, Eleventh Edition John Alcock, Linda Green, Paul Nolan, and Dustin Rubenstein Chapter 3: The Developmental and Genetic Bases of Behavior

Multiple Choice 1. When someone says that there is a gene for a behavior, they most likely mean that a. the gene is solely responsible for the development of that behavior. b. individuals with different forms of that gene exhibit different behaviors. c. the role of the environment in affecting the development of the behavior is relatively small. d. the behavior is unlikely to respond to selection, since there is no variation in the species.

Answer: b 2. Is an adaptation a “genetically determined” phenotype? Why or why not? a. No, because the development of every phenotype requires more than genetic information. b. No, because adaptations are only revealed when individuals interact with the environment. c. No, because half of every phenotype is composed of genes, while the other half is environmental. d. Yes, because only hereditary traits can enable an individual to adapt to changing conditions.

Answer: a 3. Could social and solitary phenotypes ever occur in the same species strictly because of environmental differences that affected the development of the two phenotypes? a. No, because both genetic and environmental factors are necessary for development of every phenotype. b. No, because this is equivalent to saying that the two traits are environmentally determined, which is incorrect. c. Yes, because as identical twins illustrate, some differences in gene–environment interactions are caused only by differences in the environment side of the interaction. d. Yes, because the environment is absolutely essential for the development of every phenotype, especially behavioral ones.

Answer: c 4. The proximate significance of the fact that artificial selection often leads to change in a tested population is that it a. demonstrates that genetic differences are often responsible for phenotypic differences among the members of a population. b. shows that populations often possess the potential for evolutionary change in the present, and so they could have been evolving in the past. c. demonstrates that the environment has relatively little effect on the development of most behavioral attributes.

d. shows that most animal species have a long way to go in reaching their full evolutionary potential.

Answer: a 5. The ultimate significance of the fact that artificial selection often leads to change in the tested population is that it a. demonstrates that genetic differences are often responsible for phenotypic differences among the members of a population. b. shows that populations often possess the potential for evolutionary change in the present, and so they could have been evolving in the past. c. demonstrates that the environment has relatively little effect on the development of most behavioral attributes. d. shows that most animal species have a long way to go in reaching their full evolutionary potential.

Answer: b 6. Gene knockout experiments (in which a particular gene is deactivated) have been carried out to a. show that animal behavior is dependent upon genetic information. b. create two categories of individuals that differ with respect to a single gene. c. test whether a given behavior controlled by that gene contributes to the reproductive success of individuals. d. demonstrate that DNA is the molecule of heredity.

Answer: b 7. If an experimenter is able to select for increased barking in a population of domesticated dogs over four generations, then a. there must have been genetic variation relevant to the development of barking in the initial population in the experiment. b. barking is probably very important to the reproductive success of dogs. c. we have proof that natural selection and domestication are somewhat different. d. the experimenter has shown that if dogs were to return to the wild, the population would evolve toward a higher level of barking in nature as well.

Answer: a 8. Garter snakes only recently invaded California and have evolved the ability to eat slugs since that recent invasion. This provides confirmation that a. evolution acts to expand the diets of animals to buffer the species against changes in food supply that might lead to the extinction of the species. b. the early slug-eating garter snakes must have reproduced less on average than those that lacked this ability in the early populations in California. c. every slug-eating garter snake had higher reproductive success than all the slug-rejecting snakes generation after generation, until there were no more slug-rejecters in California. d. None of the above Answer: d

Short Answer 9. Refer to the figure below.

The presence of older forager bees inhibits the development of younger bees into foragers.

Explain how the data below support or refute this hypothesis, and state the proximate explanation for this phenomenon.

Answer: These experimental data show that the resident nurse bees developed into foragers when young bees were added to the colony, but they did not undergo early transition to foragers when older bees were added to the colony. Foragers produce ethyl oleate in their digestive crop and pass some of this chemical in the nectar back to bees in the hive.

10. Describe an experiment to test whether there is a genetic component for the difference in slug consumption by coastal versus inland garter snakes, Thamnophis elegans. Base the experiment on the results depicted below.

Answer: To identify the genetic component of slug eating, we could genetically cross a parental population of inland snakes that do not feed upon slugs with a parental population of coastal snakes that readily feed upon slugs. We would then isolate each offspring at birth and test the offspring for slug-eating preferences. If slug aversion has a genetic basis, then this phenotype should be observed across many offspring, potentially in varying levels. If slug aversion is environmentally determined, then all the offspring should be equally likely to consume slugs. It would be important to compare the eating preferences of the offspring by using a control food source, such as frog or rodent, to identify if slug-eating preferences were distinct.

Questions 11–12.

The killdeer employs a distraction display in which it spreads a wing conspicuously and moves off, as if injured. This display occurs only when a killdeer is approached by a potential predator while the bird is incubating eggs and not when the killdeer is approached by a large mammal.

11. “The killdeer’s creative responses are the result of its ability to use conscious thought to solve its problems in nest defense.” What is this statement called? Explain.

Answer: This is a hypothesis, as it explains the killdeer’s creative responses as the result of the bird’s ability to think consciously through the problems it faces.

12. “The proximate mechanisms underlying killdeer conscious thought spread over time because individuals with these proximate abilities were able to better cope with novel fitness-threatening situations.” Is this an accurate statement? Explain.

Answer: This is an accurate statement that integrates proximate and ultimate explanations for the killdeer’s apparently insightful behavior.

Test Bank to accompany

Animal Behavior, Eleventh Edition John Alcock, Linda Green, Paul Nolan, and Dustin Rubenstein Chapter 4: The Neural Basis of Behavior Multiple Choice 1. Stimulus filtering is an adaptation in the star-nosed mole because a. this property of its nervous system helps the mole population secure the energy base on which the species depends. b. individuals vary hereditarily in the way in which the mole’s cerebral cortex analyzes sensory inputs from the animal’s nose. c. individuals that ignore some categories of potential sensory inputs forage on worms more effectively than they would otherwise. d. some star-nosed moles leave more copies of their genes to the next generation than others.

Answer: c Questions 2−4.

Refer to the figure below.

2. Which sound frequency (kHz) are the male flies most sensitive to? a. 2 b. 5

c. 10 d. 20 Answer: c 3. The reaction of the female fly to sounds of _______ kHz best illustrates the concept of stimulus filtering. a. 2 b. 5 c. 10 d. 20 Answer: a 4. If the data collected for the graph were not gathered simply to describe the hearing abilities of the fly, then (for the biologists who did the research) the graph constitutes a a. hypothesis on why the fly species has been able to survive to the present. b. test of a prediction on fly hearing ability, based on the kind of sound frequencies produced by crickets. c. check on the prediction that crickets should have evolved the ability to avoid their fly parasites. d. test of the hypothesis that fly hearing abilities are designed to help the species maintain a stable or growing population.

Answer: b Questions 5–7.

Refer to the figure below.

5. The “intensity threshold” on the graph refers to the a. loudest sound of a given sound frequency that a cricket can hear. b. softest sound of a given sound frequency that a cricket can hear. c. most intense response given by a cricket to a given sound frequency. d. least intense response given by a cricket to a given sound frequency.

Answer: b 6. Crickets can most easily hear sound frequencies of _______ kHz. a. 3 b. 5 c. 20 d. 40 Answer: b 7. The graph does not constitute a scientific conclusion primarily because a. it does not contain the prediction that the data were designed to check. b. it does not answer a causal question. c. the data were collected from only one cricket and thus are inconclusive. d. the data were gathered to test whether a prediction was correct prior to reaching a conclusion.

Answer: d 8. To determine whether a circadian rhythm operated under endogenous control versus regulation via an environmental stimulus, it would be necessary to a. find the gene or genes that were involved in the circadian rhythm mechanism. b. demonstrate the animal exhibited normal variation in its activities over 24-hour periods. c. destroy the circadian rhythm mechanism to demonstrate its importance in regulating the schedule of the animal. d. show that the circadian rhythm mechanism could operate even in a constant environment.

Answer: d 9. The behavior described is a. genetically determined. b. learned as the bee matures and interacts with females. c. the product of an interaction between the bee’s genes and its environment. d. not a fixed action pattern.

Answer: c 10. Why is the change in sensitivity of female midshipman fish to the “songs” produced by males of their species a proximate example of stimulus filtering? a. In the seasons when female midshipman fish lack a sensitivity to high frequency elements they cannot easily detect the sounds that they are able to hear in the summer. b. These changes in sensitivity are linked to the genetically determined innate releasing mechanisms of the fish. c. The changes in sensitivity to high frequency sounds occur when it is adaptive for females to hear the songs of males eager to spawn with females. d. The greater sensitivity to high frequency sounds enables females to hear sounds that require a different proximate mechanism than the mechanism that enables females to hear lower frequency sound.

Answer: a

11. You could demonstrate that a particular circadian rhythm is adaptive for a given cricket species by a. showing that a rhythm is maintained even when the crickets are placed in an experimental set up in which they never experience darkness. b. showing that the crickets are capable of entrainment in which environmental cues are used to set its biological clock each day. c. showing that the experimental inactivation of the optic lobes of the crickets abolish their circadian rhythm. d. finding related species of the cricket species in question, those that exhibit different circadian rhythms that can be linked to environmental differences among the different species.

Answer: d Questions 12–13.

Mike May studied the relationship between cricket behavior and the ultrasonic cries of bats.

12. Which statement constitutes a hypothesis? a. He noticed that the hindwing farther from the source of the ultrasound didn’t make a stroke as deep as the other hindwing of the insect. b. He found that with every burst of ultrasound, the wings of the cricket seemed to stop. c. He asked himself, was this symbiosis another mechanism that enabled the cricket to turn away from the ultrasound produced by a bat? d. He proposed that if the wing farther from the ultrasound did not make a full stroke, it should produce less thrust—inducing a turn toward that side.

Answer: c 13. Which statement constitutes a prediction? a. He noticed that the hindwing farther from the source of the ultrasound didn’t make a stroke as deep as the other hindwing of the insect. b. He found that with every burst of ultrasound, the wings of the cricket seemed to stop. c. He asked himself, was this symbiosis another mechanism that enabled the cricket to turn away from the ultrasound produced by a bat? d. He proposed that if the wing farther from the ultrasound did not make a full stroke, it should produce less thrust—inducing a turn toward that side.

Answer: d

Short Answer 14. Why would some bird chicks, such as those from estrildid finch species, have elaborate markings inside their throats? Explain the proximate and ultimate cause of the markings.

Answer: The markings are a sign stimulus to the parent’s innate behavior to place food in the mouth of the chick. They are hypothesized to exist as a deterrent to brood parasitism.

15. Despite the lack of brain-controlled neural circuitry, a male praying mantis that has suffered decapitation by a female rotates his body in a circular pattern until encountering the female’s

body and then aligns himself with her body to commence copulation. What is the selective advantage of this?

Answer: The female may consume the male’s head while still being receptive to copulation.

There is a clear fitness advantage to males that are capable of this behavior prior to their imminent death.

16. The brain’s somatosensory cortex does not consist of neurons that relay information equally from all parts of the animal’s body. Describe an example of this by identifying a focal animal and the body parts that are disproportionately high in neuron input to the somatosensory cortex.

Answer: Examples from text may include human, star-nosed mole, naked mole rat, eastern mole, masked shrew, and East African hedgehog. The sensory structures key for that animal in its environment are overrepresented in the somatosensory cortex (eyes, hands, nose, whiskers, mouth).

Test Bank to accompany

Animal Behavior, Eleventh Edition John Alcock, Linda Green, Paul Nolan, and Dustin Rubenstein Chapter 5: The Physiological Basis of Behavior

Multiple Choice 1. John Wingfield and his coauthors made the following statement early in their article on testosterone and the challenge hypothesis: “The prevailing ‘challenge’ hypothesis asserts that testosterone and aggression correlate only during periods of heightened interactions between males.” This statement is a a. definition of the challenge hypothesis. b. prediction derived from the challenge hypothesis. c. statement about the evidence that supports the challenge hypothesis. d. scientific conclusion.

Answer: b 2. The naked mole rat lacks a circadian rhythm of activity. The ultimate adaptive significance of this point is that a. because naked mole rats live underground, they are not exposed to daily changes in light intensity and thus have no cues for the entrainment of a circadian rhythm. b. the environment of the naked mole rat is such that queens and kings gain no reproductive advantage by having a sterile work force that is active on a 24-hour schedule. c. naked mole rats are primitive mammals that do not have the sophisticated mechanisms that control circadian rhythms. d. naked mole rats do not have the genetic information that would enable them to develop a brain capable of circadian rhythms.

