Microalgae - a greener future for our built environment

Microalgae a greener future

for our built

environment

Alessandro Azzolini

Microalgae a greener future

for our built

environment POLITECNICO MILANO 1863

SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE URBAN PLANNING CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

Bachelor of Science in Architectural Design Academic Year 2018/19 Final Thesis Supervisor

Prof. Ingrid Paoletti Student

Alessandro Azzolini 879307

Table of Contents

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Part 1 Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 A taxonomy problem for microalgae . .

Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes . . . . . .

Main species . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Photosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Nitrification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Environmental requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Nutritional composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Reproduction and growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Part 2 Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Uses overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Direct uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Food for humans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Animal feed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Biofertilizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Dying colourants and ink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Indirect uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Air purification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Wastewater purification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Processed uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Biofuel production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Bioproducts and cosmetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Potential future employments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Space travel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Integration within the built environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Part 3 Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Marine environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Hinterland environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Open ponds raceways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Photobioreactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Harvest and treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Overview of separation techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Overview of essiccation techniques: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

Overview of the production state at world level . . . . . . . . . . 53 Main issues to tackle for future developments . . . . . . . . . . 55

Part 4 Case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Microalgae for the built environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Integration in interiors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Algae Curtain by loop.ph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Living things by Jacob Douenias and Ethan Frier . . . . . . . . .

STRUNA by SAPERLab - Politecnico di Milano . . . . . . . . . .

Exhale Bionic Chandelier by Julian Melchiorri . . . . . . . . . .

The Lillies by Cesare Griffa Architetti . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

H.O.R.T.U.S. by EcoLogicStudio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bio.Tech HUT by EcoLogicStudio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Instructables DIY projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

59 61 65 68 69 72 77 78

Integration in architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 SolarLeaf for the BIQ Hamburg building by Arup . . . . . . . . . 83 The bioenergy façade by Arup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Algae Facade Reactor by MINT Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Urban Algae Façade by Cesare Griffa Architetti . . . . . . . . . . 95 Photo.Synth.Etica by EcoLogicStudio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Integration in urban spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 The Algae Dome by SPACE10 and IKEA . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Culture Urbaine Genève by Cloud Collective . . . . . . . . . . 102 Urban Algae Canopy by EcoLogicStudio . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Algaevator by Jie Zhang, Tyler Stevermer and Selgascano . . . . 105 Aarhus WetCity by EcoLogicStudio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Urban Algae Folly by EcoLogicStudio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Comparison Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

Part 5 Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

Three projects for the built environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Modular double sided optical bookcase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Temporary installation on Building 11’s facade . . . . . . . . . . 138 A sculptural fountain for Piazza Leonardo da Vinci . . . . . . . . 152

Cited Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Consulted Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 List of figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

Abstract

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Today we are living in a world that is changing fast. We hear everyday about climate change, global warming and pollution of our cities. Microalgae are photosynthetic microscopic organisms that are responsible for our breathable atmosphere and have been present on Earth for billions of years. Since the realm of the architect is the built environment, this thesis aims to study whether their integration inside the urban context could be useful and beneficial: on one hand the general characteristics, uses and processes of microalgae were summarised and on the other hand existing relevant case studies of integration were analysed. Lastly, based on the acquired knowledge, three ideas of projects for the built environment were developed. Although with some technical difficulties that make them challenging to implement, microalgae have impressive qualities that could help solving some of the issues that our world and artificial landscape is facing.

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Introduction

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Context of study & problem statements Among the emergencies that humanity is going to face in the next decades, four important ones are hunger, water scarcity, the depletion of fossil fuels and a global climate change. Microalgae is said to exhibit the characteristics to contrast each one of these. But why and in which way?

With the uprising of those contemporary challenges that affect our built environment, the public awareness of microalgae is still quite low and, particularly in the AEC and design fields, the real-life projects that involve them are very limited. How come?

From 2020 onwards, all new buildings in the European Union will have to comply to a nearly net zero-energy consumption, which means that every new building will need to produce the same amount of energy as it consumes. Can microalgae help with that?

Climate change is a global issue with threatening implications for both humans and nature. The increasing temperature leads to desertification, sea level rise, ocean acidification and extreme weather events, menacing life as we know it. Still with international agreements like the COP21 of Paris, human emissions of greenhouse gases seem to be increasing, modify the earth systems profoundly and perturbing the natural equilibria. Since microalgae are the creators of the oxygen in the atmosphere, can they aid in relieving impacts and reestablishing an equilibrium?

It is though design that we are able to understand the present and to envision the future, and it has the power to address complex issues and to take action to solve them. With the uprising of sustainable architecture, urban farming, smart buildings, renewable energies, should designers take into account also microorganisms in their strategy?

The world’s population is expected to reach 10 billions in less than 50 years and most of the people will live in cities, which are already now starting to be denser, overcrowded, polluted with CO2 and unhealthy. Even in interior working and living spaces, the quality of air is not always optimal. Many councils worldwide are trying to make cities greener, bringing back nature in our daily life, could microalgae be a resource in this effort?

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Objectives This thesis aims to investigate in detail the various potentialities of microalgae, particularly with a focus on their integration in the built environment. Also the critical points that may prevent their widespread employability are outlined. Then, a comprehensive overview with a critical analysis on the relevant and existing case studies is carried out. As the final objective of the thesis, three original designs for their integration in furniture, architecture and urban spaces are proposed.

Boundaries Since this paper is mainly oriented towards architects, urbanists and designers, the biological and scientific aspect of microalgae is kept very synthetic and summarised, in order to give a good base but still not going too much in detail as it would be out of the scope of the thesis.

Structure overview As the first thing, the very biological characteristics of these living organisms are treated, in order to be able to understand them better.

Then in the second part, all of the most important uses of microalgae are described, in a way to know which benefits they could bring to the built environment.

In the third part, it is considered how do they grow, in which part of the natural biosphere and in which ways artificially.

The fourth part is a broad collection on all of the past realised projects for the built environment that feature microalgae.

Lastly, in the fifth part, I developed three ideas for the integration of these microorganisms in interior, architecture and urban contexts.

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Part 1 Characteristics

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A taxonomy problem for microalgae The term microalgae, in its scientific meaning, defines microscopic unicellular eukaryotic species capable of performing photosynthesis.

However, in its common meaning, microalgae actually refer to “single-celled organisms that can use photosynthesis”. (Chini Zittelli 2016, 2). This small difference of definition, that can seem insignificant, implies a broader inclusion of species.

In fact, many times in articles and on the internet, cyanobacteria like the Spirulina are referred as algae, while actually they belong to the domain of bacteria.

This can lead to a certain ambiguity, especially since this separation between the “true” microalgae and the “blue-green algae”, more properly called cyanobacteria, that are indeed bacteria, arose only recently in the scientific community.

Probably a more correct term that could encompass all the “single-celled organisms that can use photosynthesis” at the same time would be “phototrophic microorganisms”.

Another potential issue that can affect the perception of microalgae in the public opinion is their confusion with macroalgae: the difference is immense. The more famous latter ones are multicellular and can span, depending on the various species, up to about 50 meters of length, while the former ones (along with cyanobacteria) are so small they result completely indistinguishable to the human eye: their diameter is measured in micrometers (10-6m).

Macroalgae

Fig 1.1 Delicate red seaweed (macroalgae) in Fiji

Microalgae

Fig 1.2 Microscope image of Nannochloropsis sp.

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Fig 1.3 Ironic illustration about the origin of endosymbiosis, the process that brought the existence of eukaryotic cells, among which microalgae are categorised.

Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes Microalgae and cyanobacteria resemble each other in many ways, both in morphological characteristics and in their ecological niches (Blue-green algae 2017) but they fundamentally differ in their prokaryotic and eukaryotic nature.

Prokaryotic cells were among the firsts forms of life on Earth and the earliest fossilized samples date from 3.5 billion years ago (Woese and Gogarten 1999).

Being more primitive, they lack a membrane-bound nucleus and all the organelles like mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, chloroplasts and endoplasmic reticulum: their metabolic processes happen instead directly inside the cell membrane (Blue-green algae 2017). The protein synthesis is carried out by the ribosomes floating in the cytoplasm, which also contains the usually circular DNA chromosome (Prokaryote 2019). Cyanobacteria belong to this type of cells, along with all the other types of bacteria.

Eukaryotic cells, instead, are believed to be present starting from about 1.8 billion years ago as the result of a process of endosymbiosis between prokaryotic cells where some very specialised ones (such as a photosynthetic cyanobacteria) entered and established complex partnership relations with the host cell, in a simplified way producing food for the eukaryotic host in return for a home (UCMP 1995). This theory of evolution of prokaryotes into eukaryotes is regarded by scientists as the second major evolutionary mystery, after the origin of life (Life on Earth 2018).

On the other hand, in eukaryotic cells many organelles and, in particular, a defined nucleus with a surrounding membrane and well-defined chromosomes are present (Eukaryote 2018). Due to their internal subdivision, eukaryotes are more complex and are at the base of all multicellular animals and plants (Life on Earth 2018). Microalgae, being eukaryotic “one-celled plants�, are classified as protists.

Fig 1.4 Eukaryote vs Prokaryote cells

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Main species Phototrophic microorganisms like microalgae and cyanobacteria have a really high biodiversity, counting on more than 200.000 existing species, among which 40.000 are being studied, but only a very few number of these are employed commercially.

(Chini Zittelli 2016, 2) While all microalgae are unicellular, they can either live individually or in colonies (in linear chains or in other types of aggregates). Depending on the species, their individual dimensions may vary between few micrometers to some hundreds of micrometers (0,000001 - 0,0001 meters). (Barbato, Campiotti, et al. 2012) The most relevant microalgae have been catalogued into 5 main classes, based on their morphology, pigmentation, biologic cycle and cellular structure.

Group

Class

Most relevant examples

Blue-green algae (Cyanobacteria)

Cyanophyceae

Arthrospira (better known as Spirulina), Nostoc, Anabaena, Schizotrix, Microcystis

Diatoms

Bacillariophyceae Cyclotella, Coscinodiscus, Chaetoceros, Skeletonema, Nitzschia, Phaeodactylum

Green algae

Chlorophyceae

Chlorella, Neochloris, Chlamydomonas, Scenedesmus, Dunaliella, Tetraselmis

Dinoflagellate

Dinophyceae

Ceratium, Gymnodinium, Peridinium, Gonyaulax

Golden algae

Haptophyceae

Pavlova, Isochrysis, Chrysochromulina, Prymnesium

(Barbato, Campiotti, et al. 2012)

In the public opinion, there are two particular species of microalgae that are better known than others.

They are the Spirulina and the Chlorella. Having been sold

worldwide as food supplements and lately as ingredient of traditional food, they have a greater notoriety compared to other microalgae that are commonly known only by specialists.

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Metabolism Photosynthesis Most microalgae are autotrophic and photosynthetic: this means that they are able to manufacture their own food from carbon dioxide, water, nutritious salts, and energy from sunlight. (Barbato 2009) The equation for photosynthesis corresponds to

which in chemical terms can be summed up to

The photosynthesis is allowed by the presence of special pigments that are used to capture light, among these are found: • p hy c o c y a n i n , a bluish pigment • c h l o r o p h y l l a, the same green photosynthetic pigment that if found in superior plants • phycoerythrin, a red-pink pigment that confers this special and unusal color (UCMP 1995) The different emitted color of these pigments depends on the wavelengths of visible light that they are able to absorb.

Compared to superior plants, microalgae are much more efficient in performing photosynthesis and transforming CO2 into biomass as they are single-celled and each individual cell performs photosynthesis.

Fig 1.5 Equations of photosynthesis

Fig 1.6 Graph highlighting the main pigments’ light absorption

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Nitrification A secondary but still important chemical mechanism that some kind of microalgae (especially cyanobacteria) are able to perform is the transformation of inert atmospheric nitrogen into an organic form, such as nitrate and ammonia (UCMP 1995), which can be effectively utilised by superior plants as a sort of a natural fertilizer to assist their growth. In fact, common fertilizers actually contain this kind of fixed nitrogen compounds that is absorbed by the plant’s roots.

This nitrification cannot occur in the presence of oxygen, so nitrogen is fixed in specialized cells called heterocysts. These cells have an especially thickened wall that contains an anaerobic environment.

This participation in the nitrogen cycle is important even because it fosters relations of symbiosis between plants (especially legumes), providing specialized tissues in their roots or stems to house the microorganisms, in return for organic nitrogen.

Cyanobacteria also form symbiotic relationships with many fungi, forming complex symbiotic organisms known as lichens. (UCMP 1995)

Fig 1.7 Lichen on a rock

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Fig 1.8 The particular colour of the Morning glory hot spring in Yellowstone is given by microalgae.

Environmental requirements These microorganisms populate the most various environments, even extreme ones.

The basic condition is the availability of water and sufficient light. (Hopes & Mock 2015) While the majority is found in the oceans’ salty water as part of the phytoplankton community, they are also usually found in fresh water but also in the soil or on rocks (Chini Zittelli 2016, 2) and in snow, sea ice, hot springs and salt lakes. (Hopes & Mock 2015). They may even be found in the fur of some mammals like the sloth, to which they established a mutual relationship that is passed on through generations.

(Suutari, et al. 2010). The key for this wide success is their evolution, which made them able to adapt to all these different environments by means of mechanisms such as symbiosys, mutation, selection, genetic drift, gene flow, vertical gene transfer and horizontal gene transfer. (Hopes and Mock 2015) Anyways, the optimal condition for them to thrive remains the tropical climate. It is for this reason that the major productive plants are concentrated in locations like southern California, China, Taiwan, India, Cuba and Hawaii, since the high average temperatures guarantee a constant production all over the year. (Barbato 2009)

Fig 1.9 The fur of the adult sloth is green due to microalgae. It even helps them camouflage.