Answer: b Questions 3−4.

Refer to the figure below.

3. What does “LL” stand for? a. 12 hours of light b. 24 hours of light c. 25.5 hours of light d. Low light, as in dusk conditions Answer: b 4. The most significant feature of this record for persons studying circadian rhythms is the a. demonstration that this species has a 24-hour circadian rhythm. b. absence of a circadian rhythm under the special conditions of the experiment. c. randomness in the time at which daily activity began. d. persistence of an activity period in the absence of daily environmental cues.

Answer: d 5. Testosterone is apparently a very costly hormone for males to produce and use. Why, then, has natural selection resulted in the males of some many species investing in the production and use of this hormone? a. Because natural selection cannot override the effects of shared ancestry; because male animals share a common ancestor that used testosterone adaptively, they continue to do so today.

b. Because testosterone helps insure that males will be motivated to search for and to find all the receptive females of their species, thereby increasing the odds that the females will all be able to produce some offspring. c. Because under a variety of circumstances, the hormone makes is possible for males to be either aggressive or sexually motivated in ways that increase individual genetic success. d. Because males that are able to pay the price for producing and using testosterone are demonstrating that they are able to overcome this handicap, which means that they are genetically worthy members of the breeding stock for their population.

Answer: c 6. A statement about the “challenge hypothesis” (in which male birds become aggressive only when their control of a territory is challenged by another individual) asserts that testosterone concentrations in the blood and male aggression should correlate most tightly during periods of heightened interactions between males. This statement is primarily a a. definition of the challenge hypothesis. b. prediction derived from the challenge hypothesis. c. statement about the evidence that supports the challenge hypothesis. d. scientific conclusion.

Answer: b 7. What is a photoperiod? a. The duration of light in 24 hours b. The period of light in 12-hour intervals c. The increase in light over a series of 24-hour periods d. The variation in light that occurs during daytime Answer: a

Short Answer 8. Apply the reproductive readiness hypothesis to explain why some songbirds are able to respond to environmental conditions suitable for raising offspring, even when the conditions are presented outside of the traditional breeding season. What is the ultimate explanation for the birds’ response?

Answer: Some songbird species have been observed to maintain high levels of LH hormone throughout the year, which results in gonads that are relatively ready for action whenever the birds are exposed to good rain and food availability. The RR hypothesis asserts that this persists because it gives a fitness advantage in unpredictable environments.

9. The occurrence of heightened chronic stress can cause an individual to produce and continue to release stress hormones, such as glucocorticoids, that eventually damage the affected individual’s immune system. Why has such an obviously costly response evolved?

Answer: Perhaps because under brief stress a hormonal response is beneficial in that the hormone prepares the animal’s body to cope with stress in the “expectation” that negative conditions will not last long. But when, in rare cases, stressful conditions persist, the continued release of stress

hormones has a damaging effect. On average, stress hormones raise the fitness of the individual even though occasionally they have the opposite effect

Test Bank to accompany

Animal Behavior, Eleventh Edition John Alcock, Linda Green, Paul Nolan, and Dustin Rubenstein Chapter 6: Avoiding Predators and Finding Food

Multiple Choice Questions 1–5.

In the evening, males of a species of bee (Idiomelissodes duplocincta) form sleeping clusters in which dozens or hundreds of bees perch close together overnight. An assassin bug kills bees at these sleeping sites, but usually only one or two bees per night. (A) The bees do not join forces to fight the bug when one appears, so it may be that a bee joins the cluster to dilute the risk that it will be one of the unlucky ones killed at random. (B) The same sort of clustering of defenseless prey occurs in spadefoot frog tadpoles; hundreds of tadpoles swim and feed together in pools containing carnivorous water beetles that attack and kill them. (C) In contrast, males of other bees in the genus Idiomelissodes are larger and more capable of deterring a predator on their own, and they sleep apart. (D) The dilution effect hypothesis receives support from the observation that males of certain poisonous inedible flies do not form sleeping groups.

1. How many hypotheses were tested implicitly or explicitly by the researcher who wrote the paragraph? a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. 4 Answer: b 2. Which sentence in the paragraph contains an example of divergent evolution? a. A b. B c. C d. D Answer: c 3. Which sentence in the paragraph contains an example of convergent evolution? a. A b. B c. C d. D Answer: b 4. Which sentence in the paragraph illustrates an improper use of the comparative method?

a. A b. B c. C d. D Answer: d 5. Sentence B is a. a causal question. b. a hypothesis. c. a prediction. d. test evidence.

Answer: d 6. If a foraging tactic is “optimal,” this behavior a. helps to maintain the population at a level likely to promote the long-term survival of the species. b. supplies a fitness benefit to individuals. c. is an efficient way to collect food. d. confers more fitness on individuals than any other alternative trait in the population.

Answer: d Questions 7–9.

Refer to the figure below.

The figure shows a matrix of fitness payoffs for interactions between two behaviorally different types of gulls: those that always fish for themselves and those that sometimes steal fish from others. P stands for the baseline fitness that a gull derives when it fishes for itself. B is the fitness gained by a thief when it steals a fish from a fish-for-self type. C is the fitness cost associated with an attempt to steal a prey.

7. What causal question is the model designed to answer? a. How can a hereditary thief phenotype spread in a population of fish-for-self types? b. What are the fitness costs and fitness benefits of fish-for-self versus thief phenotypes? c. When can group selection cause evolutionary change to take place? d. What are the circumstances under which maladaptive traits can take over a population?

Answer: a

8. What is the significance of the fact that in a population composed entirely of thieves, the average fitness payoff for a thief is P – C, whereas in a population composed entirely of fish-forself types, the average payoff is P? a. It tells us that fish-for-self types will become more common over time. b. It tells us that the spread of a trait depends not on its absolute fitness effect but rather on its fitness effect relative to an alternative trait. c. It tells us that the thief phenotype is an evolutionarily maladaptive trait. d. It tells us that the thief phenotype is costly for the population as a whole.

Answer: b 9. If B were greater than C, the solitary phenotype would a. perpetuate itself but not increase over time. b. increase steadily over time. c. disappear from the population over time. d. increase until it made up 50 percent of the population.

Answer: c 10. You read that a foraging tactic is “optimal” only if it is the most efficient way of acquiring calories from the environment. This is _______ because _______. a. true; this will enable the species to grow and avoid extinction b. true; selection favors traits that have large benefits c. false; species that collect food too efficiently run the risk of destroying the resource base needed for that species d. false; sometimes animals gain more fitness by sacrificing some foraging efficiency in order to better avoid predators Answer: d 11. A conditional strategy is unquestionably an adaptation when individuals able to switch tactics a. leave some surviving descendants to carry their genes into the next generation. b. leave more surviving offspring than individuals with any other available strategy. c. are better able to adjust to changing conditions than other members of their species. d. experience a net gain in fitness from their behavioral flexibility.

Answer: b Questions 12–14.

For each of the following situations, which theory is most likely to be used by a behavioral biologist who is formulating a hypothesis?

12. A seed-eating bird forages solitarily. This is an example of a. game theory. b. optimality theory. c. group selection theory. d. conditional strategy theory.

Answer: b

13. A seed-eating bird forages in groups with competitive companions. This is an example of a. game theory. b. optimality theory. c. group selection theory. d. conditional strategy theory.

Answer: a 14. Smaller seed-eating birds select smaller seeds than larger seed-eating birds do. This is an example of a. game theory. b. optimality theory. c. group selection theory. d. conditional strategy theory.

Answer: d 15. A certain fish-eating hawk that lives by large lakes can capture more pounds of fish per unit time if it were to hunt farther from shore instead of staying close to the shoreline. The hawk, however, does stay close to the shoreline. This demonstrates that a. natural selection theory is probably not applicable in this case. b. optimal foraging theory is probably not applicable in this case. c. an optimal foraging hypothesis based on maximizing caloric intake alone is probably incorrect in this case. d. the fish species found close to the shoreline in large lakes are more nutritious than those in the center.

Answer: c 16. If a population is subject to frequency-dependent selection, then a. two alternative forms of a trait can persist indefinitely in the population. b. the rarer of two forms of a trait will become somewhat rarer in the next generation. c. the frequency of an adaptation will become greater over time, depending on the extent to which individuals with that trait outreproduce individuals with the alternative attribute. d. neither form of the trait is considered an adaptation but instead these forms are kept in the species to provide flexibility, should the environment change.

Answer: a

Short Answer Questions 17–21.

Observation: You observe “shaky leaf walking” in a video of a Madagascaran mantid (one of about 1,800 species, a member of one of dozens of genera of mantids, which constitute one of eight families of mantids).

Hypothesis: The behavior is effective as camouflage because it makes the mantid look like a dried leaf blown about on the leaf litter of the forest floor or a trembling leaf on a low-lying shrub.

17. State a prediction from this hypothesis that could be tested via additional observation.

Answer: (Answers will vary.) The mantid should be the size and shape of dried leaves in its actual habitat.

18. State a prediction that could be tested via an experiment.

Answer: (Answers will vary.) In experiments with caged insect-eating birds, individual mantids placed on the appropriate background should take much longer to find than those placed on a nonleafy substrate.

19. State a prediction that could be tested via the comparative method. (Use a legitimate example of the comparative method based on the phenomenon of convergent evolution.)

Answer: (Answers will vary.) The shaky leaf walking trait should appear in two or more families of mantids separated phylogenetically by other families whose members do not exhibit the trait; the several families in which shaky walking appeared independently should share similar ecological pressures, such as living on leaf litter and having predators that hunt visually.

20. State a prediction that could be tested via the comparative method. (Use a legitimate example of the comparative method based on the phenomenon of divergent evolution.)

Answer: (Answers will vary.) Closely related mantids in the same family that do not share similar ecological pressures should exhibit different modes of walking, with shaky walking restricted to leaf-based habitats, while species that habitually search for prey on tree trunks or at flowers should not walk in this manner.

21. State a prediction that illustrates illegitimate use of the comparative method. After stating your prediction briefly, explain why this prediction would not be accepted by many behavioral biologists.

Answer: (Answers will vary.) The shaky walking trait should be present only in camouflaged, leaf-like mantids that are hunted by birds and live in areas where the background matches their appearance. This prediction fails to recognize that cases in which two or more closely related species share the same trait as a result of a recent shared ancestor do not constitute powerful comparative support for hypotheses on the adaptive value of a given trait. Shared ancestry as a cause for similar traits is not the same as the independent evolution of the trait in response to a particular ecological pressure via convergent evolution. The mantids in question may have retained a particular trait from a common ancestor, which provides an explanation in terms of evolutionary history rather than adaptive value, per se.

22. Several hundred male bees will sometimes gather in the evening to sleep on the dried stems of a shrub. A predatory assassin bug sometimes visits the bees and kills some as they are settling down. Present three hypotheses on the possible adaptive, antipredator value of these sleeping aggregations. For each hypothesis, present a piece of evidence that would enable you to reject the hypothesis.

Answer:

Hypothesis 1. The improved vigilance hypothesis: More bees = more eyes = sooner detection of bug = faster dispersal of bees from danger. Evidence that rejects hypothesis: The bees do not disperse after settling down to sleep even when some of their fellow bees are under attack.

Hypothesis 2. The selfish herd hypothesis: The bees aggregate in order to use other individuals as living shields behind which to hide. Evidence that rejects hypothesis: The bees do not jostle or compete for the safer central positions within the group.

Hypothesis 3. The dilution-effect hypothesis: The bees aggregate in order to lower the risk of being unlucky victims of the assassin bug on a given evening. Evidence that rejects hypothesis: Larger sleeping groups attract proportionately more predators, so that the risk of dying is the same no matter what the size of the group.

Questions 23–24.

In the “Finding Food” episode of his series Trials of Life, Sir David Attenborough features a hummingbird species that feeds almost exclusively on the nectar of the Heliconia flower. He explains that each hummingbird has a circuit that takes it from one plant to another, with the bird arriving regularly at a given flower after a set period. It could take 30 minutes, more or less, to complete the round trip.

23. In one sentence, explain why the following statement could be wrong: “The bird is behaving optimally because it is getting enough energy to continue making its foraging circuit.”