Fig 1.10 Pink microalgae causing the “Watermelon snow“ on mount Garibaldi in Canada.

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Nutritional composition Being among the species of first link in the food chain, microalgae play an important role in creating the nutrition needed for the more complex species. It is accounted that they are responsible for over 45% of the global primary production (Hopes and Mock 2015) and they can be considered a valid food source since they commonly produce most bioactive compounds among which polysaccharides, starch, proteins, fatty acids, carotenoids, antioxidants, enzymes, polymers, peptides, toxins and sterols.

(Barbato, Campiotti, et al. 2012) As an overall energy content, dry microalgae biomass contains 23-27 kJ of energy per gram of dry weight (Colt International 2013)

In the following table it is possible to note how microalgae, on average, have a higher content of proteins and a lower percentage of lipids compared to common food that we eat everyday.

Nutritional content of microalgae species compared to common food for 100g (%)

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Material

Proteins

Carbohydrates

Lipids

Bread yeast

39

38

1

Meat

43

1

34

Milk

26

38

28

Rice

8

77

2

Soy

37

30

20

Chlorella vulgaris

51-58

12-17

14-22

Spirulina maxima

60-71

13-16

6-7

Dunaliella salina

57

32

6

Porphyridium cruentum

28-38

40-57

9-14

Scenedesmus obliquus

50-56

10-17

12-14

Synechococcus sp.

63

15

11

Aphanizomenon flos aquae 62

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4-7

(Barbato, Campiotti, et al. 2012)

Comparing them instead to specific vegetables, some microalgae like Spirulina, contain more beta carotene than carrots, more chlorophyll than wheatgrass, and more iron than spinach.

However, the idea of completely substituting traditional food with microalgae is unfeasible, since alone they would bring an unbalanced distribution of nutrients, with a too high proteic supply, but instead they can be very beneficial when added or mixed with traditional kinds of food (as the tendency of current uses for human nutrition suggests). This in order to achieve a complete and balanced nutritional scheme with all the positive nutritionals that go beyond proteins, carbohydrates and lipids that microalgae produce.

It is important to note that microalgae do not compete with the production of traditional crops, since they do not need fertile soils to grow.

Another relevant aspect is that not all microalgae are nutritious in the same way, in fact only few species are suitable for consumption, since some species of cyanobacteria produce populations that are toxic to humans and animals. Blue-green pond scums have been linked to the poisoning of cattle and dogs, and occasionally people. It is therefore not recommended that wild populations be gathered and eaten without some knowledge of the organisms involved. (UCMP 1995)

Fig 1.11 Essiccated Spirulina powder

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Reproduction and growth In order to grow, microalgae exhibit two biological behaviours of reproduction: while the prokaryotes like Spirulina perform a binary fission, the eukaryotes instead reproduce via mitosis (Life on Earth 2018). Both forms of reproduction are asexual and happen in a short time.

Regarding the phases of growth, three main ones have been identified. • Exponential phase - in which the growth rate remains positive in time and dependent mostly on nutrient availability, temperature and lighting coming from the environment (initially the low number of cells inside the culture reduces to a minimum the self-shading phenomenon in a way that all the microalgae receive the maximum light saturation). • Linear phase (stationary) - the growth rate is greatly slowed down or almost zero while the algal concentration reaches a high value. For extensive cultures, it is convenient to keep the growth curve in this phase, guaranteeing a right nutritional supply, regulating the algal concentration and ensuring sufficient light to the metabolically active cells. • Decreasing phase - in which the cells tend to die, being suspended both the reproductive and metabolic phases. It usually coincides with an excessive algal concentration, depletion of nutrients in the culture medium or with the establishment of adverse growth conditions (not adequate temperature, presence of toxic substances, inadequate illumination). (Barbato 2009)

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Fig 1.12 A collection of microalgae cultures being grown in a laboratory

Starting from a small sample of microalgae of some liters, usually coming from a biological laboratory, the culture can be scaled up progressively to large volumes.

Once the usage capacities are reached, the cultures can be maintained in a semicontinuous, continuous or discontinuous way: • The semi-continuous way consists in maintaining the culture active for long periods of time, harvesting at intervals the 20-30% and bringing back the original volume with an enriched water medium. The withdrawals start when the algal concentration is dense enough, in the order of millions of cells per milliliter. Usually the intervals between harvests can vary from 3 to 10 days. • The continuous way is when the withdrawal of algae and water replacement happen non-stop. The problem with this method is that it exposes the cultures to a greater risk of contamination. • The discontinuous method consists in bringing the culture to the maximum concentration possible (which varies among species) for then harvesting all the biomass at once and then starting again with a new pure laboratory sample.

By starting again periodically, the pureness of the harvested biomass has more probability of staying of good quality.

Overall, compared to the common terrestrial plants, microalgae exhibit a significantly faster rate of growth. (Barbato 2009)

Fig 1.13 A volvox: a colony of unicellular microalgae that assumes the shape of a sphere

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Part 2 Uses

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Uses overview Microalgae are really interesting when analysed with a holistic approach. Their advantages and potentialities are manifold and knowledge is very important to be able to harness them at best. Ideally, we should employ microalgae for several purposes simultaneously, being able to bring more benefits at the same time.

Fig 2.1 Diagram highlighting all the various uses and sub-uses of microalgae

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Direct uses

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Food for humans Evidence of using microalgae as food sources date back to many centuries, but only in isolated cases where the population took advantage of the local availability, mainly in the presence of alkaline lakes.

Populations from Africa, from the Ciad lake and from Central America have been consuming for centuries Spirulina (Arthrospira platensis) as part of their diet. In Mexico they called it Tecuitlatl and used poles to scoop it out of the water, before moulding it into little flat cakes. In Central Africa they call it Dihè: local people collect the microalgae dense water and dry it into biscuits, for then storing and selling them.

Fig 2.2 Tecuitlatl described in the Florentine Codex

Fig 2.3 Women from Chad selling harvested Dihè

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However, nowadays the way microalgae are most consumed by humans is in form of highly priced food supplements that consist in desiccated and powdered algae, targeted as “superfood” with high content of proteins and vitamin for active people and health enthusiasts. (UCMP 1995) Actually, only 4 species of microalgae are currently allowed as food by European standards, and those are Spirulina, Chlorella, Aphanizomenon, and some Haematococcus. This is because those were consumed regularly before 1997. All the other microalgae, including all the ones that are being discovered and selected recently, will have to undergo the complex Novel Food procedure to make sure they are suitable for human consumption in the EU. (Tredici 2018) Because of their good nutritional properties, for their very low ecological footprint and their detachment from land resources, microalgae are a good prospect candidate for entering more and more in our diet as common ingredients.

In Italian supermarkets, one can already find pasta and snacks made with a percentage of Spirulina and around the world multiple businesses that elaborate food with microalgae are growing: creams, egg-less mayonnaise, risottos, soups...

Many chefs are also experimenting with innovative recipes that include algae as ingredients, one example is the Dogless Hotdog that was developed by SPACE10’s chefin-residence Simon Perez to explore new and more compelling ways to use spirulina in everyday recipes. The chef, that had previously developed microalgae crisps, had the thought-provoking idea of replacing the meat hotdog by adding Spirulina to the dough used to make the buns. The result is a green hotdog that contains zero meat but is packed with more protein than a regular ‘dog’.

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Fig 2.4 The Dogless Hotdog by chef Simon Perez

Fig 2.5 Overview of pastas, snacks and bakery products on the market that are produced with microalgae

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Animal feed Just as how microalgae are nutritious and digestibles for humans, they are also for animals. Considering that they even are part of the natural food chain in the marine environments, they are being considered especially in the aquaculture field: for fish, prawns, but even zooplankton. Nonetheless, microalgae are also employed for feeding farm livestock like horses, poultry, cows, etc. The problem is that while microalgae feed have good properties, cheaper feed is on the market and is usually preferred for its lower price.

Biofertilizers Microalgae are generally capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen by nitrification and superior plants need it for their growth. Cyanobacteria are naturally present in soil and contribute to the maintenance of its fertility. For this, microalgae have been employed in agriculture as natural fertilizers, in substitution of artificial ones, to increase growth and yield of cultivations. Rice is one cultivation that usually benefits from microalgae. In fact, not only they deliver usable nitrogen, but they also improve the overall properties of the soil by producing growth-promoting substances, fixing carbon and improving the terrain’s pH. (Priyadarshani and Rath 2012)

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Fig 2.6 Marine acquaculture plants in Greece

Fig 2.7 Countryside rice paddy field in Malaysia

Dying colourants and ink A very interesting but maybe undervaluing use for microalgae is to employ them solely for their colour, as dying material for textiles, in a way to get naturally coloured garments, following the ancient tradition of using natural pigments.

An award-winning project that follows this concept is called Algaemy and was developed by Blond and Bieber design studio. It consists in a beech wood workbench/ printer that provides all the necessary tools to employ microalgae as creative dying elements that produce custom shaped continuous colours on fabric, thanks to a big printing wheel with strips of rubber. The resulting textile exhibits dynamic and changing shades that vary between blue, green, brown and red tones based on the light and the chosen microalgae.

Another interesting project is Living Ink, which received public funding on Kickstarter and aims to produce a commercial microalgae ink that is initially transparent but then grows on the paper under sunlight and shows after approximately three days its green colour given by the natural pigments.

Fig 2.8 Living Ink pen Fig 2.9 Alagemy multifunctional workbench Fig 2.10 Textiles printed with microalgae

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Indirect uses

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Air purification CO2 is one polluting agent that is increasingly present in the atmosphere and is contributing to the greenhouse effect and therefore to global warming. CO2 is emitted by the combustion of organic compounds, among which the fossil fuels, in the presence of oxygen.

Microalgae, thanks to photosynthesis, are able to capture CO2 and transform it back to organic compounds, while releasing oxygen. In a way, they have the potential to reverse this increase of carbon dioxide that our environment is facing, thus “purifying” the air we breathe.

While this reasoning is valid at the global scale of the atmosphere, it also makes sense in the small case considering the interior environment in which we live and work for the most part of the day: due to cellular respiration, to produce energy we take oxygen and glucose and transform it into usable energy and CO2. In the long run, oxygen levels drop while carbon dioxide rises and this affects negatively our cognitive functions, concentration level and productivity. (Allen, et al. 2016) This is why microalgae could bring positive improvements even to working and domestic spaces.

This air purification action happens every time algae grow and in some cases it is sought after specifically for offsetting a CO2 emission by industrial processes.

One virtuous example of this case is the Algoland factory in Sweden that is able to manufacture carbon-neutral cement by pumping the CO2 rich exhaust air from the production plant into numerous photobioreactors filled with Baltic Sea microalgae algae that sequester and neutralise all the carbon dioxide before it even enters the atmosphere. Then, the resulting biomass can be used as an additive for chicken and fish food once it has been dried, thus becoming sellable material too.

Fig 2.11 Photomontage of different views of Tokyo’s skyline seen with a clear and polluted atmoshpere

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Wastewater purification In the world, over 80% of wastewater remains untreated and ends up in the oceans is it is, polluting negatively the environment and the biosphere. Industrial, agricultural and civil wastewaters tends to contain substances such as nitrates and phosphates which have harmful presence in nature - but happen to be a source of nutrients for microalgae. (SPACE10 2017) On the other hand, heavy metals present in the wastewaters are not nutritious for the algae but can be absorbed by them and so stored in a solid way inside the biomass, thus removing it from the liquid. Species like Chlorella are able to process and transform pollutants like ammonia, nitrates and phosphates, purifying the wastewater over the course of a few days. It is immediate then that microalgae are being considered as a cheap and natural alternative to expensive treatment plants.

Since the purifying chemical processes take a few days, suitable solutions are being studied to store the wastewater for the required time. Scientists are thinking of ocean plants with floating plastic tubes on the sea, that would purify with microalgae the wastewater and then, once clean, release it directly into the ocean. (Focus 2014)

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Fig 2.12 Render of NASA’s OMEGA system

Fig 2.13 Conventional wastewater treatment plant

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Processed uses

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Biofuel production Biofuels are materials which are burned to produce heat or power and are derived directly from living matter (on the contrary of fossil fuels).

The first generation of biofuels derives from the cultivation of food crops such as palm, rapeseed, soy, beets and cereals (corn, wheat, etc). All of these crops are suitable even for human consumption, so the production of fuel competes directly with the production of edible aliments in a way that for the sake of energy purposes, less food is available on the market and since malnutrition is a global growing problem, these biofuels are considered as unsustainable.

The second generations of biofuels is defined by the European Commission as fuels that are produced from feedstock that “do not compete directly with food and feed crops, such as wastes and agricultural residues (i.e. wheat straw, municipal waste), non-food crops (i.e. miscanthus and short rotation coppice). These kind of biofuels are considered in a better way than the first generation, even if they might indirectly compete with food crops if not cultivated on marginal land or either cause an indirect land use change.

Microalgae are part of the third generation biofuel feedstock, along with aquatic plants, microbial biomass and microalgae, since they do not use at all arable land like standard crops do but instead grow in water and if considered to grow in salt water, which is far less precious and way more available than freshwater, they are the most sustainable of the three generations.

Microalgae also exhibit much higher yields compared to earlier generation feedstock (e.g. corn for ethanol or soybeans for biodiesel) their ability to integrate waste water and resources into their lifecycle could provide us with a holistic approach to integrating waste and resources by producing biofuels as well as treating waste water.