Answer: Because an optimal forager maximizes its fitness as a result of its behavioral decisions, merely taking in enough calories to survive may not be optimal, particularly if there are factors other than caloric intake that affect a forager’s fitness.

24. The hummingbird does not immediately insert its beak into many Heliconia flowers but hesitates before approaching the flowers more closely. How might this hesitation still be consistent with at least one optimal foraging hypothesis? (Consider the different factors that might contribute to true optimality.)

Answer: If optimality involves a consideration of the risks facing a forager, then a hesitation that permitted the hummingbird to check a flower for hidden predators, especially bird-eating snakes, might enhance the individual’s fitness even while decreasing the rate of nectar intake.

Alternatively, if by checking the flower the hummingbird was able to better position its bill within the flower, an increase in pre-insertion time might lead to more efficient removal of the flower’s nectar.

Test Bank to accompany

Animal Behavior, Eleventh Edition John Alcock, Linda Green, Paul Nolan, and Dustin Rubenstein Chapter 7: Territoriality and Migration

Multiple Choice Questions 1−5.

Refer to the figure below.

The figure shows flight energetics in great white pelicans that are gliding by themselves, flapping by themselves, or traveling in a group V-formation.

1. What is the mean wingbeat frequency (in wingbeats per minute) of a pelican leading the Vformation? a. 45 b. 60 c. 90 d. 105

Answer: c 2. The graph represents a. a hypothesis. b. a prediction. c. test evidence. d. a scientific conclusion.

Answer: c 3. This work would be based on optimality theory if the a. researchers expected that pelicans would, when possible, minimize their flight expenses. b. fitness benefit derived from flying in a V-formation exceeded the cost of the behavior. c. researchers had tested the prediction that other large, flock-forming species would also fly in V-formations under some conditions. d. researchers believed that every aspect of pelican behavior was an adaptation, that is, an ideal solution to an environmental problem of some sort.

Answer: a 4. “The birds in front of the V are expected to be low-ranking birds that are unable to displace physically superior rivals from the more energy-saving positions in the formation.” This statement is a a. hypothesis. b. prediction. c. test. d. scientific conclusion.

Answer: b 5. The finding that both great white pelicans and brown pelicans fly in V-formation is an example of a. convergent evolution. b. divergent evolution. c. the comparative method. d. the effects of shared ancestry.

Answer: d 6. If the distribution of individuals over a set of habitats is consistent with ideal free distribution theory, then a. the fitness of individuals in different habitats will be the same. b. some habitats will attract territorial individuals, while others will not. c. the mean survival time of individuals in the different habitats will be different. d. the areas associated with higher fitness will be occupied after habitats linked to lower fitness.

Answer: a 7. A conditional strategy is unquestionably an adaptation when individuals able to switch tactics a. leave some surviving descendants to carry their genes into the next generation. b. leave more surviving offspring than individuals using any other behavioral strategy.

c. are better able to adjust to changing conditions than are other members of their species. d. experience a net gain in fitness from their behavioral flexibility.

Answer: b 8. A bird occupies a territory in which there are abundant food sources but also high levels of predation. This is an example of a. payoff asymmetry. b. ideal free distribution. c. economic defensibility. d. resource holding potential.

Answer: c 9. If two housecats are introduced into a new home, the one that is brought in a day or two before the other will more strongly defend the space as its territory. This illustrates a. the dear enemy effect. b. the payoff asymmetry hypothesis. c. the new home’s economic defensibility. d. the first cat’s underestimation of its resource holding potential.

Answer: b 10. While studying a species of firefly, you notice that the territories they occupy are constant across the breeding season, even though you observe multiple territorial disputes. Once territories are established, you do not observe a single case of a territory changing ownership.

This finding supports the a. dear enemy effect. b. payoff asymmetry hypothesis. c. resource holding potential hypothesis. d. arbitrary contest resolution hypothesis.

Answer: d 11. Male American redstarts (a small species of warbler) that are in the best physical condition typically are found in the species’ preferred habitat. Individuals in worse condition tend to be found in scrubby, secondary growth. This statement supports the a. dear enemy effect. b. payoff asymmetry hypothesis. c. resource holding potential hypothesis. d. arbitrary contest resolution hypothesis.

Answer: c

Short Answer 12. Explain the similarities and differences between dispersal and migration.

Answer: Migration involves annual movement away from and subsequent return to the same location. Dispersal is a permanent move from one location to another. Both can be costly because individuals have to secure extra energy for their travels (energetic costs), they run the

risk of falling prey to predators in the unfamiliar area through which they are moving (risk costs), and while they are moving they cannot invest time in other activities (time costs).

13. When is being adaptable selectively disadvantageous?

Answer: When individuals that have the capacity for flexible responses gain benefits that are not greater than the costs imposed by this capacity, such as the cost of maintaining the extra neural tissue that makes behavioral flexibility possible.

Test Bank to accompany

Animal Behavior, Eleventh Edition John Alcock, Linda Green, Paul Nolan, and Dustin Rubenstein Chapter 8: Principles of Communication

Multiple Choice 1. If a trait has adaptive value, the trait a. enables individuals to adapt to changing environments. b. confers a reproductive advantage on individuals. c. has spread because of group selection. d. increases the life span of individuals.

Answer: b Questions 2–4.

A spider researcher, Pia Stålhandske, knew that males of Pisaura mirabilis offer their mates a nuptial gift—a prey item, such as a cricket—whose acceptance by the female is critical for male mating success. Males wrap their generally dark-colored food gifts in white silk. Stålhandske wondered if the males wrapped their gifts to make them look like the white, silk-covered egg sacs that mated females make and protect by holding them in their jaws until the spiderlings hatch.

2. The last sentence in the paragraph above constitutes a. a causal question. b. a hypothesis. c. a prediction. d. test evidence.

Answer: b 3. What theory was Stålhandske using to explore this species’ courtship behavior? a. Sensory exploitation b. Ritualization c. Signal d. Descent with modification Answer: a 4. Which of the following predictions might Stålhandske have felt could be correct, given her presumption that males might be making their nuptial gifts look like egg sacs? a. The time for a female to accept a nuptial gift should be less for prey covered in silk that has been experimentally colored brown instead of white. b. Natural silk-covered prey should not be comparable in light reflectance to silken egg sacs.

c. Females should be prepared to accept silken egg sacs that had been taken from them and offered back as if they were nuptial gifts. d. Males that offer nuptial gifts should be larger than males that fail to do so.

Answer: c 5. White-tailed deer raise their tails when they spot a predator approaching; the predator typically gives up its pursuit once it knows that the faster prey species has seen it. This is an example of a. cueing. b. eavesdropping. c. honest signaling. d. deceitful signaling.

Answer: c 6. The American kestrel is a small falcon that is occasionally taken as prey by larger birds. It has two large spots on the back of its head that somewhat resemble large eyes. This is an example of a. cueing. b. eavesdropping. c. honest signaling. d. deceitful signaling.

Answer: d 7. Both the sender and receiver of a signal benefit from the transfer of information. This is an example of a. cueing. b. eavesdropping. c. honest signaling. d. deceitful signaling.

Answer: c 8. The sender of a signal benefits from the transfer of information but the receiver does not. This is an example of a. cueing. b. eavesdropping. c. honest signaling. d. deceitful signaling.

Answer: d

Short Answer 9. What information is communicated through the waggle dance of the honeybee? Give a plausible hypothesis for the origin of this behavior.

Answer: The bee conveys both the distance and the compass direction to the food source. The dance may have evolved from pre-existing behavior that was crucial in nest-finding, or it may have evolved incrementally in previous lineages that developed mechanisms to share information about nectar quality, direction, and distance.

10. Refer to the figure below.

Each data point on the graph represents a population of guppies. What can be inferred from the data concerning the female guppies’ interest in orange foods and the male guppies’ orange coloring? State a hypothesis for why males are orange.

Answer: The foraging preference for orange foods varies between populations, and the female preference for orange males is correlated with the strength of the preference for orange foods.

Hypotheis: Males evolved orange coloring to exploit females’ pre-existing bias for orange.

11. Elaborate male traits that are used in mate choice of birds in a given species B are entirely absent in distantly related sister taxon, C. The last common ancestor of these birds, species A, also had males that were elaborately decorated. Which is more likely to have evolved first in species B, the male trait or the female preference?

Answer: The male trait may have been lost and regained while these populations evolved into multiple species. In these cases, it is likely that female-preference traits remain strong and persist through the divergence of species.

12. In animal communication, why does it benefit a sender to use honest signaling for body size and shape?

Answer: The sender who relies on honest signaling can minimize negative encounters with individuals of higher and lower rank. In the absence of signaling, an individual needs to interact directly with others to determine rank, introducing opportunity to become injured or sick.

Test Bank to accompany

Animal Behavior, Eleventh Edition John Alcock, Linda Green, Paul Nolan, and Dustin Rubenstein Chapter 9: Reproductive Behavior

Multiple Choice 1. The incubation of eggs by a male starling is an example of a. male–male competition sexual selection. b. female choice sexual selection. c. male parental investment. d. female parental investment.

Answer: c 2. The attack of a fellow female’s eggs by a female starling is an example of a. male–male competition sexual selection. b. female choice sexual selection. c. male parental investment. d. female parental investment.

Answer: d 3. The tusk of the male narwhal is an example of a. male–male competition sexual selection. b. female choice sexual selection. c. male parental investment. d. female parental investment.

Answer: a 4. The presentation of a diamond ring to a woman by her husband-to-be is an example of a. male–male competition sexual selection. b. female choice sexual selection. c. male parental investment. d. female parental investment.

Answer: b 5. The transfer of large quantities of sperm to a polyandrous female fruit fly by a male is an example of a. male–male competition sexual selection. b. female choice sexual selection. c. male parental investment. d. female parental investment.

Answer: b

Questions 6−9.

Refer to the figure below.

P stands for “parental,” and the other letters represent animal species. Species V and Y are the only ones that exhibit male parental care; the others are exclusively maternal care species. There are several ancestral species, of which A is basal.

6. Which species lived longest ago? a. A b. B c. C d. D Answer: a 7. Which species has given rise to exactly four living descendant species? a. A b. B c. C d. D Answer: b 8. Which two species illustrate one case of divergent evolution? a. V and Y b. W and X c. W and Z d. Y and Z Answer: d 9. Which pair of species illustrates a case of convergent evolution? a. V and W

b. V and Y c. W and X d. Y and Z Answer: b 10. Persons studying male bluegill (a type of fish) reproductive behavior have discovered three different methods of male reproduction: territoriality, sneaking, and satellite behavior. We hypothesize that these long-standing differences are hereditary. Which of the following predictions would follow from this hypothesis? a. Sneaking males should have sneaking sons. b. The reproductive success of the three types must be different. c. The environment should have no effect on the development of sneaking behavior. d. The presence of satellite males should lower the fitness of those females whose eggs they fertilize.

Answer: a 11. If we hypothesize that the behavioral differences among bluegill (a type of fish) males are the product of a conditional strategy, which of the following predictions would follow from this hypothesis? a. Territorial males should have territorial sons. b. The reproductive success of the three types could be different. c. The environment should have no effect on the development of satellite behavior. d. The presence of satellites should increase the fitness of those females whose eggs they fertilize.

Answer: b Questions 12−13.

Males of the marine isopod Paracerceis sculpta come in three sizes: large alphas, medium betas, and small gammas. When the average fitness of each type was measured, researchers found that there were no statistically significant differences among the three types.

12. This finding constitutes test evidence because the data a. were gathered to check a prediction from a conditional strategy hypothesis only. b. prove that the conditional strategy hypothesis is correct for this species. c. were gathered to check a prediction from a three-strategies hypothesis only. d. were gathered to check predictions from both conditional strategy and three-strategies hypotheses.

Answer: d 13. The lack of a fitness difference between the three male phenotypes suggests that the behavioral differences among them are hereditary because a. all phenotypes are 50 percent genetic and 50 percent environmental. b. the three phenotypes are three adaptations maintained because of their equal fitness effects. c. the three phenotypes appear to be three tactics controlled by a single conditional strategy. d. the three phenotypes have to be hereditary if they are to help the species improve over time.

Answer: b

14. Why might male Mormon crickets have a lower potential reproductive rate than females? a. Because they make relatively few sperm, compared to the egg production rate of females. b. Because males compete so intensely for mates that this shortens their lifespan. c. Because males donate a very large, hard-to-replace spermatophore to each mate. d. Because females make almost no parental investment in their offspring.

Answer: c

Short Answer Questions 15−18.

In the narwhal, females live in groups and males have an elongate tooth (a tusk). We hypothesize that the tusk is a functional weapon that has evolved by sexual selection and enables males with the biggest weapon to be polygynous. We wish to test this version if sexual selection via the comparative method. Determine whether each of the following predictions represents (a) a legitimate use or (b) an illegitimate use of the comparative method.

15. Males of the beluga, the narwhal’s closest relatives, should also use their teeth in clashes over access to females.

Answer: illegitimate 16. The bodies of male narwhals should be marked by scars of the sort that could be produced by narwhal tusks.

Answer: illegitimate 17. In the warthog, a wild pig species in which females live in small bands, the males should have much larger protruding tusks than the females.

Answer: legitimate 18. In a giant scarab beetle, males with the largest rhinoceros-like horns should be more likely to be polygynous than those with smaller horns.

Answer: legitimate Questions 19–21.

Prior to class, go to the Web of Science or the Internet to locate the paper by C. D. MacLeod titled “Intraspecific scarring in odontocete cetaceans: an indicator of male ‘quality’ in aggressive social interactions?”

19. From the references, provide a complete, correct citation for a paper by Hobson and Martin on another whale species.

Answer: Hobson R. P., Martin A. R. 1996. Behaviour and dive times of Arnoux’s beaked whales, Berardius arnuxii, at narrow leads in fast ice. Canadian Journal of Zoology 74 (2): 388–393.

20. Based on information in the abstract of MacLeod’s paper, make a prediction about the diet of the beluga, a very close relative of the narwhal, but one that has many teeth, not just one.

Answer: If the beluga and narwhal have diverged in their diets, as seems likely from their different teeth arrangements, then perhaps the belugas will not eat squid and jellyfish but instead will focus on more difficult-to-grasp prey, such as fish.

21. Based on information in the abstract of MacLeod’s paper, make a prediction about which sex of the beaked whales (Family: Ziphiidae) should have enlarged teeth if these species have evolved convergently with the narwhal.

Answer: If the narwhal’s tusk is the product of sexual selection for success in male aggressive combat, then the beaks of the beaked whales, which are not close relatives of the narwhal, should also be restricted to males.

Questions 22–26.

For each of the following traits, designate PI if the trait is an example of parental investment and NO if the trait cannot be categorized as parental investment.

22. The donation by a mother elephant seal of special nutrients and biochemicals other than DNA to her eggs Answer: PI 23. A female starling’s destruction of the eggs laid by another female that has mated with the first female’s partner (because a male starling with only one mate will help her incubate the eggs) Answer: PI 24. The elaborate ornaments that a male bird of paradise possesses, without which he will not attract a mate Answer: NO 25. The transfer of large quantities of sperm to a female, which increases the probability that one of these sperm will fertilize the eggs Answer: NO 26. The production and transfer of chemicals (in a male ejaculate) to a female fruit fly that increase the probability that the sperm transferred to her at the same time will fertilize her eggs Answer: NO

Test Bank to accompany

Animal Behavior, Eleventh Edition John Alcock, Linda Green, Paul Nolan, and Dustin Rubenstein Chapter 10: Mating Systems

Multiple Choice 1. Sexual selection differs from natural selection in that a. the traits under sexual selection can be environmentally influenced, unlike those that are the product of natural selection. b. hereditary differences among phenotypes are required for natural selection to occur, but not for sexual selection to occur. c. sexual selection can produce traits that harm the survival of the species, whereas natural selection acts to preserve the species over the long term. d. natural selection affects a broader spectrum of traits than sexual selection, which acts only on individual differences in the ability to gain access to mates.

Answer: d Questions 2−3.

Females of a species of fly form swarms in which several dozen individuals gather together to fly about in circles. When a male enters the swarm, females inflate their abdomens and move toward the male, who carefully selects one of the many females as his partner.

2. What is there about this species that constitutes a Darwinian puzzle? a. The means by which females manage to enlarge their abdomen, which requires a special and still-mysterious abdomen-inflating device b. The fact that the members of one sex have evolved a truly bizarre display to induce the opposite sex to mate with them c. The fact that females have to persuade apparently choosy males to mate with them d. The fact that many females have to wait for a mate, which reduces the reproductive potential of the species Answer: c 3. Which is an example of a group selectionist puzzle? a. The means by which females manage to enlarge their abdomen, which requires a special and still-mysterious abdomen-inflating device b. The fact that the members of one sex have evolved a truly bizarre display to induce the opposite sex to mate with them c. The fact that females have to persuade apparently choosy males to mate with them d. The fact that many females have to wait for a mate, which reduces the reproductive potential of the species Answer: d

Questions 5−9.

Kirk’s dik-dik is a small African antelope that usually forms male–female pairs.

4. Is it possible that monogamy evolved in this species because males are attempting to guard their partners from other males? This is an example of a. a hypothesis. b. a prediction. c. test evidence. d. a scientific conclusion.

Answer: a 5. Males place their scent marks over those of the female, which hides the signals of sexual receptivity that females produce when they are fertile. This is an example of a. a hypothesis. b. a prediction. c. test evidence. d. a scientific conclusion.

Answer: c 6. It may be that if males were experimentally removed from pairs, females would wander from their territories into the territories of other males. This is an example of a. a hypothesis. b. a prediction. c. test evidence. d. a scientific conclusion.

Answer: b 7. If DNA data were collected from the offspring of intact pairs, it should be found that the offspring of the females were sired by their social partners.

Hypothesis This is an example of a. a hypothesis. b. a prediction. c. test evidence. d. a scientific conclusion.

Answer: b 8. It is also possible that pairs form in order to protect their offspring, with two adults doing a better job of protection than just one. This is an example of a. a hypothesis. b. a prediction. c. test evidence. d. a scientific conclusion.

Answer: a 9. Genetic monogamy is

a. extremely rare. b. the rule (with a few exceptions) among mammals, but not among birds. c. the rule (with a few exceptions) among birds, but not among mammals. d. never found in reptiles.

Answer: a 10. Male ostriches guard a nest into which a female lays an egg from their mating. The next day she mates with a different male; the first male also mates with a different female, which places her egg in his nest. This species exhibits a. polygynandry. b. polyandry. c. monogamy. d. polygyny.

Answer: a 11. If you study a pair of European beavers, you will find that all of the young in their colony are genetic offspring of the pair. This species exhibits a. polygynandry. b. polyandry. c. monogamy. d. polygyny.

Answer: c 12. Long-term storage of sperm in some species of tortoise allows a female to produce a clutch of eggs with offspring fathered by multiple males. This species exhibits a. polygynandry. b. polyandry. c. monogamy. d. polygyny.

Answer: b 13. Red deer males compete to control access to an entire herd of does, meaning that a single male will mate with multiple females, while other males have zero fitness. This species exhibits a. polygynandry. b. polyandry. c. monogamy. d. polygyny.

Answer: d

Short Answer 14. Give the primary reason that monogamy in male animals would be considered a Darwinian puzzle.

Answer: Males generally have sufficient sperm to fertilize a great many eggs, which ought to favor males that mate with a great many egg producers.

15. Polyandry in females might be advantageous if polyandrous females were to secure some genes from their partners that were especially compatible with the genes in their eggs. State a prediction that follows from this hypothesis.

Answer: (Answers may vary.) In order to expand the potential gene pool, the mating partners of females will vary substantially from female to female.

16. Why have behavioral ecologists concluded that the ecology of females has more to say about the evolution of the mating system of a species than the ecology of males?

Answer: Receptive females are usually in short supply, not the other way around.

Test Bank to accompany

Animal Behavior, Eleventh Edition John Alcock, Linda Green, Paul Nolan, and Dustin Rubenstein Chapter 11: Parental Care

Multiple Choice 1. In what sense is the male hangingfly’s gift of a fly to his mate rather like parental investment, even if the female does not use the fly to help her produce larger or better eggs? a. The time and energy spent capturing the gift reduce the male’s potential reproductive output. b. The gift may be used to increase the number of eggs the female produces. c. The gift makes it more likely that that male will have offspring in the future. d. The consumption of the fly means the female may live longer, just as parental investment results in parents living longer.

Answer: a 2. The Trivers-Willard hypothesis primarily attempts to explain a. variation in the sex ratio of offspring. b. parent-offspring conflict. c. siblicide and infanticide. d. the decline in reproductive output with age.

Answer: a 3. Ghalambor and Martin (2001) found that a North American species of thrush placed higher value on their nest full of offspring than did a similar South American species. This differential response is due to a. a more abundant food supply in North America. b. South American birds generally living longer than those in North America. c. South American birds generally laying only one egg per nest. d. higher parasitism rates in North America.

Answer: b 4. Why do birds make a good group for the study of parental care? a. They don’t lactate. b. They are found on every continent. c. Both sexes are able to provide for their young. d. They don’t discriminate against their offspring.

Answer: c

Short Answer

Questions 5−6.

Bright red inner mouths in chicks indicate the level of carotenoid pigments in the chicks’ diets.

5. How does the signal of quality hypothesis explain why parents might feed these chicks more than their paler-mouthed siblings?

Answer: Carotenoids are associated with strong immune system function, and chicks with brighter red coloring suggest an individual with a healthier body and higher survival potential. If the red coloring is genetic and not dietary, we might hypothesize that parents use the red coloring to identify offspring from brood parasites. Other reasonable hypotheses: signal of good genes/strong development.

6. Assume that the red mouth coloring is hereditary, not dietary; what might be a different ultimate explanation for why parents preferentially feed red-mouthed chicks?

Answer: If the red coloring is genetic and not dietary, we might hypothesize that parents use the red coloring to identify offspring from brood parasites. Other reasonable hypotheses: signal of good genes/strong development.

7. Explain the parent-offspring conflict in siblicide behavior of great egrets. In species such as the Nazca booby, why do females lay a second egg if they tolerate high siblicide rates?

Answer: In siblicide, the surviving sibling gains greater access to food resources from the parent, but the parent’s reproductive value decreases. In species that tolerate high levels of siblicide, experiments suggest that the second egg is still laid as reproductive insurance against hatching failure.

8. Is parental care more likely in birds with high adult mortality or low adult mortality? Why is this the case, and what evidence can you provide to support your answer?

Answer: In birds with high adult mortality (such as in North American species), parents are more likely to invest in current offspring with high levels of parental care, as the likelihood of subsequent clutches is small. In birds with low adult mortality (such as in South American species), parents are more likely to have low parental care because they will have future reproductive events.

9. Refer to the figure below.

In the figure above, it is hypothesized that egg guarding evolved in treehoppers three times (labelled 1, 2, and 3). Imagine if the trait actually appeared in the ancestral population at the base of the tree, labelled Membracinae. What is the minimum number of trait changes that would be necessary to produce the presence of egg guarding depicted in the tree?

Answer: Four. A loss in the branches leading to: Hypsoprorini, Membracini, and Bolbonota, and a gain in the branch leading to Leioscyta.

10. When is male parental care more likely to evolve?

Answer: When there is a high cost to female fecundity if she provides parental care for her offspring.

11. Why are parent birds more likely to be able to discriminate among chicks and find their own offspring (often with 80 percent or higher accuracy) in social species compared to solitary nesters?

Answer: There is little chance of making a mistake in solitary nests, so there is little to no selective pressure for signals that assist parent-offspring recognition. In communal nesting birds, the offspring have evolved more complex vocalizations that enable parents to identify their offspring.

12. Rough-winged swallows will adopt the offspring of other swallows when parents are experimentally given these nestlings, just as lesser kestrels do when nesting on rooftops. This kind of similarity has a label; what is it, and why might these two species behave similarly?

Answer: This is probably a case of convergent evolution in which an absence of offspring recognition has been maintained because of the rarity (until very recently) with which parents of the two unrelated species were confronted with the possibility of caring for someone else’s offspring.

Questions 13–16.

The lesser kestrel is a hawk that nests in colonies. In this species, young birds sometimes move to the nests of adults that aren’t their parents, perhaps because their parents are failing to rear them properly. Researchers found the following: • The adopted nest-switching nestlings are not in poorer condition than those that stay in their natal nest.

• The adopted nestlings are not fed at a higher rate than they had been prior to the switch.