The way microalgae are able to produce fuels resides in the capacity of some species to produce and store a percentage of oil inside of the cells while they grow. The potentialities are present but the performances do vary according to the species, the location of the production plant, the cultivation techniques and the biomass treatment, it is hard to have reliable evaluations on their productivity. (Barbato 2009) According to some studies, experimental production of the marine microalgae Nannochloropsis can provide 20 ton/ha/year of oil with 220-250 productive days per year. (Tredici 2008) Compared to the most oil-producing terrestrial plant, which is the oil palm, the microalgae’s production for unit of soil surface is 16 times bigger. (Chisti 2007) The interesting facts about microalgae for energy production are: • it involves a sharp reduction of C02 emissions compared to fossil fuels 37

• it does not subtract resources to agriculture for food purposes like instead all the energy crops do • after the biofuel extraction, the algal biomass can still be employed for commercial biomolecules extraction and for biogas production (Barbato 2009) Some researches, for example the one by Arup in collaboration with Tongji University in Shanghai, are trying to genetically modify algae strains to achieve a high oil content with high productivity and can be easily harvested. Ideally, they would also be resistant to contamination, tolerate high oxygen levels, endure temperature extremes and adapt easily to the local water chemistry or other environmental perturbations.

Further research and development is needed to optimise the level of productivity, efficiency, stability, and harvesting techniques for producing biofuels effectively.

In late 2018, the multinational oil and gas corporation ExxonMobil announced that with the genetic modification of Nannochloropsis gaditana, it will target the technical capability to produce 10,000 barrels of algae biofuel per day by 2025.

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Fig 2.14 Algae scientists working in a greenhouse

Fig 2.15 Researcher working in a laboratory with algae

Bioproducts and cosmetics Microalgae have the ability to produce many 100% natural chemical compounds, such as: • • • • • •

polyunsaturated fatty acids antioxidants coloring agents like beta carotene and phycocyanin vitamins anticancer drugs antimicrobial drugs

The global interest in extracting them from microalgae has been increasing in recent times. The reasons behind are the fast growth, the overall sustainability of the process and the very high economic value that these pure substances have one the market.

In order to obtain them, the biomass is removed from the aqueous medium and then separated into multiple intermediates such as carbohydrates, proteins and triglycerides that are further converted into value-added products through a process of biorefinery.

A very promising use of microalgae in the cosmetic industry through a biorefinery process is through its pigments and organic metabolites, that present a UV shielding capability that is ideal for sun protection, skin and hair creams. (Priyadarshani and Rath 2012)

Fig 2.16 Chemical structure of beta carotene

Fig 2.17 Variety of drugs typology

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Potential future employments

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Space travel Among the several difficulties associated with living and travelling in space, one is to remove the need of constant provision resupply from Earth, thus being able to recycle oxygen and grow their own nourishment in a self-sufficient way.

Microalgae thought to be a potential solution both for oxygen synthesis and food production up to approximately 30% of the astronauts’ daily food intake.

Research is now ongoing to experiment whether microalgae exhibit a good behavior while growing in microgravity. In particular, the MELiSSA programme (Micro-Ecological Life Support System Alternative) by the ESA (European Space Agency) will launch in space the ArtemISS project, short for ‘Arthrospira gene Expression and mathematical modelling on cultures grown in the International Space Station’ regarding the effects of space on Spirulina. Instead, it is currently being tested on the ISS (International Space Station) a photobioreactor for the growth of Chlorella vulgaris by the German Aerospace Center. The required CO2 will be supplied for the most part by the station’s life support rack and the algae will be fed with a nutrient solution every 14 days, while at the same time being thinned out to allow new algae space to grow. Once the experiment is complete, the performance and life cycles of the culture will be evaluated, with several samples sent back to Earth for genetic analysis.

Fig 2.18 Space photobiorector for the ISS

Fig 2.19 MELiSSA scientists working on a space PBR

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Fig 2.20 Astronaut Samantha Cristoforetti eating space food

Fig 2.21 Power bar with Spirulina for astronauts

Integration within the built environment A place that would be ideal for hosting microalgae is our built environment, with no land for crops to grow but a high quantity of vertical surfaces, a high concentration of carbon dioxide and higher temperatures in comparison to the countryside. Up to now, only few pilot projects were realised, but in the future microalgae could become more present in our daily life and a positive resource for humanity, being able to take advantage of all the uses that were illustrated in this chapter.

Fig 2.22 Sketches of microalgae facades to be integrated in a building, which will become the SolarLeaf

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Part 3 Processes

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Marine environments a key resource for the ecosystem Microalgae are present in all types of marine environment, from the coastal regions where they are adapted to turbulent currents, high quantity of nutrients and low light, to the open ocean where they endure situations of high irradiance and low nutrient concentrations. Even in polar environments, microalgae are able to resist to freezing temperatures, high nutrients and long periods of light and darkness. (Hopes and Mock 2015) These adaptations are the result of long-lasting genetic evolutions that brought to an extraordinary species differentiation that made them able to colonize every corner of the world.

For their massive presence and their characteristics,, microalgae find themselves at the base of the marine ecosystems, providing a primary source of energy for numerous animals: from the microscopic zooplankton to mollusks and shellfish. These organisms are then the next link in the food chain, being preyed on by larger and more complex organisms.

Moreover, the photosynthetic activity of microalgae is fundamental for the overall life on Earth, since it is estimated that between 30% and 50% of the atmospheric oxygen has been produced by microalgae since the Archaean and Proterozoic Eras. (UCMP 1995) While performing photosynthesis, carbon dioxide (CO2 - which is the greatest greenhouse effect influencing gas) is absorbed and synthesized in form of organic matter that is required for the microalgae culture growth and also very important for the ecosystem. (Barbato, Campiotti, et al. 2012)

Fig 3.1 Microalgae seen from a satellite photograph

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Because of their metabolic activity, they are responsible of a significant part of the oceans’ biogeochemical cycling (Hopes and Mock 2015), sedimenting themselves as organic matter on the seabeds and contributing to the millenary-lasting tectonic cycles.

Another important aspect to consider is the rate at which these microorganisms are able to reproduce and grow, that is higher compared to the other photosynthetic organisms. This could be considered a positive effect for their diffusion and the diffusion of their many beneficial effects, but in some cases this capacity could turn into a serious problem, that is when the algal blooms happen.

Algal blooms involve the formation of widespread colonies of microalgae, which can have an overall area that can historically reach the extension of a whole nation like the United Kingdom (Hopes and Mock 2015) and densities up to hundreds of millions of cells per milliliter (Tredici 2007). Under favourable conditions, their expansion is uncontrollable and can pose a serious threat to the marine ecosystems since toxic substances may be produced and released in the environment when harmful microalgae species are involved, in addition to the concurrent depletion of the nutrients (especially nitrogen and phosphorus) present in the waters.

Other than damaging the ecosystem, algal blooms can also have repercussions on human economic activities such as tourism when these phenomena happen near the coastal regions.

This particular condition of natural “blooming� microalgae is instead sought after in all the artificial processes in order to maximise the productivity being able to intercept all the incident light. (Tredici 2007)

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Fig 3.2 Toxic microalgae blooms of Lake Erie in 2017

Hinterland environments a resource for humans While, as we have seen, algal blooms in nature are generally dangerous and harmful, recurring through history there have been cases of positive impact to human life.

Arthrospira platensis (Spirulina) is known to bloom frequently in alkaline waters in all continents and in some cases it is used for alimentation purposes by the local population.

Notorious examples of microalgae harvests can be found in: • Myanmar - where Spirulina blooms are harvested seasonally from volcanic basins, giving life to small businesses.

• Ciad lake, Africa - it has been centuries that the Kanembu populations take advantage of Spirulina blooms with evident nutritional and social benefit.

• Lake Texcoco, Mexico - in the sixteenth century, the native population of today’s Mexico City was known to harvest mats of cyanobacteria belonging to the genus Arthrospira (commonly known today as Spirulina) from the alkaline waters of nearby Lake Texcoco (Linder 2019).

• Oregon, USA - the seasonal blooms of Aphanizomenon flos-aquae of the Klamath lake are used to obtain food supplements

Fig 3.3 The crater lake Twin-taung in Myanmar

Fig 3.4 Kanembu lady harvesting Spirulina

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Open ponds raceways Starting from the 1950s, times where the forecast of rising population numbers threatened the global food supply, a new commercial interest on microalgae arose.

Microalgae were thought to provide an inexpensive source of energy and nourishment and industrial techniques have been researched on ever since.

The first artificial way to grow microalgae in a large scale were open ponds raceways that recreated the original marine conditions of shallow waters with daylight solar exposure. These ponds were inexpensive to create as long as wide land was present and abundant water sources were nearby. Similar to the typical wastewater treatment plants, the boundaries of the water basin are shaped in order to form a closed track where the water would circulate round by means of moving devices such as electric paddle wheels, while the top parts are open to the sky. (Barbato 2009) While their operating costs are minimum and the volume of liquid involved is huge, the efficiency of biomass production is not optimal because dependent on the ambient temperature and weather conditions that are not always good and constant.

Moreover, due to their open conditions, they are subject to contamination of external agents coming from the rain and the air such as bacteria, weeds and other microalgae that can disrupt the monoculture of a single species.

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Fig 3.5 Open pond raceways in Japan

Fig 3.6 Round open pond raceways in Portugal

For this reasons, frequent controls must be adopted to guarantee safety and quality and production is often limited to a small number of extremophile species, like Spirulina, that grow only in extreme conditions of water basicity (pH over 9) or salinity (more than 40%) in a way to prevent other unwanted species to propagate.. Another intrinsic problem of raceway ponds is the high quantity of water that evaporates each day into the atmosphere as moisture and needs to be reintegrated in liquid form.

Even for this, many times these open pond raceways are closed on the top part by a greenhouse-like shed or by plastic cloths that allow a better control and isolation from the environment.

Because of the necessary climate requirements, these plants are currently employed in Asian and tropical regions such as Hawaii or northern Australia. Industries have been established in the USA, Germany and Japan such as Nihon Chlorella in 1961 and from the 80s more than 40 factories were present only in the Asian region, producing more than 1000 kilograms of biomass per month.

After these first pioneering approaches, researchers found out that the production rate was not enough to guarantee a suitable food source for the whole world population and ever since the aim shifted towards more specific and lucrative sectors such as medicines, supplements, cosmetics and animal feed.

Still today though, the open ponds raceways produce the most quantity of microalgae worldwide. (Barbato, Campiotti, et al. 2012) The recommended pond depth varies from 15 to 40 cm, representing a compromise between energy expenses for culture agitation and harvest, lighting efficacy and thermal excursion during the day.

Fig 3.7 Open ponds raceways hosting different species of microalgae in Hawaii

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Photobioreactors Photobioreactor defines a device that supports a biologically active environment where light is the main growth source. For that, photobioreactors have to be made of a transparent material. Inside of this artificial environment, some specific parameters are kept under control to guarantee suitable growth rates and purity levels for the microorganisms hosted inside, things that an open pond raceway is not always able to maintain. (Tredici 2007) For the high standard their closed configuration allows, photobioreactors are regarded as the future of microalgae cultivation.

The criteria at the base of every photobioreactor design is to allow each photosynthetic cell to achieve the best efficiency, maximizing the quantity of recieved light, movement and gaseous exchanges. (Barbato, Campiotti, et al. 2012) In the past they were associated with very high operation costs because they relied completely on artificial lighting and heating but more recently photobioreactors have been developed in order to harness at most the free solar energy and thus have been put outdoors or in greenhouse-like systems, that are more sustainable and are to be preferred. (Blanken 2016) Although every transparent vessel could be considered as a photobioreactor, some main typologies for commercial production exist:

Fermenter This typology has a low liquid capacity and is meant to be used in laboratories for growing the starter cultures for bigger photobioreactors. They usually have a cylindrical glass envelope and multiple head nozzles for gaseous exchanges and sensors.

Plate Plastic or glass panes can be coupled with a metal frame, as if they were multi-layer windows, in which the internal cavity is filled with the microalgae solution. The width of the internal layer determines the amount of light supply for the culture. Its construction system is considered simpler and cheaper than tubular photobioreactors. The flow inside the panel can be customised based on many concept among which the Airlift, which creates a meandering movement of the liquid thanks to the raising aeration bubbles against the shapes of the cavities in the panel.

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Tubular They can be made of either glass or plastic tubes and oriented either horizontally or vertically. A system of pumps keeps the liquid in movement through the pipes, which are positioned in a circuit array over usually two layers. As advantages, tubular photobioreactor have the flexibility of configuration and scalability and the easiness of maintenance.

Christmas tree A christmas tree photobioreactor takes its name from the tapered shape of pines: in fact even their overall shape is tapered. They consist of a double helical hose circuit that has a higher diameter at the bottom and a smaller at the top. This system is particularly indicated for outdoor plants that are able to be scaled up to an agricultural scale, being able for their conformation to exploit at best natural sunlight.

Horizontal They consist in a horizontal plane geometry with it top envelope that is corrugated with peaks and valleys along regular distances. This is to allow a better light diffusion over larger surfaces. The culture is a shallow layer with a low hydrodynamic pressure that is rotated cylindrically by a pump.

Foil Foil photobioreactors are made of flexible PVC or PE membrane cushions filled with the microalgae culture, becoming bags. The quantity of material is minimal, they’re lightweight, cheap and easily replaceable but they need to be replaced quite often making them not so sustainable.

Porous substrate Microalgae do not grow in liquid but are immobilised on a substrate surface that is in contact with another layer where a nutrient medium circulates and is passively delivered to the culture cells by evaporation and capillary forces. This allows to reduce greatly the overall liquid needed for the photobioreactor functioning.

The microalgae are subsequently harvested by scraping the substrate. This technology is currently under research.