• The adoptees do not become top dogs in the dominance hierarchy among chicks in the new nest.

13. These data were collected to test a hypothesis. What is likely to have been that hypothesis?

Was it proximate or ultimate?

Answer: The ultimate hypothesis was that nestlings moved to acquire more resources from their foster parents than they would get from their actual parents.

14. What conclusion did the researchers reach?

Answer: The fitness-benefiting hypothesis was incorrect.

15. What relevance do you attach to the information that the lesser kestrel once nested on small cliff ledges but now often nests on rooftops in towns and villages?

Answer: The nest-switching behavior may be an artifact of the novel nesting habitat created by humans and only recently available to the birds.

16. Explain why adult lesser kestrels are so willing to adopt the offspring of other kestrels.

Answer: In the past, the risk of misdirected parental care was so low that selection has not favored adults with the capacity to discriminate against young birds that are not their own offspring.

Test Bank to accompany

Animal Behavior, Eleventh Edition John Alcock, Linda Green, Paul Nolan, and Dustin Rubenstein Chapter 12: Principles of Social Evolution

Multiple Choice 1. Starlings sometimes assemble in large flocks that, in the evening, rise up in whirling flight together for 15 or 20 minutes in what looks like some kind of display. V. C. Wynne-Edwards suggested that this behavior is indeed a display that enables individual birds to assess just how many fellow starlings are living in the area so that they can adjust their breeding effort in the upcoming breeding season. In this way, they can avoid producing too many chicks and thereby avoid overpopulating their home range. This a group selectionist hypothesis because a. the idea is that starlings could evaluate the size of their local population or group. b. the flight behavior of the flock is something that cannot be explained in terms of any benefits to individuals and, thus, must be beneficial for the group. c. starlings do breed in such a manner as to avoid overpopulation. d. the suggestion is that the birds engage in costly behaviors in order to make decisions that are advantageous for other unrelated starlings.

Answer: d 2. Professor Reynolds claims that when male emperor penguins stand in the Antarctic winter, each with an egg cradled between his feet and his belly, the males’ parental behavior is “altruistic.” Reynolds is _______ because _______. a. correct; the males run some risk of dying during the long incubation period and so incur a fitness cost by being parental b. correct; the behavior, although risky, provides the help that is necessary to preserve the species over time c. incorrect; each male is incubating his own egg, not someone else’s d. incorrect; even though the behavior is costly, males have no option except to behave in this manner because of their high parental hormone levels Answer: c 3. In the bees, ants, and wasps (Hymenoptera), female workers are very closely related to their reproducing sisters only if their mother has mated with just one male because a. they will share exactly the same genetic information that makes up the paternal contribution to their genome. b. all of the daughters of a queen receive one-half their genome from their mother, whose eggs are genetically three-fourths alike. c. all females with the same mother are the product of a union between a haploid egg and a diploid sperm.

d. three-fourths of the genomes of sisters come from their mother, and one-fourth come from their father.

Answer: a Questions 4−7.

In a group of meerkats, a male gives a number of alarm calls that in total save the lives of two sisters as well as three offspring of another sibling. But by giving these alarm calls, the male is exposed to risk of attack from predators and eventually is killed by a hawk. As a result of a shortened life, he does not produce three surviving offspring that he otherwise would have had.

4. What was the cost to the male in units of inclusive fitness for his alarm-calling altruism? a. 0 b. 1.5 c. 1.75 d. 2.5 Answer: b 5. What was the benefit to the male in units of inclusive fitness for his alarm-calling altruism? a. 0 b. 1.5 c. 1.75 d. 2.5 Answer: c 6. What was the benefit to the male from his altruism in terms of indirect fitness? a. 0 b. 1.5 c. 1.75 d. 2.5 Answer: c 7. Which of the following traits is least likely to be considered a Darwinian puzzle? a. Monogamy in male songbirds b. Altruism in worker ants c. Camouflaged color patterns in grasshoppers d. Blood donation by college students Answer: c 8. If someone were to say the reason a bee population contains genetic variation is to enable natural selection to select the best hereditary variants, G. C. Williams would say that this claim is a. true, because without hereditary differences, natural selection is blocked. b. false, because selection can cause change even in genetically uniform populations. c. false, because some populations are known to exist without genetic variation. d. false, because it implies that genetic variation will be maintained in populations for future benefit even if the variant alleles reduce the fitness of individuals at present.

Answer: d

9. The rarer of two hereditarily different phenotypes can be considered an adaptation when the a. rare phenotype protects the more common phenotype, preventing predators from eating these individuals. b. rare phenotype becomes more common from one generation to the next because of its positive effect on individual fitness. c. mutant allele underlying the rare phenotype confers some reproductive success on those with this form of the gene. d. rare phenotype possesses the ability to adjust to changing conditions.

Answer: b Questions 10–13.

Bob gives up a chance to marry and have a family in order to go to work in a distant country.

Had he married, he would have had two surviving offspring. He sends money back to his sister, who as a result produces five surviving offspring instead of the two she would have had without Bob’s assistance.

10. What was Bob’s cost to himself in units of direct fitness (e.g., children)? a. 1 b. 1.5 c. 2 d. 3 Answer: a 11. What was Bob’s cost to himself in units of inclusive fitness (e.g., children)? a. 1 b. 1.5 c. 2 d. 3 Answer: a 12. What was Bob’s benefit to himself in units of inclusive fitness (e.g., children)? a. 0.5 b. 0.75 c. 1.5 d. 3 Answer: b 13. Bob’s decision was a. adaptive. b. maladaptive. c. adaptable. d. adaptationist.

Answer: b

14. In the digger bee, Centris pallida, some males engage in female defense polygyny, while smaller males exhibit scramble competition polygyny, which provides reduced fitness for these smaller males. What maintains the variation in the mating systems of males of this species? a. The differences in male behavior are fixed developmentally and thus not directly subject to selection. b. The focus of selection is on females, whose provisioning decisions produce males of different sizes; though small males gain fewer mates, some is better than none for the mothers. c. Variation among the males ensures that the greatest number of females are mated, which boosts the reproductive potential of this species. d. The mating system that provides lower fitness for individuals is becoming less common but has not yet disappeared because of the inefficiency with which selection acts on behavioral variations.

Answer: b

Short Answer 15. Explain why the coefficient of relatedness is important for biologists studying the evolution of altruism.

Answer: Measures of inclusive fitness are based in part on the degree to which two individuals are related, and the genetic consequences of helping for an individual depend on the helped individual’s coefficient of relatedness with the helper. Without the coefficient of relatedness, we couldn’t accurately calculate the costs and benefits of altruism.

16. The activity of N2RB gene declines in older mice and causes a decline in learning ability.

Some have suggested that this is beneficial, because it means older mice cannot forage as efficiently as they once did, which frees up resources for the next generation. How is this hypothesis based on group selection?

Answer: The trait of interest is said to cause individuals to sacrifice some reproductive opportunities in order to help another generation of mice to grow and reproduce.

17. Some researchers have claimed that group selection theory is required if we are to explain why people have the capacity to behave generously, nicely, and morally to other members of their group, whereas the selfish side of human behavior has been caused by natural selection.

Why is this claim inaccurate?

Answer: The researchers confuse the everyday meaning of selfish with the evolutionary meaning; if generous behavior is adaptive, then it is also selfish, in evolutionary terms.

Test Bank to accompany

Animal Behavior, Eleventh Edition John Alcock, Linda Green, Paul Nolan, and Dustin Rubenstein Chapter 13: Social Behavior and Sociality Multiple Choice 1. Refer to the figure below.

The point of the prisoner’s dilemma diagram is to a. illustrate the adaptive value of cooperation between two individuals. b. show that under most circumstances reciprocity would probably be selected against. c. predict that altruism rather than reciprocity explains why animals cooperate. d. show why reciprocity is so common and widespread in the animal kingdom.

Answer: b 2. What is wrong with the following statement: “An adaptation is a trait whose fitness benefits (B) exceed its costs (C).” a. An adaptation can have higher C than B if the trait helps the species survive. b. The benefits associated with an adaptation must be greater than the costs, and in addition the trait must help individuals to survive. c. The benefits associated with an adaptation must be greater than the costs, and in addition the difference between B and C must be greater than that associated with any other alternative trait. d. The benefits associated with an adaptation must be greater than the costs, and in addition the trait must be more common than any other alternative trait in the population.

Answer: c

3. Kin selection theory is most useful in helping explain a. cooperative hunting by the members of a lion pride. b. reciprocity that occurs by hunting in groups of lions. c. altruism exhibited by some hunting lions in a group. d. the exploitation of some helpful lions by others in their pride.

Answer: c 4. The prisoner’s dilemma describes a. the decision faced by aphids taken captive by slave-making ants over whether to escape or to cooperate with the ants. b. a model of decisions regarding defection or cooperation with another individual. c. reproductive decisions faced by animals at the edge of their species’ range regarding whether to hybridize with another species or continue searching for a member of their own. d. “buyer’s remorse” by a member of a mated pair, wishing to choose a different mate but facing the high costs of searching.

Answer: b 5. Honeyguides (a small African bird) lead humans to bees’ nests so the humans will make the wax honeycomb available to them. Similarly, cleaner fish remove ectoparasites from other reef fish. These are examples of a. the prisoner’s dilemma. b. kin selection. c. reciprocity. d. altruism.

Answer: c 6. Vampire bats need to eat often, and their only food is blood. When one bat is unsuccessful at gaining a meal, it returns to a communal roost where another bat is likely to give it a small amount of food. Work by Carter and Wilkinson (2015) suggests that this arrangement meets the conditions needed for a. the prisoner’s dilemma. b. kin selection. c. reciprocity. d. altruism.

Answer: c 7. Expression of behavioral syndromes is sometimes referred to as a. defection. b. an ecological constraint. c. social behavior. d. animal personality.

Answer: d

8. In reciprocity, we hypothesize that an individual engages in a selfless act because they will be “repaid” by the recipient in the future. This expectation is likely to occur in all of the following scenarios, except: a. when individuals are long-lived and the likelihood of meeting again is high. b. when an individual has observed a potential recipient helping others. c. when the individuals are different species and can distinguish their payoff from the arrangement. d. when the recipient can cheat and avoid repaying the altruistic act.

Answer: d

Short Answer Questions 9–12.

Apply each type of hypothesis to address the question: Why do lions hunt together?

9. Cooperation or mutualism hypothesis Answer: Each member of the team gains more meat per individual per day as a result of combining forces to capture prey.

10. Reciprocity hypothesis Answer: Though some individuals may suffer injury by helping their companions capture of dangerous prey, they are later rewarded when others help them capture prey in return.

11. Altruism hypothesis Answer: Some individuals take risks that reduce their fitness, such as tackling dangerous prey to help their companions, with the consequence that the fitness of these other individuals is raised.

12. Selfish exploitation hypothesis Answer: Some lions simply follow others that do the actual risk-taking and expending of energy when capturing prey; these individuals, in effect, parasitize the efforts of their companions.

13. There are many costs and benefits to cooperative breeding. Select two of the proposed hypotheses and explain how they apply to cooperative breeding: kin selection hypothesis, group augmentation hypothesis, ecological constraints hypothesis, life history hypothesis, benefits-ofphilopatry hypothesis, temporal variability hypothesis, and bet-hedging hypothesis.

Answer: (The provided list of hypotheses can be omitted or shortened to match instructor’s needs and coverage in the course). See page 494 in the text for a brief description of each hypothesis.

This question could also be adapted by asking students to “Explicitly highlight an example from class that supports your answer.”

14. Refer to the figure below.

The female white-fronted bee-eater has several options to choose among when deciding to reproduce. What factors affect whether the female stays in her natal territory?

Answer: If one or both of her parents have disappeared from the natal site, she is unlikely to remain as a helper because her relatedness to the offspring is low. If she is courted by a dominant male with an established territory and helpers, she will leave the natal site to breed. If only subordinate males are available, she will be a non-participant or remain at the natal site as a helper (to her parents).

15. Refer to the figure below.

Based on the data in the figure, describe why female Polistes wasps are more likely to be helpers to a foundress rather than establish their own nest as a solitary foundress.

Answer: Solitary foundresses have similarly low reproductive output compared to helper foundresses that only succeed in subordinate egg laying opportunities, but they have much lower reproductive success compared to helpers that inherit an established colony. These females have 2−4 times more offspring than the solitary foundress.