Fig 3.8 Different typologies of photobioreactors

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Harvest and treatment Overview of separation techniques One of the main issues of microalgae cultivation is to separate the produced biomass from the aqueous phase from where it is grown. This situation varies across the different species since more colonial and filamentous microalgae like Spirulina are quite easy to separate through canvas filters or properly dimensioned meshes. On the other hand, unicellular species like Chlorella or Nannochloropsis present more difficulty to be recovered from the aqueous medium due to their microscopic size.

The main methods are: • Sedimentation - convenient in energy terms because due to gravity but not always feasible due to the long time needed and the dependency on numerous factors such as temperature, lighting, pH, salinity…

• Flocculants - substances that are able to addensate the algal cells due to chemical reactions, the disadvantages of this system are the costs for this flocculants and their residual presence in the harvested biomass • Flotation - only for microalgae with high lipid content, that makes them less dense than water so it floats upon it • Filtration - more effective for microalgae that grow in colonies in a way that their overall dimension is higher and more easily separated with filters of larger diameter.

For unicellular species with small cell diameter, it requires electromechanical systems that consume a high quantity of energy • Centrifugation - requires a high expense of energy

Overview of essiccation techniques: Once the wet biomass has been separated from the aqueous phase, many times there is the necessity of drying it for long-term storage or for preparation to further processing.

The main methods are: • Solar radiation - air drying thanks to the solar energy that makes the water content evaporate, usually inside greenhouses • Oven heating - requires an additional expense of energy compared to the employment of solar radiation • Spray drying - employs the spraying of the liquid slurry into minuscule droplets 52

which, due to their increased surface area, in contact with a stream of hot air, dry almost instantly leaving the solid part in form of dust. This process is particularly important because the biomass itself is not heated, leaving unaltered the precious thermolabile molecules such as vitamins produced by the microalgae. (Barbato, Campiotti, et al. 2012)

Overview of the production state at world level

Products and commercial processes Products - Processes

Species

Cultivations

Supplements Animal feed

Arthrospira (Spirulina) Chlorella Aphanizomenon Dunaliella Haematococcus

Lagoons Raceway ponds Circular ponds, Photobioreactors

Pigments

Dunaliella Arthrospira (Spirulina) Haematococcus

Lagoons Raceway ponds Photobioreactors

Fatty acids ω-3

Schizochytrium (10t oil) Cryptecodinium (240t oil)

Fermenters 10-100 m​3

Markers Enzymes

Arthrospira (Spirulina) Anabaena Anacystis

Fermenter Axenic photobioreactors

Wastewater treatment

Scenedesmus Mixed cultures

Lagoons Raceway ponds

Biomass for aquaculture

Various species

Tanks, bags, cylinders, photobioreactors

Other products / processes in phase of development Polysaccharides, biofertilizers, medicines, biopesticides, probiotics, biosensors, bioremediators for waste water with xenobiotics and metals, CO​2 ​biofixation, hydrogen and biodiesel production

Source: Tredici 2007 (data 2006)

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Microalgae Major producers

Products

World production (t/year)

Spirulina (Arthrospira)

Hainan Simai Pharmacy Co. (China) Earthrise Nutritionals (California, USA) Cyanotech Corp. (Hawaii, USA) Myanmar Spirulina factory (Myanmar)

powders, extracts tablets, powders, extracts tablets, powders, beverages, extracts tablets, chips, pasta and liquid extract

3000

Chlorella

Taiwan Chlorella Manufacturing Co. (Taiwan) Klötze (germany)

tablets, powders, nectar, noodles powders

2000

Dunaliella salina Cognis Nutrition and Health (Australia)

powders b-carotene

1200

Aphanizomenon Blue Green Foods (USA) flos-aquae Vision (USA)

capsules, crystals powder, capsules, crystals

500

Source: (Priyadarshani and Rath 2012)

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Main issues to tackle for future developments Microalgae could become in the future a widespread resource of commercially exploitable green energy. But before that, though, some criticalities need to be resolved: • More robust and productive strains of algae have to be selected, that have to be able to survive and thrive in diverse climates and environmental conditions, to resist to contaminations while well-behaving in case of leakage intro the natural ecosystem • Optimizing the capabilities of microalgae to purify and grow in waste waters • Improving the capabilities to absorb actively the residual C02 from industrial processes to reduce greenhouse-effect emissions.

• Improving their energetic content • More efficient separation techniques from the liquid phase that are less energy consuming and adapted to the particular species of microalgae in consideration.

• Reduction of the overall costs of production, especially by scaling the processes making them more convenient and fruitful The future of microalgae is promising, but more research and experimentation will be required to achieve a wider employment. (Barbato, Campiotti, et al. 2012) One way the research is proceeding is to try to modify genetically the algal strains, in a similar way it happens for traditional crops, in order to reach better yields and characteristics. Examples can be found in the collaboration between Arup and the Tongji University in Shanghai or either between ExxonMobil and Synthetic Genomics.

Another important aspect is the water resources involved in the microalgae growth.

To make the production cycle sustainable and advantageous, salty water coming from seas or oceans or either waste water have to be employed (Barbato 2009), in a way to preserve the limited availability of potable water present on earth.

Additionally, to obtain a positive economic, energetic and emissive balance, all the energy required in the processes (that have to consume less as possible) should come from renewable sources like eolic, photovoltaic, geothermal plants. (Barbato 2009)

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Part 4 Case studies

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Microalgae for the built environment While microalgae are important for all the polyhedric aspects that were treated in this thesis, just thinking about the simple carbon sequestration that happens every time a culture of microalgae multiplies is a very important benefit, since it would implement a short carbon cycle that prevents carbon emissions entering the atmosphere and contributing to climate change. Then, if we consider all the additional achievable outcomes if we deal with a good design, the benefits of integrating these microorganisms would be even greater.

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Integration in interiors

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Algae Curtain by loop.ph This installation was developed in October 2012 for the Living Laboratory, part of the Energy Futures project by studio Loop.pH in Lille, France.

The design consisted in flexible transparent tubes knotted into large curtains that were hung in front of sunny windows. Microalgae were pumped through this “living� textile in order to absorb the daylight and perform photosynthesis. Moreover, a set of balloons filled with microalgae were hanged from the ceiling.

For this project, Nannochloropsis microalgae were chosen because of their ability of generating a large quantity of oil for biofuel production.

Fig 4.1 Transparent balloons filled with microalgae

Fig 4.2 Intertwined tube net in front of a window

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Fig 4.3 Overview of the installation

Fig 4.4 Manufacturing process

Fig 4.5 Operation of control cabinet

Living things by Jacob Douenias and Ethan Frier Living Things was an installation that took place in the Mattress Factory Museum, part of the Museum of Contemporary Art of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA between May 2015 and April 2016.

The project was conceived by Ethan Frier and Jacob Douenias and is meant to explore a possibility of symbiotic living between humans and microalgae in the domestic environment. It consists of custom hand-blown glass bioreactors designed as household furnishings.

These nine transparent “vessels� function both as lighting and heating elements and are each linked to the control centre table with about 800 meters overall of wiring and plumbing. These photobioreactors are fully functioning, being provided with a system of heating, lighting, agitation, air supply, nutrient and waste control through sealed glass columns submerged within each vessel. Their form was studied to promote internal circulation while ensuring a good mounting method.

The central workbench is intended to be the console to interface with the symbiotic system and features 3D printed nylon knobs embedded in the surface that actuate eighteen valves which allow for the harvesting of microalgae when the culture becomes dense enough, and the supply of fresh liquid media to each photobioreactor.

The oak slab surface was CNC routed from a 3D geometry that helps users remember which vessels correspond to a control knob. The cabinet contains the pumps, tubing, manifolds, LED drivers, air pumps, heater connections and filters which comprise the heart of this life support system.

The microorganism Spirulina was selected for this installation for its ability to thrive in very alkaline waters, where most bacteria cannot live. During the course of the installation, the creators worked with bartenders and chefs to create drinks and dishes which feature Spirulina at special events held during the installation. All of the furniture elements were fabricated specifically for the installation, with collaboration from the Pittsburgh Glass Center for the production of the vessels.

As criticalities that can be pointed out in this project, there is the fact that a complex infrastructure of tubes is required to be installed underneath the floor, thing that in most cases of existing interior spaces would not be a viable option. Moreover the tabletop pieces had tubes that ran across the floor and around the chairs, which could be easily tripped on, causing serious harm both to the user and to the furniture due to its glass material and liquid biologic content. Another issue that could be identified is that the light emitted from the lamps, filtered by Spirulina, is transmitted to the surroundings just in its green component, which may not be ideal and pleasant for living spaces.

As a positive aspects, instead, it has to be noted that the quality of design and degree of functionality are very high.

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Fig 4.6 Scheme that describes the installation’s configuration and operation mechanisms

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Fig 4.7 Technical drawings

Fig 4.8 Assembly process of the installation at Triennale di Milano

STRUNA by SAPERLab - Politecnico di Milano STRUNA, the name coming from the combination of the words Structure and Nature, is an installation that was showcased in the exhibition “999 - A collection of questions about contemporary living” that took place at La Triennale di Milano (Italy) from January to April 2018. The design, which is inspired by the Iranian Mashrabiya ‘Orsi‘ was developed by architecture students Lorenzo Ceccon, Nahid Mousavi and Golnaz Nouri with professor Ingrid Paoletti and manufactured by Politecnico’s SAPERLab. The installation is composed by 255 modular elements that together compose an organic wall 8 meters long and 5 high that is meant to have the ability to host nature and bring it inside the domestic habitat, fostering the presence and condivision of spaces with other living beings such as plants and microalgae.

The modular system allows freedom of customization to the final user since the modules’ configuration can be easily adapted and reconfigurable to different shapes and scales. The elements were each controlled parametrically in their aperture coefficient to regulate the flow of air and light throughout the structure and were each cut with a CNC machines. In the end, the mass-customised installation, with each module different from the others, was manufactured in just a few days of work.

Potentially, every kind of material that comes in flat sheets could be employed to create the modules, but white translucent methacrylate was chosen in this case for its durability, structural behaviour and elegant yet futuristic appearance.

In this particular configuration realised for the exhibition, the integration with microalgae consisted in multiple vertical tubes filled with water-solutions of three microalgae species that were positioned in the interstitial hollow spaces of the structure. Different tubes contained Spirulina, Chlamydomonas and Haematococcus that had been selected respectively for their specific production of nutritional proteins, polyunsaturated fat Omega 3-6-9 and the antioxidant Astaxanthin. This to show the public, even by the different colours of the three species, the wide variety and potentialities of production that microalgae hold, also for human nutrition purposes.

An aeration system was provided at the bottom of each tube and LED strips were positioned in a way to provide artificial light for the microalgae growth.

This system could be easily employed in our homes, or even outdoors, as a multifunctional space divider that also is able to exhibit a good aesthetic value.

As a consideration that could be useful to enhance the design, while the base components of the system are modular, the vertical photobioreactors currently are not, thus containing for each tube several liters of microalgae-rich water, making the harvest and cleaning process quite difficult to perform in a domestic environment without special machinery. Moreover, the integration in the system of superior plants or other elements would probably require to additionally produce custom-designed 3d-printed “vases” or “shelves” to fit into the triangular apertures of the modules.

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Fig 4.9 Detail photo of the installation showing the transparent microalgae tubes with LED strips next to them.

Fig 4.10 Overview of STRUNA installed at Superstudio during the Milan Design Week 2018.

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Exhale Bionic Chandelier by Julian Melchiorri The chandelier, which is meant to be a large, natural air-purifier, consists of 70 ‘petals’ in 3 different sizes repeated on a radial array. Each petal contains green algae, which are activated by a mix of daylight and LED, and sustained by a drip-feed of nutrients.

The leaves are made of lightweight two layer inflatable plastic film and their geometry creates a tube-like path for the water to flow into. The metal structure is entirely handmade and burned-coloured and connects the leaves to a life-supporting unit device, engineered by the startup Arborea, which nourishes and supports the microalgae.

This piece was exhibited during the London design festival in September 2017 and is now part of the Victoria and Albert Museum permanent collection.

In this project it is not clear how the microalgae culture is agitated and how the supply of CO2 and the biomass harvesting is performed. No detail is available also on the lifesupporting unit device: it is unknown both its position and its functionality: for these reason and for the photobioreactor’s low liquid capacity, its efficacy is estimated as low.

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Fig 4.11 The Exhale Bionic Chandelier installed in the V&A Museum in London

The Lillies by Cesare Griffa Architetti The Lillies is a series of photobioreactors of different scales and complexity being created by the studio Cesare Griffa Architetti since 2013.

The collection comprises from very simple design kits that are meant to be built by everyone, following the DIY (do-it-yourself) ethics and using affordable and easily available components, to bigger and almost industrial systems meant for indoor farming. Among their creations, the most relevant are:

WaterLilly Gramp 2012 This first prototype of the WaterLilly family is a wall-hung interior photobioreactor. It employs a natural design and digital fabrication to create a two-piece installation. The bottom service module contains the main tank and all the electronics that regulate the system such as a touch sensor, a solenoid that controls a CO2 tank, a water pump, an aerator and an Arduino-based microcontroller.

The top wall component hosts instead the flexible transparent pipes in which the microalgae flow and the LED strips to provide enough light to perform photosynthesis.

This prototype was showcased at the “Traces of Centuries and Future Steps� exhibit, a collateral event of the Venice Biennale of Architecture 2012.

While this system features an interesting design, it poses a problem of energy consumption since it relies heavily on electronics, LED lights and solenoids that require electricity to function. The risk is that in order to create a very efficient environment for the microalgae to live in, a lot of energy is consumed, so it is done in a way that is unsustainable and the costs become more than the achievable benefits.

Fig 4.12 WaterLilly Gramp 2012

Fig 4.13 Transportation of the photobioreactor in Venice

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WaterLilly Ma&Pa 2012 Conceived as an evolution to the WaterLilly Gramp, the difference is that here there is no need of a service module since all the components needed to grow the microalgae have been embedded in the wall unit. Furthermore RGB LED strips and a PIR movement sensor that make the Lillies aware of people movement around them have been added, while the CO2 tank with its solenoid have been removed: the metabolic variations happen just through the LED light modulation. In this case, the very little quantity of tube is correlated with a low culture liter capacity and thus a less effective production.

Lilly starter kit 2013 Fabricated for the Rome MakerFaire 2013, the design is based on laser cutting sheets of wood or acrylic in order to create a box that is able to house a plastic bottle to be filled with cultures of Chlorella that were distributed during the event. The DXF file is freely downloadable from the internet and the only other requirements are a 8â‚Ź aerator, a small pipe, mineral water and nutrients integrators. This starter kit puts simplicity as its core principle, in order to allow everybody to start growing their own little algae farm at home.

MiniLilly 2015 This is an evolution of the previously designed Lilly starter kit, with the same concept of designing a small photobioreactor that could fit in every household. The design is less “cheap� than before, substituting the repurposed plastic bottle with a completely acrylic structure with a tank at the bottom and a pump that elevates the microalgae liquid to the top part where it flows back down due to gravity, sliding on five sloping acrylic planes that increase the contact surface of the liquid with the air, thus removing the need for a dedicated aerator.

The project also features an Arduino microcontroller with a small display and sensors that record air temperature, water temperature and light. The maximum liquid volume is 2,5 liters and the frame dimensions are 30x12x50cm, making it possible to be built out of two 60x90cm 3mm sheets. Due to the open configuration of the 70

Fig 4.14 WaterLillyMa&Pa 2012

Fig 4.15 Lilly starter kit 2013

Fig 4.16 MiniLilly 2015 drawing

photobioreactor and the large surfaces involved, the system is more prone to external contamination and the Spirulina grown inside it should not be employed for food purposes. It has to be noted, however, that the waterfall design is interesting and pleasant to have in a home environment, although we do not have data on its efficiency compared to standard aeration methods.

WaterLilly 3.17 Employing almost 2 meter tall rigid transparent tubes, photovoltaic panels and an electronic control system, this system is the largest, latest and most advances photobioreactor created by Cesare Griffa Architetti.

Differently from their previous designs, this is not on the reach of a broad public. Instead it targets small “algaepreneurs� that want to exploit microalgae commercially.

The photobioreactor is of a closed type with a controlled internal environment. There are two main horizontal tubes, one on top and one on the bottom part from which are connected the 6 vertical tubes through manifolds. While the front of the photobioreactor case is open, the rear is covered in mylar film to reflect the light coming from the top and the sides.

The prototype is still under testing to provide realistic data on production rates, energy consumption and CO2 fixation capacity.

Fig 4.17 MiniLilly 2015 prototype

Fig 4.18 WaterLilly 3.17

Fig 4.19 WaterLilly 3.17 detail

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H.O.R.T.U.S. by EcoLogicStudio The H.O.R.T.U.S. installation series by the London studio EcoLogicStudio, founded by Claudia Pasquero and Marco Poletto, wants to engage the notions of urban renewable energy and agriculture through new gardening prototypes that are compatible with our domestic environments. The acronym H.O.R.T.U.S. actually means Hydro Organisms Responsive to Urban Stimuli. These installations started from 2012 and have been continuing until today.

Although they are usually interesting installations, they are not thought to be suitable for the mass-employment in our domestic spaces.

H.O.R.T.U.S. This first installation took place in the AA Front Members Room in London, during the month of January 2012. This proto-garden host micro and macro-algal organisms as well as bioluminescent bacteria; fitted with ambient light sensing technologies and a custom designed virtual interface. It promotes a hands-on engagement with the public since the visitors could blow C02 by means of small inflation tubes in order to make the microalgae grow. The microalgae used in the installation came from lakes and ponds within Central London.

The structure of the exhibition consists of numerous plastic bags that are hanged from the ceiling of the space, with a small inflation tube for each of the small photobioreactors.

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Fig 4.20 A lady participating in the installation is blowing CO2 into one microalgae sack

H.O.R.T.U.S ZKM In October 2015 this installation was exhibited in the ZKM Museum of Karlsruhe (Germany). It aims to engage the notion of urbansphere, an augmented biosphere: the synthesis of renewable energy and nutrients for human consumption is reconsidered as an urban practice enabled by a novel bio-digital gardening prototype.

The tubes full of microalgae reinterpret the architectural shape of a column, that becomes almost an organic tree.

The high-density photobioreactor is composed by many transparent and flexible plastic tubes of small diameter that are held in place throughout their path by black custom-shaped supports.

The exhibition consisted also of three flying photobioreactors of globular shape situated above the “column� that are made of the same small flexible tubes that in this case are woven and held in place by black voronoi-like metal supports in the inside and laser-cut green acrylic ones on the outside part.

It has to be recognised that the structure is very complex and dramatic with a quantity so high of plastic tubes.

Fig 4.21 Overview of H.O.R.T.U.S ZKM

Fig 4.22 Detail view of the flexible tubes carrying microalgae

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HORTUS Astana This installation conceived for the Future Energy EXPO 2017 in Astana (Kazakhstan), consists of a hanging photobioreactor that has an internal structure of laser-cut horizontal aluminium profiles linked together by vertical posts.

The convoluted cloud shape of the installation comes from a computer simulation of a field of energy through a three dimensional distribution of points.

Microalgae run though flexible transparent PVC pipes that follow the structure’s layer contours, fixed to the structure by acrylic holders. The installation is divided in four clusters that operate independently as an integral unit. Four glass tanks that function as the reservoir for the microalgae, fitted with small electrical water circulation pumps, are installed in the lateral top part of the space, between the fins that constitute the walls of the exhibition.

The aeration system is not electronically controlled but manual instead, so it requires the active participation of visitors to bring the C02 in circulation in the system through hand-operated black rubber air pumps with the shape of rockets that hang from the structure

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Fig 4.23 Overview of HORTUS Astana

Fig 4.24 Detail view of the reflective metallic structure

HORTUS XL This installation is featured in the exhibition “La Fabrique du Vivant”, part of the event “Mutations-Créations 3” which ran from February until April 2019 at the Centre Pompidou in Paris (France).

The project was conceived by Claudia Pasquero and Marco Poletto (ecoLogicStudio) and developed in collaboration with the Synthetic Landscape Lab at the University of Innsbruck.

It is a bio-sculpture that uses a 3D printed substratum in order to manipulate the growth of biogel-based microalgae on its skin.

Its shape is the one of a futuristic grotto, that was realised with a digital algorithm that simulated the growth of a substratum inspired by collective coral morphogenesis.

This is physically created by WASP 3D printers in layers of 400 microns, supported by triangular cells of 46 mm and divided in hexagonal blocks of 18.5 cm. Photosynthetic cyanobacteria are inoculated on a biogel medium into the individual triangular cells, called “bio-pixels”, that form the units of biological intelligence of the system.

As for the Algae Curtain, still by EcoLogicStudio, it is very interesting the use of biogel instead of water as the medium for growth of microalgae, but it even poses many questions both on the reliability of microalgae production and the techniques of cleaning and separation from the 3D printed substrate.

Fig 4.25 Overview of HORTUS XL

Fig 4.26 Biogel microalgae on the 3D printed substrate

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Fig 4.27 Overview of the pavilion

Fig 4.28 Bio.light Room

Fig 4.29 Detail of the glass photobioreactors

Bio.Tech HUT by EcoLogicStudio This pavilion, conceived for the Future Energy EXPO 2017 in Astana (Kazakhstan), represents a prototype of Chlorella microalgae farming inside the future domestic spaces. Its total area is of about 180 m2 and it hosts 1600 liters of microalgae. The Bio.Tech HUT allowed to harvest 1 kg of dry biomass per day, equivalent to 10KW of energy as well as 600g of protein which is equivalent of 8 cows in term of meat-based proteins. (Pasquero 2019). Moreover, the living cultures of Chlorella growing within its glass photobioreactors absorb 2kg of CO2/day, which is equivalent of the absorption carried out by 32 large trees.

The BIO.tech HUT is composed of different fluidly interconnected environments that loosely embody the fundamental programs of a living space: the Lab, the Bio.light Room and the Garden.

The Lab is a space where new species of microorganisms are domesticated and engineered into artificial cultivation environments, growth patterns and material assemblies.

The Bio.light Room is a dark and calm space in which the only visible light is emitted by bioluminescent cyanobacteria when shaken and oxygenated by the air handling system.

At the core of the Garden Hut there is a harvesting area for the processing and transformation of biomass into food and electricity.

Designed in collaboration with marine biologists and algae farmers, the photobioreactive cladding is developed from a system that uses high-speed air flow to lift the living medium into lab grade glass tubes. The air stream creates eddies inside the tubes, and generates a stirring effect that catalyzes metabolic processes of microalgae. The fluid then descends by gravity to complete the loop. Multiple glass tubes are coiled around the BIO.tech HUT, and become almost architectural elements.

Structurally, the coils of glass tubes are supported by a series of sectional frames in high-performance honeycombed polycarbonate. The resulting structure is lightweight, fully recyclable and has the unique effect of scattering and enhancing the penetration of solar radiation deep into the BIO.tech HUT. This pavilion also comprehends the HORTUS Astana installation.

Overall, this pavilion by EcoLogicStudio is more concrete than their previous installations and it is even aimed as an example for office /corporate furnishing for interiors.

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Instructables DIY projects Instructables.com is an online community that is all about sharing idea of replicable Do-It-Yourself projects with step by step instruction following the DIY ethics. Among the tens of thousands of available projects, even some few are about creating home photobioreactors for microalgae.

Window DIY Photobioreactor by Spirulina Systems It only needs some simple trick to adapt this fish tank into a open photobioreactor to grow Spirulina. All the components needed could be found in a local pet store. Apart from an initial spirulina culture that could be bought online, this project requires: • • • • •

10-20 Gallon Aquarium Tank Air Pump Heater Air Line Bubble Wand

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Thermometer Food Grade Harvesting tube Ph Strips Double Valve Harvesting Cloth (50 micron filter cloth)

A bubble tank is placed inside the tank to provide aeration and is linked by the double valve to the air pump. On the other end of the double valve it is connected a second tube in which the air is pumped, when not aerating, to lift water inside a tube that harvests the microalgae. A heater bar inside the tank is set to 24°C to warm the water during cold months.

The water is turned alkaline by adding 16 grams/liter of sodium bicarbonate to nonchlorinated water along with other nutrients: Ammonium Phosphate, Sea Salt, Potassium Nitrate and Iron.

Once the tank is ready, the tank has to be placed in a bright environment, for example in front of a window, and the start culture can be poured. As the water evaporated periodically, it is useful to mark on the side the level in order to be able to pour it back to level when needed.

The culture will start to become denser and the amount of water, with sodium bicarbonate and nutrients can be increased proportionally.

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Fig 4.30 Acquarium tank employed as photobioreactor

The Algae Experiment by Karolos Mouchtaris This homemade photobioreactor uses 20 rigid acrylic tubes of 1 meter of length arranged in a semi-circular array and held in place by wooden laser cut ribs. The tubes are then linked between each other by flexible silicone tubes, forming a closed loop that is fed from a tank stored in the cabinet underneath. The type of algae employed here is the Nannochloropsis Oculata.

Each of the 5 structural rib consisted of two pieces of wood bolted together and spaced 2cm in order to provide additional stability during construction and operation times.

The plywood “plinth� on top of which the photobioreactor is positioned was laser cut and then painted white.

In order to seal the connections between the rigid and the flexible tubes, superinstant glue was employed.

Once the system was positioned under the sunlight of a window and the alage made run through, they grew with success.

Fig 4.31 Front view of the Algae Experiment prototype

Fig 4.32 Top view of the Algae Experiment

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Fig 4.33 Farma

Fig 4.34 The metal base plate with the components

Fig 4.35 Filtering system on four layers.

Farma: a Home Bioreactor for Pharmaceutical Drugs by Will Patrick This cylindrical internally illuminated photobioreactor employs Spirulina. The lighting is provided by a central aluminium rod wrapped with warm white LED strips and the aeration by a ring-shaped aquarium air sparger that would create an airlift configuration with an upward current around the inner light tube and then a downward current on the edges of the bioreactor.