Test Bank to accompany

Animal Behavior, Eleventh Edition John Alcock, Linda Green, Paul Nolan, and Dustin Rubenstein Chapter 14: Human Behavior

Multiple Choice 1. Which hypothesis is based on group-selection theory? a. Adoption provides assistance for offspring of relatives, thereby enjoying an indirect fitness benefit. b. An adopter gains by demonstrating wealth, which makes the head of the family more attractive to potential partners in polygynous societies. c. An adopter acquires offspring who will help produce material wealth for his or her family. d. An adopter benefits his or her society by providing assistance to an individual otherwise likely to die or be a burden to the tribe or clan.

Answer: d 2. Which hypothesis is based on kin-selection theory? a. Adoption provides assistance for offspring of relatives, thereby enjoying an indirect fitness benefit. b. An adopter gains by demonstrating wealth, which makes the head of the family more attractive to potential partners in polygynous societies. c. An adopter acquires offspring who will help produce material wealth for his or her family. d. An adopter benefits his or her society by providing assistance to an individual otherwise likely to die or be a burden to the tribe or clan.

Answer: a 3. Which hypothesis is based on natural-selection theory? a. Adoption provides assistance for offspring of relatives, thereby enjoying an indirect fitness benefit. b. An adopter gains by demonstrating wealth, which makes the head of the family more attractive to potential partners in polygynous societies. c. An adopter acquires offspring who will help produce material wealth for his or her family. d. An adopter benefits his or her society by providing assistance to an individual otherwise likely to die or be a burden to the tribe or clan.

Answer: c 4. Which hypothesis is based on sexual-selection theory?

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a. Adoption provides assistance for offspring of relatives, thereby enjoying an indirect fitness benefit. b. An adopter gains by demonstrating wealth, which makes the head of the family more attractive to potential partners in polygynous societies. c. An adopter acquires offspring who will help produce material wealth for his or her family. d. An adopter benefits his or her society by providing assistance to an individual otherwise likely to die or be a burden to the tribe or clan.

Answer: b 5. What significance can we attach to the fact that the verbal ability scores of adopted children are more similar to those of their biological parents than to their those of their adoptive parents? a. This shows the importance of early experience in shaping a child’s behavior. b. This demonstrates that environment is more important than genetics in the development of a person’s verbal abilities. c. This constitutes a scientific conclusion that the correlation between verbal ability scores of biological parents and the children that have been reared by others is about 0.35. d. This is contrary to the idea that people experiencing different environments should exhibit different behaviors.

Answer: d

Short Answer 6. When choosing between two males of the same age but different heights, a young, unmarried woman selects the taller individual. What are some of the possible adaptive values of her choice?

Answer: (Answers will vary.) Tall men have genes that make them more protective of their mates than short men are. Tall men may be healthier and more physically fit and would produce stronger, healthier offspring. Tall men may be more confident and therefore more successful in their careers, making them better providers.

7. What makes the study of human twins valuable for understanding the genetic causes of behavior?

Answer: Comparing certain characteristics of twins enables us to test the hypothesis that some differences among individuals are genetically determined.

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13. A seed-eating bird forages in groups with competitive companions. This is an example of a. game theory. b. optimality theory. c. group selection theory. d. conditional strategy theory.

Answer: a 14. Smaller seed-eating birds select smaller seeds than larger seed-eating birds do. This is an example of a. game theory. b. optimality theory. c. group selection theory. d. conditional strategy theory.

Answer: d 15. A certain fish-eating hawk that lives by large lakes can capture more pounds of fish per unit time if it were to hunt farther from shore instead of staying close to the shoreline. The hawk, however, does stay close to the shoreline. This demonstrates that a. natural selection theory is probably not applicable in this case. b. optimal foraging theory is probably not applicable in this case. c. an optimal foraging hypothesis based on maximizing caloric intake alone is probably incorrect in this case. d. the fish species found close to the shoreline in large lakes are more nutritious than those in the center.

Answer: c 16. If a population is subject to frequency-dependent selection, then a. two alternative forms of a trait can persist indefinitely in the population. b. the rarer of two forms of a trait will become somewhat rarer in the next generation. c. the frequency of an adaptation will become greater over time, depending on the extent to which individuals with that trait outreproduce individuals with the alternative attribute. d. neither form of the trait is considered an adaptation but instead these forms are kept in the species to provide flexibility, should the environment change.

Answer: a

Short Answer Questions 17–21.

Observation: You observe “shaky leaf walking” in a video of a Madagascaran mantid (one of about 1,800 species, a member of one of dozens of genera of mantids, which constitute one of eight families of mantids).

Hypothesis: The behavior is effective as camouflage because it makes the mantid look like a dried leaf blown about on the leaf litter of the forest floor or a trembling leaf on a low-lying shrub.

17. State a prediction from this hypothesis that could be tested via additional observation.

Answer: (Answers will vary.) The mantid should be the size and shape of dried leaves in its actual habitat.

18. State a prediction that could be tested via an experiment.

Answer: (Answers will vary.) In experiments with caged insect-eating birds, individual mantids placed on the appropriate background should take much longer to find than those placed on a nonleafy substrate.

19. State a prediction that could be tested via the comparative method. (Use a legitimate example of the comparative method based on the phenomenon of convergent evolution.)

Answer: (Answers will vary.) The shaky leaf walking trait should appear in two or more families of mantids separated phylogenetically by other families whose members do not exhibit the trait; the several families in which shaky walking appeared independently should share similar ecological pressures, such as living on leaf litter and having predators that hunt visually.

20. State a prediction that could be tested via the comparative method. (Use a legitimate example of the comparative method based on the phenomenon of divergent evolution.)

Answer: (Answers will vary.) Closely related mantids in the same family that do not share similar ecological pressures should exhibit different modes of walking, with shaky walking restricted to leaf-based habitats, while species that habitually search for prey on tree trunks or at flowers should not walk in this manner.

21. State a prediction that illustrates illegitimate use of the comparative method. After stating your prediction briefly, explain why this prediction would not be accepted by many behavioral biologists.

Answer: (Answers will vary.) The shaky walking trait should be present only in camouflaged, leaf-like mantids that are hunted by birds and live in areas where the background matches their appearance. This prediction fails to recognize that cases in which two or more closely related species share the same trait as a result of a recent shared ancestor do not constitute powerful comparative support for hypotheses on the adaptive value of a given trait. Shared ancestry as a cause for similar traits is not the same as the independent evolution of the trait in response to a particular ecological pressure via convergent evolution. The mantids in question may have retained a particular trait from a common ancestor, which provides an explanation in terms of evolutionary history rather than adaptive value, per se.

22. Several hundred male bees will sometimes gather in the evening to sleep on the dried stems of a shrub. A predatory assassin bug sometimes visits the bees and kills some as they are settling down. Present three hypotheses on the possible adaptive, antipredator value of these sleeping aggregations. For each hypothesis, present a piece of evidence that would enable you to reject the hypothesis.

Answer:

Hypothesis 1. The improved vigilance hypothesis: More bees = more eyes = sooner detection of bug = faster dispersal of bees from danger. Evidence that rejects hypothesis: The bees do not disperse after settling down to sleep even when some of their fellow bees are under attack.

Hypothesis 2. The selfish herd hypothesis: The bees aggregate in order to use other individuals as living shields behind which to hide. Evidence that rejects hypothesis: The bees do not jostle or compete for the safer central positions within the group.

Hypothesis 3. The dilution-effect hypothesis: The bees aggregate in order to lower the risk of being unlucky victims of the assassin bug on a given evening. Evidence that rejects hypothesis: Larger sleeping groups attract proportionately more predators, so that the risk of dying is the same no matter what the size of the group.

Questions 23–24.

In the “Finding Food” episode of his series Trials of Life, Sir David Attenborough features a hummingbird species that feeds almost exclusively on the nectar of the Heliconia flower. He explains that each hummingbird has a circuit that takes it from one plant to another, with the bird arriving regularly at a given flower after a set period. It could take 30 minutes, more or less, to complete the round trip.

23. In one sentence, explain why the following statement could be wrong: “The bird is behaving optimally because it is getting enough energy to continue making its foraging circuit.”

Answer: Because an optimal forager maximizes its fitness as a result of its behavioral decisions, merely taking in enough calories to survive may not be optimal, particularly if there are factors other than caloric intake that affect a forager’s fitness.

24. The hummingbird does not immediately insert its beak into many Heliconia flowers but hesitates before approaching the flowers more closely. How might this hesitation still be consistent with at least one optimal foraging hypothesis? (Consider the different factors that might contribute to true optimality.)

Answer: If optimality involves a consideration of the risks facing a forager, then a hesitation that permitted the hummingbird to check a flower for hidden predators, especially bird-eating snakes, might enhance the individual’s fitness even while decreasing the rate of nectar intake.

Alternatively, if by checking the flower the hummingbird was able to better position its bill within the flower, an increase in pre-insertion time might lead to more efficient removal of the flower’s nectar.

Test Bank to accompany

Animal Behavior, Eleventh Edition John Alcock, Linda Green, Paul Nolan, and Dustin Rubenstein Chapter 7: Territoriality and Migration

Multiple Choice Questions 1−5.

Refer to the figure below.

The figure shows flight energetics in great white pelicans that are gliding by themselves, flapping by themselves, or traveling in a group V-formation.

1. What is the mean wingbeat frequency (in wingbeats per minute) of a pelican leading the Vformation? a. 45 b. 60 c. 90 d. 105

Answer: c 2. The graph represents a. a hypothesis. b. a prediction. c. test evidence. d. a scientific conclusion.

Answer: c 3. This work would be based on optimality theory if the a. researchers expected that pelicans would, when possible, minimize their flight expenses. b. fitness benefit derived from flying in a V-formation exceeded the cost of the behavior. c. researchers had tested the prediction that other large, flock-forming species would also fly in V-formations under some conditions. d. researchers believed that every aspect of pelican behavior was an adaptation, that is, an ideal solution to an environmental problem of some sort.

Answer: a 4. “The birds in front of the V are expected to be low-ranking birds that are unable to displace physically superior rivals from the more energy-saving positions in the formation.” This statement is a a. hypothesis. b. prediction. c. test. d. scientific conclusion.

Answer: b 5. The finding that both great white pelicans and brown pelicans fly in V-formation is an example of a. convergent evolution. b. divergent evolution. c. the comparative method. d. the effects of shared ancestry.

Answer: d 6. If the distribution of individuals over a set of habitats is consistent with ideal free distribution theory, then a. the fitness of individuals in different habitats will be the same. b. some habitats will attract territorial individuals, while others will not. c. the mean survival time of individuals in the different habitats will be different. d. the areas associated with higher fitness will be occupied after habitats linked to lower fitness.

Answer: a 7. A conditional strategy is unquestionably an adaptation when individuals able to switch tactics a. leave some surviving descendants to carry their genes into the next generation. b. leave more surviving offspring than individuals using any other behavioral strategy.

c. are better able to adjust to changing conditions than are other members of their species. d. experience a net gain in fitness from their behavioral flexibility.

Answer: b 8. A bird occupies a territory in which there are abundant food sources but also high levels of predation. This is an example of a. payoff asymmetry. b. ideal free distribution. c. economic defensibility. d. resource holding potential.

Answer: c 9. If two housecats are introduced into a new home, the one that is brought in a day or two before the other will more strongly defend the space as its territory. This illustrates a. the dear enemy effect. b. the payoff asymmetry hypothesis. c. the new home’s economic defensibility. d. the first cat’s underestimation of its resource holding potential.

Answer: b 10. While studying a species of firefly, you notice that the territories they occupy are constant across the breeding season, even though you observe multiple territorial disputes. Once territories are established, you do not observe a single case of a territory changing ownership.

This finding supports the a. dear enemy effect. b. payoff asymmetry hypothesis. c. resource holding potential hypothesis. d. arbitrary contest resolution hypothesis.

Answer: d 11. Male American redstarts (a small species of warbler) that are in the best physical condition typically are found in the species’ preferred habitat. Individuals in worse condition tend to be found in scrubby, secondary growth. This statement supports the a. dear enemy effect. b. payoff asymmetry hypothesis. c. resource holding potential hypothesis. d. arbitrary contest resolution hypothesis.

Answer: c

Short Answer 12. Explain the similarities and differences between dispersal and migration.

Answer: Migration involves annual movement away from and subsequent return to the same location. Dispersal is a permanent move from one location to another. Both can be costly because individuals have to secure extra energy for their travels (energetic costs), they run the

risk of falling prey to predators in the unfamiliar area through which they are moving (risk costs), and while they are moving they cannot invest time in other activities (time costs).

13. When is being adaptable selectively disadvantageous?

Answer: When individuals that have the capacity for flexible responses gain benefits that are not greater than the costs imposed by this capacity, such as the cost of maintaining the extra neural tissue that makes behavioral flexibility possible.

Test Bank to accompany

Animal Behavior, Eleventh Edition John Alcock, Linda Green, Paul Nolan, and Dustin Rubenstein Chapter 8: Principles of Communication

Multiple Choice 1. If a trait has adaptive value, the trait a. enables individuals to adapt to changing environments. b. confers a reproductive advantage on individuals. c. has spread because of group selection. d. increases the life span of individuals.

Answer: b Questions 2–4.

A spider researcher, Pia Stålhandske, knew that males of Pisaura mirabilis offer their mates a nuptial gift—a prey item, such as a cricket—whose acceptance by the female is critical for male mating success. Males wrap their generally dark-colored food gifts in white silk. Stålhandske wondered if the males wrapped their gifts to make them look like the white, silk-covered egg sacs that mated females make and protect by holding them in their jaws until the spiderlings hatch.

2. The last sentence in the paragraph above constitutes a. a causal question. b. a hypothesis. c. a prediction. d. test evidence.

Answer: b 3. What theory was Stålhandske using to explore this species’ courtship behavior? a. Sensory exploitation b. Ritualization c. Signal d. Descent with modification Answer: a 4. Which of the following predictions might Stålhandske have felt could be correct, given her presumption that males might be making their nuptial gifts look like egg sacs? a. The time for a female to accept a nuptial gift should be less for prey covered in silk that has been experimentally colored brown instead of white. b. Natural silk-covered prey should not be comparable in light reflectance to silken egg sacs.

c. Females should be prepared to accept silken egg sacs that had been taken from them and offered back as if they were nuptial gifts. d. Males that offer nuptial gifts should be larger than males that fail to do so.

Answer: c 5. White-tailed deer raise their tails when they spot a predator approaching; the predator typically gives up its pursuit once it knows that the faster prey species has seen it. This is an example of a. cueing. b. eavesdropping. c. honest signaling. d. deceitful signaling.

Answer: c 6. The American kestrel is a small falcon that is occasionally taken as prey by larger birds. It has two large spots on the back of its head that somewhat resemble large eyes. This is an example of a. cueing. b. eavesdropping. c. honest signaling. d. deceitful signaling.

Answer: d 7. Both the sender and receiver of a signal benefit from the transfer of information. This is an example of a. cueing. b. eavesdropping. c. honest signaling. d. deceitful signaling.

Answer: c 8. The sender of a signal benefits from the transfer of information but the receiver does not. This is an example of a. cueing. b. eavesdropping. c. honest signaling. d. deceitful signaling.

Answer: d

Short Answer 9. What information is communicated through the waggle dance of the honeybee? Give a plausible hypothesis for the origin of this behavior.

Answer: The bee conveys both the distance and the compass direction to the food source. The dance may have evolved from pre-existing behavior that was crucial in nest-finding, or it may have evolved incrementally in previous lineages that developed mechanisms to share information about nectar quality, direction, and distance.

10. Refer to the figure below.

Each data point on the graph represents a population of guppies. What can be inferred from the data concerning the female guppies’ interest in orange foods and the male guppies’ orange coloring? State a hypothesis for why males are orange.

Answer: The foraging preference for orange foods varies between populations, and the female preference for orange males is correlated with the strength of the preference for orange foods.

Hypotheis: Males evolved orange coloring to exploit females’ pre-existing bias for orange.

11. Elaborate male traits that are used in mate choice of birds in a given species B are entirely absent in distantly related sister taxon, C. The last common ancestor of these birds, species A, also had males that were elaborately decorated. Which is more likely to have evolved first in species B, the male trait or the female preference?

Answer: The male trait may have been lost and regained while these populations evolved into multiple species. In these cases, it is likely that female-preference traits remain strong and persist through the divergence of species.

12. In animal communication, why does it benefit a sender to use honest signaling for body size and shape?

Answer: The sender who relies on honest signaling can minimize negative encounters with individuals of higher and lower rank. In the absence of signaling, an individual needs to interact directly with others to determine rank, introducing opportunity to become injured or sick.

Test Bank to accompany

Animal Behavior, Eleventh Edition John Alcock, Linda Green, Paul Nolan, and Dustin Rubenstein Chapter 9: Reproductive Behavior

Multiple Choice 1. The incubation of eggs by a male starling is an example of a. male–male competition sexual selection. b. female choice sexual selection. c. male parental investment. d. female parental investment.

Answer: c 2. The attack of a fellow female’s eggs by a female starling is an example of a. male–male competition sexual selection. b. female choice sexual selection. c. male parental investment. d. female parental investment.

Answer: d 3. The tusk of the male narwhal is an example of a. male–male competition sexual selection. b. female choice sexual selection. c. male parental investment. d. female parental investment.

Answer: a 4. The presentation of a diamond ring to a woman by her husband-to-be is an example of a. male–male competition sexual selection. b. female choice sexual selection. c. male parental investment. d. female parental investment.

Answer: b 5. The transfer of large quantities of sperm to a polyandrous female fruit fly by a male is an example of a. male–male competition sexual selection. b. female choice sexual selection. c. male parental investment. d. female parental investment.

Answer: b

Questions 6−9.

Refer to the figure below.

P stands for “parental,” and the other letters represent animal species. Species V and Y are the only ones that exhibit male parental care; the others are exclusively maternal care species. There are several ancestral species, of which A is basal.

6. Which species lived longest ago? a. A b. B c. C d. D Answer: a 7. Which species has given rise to exactly four living descendant species? a. A b. B c. C d. D Answer: b 8. Which two species illustrate one case of divergent evolution? a. V and Y b. W and X c. W and Z d. Y and Z Answer: d 9. Which pair of species illustrates a case of convergent evolution? a. V and W

b. V and Y c. W and X d. Y and Z Answer: b 10. Persons studying male bluegill (a type of fish) reproductive behavior have discovered three different methods of male reproduction: territoriality, sneaking, and satellite behavior. We hypothesize that these long-standing differences are hereditary. Which of the following predictions would follow from this hypothesis? a. Sneaking males should have sneaking sons. b. The reproductive success of the three types must be different. c. The environment should have no effect on the development of sneaking behavior. d. The presence of satellite males should lower the fitness of those females whose eggs they fertilize.

Answer: a 11. If we hypothesize that the behavioral differences among bluegill (a type of fish) males are the product of a conditional strategy, which of the following predictions would follow from this hypothesis? a. Territorial males should have territorial sons. b. The reproductive success of the three types could be different. c. The environment should have no effect on the development of satellite behavior. d. The presence of satellites should increase the fitness of those females whose eggs they fertilize.

Answer: b Questions 12−13.

Males of the marine isopod Paracerceis sculpta come in three sizes: large alphas, medium betas, and small gammas. When the average fitness of each type was measured, researchers found that there were no statistically significant differences among the three types.

12. This finding constitutes test evidence because the data a. were gathered to check a prediction from a conditional strategy hypothesis only. b. prove that the conditional strategy hypothesis is correct for this species. c. were gathered to check a prediction from a three-strategies hypothesis only. d. were gathered to check predictions from both conditional strategy and three-strategies hypotheses.

Answer: d 13. The lack of a fitness difference between the three male phenotypes suggests that the behavioral differences among them are hereditary because a. all phenotypes are 50 percent genetic and 50 percent environmental. b. the three phenotypes are three adaptations maintained because of their equal fitness effects. c. the three phenotypes appear to be three tactics controlled by a single conditional strategy. d. the three phenotypes have to be hereditary if they are to help the species improve over time.

Answer: b

14. Why might male Mormon crickets have a lower potential reproductive rate than females? a. Because they make relatively few sperm, compared to the egg production rate of females. b. Because males compete so intensely for mates that this shortens their lifespan. c. Because males donate a very large, hard-to-replace spermatophore to each mate. d. Because females make almost no parental investment in their offspring.

Answer: c

Short Answer Questions 15−18.

In the narwhal, females live in groups and males have an elongate tooth (a tusk). We hypothesize that the tusk is a functional weapon that has evolved by sexual selection and enables males with the biggest weapon to be polygynous. We wish to test this version if sexual selection via the comparative method. Determine whether each of the following predictions represents (a) a legitimate use or (b) an illegitimate use of the comparative method.

15. Males of the beluga, the narwhal’s closest relatives, should also use their teeth in clashes over access to females.

Answer: illegitimate 16. The bodies of male narwhals should be marked by scars of the sort that could be produced by narwhal tusks.

Answer: illegitimate 17. In the warthog, a wild pig species in which females live in small bands, the males should have much larger protruding tusks than the females.

Answer: legitimate 18. In a giant scarab beetle, males with the largest rhinoceros-like horns should be more likely to be polygynous than those with smaller horns.

Answer: legitimate Questions 19–21.

Prior to class, go to the Web of Science or the Internet to locate the paper by C. D. MacLeod titled “Intraspecific scarring in odontocete cetaceans: an indicator of male ‘quality’ in aggressive social interactions?”

19. From the references, provide a complete, correct citation for a paper by Hobson and Martin on another whale species.

Answer: Hobson R. P., Martin A. R. 1996. Behaviour and dive times of Arnoux’s beaked whales, Berardius arnuxii, at narrow leads in fast ice. Canadian Journal of Zoology 74 (2): 388–393.

20. Based on information in the abstract of MacLeod’s paper, make a prediction about the diet of the beluga, a very close relative of the narwhal, but one that has many teeth, not just one.

Answer: If the beluga and narwhal have diverged in their diets, as seems likely from their different teeth arrangements, then perhaps the belugas will not eat squid and jellyfish but instead will focus on more difficult-to-grasp prey, such as fish.

21. Based on information in the abstract of MacLeod’s paper, make a prediction about which sex of the beaked whales (Family: Ziphiidae) should have enlarged teeth if these species have evolved convergently with the narwhal.

Answer: If the narwhal’s tusk is the product of sexual selection for success in male aggressive combat, then the beaks of the beaked whales, which are not close relatives of the narwhal, should also be restricted to males.

Questions 22–26.

For each of the following traits, designate PI if the trait is an example of parental investment and NO if the trait cannot be categorized as parental investment.

22. The donation by a mother elephant seal of special nutrients and biochemicals other than DNA to her eggs Answer: PI 23. A female starling’s destruction of the eggs laid by another female that has mated with the first female’s partner (because a male starling with only one mate will help her incubate the eggs) Answer: PI 24. The elaborate ornaments that a male bird of paradise possesses, without which he will not attract a mate Answer: NO 25. The transfer of large quantities of sperm to a female, which increases the probability that one of these sperm will fertilize the eggs Answer: NO 26. The production and transfer of chemicals (in a male ejaculate) to a female fruit fly that increase the probability that the sperm transferred to her at the same time will fertilize her eggs Answer: NO

Test Bank to accompany

Animal Behavior, Eleventh Edition John Alcock, Linda Green, Paul Nolan, and Dustin Rubenstein Chapter 10: Mating Systems

Multiple Choice 1. Sexual selection differs from natural selection in that a. the traits under sexual selection can be environmentally influenced, unlike those that are the product of natural selection. b. hereditary differences among phenotypes are required for natural selection to occur, but not for sexual selection to occur. c. sexual selection can produce traits that harm the survival of the species, whereas natural selection acts to preserve the species over the long term. d. natural selection affects a broader spectrum of traits than sexual selection, which acts only on individual differences in the ability to gain access to mates.

Answer: d Questions 2−3.

Females of a species of fly form swarms in which several dozen individuals gather together to fly about in circles. When a male enters the swarm, females inflate their abdomens and move toward the male, who carefully selects one of the many females as his partner.