The shopping list comprehended: Motors, pumps, and electronics: • 12V DC Peristaltic pumps (3) • 12V DC Heat control PCBs (2) • 12V DC Air Pump (1) • 12V DC Motor + fan (found in the shop) • Arduino Uno • Adafruit Motor Shield v2 • Panel mount USB connector • Panel mount power adapter (found in the shop) • Panel mount toggle switch • Relay board • TIP120 Darlington Transistor • A perforated board • 1K Ohm resistor • 12V DC 30A power supply • 14 AWG Power cable Raw Materials for CNC milling: • Corian - (1) 30” x 72” x 12 mm • 6061 Aluminum - 1.5” x 10” rectangular aluminum cut into 10” lengths (plates), 0.5” x 3” rectangular aluminum cut into 4” lengths, lots of scrap 1”, 2” thick pieces around the shop Lights, Glass, tubing, and other parts for the photobioreactor • Glass: 200mm OD, medium wall glass (7mm wall thickness), 450 mm long & 60 mm OD, thin wall glass, 450mm long • Strip of warm white LED lights

• • • •

Alum 6061 Tube for Lights - 2 ft - OD:1.5, ID:1.37 18-8 Stainless Steel Threaded Rod, 1/2” - 13, 24” long 18-8 Stainless Steel Flange Nut, 1/2” - 13 Light diffusion film

Tubes, fittings, etc • Bulkhead couplings 4mm OD tube fitting (7) • 25’ - 4 mm OD silicone tubing • 4mm OD Push to Connect Straight connectors (10) • 1/4” Push to connect bulkhead coupling (1) • 10 ft - 3/16” ID, 1/4” OD silicone tubing for Air • Sanitary Air Filter (1) • 1/8” brass ball valve (1) • 4mm OD push to connect to 1/8” female NPT(2) • 1/4” push to connect elbow (2) • 4mm OD push to connect elbow (3) • Gasket material Fasteners for the base • Bolts for putting together Corian layers 3/8” 16 - 4.75” (2) • Bolts for front filtering pieces-10-24 -4.25”-(5) • Bolts for rectangular square piece 10-24 - 1” • Nuts for front component pieces - 10-24 • Nuts for putting together rings 3/8” Endmills • Onsrud 65-023 1/8”, single flute endmill

The aluminium plates that held the glass were CNC milled with a Haas VF2SS machine, as well as the filtering mechanisms, which have not yet been tested. The gaskets were laser cut and then fitted between the aluminium plates and the glass envelope. The base of the photobioreactor contained the electronics and fluidics components and was made out of Glacier White Corian that was CNC milled in pieces and then bolted together. The total cost for this project amounted to about 1000$

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Integration in architecture

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SolarLeaf for the BIQ Hamburg building by Arup The BIQ Hamburg, where BIQ stands as an acronym for building with Bio-Intelligent Quotient, is the first façade system in the world to cultivate microalgae to generate heat and biomass as renewable energy sources. In this project structural glass photobioreactors are used as external cladding elements and dynamic shading devices.

BIQ is a cubic, five-storey passive house of stonework and concrete with two differently designed façade types. The sides of the building that face the sun have a second outer shell that is set into the façade itself.

BIQ has 15 apartments that feature new layout typologies as a response to the contemporary demands on spaces: interior design features are very simple to allow function-neutral zones with reconfigurable uses. The flowing spaces of Mies van der Rohe, the open layout of Frank Lloyd Wright, the spatial planning of Adolf Loos, and the economy of the Frankfurt kitchen are examples of the architectural concept of switchable rooms. Two of the building’s fifteen apartments have no separate rooms, instead they are large versatile spaces, which the resident can configure “on demand” to something which suits them since functions such as bathroom, kitchen, and bedroom, are located inside the built-in furniture. The timing of the residents’ schedules, and the changing programme of everyday life, thus shape the appearance of the apartment.

The integrated system - suitable for both new and existing buildings, and for industrial, commercial, residential and public buildings - was developed collaboratively by Arup,

Fig 4.36 Interior of the BIQ Hamburg building, with different wall colours for the various apartment’s spaces

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6 1 2

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Brackets with thermal breaks for the transfer of loads to the primary substructure Pipework for the medium to

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Metal cladding Supply of pressurised air,

Fig 4.37 Technical detail drawing of the facade panels

Strategic Science Consult of Germany and Colt International. The architectural part of the project was instead developed by SPLITTERWERK (Graz).

The SolarLeaf façade was installed for the first time on the BIQ house as a pilot project during the International Building Exhibition in Hamburg in 2013. In total, a façade area of 200 m2 hosts 129 bioreactors measuring 250cm x 70cm x 8cm that have been installed on the south-west and south-east faces of the four-storey residential building to form a secondary façade.

The panels can rotate along their vertical axis to track the position of the sun. When fully closed the SolarLeaf forms a continuous outer skin providing a thermal buffer.

SolarLeaf was able to provide around one third of the total heat demand of the 15 residential units in the BIQ house.

The flat photobioreactors are highly efficient for algal growth and need minimal maintenance. They are composed by four glass layers. The two inner panes, with a 18mm wide cavity, have a 24-litre capacity cavity for circulating the growing medium. Either side of these panes, insulating argon-filled cavities help to minimise heat loss. The front glass panel consists of white antireflective safety glass, while the glass on the back can integrate decorative glass treatments.

Because microalgae absorb daylight, bioreactors can also be used as dynamic shading devices. The cell density inside the bioreactors depends on available light and the harvesting regime. When there is more daylight available, more algae grows – providing more shading for the building.

To supply the PBR, two separate pipe systems function on the façade, a compressed air system and a water system: For the cultivation of algae, the photobioreactors are filled with drinking water enriched with plant nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, trace elements).

The nutrient composition of this Fig 4.38 Render of one Solar Leaf panel

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culture medium is selected or varied so that optimal growth of algae may be obtained.

Compressed air at a pressure of about 2 bar is introduced to the bottom of each panel every 4 seconds, operating the airlift system. The gas emerges as large air bubbles and generates an upstream water flow and turbulence to stimulate the algae to take in CO2 and light. At the same time, a mixture of water, air and small plastic scrubbers washes the inner surfaces of the panels. The air injections are controlled by magnetic valves, which are integrated, like the water circuits, into the frame system of the façade.

Each bioreactor is connected by an inlet and an outlet to the water system. There is a separate circuit for each storey of the building and the four circuits are brought together in the energy centre. Moreover, each storey has a current distribution board to control the valves of the respective control circuits. The current distribution boards of the different storeys are merged into a main distribution board in the energy centre.

Circulation of the media is ensured by thermally insulated stainless steel wires. The temperature in the PBR is kept constantly below 40°C in the summer and above about 5°C in the winter.

The maximum temperature that can be extracted from the bioreactors is around 40 degrees Celsius becuae higher levels would affect the microalgae. The system can be operated all year round. The efficiency of the conversion of light to biomass is currently 10% and light to heat is 38%. For comparison, photovoltaic systems have an efficiency of 12-15% and solar thermal systems 60-65%. (Arup 2017) The biomass and heat generated by the façade are transported by a closed loop system to the building’s energy management centre, where the biomass is harvested through floatation and the heat by a heat exchanger. Because the system is fully integrated with the building services, the excess heat from the photobioreactors can be used to help supply hot Global radiation, Munich water or heat the building, or 1150 kWh/m2a Heat 40% stored for later use.

2 220 kWh/m CO2 reduction

0,04 t/m

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50 kWh/m2 550 kWh/m2a

50% loss due to orientation,

CO2 reduction

0,015 t/m2 Biogas 80%

40 kWh/m2 CO2 reduction

0,014 t/m2

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Fig 4.39 Scheme showing the expected figures of operation

The bio-responsive façade aims to create synergies by linking different systems for building services, energy and heat distribution, diverse water systems and combustion processes.

It achieves up to 6 tonnes per year of CO2 reduction.

The biomass resulting from the growth is automatically harvested through an algae separator and collected in a temperature-controlled container.

After the separation, most of the culture medium is returned to the photobioreactors.

Only a small amount of the culture medium is removed from the system. The harvested microalgae is instead brought to an outdoor biogas plant to produce, indeed, the biogas. The conversion of biomass to methane is not done on site, because the necessary technology is not yet ready for use in residential buildings, or is difficult from a legal point of view. Upon arrival to the external biogas plant, up to 80% of biomass is converted into methane.

The associated heat production of about 40ºC is reintroduced to the system via a heat exchanger in the heating network or stored in geothermal boreholes, which consist of 80m wells located under the building subsoil and are used to store heat from 16 to 35 °C depending on the season.

When a higher temperature is required for heating or hot water, a highly efficient heat pump is used in pumping it back into the system.

A gas burner unit is operated to provide the CO2 nutrient (flue gas) required by the microalgae in the bioreactor façade and, at the same time, to cover the supply of hot water at 70ºC or heating in the energy network.

A central building management system called Rockwell SPS manages all the processes necessary to operate the bioreactor façade and to fully integrate it with the energy Fig 4.40 Scheme showing the cycles of operation

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management system of the building. This includes the control of the algae cell density and the temperature in the culture medium.

“Wilhelmsburg Central Integrated Energy Network” is the name of the local network which provides/receives heat to/from this building in case of a high peak of surplus or need of energy.

The heat demand of the building is already relatively low, since the “BIQ” runs in accordance with the Passive House standard. Much of the heat required is therefore only needed on a seasonal basis for hot water.

The total cost of the project was about 5 million€ (funded by the Hamburg Climate Protection Concept).

The efficiency of the operation has still to be proven, yet it is a model for other new buildings, refurbishment work to provide clean energy, and plans for housing developments, as bioreactors can, with appropriate building technology, be installed without major construction difficulties.

Beside minor technical challenges that have been analysed and solved as the system was monitored, the two main problems have been: insufficient heat exchangers; and the corrosion of aluminium distance frames within each reactor due to very high local pH-values, up to pH-12. The heat exchangers have been replaced and in September 2015, the BIQ house was fitted with a new generation of reactors.

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Fig 4.41 Front view of the BIQ Hamburg building

A recent study that monitored the performance of this faรงade system has found out that after completion of the monitoring in spring 2015, it can be stated that the technical feasibility has been fully proven. The system performed well despite ongoing minor technical challenges that are always to be expected in a pilot installation. Heat and biomass have been constantly produced. However the total combined output of heat and biomass of approximately 26,000 kWh per annum is approximately half of what has been expected. The heat gain has been approximately 22,500 kWh, resulting in an energy conversion of sunlight into heat of 21%, in contrast to the 40% simulated at the design stage. The gain of algae biomass is 600 kg per year, equivalent to 4,539 kWh, which corresponds to an energy conversion factor 4.4% in relation to solar radiation gain. At the design stage 8% was predicted. These low results were partially due to the two main technical issues described before that affected the system. A positive surprise was the consistent acceptance of the users, who demonstrated an emotional link with the bioresponsive algae system. (Wurm and Pauli 2016) The development, implementation, and optimisation of the bioreactive faรงade and the building service systems constitute a big success. The system is currently being upgraded technically in order to achieve more efficient and resilient performance, meeting the performance that had been set previously.

That new generation will feature more resilient components and an increased diameter of piping connections, leading to a more effective supply of CO2 and nutrients and improved heat management in order to provide the right algae environment.

Moreover, optimising the operation may further reduce energy consumption. Despite the technical challenges, however, the system produces a net energy gain.

Overall, the effort and degree of functionality of this project is outstanding and it is considered to be the first milestone for fully-operational building-integrated microalgae faรงades.

Fig 4.42 Detail photo capturing the compressed air bubbles through the microalgae liquid

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Fig 4.43 BIQ Hamburg building

Fig 4.44 BIQ Hamburg building

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The bioenergy façade by Arup This research project is a further development of the SolarLeaf façade that was designed for the BIQ house in Hamburg.

With the bioenergy façade, the SolarLeaf façade is to be further developed both aesthetically and technologically.

While the façade elements of the BIQ-House were clamped together and installed as external louvers in front of the wall. In the new design, the glass elements of the bioenergy façade are bounded together and the reactors are integrated into the thermal envelope. This makes the entire construction slimmer, lighter and more flexible in terms of design.

Three different façade elements will open up new possibilities for architectural design: A translucent version, which allows the green colouring of the algae to be experienced in the interior, an opaque solution, in which the algae serve as design elements on the outer façade, and a transparent frame, which ensures undisturbed viewing.

The microalgae’ iridescent colours with different incidence of light as well as rising gas bubbles make the elements appear lively and dynamic.

The three panels are modular and can be configured based on the design needs, becoming a customizable product.

This evolution aims to produce 5.5kg of biomass per m² per year, a rate of 38% solar energy conversion into heat and an absorption of 10kg of CO2 per m² per year.

Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations have been used to create optimal conditions for the growth of microalgae. The computer-aided 3D models represent the flow and mixing processes within the bioreactors.

In addition, the design of the bioreactors and the integration of the building services system components into conventional façade systems were improved. By binding the elements together, the total weight could be significantly reduced enabling larger maximum dimensions.

The function and economic efficiency of the system is ensured by a contracting model.

The harvested algae are highly valuable for the food and pharmaceutical industries.

This research project was undertook by Arup, in cooperation with Technische Universität Dresden and the project partners SSC GmbH, Pazdera AG and ADCO Technik GmbH. It is funded by the German Federal Ministry of Economics and Energy.

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Fig 4.45 Drawing of the three different configurations

Fig 4.46 Prototype photo

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Algae Facade Reactor by MINT Engineering This facade prototype was installed as a pilot project as a retrofitting element for an existing building situated inside the EUREF campus in Berlin. Compared to Arup’s solution, that employs flat panel photobioreactors, this one employs a series of panels that contain interconnected horizontal plastic tubes. These weather-resistant tubes are supported by a steel structure and the joints that link the straight tubes are all visible. Each panel can be individually installable by means of bolting it to three vertical mullions that were previously applied to the building’s facade and for each of the panels, there are two layers of horizontal pipes, in order to capture more light.

While this solution is certainly interesting, we do not yet have data on its operation.

Due to its “open” configuration, in the sense that air passes through and around the tubes, its periodic cleaning from dust or weathering agents may prove harder and more labor consuming than the panelised solution of the SolarLeaf by Arup, which resembles instead a more traditional curtain facade.

On the other hand, a very important benefit that this system brings is that, for its industrial grade components, it has been approved for the cultivation of microalgae even for food production.

As for the SolarLeaf, this system is coupled with a heat exchanger in order to act as solar panels for heating the water for the building’s purposes.