2. What is there about this species that constitutes a Darwinian puzzle? a. The means by which females manage to enlarge their abdomen, which requires a special and still-mysterious abdomen-inflating device b. The fact that the members of one sex have evolved a truly bizarre display to induce the opposite sex to mate with them c. The fact that females have to persuade apparently choosy males to mate with them d. The fact that many females have to wait for a mate, which reduces the reproductive potential of the species Answer: c 3. Which is an example of a group selectionist puzzle? a. The means by which females manage to enlarge their abdomen, which requires a special and still-mysterious abdomen-inflating device b. The fact that the members of one sex have evolved a truly bizarre display to induce the opposite sex to mate with them c. The fact that females have to persuade apparently choosy males to mate with them d. The fact that many females have to wait for a mate, which reduces the reproductive potential of the species Answer: d

Questions 5−9.

Kirk’s dik-dik is a small African antelope that usually forms male–female pairs.

4. Is it possible that monogamy evolved in this species because males are attempting to guard their partners from other males? This is an example of a. a hypothesis. b. a prediction. c. test evidence. d. a scientific conclusion.

Answer: a 5. Males place their scent marks over those of the female, which hides the signals of sexual receptivity that females produce when they are fertile. This is an example of a. a hypothesis. b. a prediction. c. test evidence. d. a scientific conclusion.

Answer: c 6. It may be that if males were experimentally removed from pairs, females would wander from their territories into the territories of other males. This is an example of a. a hypothesis. b. a prediction. c. test evidence. d. a scientific conclusion.

Answer: b 7. If DNA data were collected from the offspring of intact pairs, it should be found that the offspring of the females were sired by their social partners.

Hypothesis This is an example of a. a hypothesis. b. a prediction. c. test evidence. d. a scientific conclusion.

Answer: b 8. It is also possible that pairs form in order to protect their offspring, with two adults doing a better job of protection than just one. This is an example of a. a hypothesis. b. a prediction. c. test evidence. d. a scientific conclusion.

Answer: a 9. Genetic monogamy is

a. extremely rare. b. the rule (with a few exceptions) among mammals, but not among birds. c. the rule (with a few exceptions) among birds, but not among mammals. d. never found in reptiles.

Answer: a 10. Male ostriches guard a nest into which a female lays an egg from their mating. The next day she mates with a different male; the first male also mates with a different female, which places her egg in his nest. This species exhibits a. polygynandry. b. polyandry. c. monogamy. d. polygyny.

Answer: a 11. If you study a pair of European beavers, you will find that all of the young in their colony are genetic offspring of the pair. This species exhibits a. polygynandry. b. polyandry. c. monogamy. d. polygyny.

Answer: c 12. Long-term storage of sperm in some species of tortoise allows a female to produce a clutch of eggs with offspring fathered by multiple males. This species exhibits a. polygynandry. b. polyandry. c. monogamy. d. polygyny.

Answer: b 13. Red deer males compete to control access to an entire herd of does, meaning that a single male will mate with multiple females, while other males have zero fitness. This species exhibits a. polygynandry. b. polyandry. c. monogamy. d. polygyny.

Answer: d

Short Answer 14. Give the primary reason that monogamy in male animals would be considered a Darwinian puzzle.

Answer: Males generally have sufficient sperm to fertilize a great many eggs, which ought to favor males that mate with a great many egg producers.

15. Polyandry in females might be advantageous if polyandrous females were to secure some genes from their partners that were especially compatible with the genes in their eggs. State a prediction that follows from this hypothesis.

Answer: (Answers may vary.) In order to expand the potential gene pool, the mating partners of females will vary substantially from female to female.

16. Why have behavioral ecologists concluded that the ecology of females has more to say about the evolution of the mating system of a species than the ecology of males?

Answer: Receptive females are usually in short supply, not the other way around.

Test Bank to accompany

Animal Behavior, Eleventh Edition John Alcock, Linda Green, Paul Nolan, and Dustin Rubenstein Chapter 11: Parental Care

Multiple Choice 1. In what sense is the male hangingfly’s gift of a fly to his mate rather like parental investment, even if the female does not use the fly to help her produce larger or better eggs? a. The time and energy spent capturing the gift reduce the male’s potential reproductive output. b. The gift may be used to increase the number of eggs the female produces. c. The gift makes it more likely that that male will have offspring in the future. d. The consumption of the fly means the female may live longer, just as parental investment results in parents living longer.

Answer: a 2. The Trivers-Willard hypothesis primarily attempts to explain a. variation in the sex ratio of offspring. b. parent-offspring conflict. c. siblicide and infanticide. d. the decline in reproductive output with age.

Answer: a 3. Ghalambor and Martin (2001) found that a North American species of thrush placed higher value on their nest full of offspring than did a similar South American species. This differential response is due to a. a more abundant food supply in North America. b. South American birds generally living longer than those in North America. c. South American birds generally laying only one egg per nest. d. higher parasitism rates in North America.

Answer: b 4. Why do birds make a good group for the study of parental care? a. They don’t lactate. b. They are found on every continent. c. Both sexes are able to provide for their young. d. They don’t discriminate against their offspring.

Answer: c

Short Answer

Questions 5−6.

Bright red inner mouths in chicks indicate the level of carotenoid pigments in the chicks’ diets.

5. How does the signal of quality hypothesis explain why parents might feed these chicks more than their paler-mouthed siblings?

Answer: Carotenoids are associated with strong immune system function, and chicks with brighter red coloring suggest an individual with a healthier body and higher survival potential. If the red coloring is genetic and not dietary, we might hypothesize that parents use the red coloring to identify offspring from brood parasites. Other reasonable hypotheses: signal of good genes/strong development.

6. Assume that the red mouth coloring is hereditary, not dietary; what might be a different ultimate explanation for why parents preferentially feed red-mouthed chicks?

Answer: If the red coloring is genetic and not dietary, we might hypothesize that parents use the red coloring to identify offspring from brood parasites. Other reasonable hypotheses: signal of good genes/strong development.

7. Explain the parent-offspring conflict in siblicide behavior of great egrets. In species such as the Nazca booby, why do females lay a second egg if they tolerate high siblicide rates?

Answer: In siblicide, the surviving sibling gains greater access to food resources from the parent, but the parent’s reproductive value decreases. In species that tolerate high levels of siblicide, experiments suggest that the second egg is still laid as reproductive insurance against hatching failure.

8. Is parental care more likely in birds with high adult mortality or low adult mortality? Why is this the case, and what evidence can you provide to support your answer?

Answer: In birds with high adult mortality (such as in North American species), parents are more likely to invest in current offspring with high levels of parental care, as the likelihood of subsequent clutches is small. In birds with low adult mortality (such as in South American species), parents are more likely to have low parental care because they will have future reproductive events.

9. Refer to the figure below.

In the figure above, it is hypothesized that egg guarding evolved in treehoppers three times (labelled 1, 2, and 3). Imagine if the trait actually appeared in the ancestral population at the base of the tree, labelled Membracinae. What is the minimum number of trait changes that would be necessary to produce the presence of egg guarding depicted in the tree?

Answer: Four. A loss in the branches leading to: Hypsoprorini, Membracini, and Bolbonota, and a gain in the branch leading to Leioscyta.

10. When is male parental care more likely to evolve?

Answer: When there is a high cost to female fecundity if she provides parental care for her offspring.

11. Why are parent birds more likely to be able to discriminate among chicks and find their own offspring (often with 80 percent or higher accuracy) in social species compared to solitary nesters?

Answer: There is little chance of making a mistake in solitary nests, so there is little to no selective pressure for signals that assist parent-offspring recognition. In communal nesting birds, the offspring have evolved more complex vocalizations that enable parents to identify their offspring.

12. Rough-winged swallows will adopt the offspring of other swallows when parents are experimentally given these nestlings, just as lesser kestrels do when nesting on rooftops. This kind of similarity has a label; what is it, and why might these two species behave similarly?

Answer: This is probably a case of convergent evolution in which an absence of offspring recognition has been maintained because of the rarity (until very recently) with which parents of the two unrelated species were confronted with the possibility of caring for someone else’s offspring.

Questions 13–16.

The lesser kestrel is a hawk that nests in colonies. In this species, young birds sometimes move to the nests of adults that aren’t their parents, perhaps because their parents are failing to rear them properly. Researchers found the following: • The adopted nest-switching nestlings are not in poorer condition than those that stay in their natal nest.

• The adopted nestlings are not fed at a higher rate than they had been prior to the switch.

• The adoptees do not become top dogs in the dominance hierarchy among chicks in the new nest.

13. These data were collected to test a hypothesis. What is likely to have been that hypothesis?

Was it proximate or ultimate?

Answer: The ultimate hypothesis was that nestlings moved to acquire more resources from their foster parents than they would get from their actual parents.

14. What conclusion did the researchers reach?

Answer: The fitness-benefiting hypothesis was incorrect.

15. What relevance do you attach to the information that the lesser kestrel once nested on small cliff ledges but now often nests on rooftops in towns and villages?

Answer: The nest-switching behavior may be an artifact of the novel nesting habitat created by humans and only recently available to the birds.

16. Explain why adult lesser kestrels are so willing to adopt the offspring of other kestrels.

Answer: In the past, the risk of misdirected parental care was so low that selection has not favored adults with the capacity to discriminate against young birds that are not their own offspring.

Test Bank to accompany

Animal Behavior, Eleventh Edition John Alcock, Linda Green, Paul Nolan, and Dustin Rubenstein Chapter 12: Principles of Social Evolution

Multiple Choice 1. Starlings sometimes assemble in large flocks that, in the evening, rise up in whirling flight together for 15 or 20 minutes in what looks like some kind of display. V. C. Wynne-Edwards suggested that this behavior is indeed a display that enables individual birds to assess just how many fellow starlings are living in the area so that they can adjust their breeding effort in the upcoming breeding season. In this way, they can avoid producing too many chicks and thereby avoid overpopulating their home range. This a group selectionist hypothesis because a. the idea is that starlings could evaluate the size of their local population or group. b. the flight behavior of the flock is something that cannot be explained in terms of any benefits to individuals and, thus, must be beneficial for the group. c. starlings do breed in such a manner as to avoid overpopulation. d. the suggestion is that the birds engage in costly behaviors in order to make decisions that are advantageous for other unrelated starlings.

Answer: d 2. Professor Reynolds claims that when male emperor penguins stand in the Antarctic winter, each with an egg cradled between his feet and his belly, the males’ parental behavior is “altruistic.” Reynolds is _______ because _______. a. correct; the males run some risk of dying during the long incubation period and so incur a fitness cost by being parental b. correct; the behavior, although risky, provides the help that is necessary to preserve the species over time c. incorrect; each male is incubating his own egg, not someone else’s d. incorrect; even though the behavior is costly, males have no option except to behave in this manner because of their high parental hormone levels Answer: c 3. In the bees, ants, and wasps (Hymenoptera), female workers are very closely related to their reproducing sisters only if their mother has mated with just one male because a. they will share exactly the same genetic information that makes up the paternal contribution to their genome. b. all of the daughters of a queen receive one-half their genome from their mother, whose eggs are genetically three-fourths alike. c. all females with the same mother are the product of a union between a haploid egg and a diploid sperm.

d. three-fourths of the genomes of sisters come from their mother, and one-fourth come from their father.

Answer: a Questions 4−7.

In a group of meerkats, a male gives a number of alarm calls that in total save the lives of two sisters as well as three offspring of another sibling. But by giving these alarm calls, the male is exposed to risk of attack from predators and eventually is killed by a hawk. As a result of a shortened life, he does not produce three surviving offspring that he otherwise would have had.

4. What was the cost to the male in units of inclusive fitness for his alarm-calling altruism? a. 0 b. 1.5 c. 1.75 d. 2.5 Answer: b 5. What was the benefit to the male in units of inclusive fitness for his alarm-calling altruism? a. 0 b. 1.5 c. 1.75 d. 2.5 Answer: c 6. What was the benefit to the male from his altruism in terms of indirect fitness? a. 0 b. 1.5 c. 1.75 d. 2.5 Answer: c 7. Which of the following traits is least likely to be considered a Darwinian puzzle? a. Monogamy in male songbirds b. Altruism in worker ants c. Camouflaged color patterns in grasshoppers d. Blood donation by college students Answer: c 8. If someone were to say the reason a bee population contains genetic variation is to enable natural selection to select the best hereditary variants, G. C. Williams would say that this claim is a. true, because without hereditary differences, natural selection is blocked. b. false, because selection can cause change even in genetically uniform populations. c. false, because some populations are known to exist without genetic variation. d. false, because it implies that genetic variation will be maintained in populations for future benefit even if the variant alleles reduce the fitness of individuals at present.

Answer: d