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Fig 4.47 The facade photobiorector

Fig 4.48 View of the building with context

Urban Algae Façade by Cesare Griffa Architetti The Urban Algae Facade is based on Cesare Griffa’s “WaterLilly 2.0” system and was presented at the Milan Design Week 2014’s Fuorisalone. It is a project for a microalgae vertical farm to be implemented as an architectural skin. The intention here is that, integrated into the green system of the cities, micro-algae can help in absorbing carbon dioxide and producing oxygen, while acting as a second skin of buildings, boosting passive cooling and increasing shading of the facade.

This system is composed by a repeated pattern of interlocking sacks of transparent plastic over a background of aluminized mylar. The overall composition results quite flat but because its modularity there remains a possibility of adapting to an existing building’s facade while allowing openings for windows. Its current state, hovevery, is only suitable for a temporary installation and not a real building envelope.

Fig 4.49 Side view of the installation

Fig 4.50 Front view of the modules

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Photo.Synth.Etica by EcoLogicStudio This microalgae façade system in composed by several vertical strips of multilayered ETFE membrane that, being thermally soldered in a specific pattern, form a winding cavity inside of them that is subsequently filled by microalgae in a gel medium.

The project was conceived by ecoLogicStudio with the support of the Urban Morphogenesis Lab – UCL and Synthetic Landscapes Lab – University of Innsbruck.

Being extremely lightweight, it does not need of any specific support while it is directly anchored to the existing structure of the historic Print-works office building in Dublin (Ireland) during the month of November 2018.

The installation consists of 16 modules-photobioreactors measuring 2 by 7 meters.

Air is introduced at the bottom of the system, making bubbles naturally rise through the cavities.

While having the potentiality to be applied to any existing building, in my opinion this particular solution is not suitable to do so for the way it covers completely the façade, limiting daylight, view and air exchange. Moreover, a loose membrane like this that is not kept under internal pressure (like ETFE cushions) is not resistant to forces and is quite fragile. For all of these reasons, as its current state it is suitable as a temporary installation only.

A thing that is interesting instead is the employment of hydrogel-medium microalgae in a large-scale installation. It is unfortunate that we do not have scientific data on their performance for this specific case.

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Fig 4.51 Photo of the building with the Algae Curtain

Fig 4.52 Injecting the microgel algae into the ETFE cavity

Fig 4.53 Detail of the bottom of the panels

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Integration in urban spaces

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Fig 4.54 The Algae Dome by SPACE10 and IKEA

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The Algae Dome by SPACE10 and IKEA This project was conceived by SPACE10 in collaboration with IKEA’s future living lab and three young architects, Aleksander Wadas, Anna Stempniewicz, and Rafal Wroblewski, plus the bioengineer Keenan Pinto and it is a 4 meter tall structure that was exhibited at Copenhagen’s CHART art fair 2017. This pavilion features 320m of transparent tubing entwined around its envelope and filled with microalgae. It is a photobioreactor that acts also as a gathering and didactic space. During the three days of the exhibition, 450 liters of Spirulina was grown.

The freestanding pavilion’s structure is composed by twelve curved plywood ribs positioned in a circular array and grooved on the outer sides where the tubes would be fixed and held in place. The ribs were manufactured in smaller pieces and bolted together to reach the final height. To provide more stability, post stressed steel cables were added between the rib joints.

The tubing was made out of PVC with embedded steel wire reinforcement, which results transparent and flexible. They run across the structure continuously by rows and they surround it completely except for one segment which is left open as an access to the pavilion. The pipe starts from the very center of the complex, where a tank is placed and runs from underneath the wooden flooring up to the top until it comes back down vertically into the central circular tank, where the gaseous exchanges happen. The liquid motion is assured by a centrifugal pump.

The Algae Dome was designed to spark conversations about microalgae and their benefits and the concept for the pavilion is that, being so simple in construction and with easily produrable materials, it could be installed and maintained by anyone in a building courtyard or a in a urban neighbourhood Seating was created inside the pavilion by a continuous circular bench.

Fig 4.55 Algae Dome’s plan drawing

100

Overall, the design was very successful since it is able to engage the public directly by acting as a shaded shelter and it is very clear since it shows very prominently the microalgae’s presence. Moreover, it employs ordinary materials like wood and pipes in a really skillful way.

Fig 4.56 Interior top view of the Algae Dome

Fig 4.57 Detail of the transparent tubes filled with algae

101

Culture Urbaine Genève by Cloud Collective This site-specific installation that was ideated for the Garden Festival Genève: villes et champs that ran from June to October 2014. The design team of Cloud Collective used a suburban viaduct over a small highway of the swiss city to give new artistic value to an anonymous urban space in a way to even improve the air quality of the high traffic surroundings thanks to microalgae.

A closed system of rigid transparent tubes, coming directly from the available industrial photobioreactors, cling onto the bridge by means of black metal supports. Microalgae grow inside of them and consume the CO2 that is abundantly present on the site.

Divulgative panels and graphics were installed both under and on the bridge to explain the installation to the citizens.

The type of installation is similar, even on the aesthetic aspect, the Algae Facade Reactor by MINT Engineering.

It is very interesting how this installation is able to exploit and give value to spaces of the urban landscape that otherwise would be useless.

102

Fig 4.58 Culture Urbaine Genève seen from the top of the viaduct

Fig 4.59 A person walking by seen through the tubes

Fig 4.60 Views of the tubes in perspective

103

Urban Algae Canopy by EcoLogicStudio The Urban Algae Canopy was presented at the Milan Design Week 2014 as a 1:1 scale prototype a urban canopy integrating micro-algal cultures and real-time digital cultivation protocols on a unique architectural system. The potential of micro-algae has been integrated within a custom designed four-layered CNC welded ETFE cladding system, whilst the flows of energy, water and CO2 are controlled and regulated in real time and made to respond and adjust to weather patterns and visitors’ movements.

Its shape is composed by triangular faces that correspond to the ETFE cushions panels, which are held by a metal frame and are thermosoldered in their inside layers in a way to form waterfalls of liquid as it flows down by gravity from the top inlets to the bottom outlets.

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Fig 4.61 Microalgae inside the ETFE cushinons

Fig 4.62 The Urban Algae Canopy at Ca Granda, Milano

Algaevator by Jie Zhang, Tyler Stevermer and Selgascano This pavilion was developed during the Burglars of Transnatural Transparency (BoTT) Lab, instructed by Jose Selgas (Selgascano Architects) at the MIT (USA) and is meant to investigate on lightweight envelopes that integrate biotechnologies like microalgae.

This proposal creates a light and transparent structure that comprises three separated spiraling pipes intercoiled between a heat-fused, watertight, and layered membrane.

The Algaevator’s first spiral introduces carbon dioxide from the environment to the bottom of the coil via a low-energy pump where it travels into an algae-filled spiral. Bubbles gently push the algae, which is combined with carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, to the top of the spiral where the algae is able to off-gas oxygen into the environment and then descend back down to the bottom of the spiral for further cycling. The structure is also able to harvest rainwater for adjacent biotech functions.

The Algaevator was put on display and successfully operated for its three-month deployment in 2016.

As a microalgae, this pavilion employed Chlorella pyrenoidosa.

The load bearing structure involved a simple steel frame and the custom-shaped membrane was cut from paper models.

While the pavilion’s shape is interesting and well realised, an issue that could be found in the final configuration is that the effects of microalgae are extremely limited since the liquid’s volume is quite few, because of the small diameter of the PVC tubing and its very short length.

Moreover, from the pictures that were taken during its operation, it can be noted that the liquid has some problems in filling the tubes and reaching a high level. The pavilion itself, other than showcasing the transparent spiral of microalgae, does not integrate any other public function so even its usefulness is limited compared to other case studies we have analysed. In any case, for being a student project, it is noteworthy.

Fig 4.63 Interior view of the Algaevator

Fig 4.64 Night drone photo of the illuminated pavilion

105

Aarhus WetCity by EcoLogicStudio Public involvement was directly stimulated with the installation of an innovative Urban Algae Folly next to the Dome of Visions in the Aarhus’ harbour, Denmark. The same installation was previously displayed in Praça da República of Braga, Portugal.

The installation features a similar version of the ETFE panels that were employed for the Urban Algae Canopy prototype, but in this case the panels are positioned more on the top part, probably for achieving a higher solar illumination. The sides, instead, which are the structure that holds the microalgae panels in place are made out of laser cut metal with voronoilike opening and assembled together and to the panels forming tetrahedral structures. It hosts 400 litres of living culture, in this case Chlorella vulgaris, and its environmental characteristics make it comparable to 8 large trees.

Due to its low height, it does not act as a canopy but still it presents a very interesting appearance that easily makes it part of the urban scene it is located.

106

Fig 4.65 Drone photo of the Folly

Fig 4.66 The installation in Aarthus’ harbour, Denmark

Fig 4.67 Inside the pavilion

Fig 4.68 The installation at night

Fig 4.69 The installation in Braga, Portugal

107

Urban Algae Folly by EcoLogicStudio This fully functional canopy structure was designed by EcoLogicStudio and featured in the Milan Expo 2015 in the Future Food district. Its steel structures elevates over the people’s height numerous ETFE panels, of the same kind of the Urban Algae Canopy and the Aarhus WetCity projects, which contain and grow a Spirulina solution A system of mist evaporative cooling has been integrated for both the microalgae and the visitors that find shade and refreshment under the pavilion. This installation is thought to be sensitive to human presence and movement; there are 8 proximity sensors on the 4 columns directed to cover all the space in and around the pavilion; as people move, their presence and speed is read. Those numbers are transmitted to a central brain that computes the status of the 9 solenoids or electrovalves controlling the algal flow when exits from the pumps before entering the bioreactors or ETFE cushions. The logic of connection between sensors and actuators has been scripted and designed by EcoLogicStudio.

The pavilion has a production rate of 2 kg of oxygen per day, the equivalent of 25 large urban tree. 4 kg per day of CO2 are being sequestered. This installation could easily be an example of what could be achieved in an urban environment, integrating functional urban furniture that provide an active and positive behaviour towards their surrounding spaces.

108

Fig 4.70 Photo of the Urban Algae Folly in the Future Food District of Expo Milano 2015

Fig 4.71 Plan with panel typology and quotes

Fig 4.72 Elevation showing the algae paths in the cushions

109

Comparison Matrix Size

110

Indoor Outdoor

Year

Medium

Algae Curtain

L

x

2012

water

Living Things

L

x

2015

water

STRUNA

L

x

2018

water

Exhale Chandelier

S

x

2017

water

WaterLilly

M

x

2012

water

Lilly starter kit

S

x

2013

water

MiniLilly

S

x

2015

water

WaterLilly 3.17

L

x

2017

water

H.O.R.T.U.S.

M

x

2012

water

H.O.R.T.U.S. ZKM

L

x

2015

water

HORTUS Astana

M

x

2017

water

HORTUS XL

L

x

2019

biogel

Bio.Tech HUT

XL

x

2017

water

Window DIY

S

x

2013

water

Algae Experiment

S

x

2012

water

Farma

S

x

2015

water

SolarLeaf

XL

x

2013

water

Bioenergy Facade

L

x

2018

water

MINT Facade

L

x

2015

water

Urban Algae Facade

L

x

2014

water

Photo.Synth.Etica

XL

x

2018

biogel

Algae Dome

L

x

2017

water

Culture Urbaine

XL

x

2014

water

Urban Algae Canopy

L

x

2014

water

Algaevator

L

x

2016

water

Aarhus WetCity

M

x

2017

water

Urban Algae Folly

XL

x

2015

water

x

Photobioreactor typology Microalgae

Tubular Tubular rigid flexible Cushion

Other

Nannochloropsis

x

balloon

Spirulina

x

vessel

Spirulina, Chlamydomonas, Haematococcus

x x x

Chlorella

bottle

Spirulina

waterfall

Spirulina

x x x x cell

Chlorella

x

Spirulina

tank x

x

Spirulina

tank flat panel flat panel x x x

Spirulina

x x x

x

Chlorella

x

Chlorella

x

x

Spirulina

x

x 111

Part 5 Designs

112

Three projects for the built environment As part of my thesis I didn’t want to just research on microalgae and the existing case studies, so with the new knowledge in my possess I thought and developed three ideas for project that integrate these microorganisms: one for home and office spaces, one for a remarkable architecture and one for a park, a purely urban field. This in order to try and give something to all of the main components of the built environment, the realm of the architect. These projects were deeply influenced by my context and backgrounds, both in their design and in their proposed setting.

113

Modular double sided optical bookcase Project for interior spaces

114

115

As the basis for this project, I started with the selection of the base structure for the bookcase. I opted for standard 20x20cm rectangular stainless steel sections with rounded corners and a hollow core.

The length options are two: 28cm and 58cm.

On the shorter piece, a second version was created which features a LED lamp that makes the bookcase also a diffused lighting element for the ambiance.

116

I then studied the joining elements for the hollow steel tubes. I produced 4 versions that are able to encompass all the possibilities of connection.

All of them are designed to be 3D printed in high-strength SLS nylon. They slide inside the metal tubes and are held in place by friction and with the help of self-tapping screws.

These joints have a hollow core in order to be able to pass electric cables through them to reach in an invisible way the LED lights present in the structure.

117

The resulting composition is fully modular and, based on the different components it is possible to achieve a diverse range of heights, widths and even shelving spaces since some elements can be removed from the assembly in order to produce doubleheight configurations that are helpful to host a great variety of contents. The final design is up to the users that become the designer themselves, having the opportunity to combine together simple components to get a varied design.

118

For the design of the shelving slabs I was inspired by the Spanish artist Pilar Salmerón.

Her very colourful artworks, usually using alveolar cardboard as canvas, engage in a dynamic way the viewer by exploiting optical effects that make the same painting change shade of colour based on the viewer’s point of view.

Since my bookcase even hosts living microalgae, I wanted to give a similar kind of liveliness, dynamism and colour to the whole system, just like Pilar Salmerón does with her art.

119

For this, I took a metal grid that is usually employed for street vents or emergency staircases, but with the peculiarity of having the strips of metals coloured on their sides with four hues: violet, light blue, green and yellow.

This grid, whose dimensions are 535x275mm by a thickness of 1cm, is held in place to the steel structure by means of these metallic profiles.

120

The metal grid shows its different colours based on the viewer’s position around the object.

121

Art

hro

spi

ra p

late

nsi

s “S

pir

ulin

a”

This lateral panel made of transparent polycarbonate is the photobioreactor that hosts the microalgae cultures. It measures 27x27 centimetres by a thickness of 2 cm and its capacity is of 1 litre of liquid.

The tank is open in the central top part. On the sides two circular holes help the removal of the panels from the bookcase, which happens by sliding, for the regular algae’s care.

122

s ccu o c to

alis

vi plu

a

em Ha

For the photobioreactor’s small size and since it is wanted to have a low maintenance, it does not incorporate any particular aeration system since the required CO2 for the algae to survive and grow is dissolved in the water by concentration equilibrium.

I believe it is important to employ microalgae even taking account of their chromatic appearance. For this two characteristic species of microalgae were selected.

123

Considering the users that are at their first experiences with microalgae and are not ready to start and maintain a large scale domestic farm, I considered the employment of coloured hollow polycarbonate panels that slide, as the photobioreactor panels would do, as lateral partitions for the bookcase in a way to add vivacity and customisation to the bookcase, following the user’s tastes.

The chosen colours were orange, yellow, violet and light blue, recalling the hues of the optical metal grid.

All the panels, both the microalgae and the coloured ones, exhibit a good degree of visual transparency.

124

These kind of steel rails clamp the bearing structure’s side beams and hold in place the panels that slide down into position. This system makes the panels individually slide laterally, in a way they can be easily repositioned without moving the bookcase contents. One configuration is for the internal partitions, where two panels per side are held while the other is meant for the edge panels of the bookcase, which are not coupled but consist of only one panel on the interior side of the bookcase.

125

When all the components are assembled, the final result looks like this.

126

These configurations all feature in the side panels the photobioreactor type, with a total amount of 24 litres of microalgae per bookcase. They all use the same base components, but switched to different positions they produce different visuals.

127

These configurations instead reduce the amount of microalgae by half, with 12 litres per bookcase, due to the incorporation of the coloured polycarbonate panels.

128

If I had to choose between all those configurations, my personal favourite is this one, with 12 litres of microalgae, side panels of different colours and horizontal grid placed in a uniform way.

129

130

131

I do enjoy the way the colour of the grid changes simultaneously over the whole bookcase and matches the side panels.

132

133

134

135

136

137

Temporary installation on Building 11’s facade Project for architecture

138

139

This project starts by thinking of possible integration of microalgae with the 1970s extension of Politecnico di Milano’s Leonardo Campus’ iconic architecture building that was designed by architect Vittoriano Viganò. The main aim of the insatallation is to spark conversations and awareness among our students and the citizens of Milano about the possibilities that microalgae offer for the future of our built environment.

The project consists of two proposals, the first involves the big A of Architecture at the entrance of the building, and the second creates a spiralling net across the vertical steel stalactites over the emergency staircase.

Since the building is protected under the Soprintendenza per i Beni Architettonici e Paesaggistici of Milano, the intervention has to be non-invasive and fully reversible.

140

141

142

143

The ‘A’ intervention features 5 closed circuits for the black beam and other 5 for the red one The tubes chosen for this intervention are of the transparent food-grade PVC kind with steel spiral reinforcement, with a inner diameter of 32mm and a outer one of 40mm.

144

145

146

The ‘stalactite’ intervention features 2 independent and specular closed circuits.

The tubes chosen for this intervention are the same as the others, but with a bigger inner diameter of 50mm and a outer one of 60mm.

The tubes would be fixed to the vertical structure with the same kind of clamps that are currently employed on the structure.

147

The water tanks and the technical machinery such as pumps, gas exchangers and filters would all be located and hidden on the building’s flat roof.

148

The ‘stalactite’ configuration is able to host 258 litres of microalgae for each of the two perpendicular circuits.

The ‘A’ configuration is able to host 168 litres of microalgae on the black beam and 204 litres on the red beam.

149

The project required a thorough study of the way the building’s particular structure works, as well as its exact dimensions.

150

As references were taken both historical and modern drawings of the building, together with lots of observation and manual measurements for the finer details like the steel sections and the vertical stalactites.

The A of Architecture presented the most problematic study since the existing official drawings are not correspondent to the reality.

For that and in absence of technical tools, I had to base myself on hand measurements and a photographic survey.

The final 3D model is quite accurate and correspondent to the actual state of the building’s facade.

151

A sculptural fountain for Piazza Leonardo da Vinci Project for urban spaces

152

153

For this project I was inspired by the linear shaped colonies that some species of microalgae form when they are seen from a microscope.

The form of the fountain develops vertically, rising from the three corners with six steel profiles in a specular array, to which 57 clear polycarbonate custom cut panels are fixed.

154

155

156

The fountain’s base side is of 6 metres of length and its border provides seating for the square’s users, in a central position that is otherwise often empty and underused.

The fountain works by circulating with pumps the microalgae inside the steel structural profiles and taking it to the top part where a transparent tube distributes it along the three top edge. From then, the water comes down by gravity in small waterfalls, thus aerating itself in a natural way.

While the fountain is operating, the water produces a relaxing sound and releases moisture in the air.

Seen from different points of, views the fountain may seem to the eye more imponent or more ethereal, attracting interest while appreciating it from 360°.

157

The basin at the bottom part of the fountain has a capacity of 2.000 litres of microalgae, that as they grow, can be easily employed for the irrigation system to stimulate and fertilize the greens of Piazza Leonardo da Vinci, taking advantage of the biostimulant properties of microalgae.

158

159

160

161

162

163

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171

List of Figures

172

Fig 1.1 Delicate red seaweed (macroalgae) in Fiji

Photo by Derek Keats - https://www.flickr. com/photos/dkeats/37579261004/ ������ 13

Fig 1.2 Microscope image of Nannochloropsis sp.

Photo by CSIRO - https://www. scienceimage.csiro.au/image/10697 ������� 13

Fig 1.3 Ironic illustration about the origin of endosymbiosis, the process that brought the existence of eukaryotic cells, among which microalgae are categorised.

Illustration by Beatrice the Biologist - http:// www.beatricebiologist.com �������������������������� 14

Fig 1.4 Eukaryote vs Prokaryote cells

Drawing by Lumen Learning - https:// courses.lumenlearning.com/ivytechbio1-1/chapter/reading-dna-packagingin-eukaryotes-and-prokaryotes/ �������������� 15

Fig 1.5 Equations of photosynthesis

Courtesy BBC - https://www.bbc.com/ bitesize/articles/zn4sv9q ������������������������������ 17

Fig 1.6 Graph highlighting the main pigments’ light absorption

Courtesy Simply Science https://www. simply.science/images/content/biology/ cell_biology/photosynthesis/conceptmap/ Photosynthetic_pigments.html ������������������ 17

Fig 1.7 Lichen on a rock

Unknown author ����������������������������������������������18

Fig 1.8 The particular colour of the Morning glory hot spring in Yellowstone is given by microalgae.

Photo by Joseph Shaw, Montana State University �����������������������������������������������������������18

Fig 1.9 The fur of the adult sloth is green due to microalgae. It even helps them camouflage.

Photo by Ken Canning - iStock �������������������19

Fig 1.10 Pink microalgae causing the “Watermelon snow“ on mount Garibaldi in Canada.

Photo by Casey Engstrom ����������������������������19

Fig 1.11 Essiccated Spirulina powder

Unknown author ���������������������������������������������� 21

Fig 1.12 A collection of microalgae cultures being grown in a laboratory

Photo by CSIRO - http://www.scienceimage. csiro.au/image/2970 ����������������������������������� 22

Fig 1.13 A volvox: a colony of unicellular microalgae that assumes the shape of a sphere Photo by Frank Fox ����������������������������������������� 23

Fig 2.1 Diagram highlighting all the various uses and sub-uses of microalgae Diagram by Alessandro Azzolini ����������������� 25

Fig 2.2 Tecuitlatl described in the Florentine Codex

Excerpt form the Florentine Codex by

Bernardino de Sahagún ������������������������������� 27

Fig 2.3 Women from Chad selling harvested Dihè

Courtesy FAO ��������������������������������������������������� 27

Fig 2.4 The Dogless Hotdog by chef Simon Perez

Photo by Kasper Kristoffersen �������������������28

Fig 2.5 Overview of pastas, snacks and bakery products on the market that are produced with microalgae Courtesy the companies whose products are depicted �����������������������������������������������������29

Fig 2.6 Marine acquaculture plants in Greece

Unknown author ���������������������������������������������30

Fig 2.7 Countryside rice paddy field in Malaysia

Photo by Anata Peteh �����������������������������������30

Fig 2.8 Living Ink pen

Courtesy Living Ink ������������������������������������������ 31

Fig 2.9 Alagemy multifunctional workbench

Courtesy Blond and Bieber studio �������������� 31

Fig 2.10 Textiles printed with microalgae

Courtesy Blond and Bieber studio �������������� 31

Fig 2.11 Photomontage of different views of Tokyo’s skyline seen with a clear and polluted atmoshpere Photo by Alxey Pnferov - iStock �����������������33

Fig 2.12 Render of NASA’s OMEGA system

Courtesy NASA ����������������������������������������������� 34

Fig 2.13 Conventional wastewater treatment plant

Unknown author ��������������������������������������������� 34

Fig 2.14 Algae scientists working in a greenhouse

Courtesy Synthetic Genomics ���������������������38

Fig 2.15 Researcher working in a laboratory with algae Courtesy ExxonMobil �������������������������������������38

Fig 2.16 Chemical structure of beta carotene

Common domain �������������������������������������������39

Fig 2.17 Variety of drugs typology

Unknown author ���������������������������������������������39

Fig 2.18 Space photobiorector for the ISS

Courtesy German Aerospace Center �������� 41

Fig 2.19 MELiSSA scientists working on a space PBR

Courtesy SCK·CEN - ESA ������������������������������� 41

Fig 2.20 Astronaut Samantha Cristoforetti eating space food

Courtesy ESA and NASA ������������������������������ 42

Fig 2.21 Power bar with Spirulina for astronauts

Courtesy ESA ��������������������������������������������������� 42

Fig 2.22 Sketches of microalgae facades to be integrated in a building, which will become the SolarLeaf

Courtesy Arup ������������������������������������������������� 43

173

Fig 3.1 Microalgae seen from a satellite photograph

Photo by Jesse Allen and Robert Simmon NASA Earth Observatory ������������������������������ 45

Fig 3.2 Toxic microalgae blooms of Lake Erie in 2017

Photo by Aerial Associates Photography, Inc.

by Zachary Haslick ����������������������������������������� 46

Fig 3.3 The crater lake Twin-taung in Myanmar

Photo by taunggyilady - Flickr h t t p s : // w w w . f l i c k r. c o m /p h o t o s / taunggyilady/5334831766 ��������������������������47

Fig 3.4 Kanembu lady harvesting Spirulina

Courtesy FAO ����������������������������������������������������47

Fig 3.5 Open pond raceways in Japan

Courtesy The Government of Japan ��������� 48

Fig 3.6 Round open pond raceways in Portugal

Courtesy Sun Chlorella ��������������������������������� 48

Fig 3.7 Open ponds raceways hosting different species of microalgae in Hawaii Courtesy Cyanotech Corporation �������������� 49

Fig 3.8 Different typologies of photobioreactors

Photographs by various authors ���������������� 51

Fig 4.1 Transparent balloons filled with microalgae

Courtesy loop.ph ���������������������������������������������59

Fig 4.2 Intertwined tube net in front of a window

Courtesy loop.ph ���������������������������������������������59

Fig 4.3 Overview of the installation

Courtesy Jacob Douenias and Ethan Frier �����������������������������������������������������������������������������60

Fig 4.4 Manufacturing process

Courtesy Jacob Douenias and Ethan Frier �����������������������������������������������������������������������������60

Fig 4.5 Operation of control cabinet

Courtesy Jacob Douenias and Ethan Frier �����������������������������������������������������������������������������60

Courtesy Lorenzo Ceccon, Nahid Mousavi, Golnaz Nouri and Ingrid Paoletti �����������������67

Fig 4.11 The Exhale Bionic Chandelier installed in the V&A Museum in London Photo by Alastair Levy ����������������������������������68

Fig 4.12 WaterLilly Gramp 2012

Courtesy Cesare Griffa Architetti ��������������69

Fig 4.13 Transportation of the photobioreactor in Venice

Photo by Federico Rizzo �������������������������������69

Fig 4.14 WaterLillyMa&Pa 2012

Courtesy Cesare Griffa Architetti ��������������70

Fig 4.15 Lilly starter kit 2013

Courtesy Cesare Griffa Architetti ��������������70

Fig 4.16 MiniLilly 2015 drawing

Courtesy Cesare Griffa Architetti ��������������70

Fig 4.17 MiniLilly 2015 prototype

Courtesy Cesare Griffa Architetti ��������������� 71

Fig 4.18 WaterLilly 3.17

Courtesy Cesare Griffa Architetti ��������������� 71

Fig 4.19 WaterLilly 3.17 detail

Courtesy Cesare Griffa Architetti ��������������� 71

Fig 4.20 A lady participating in the installation is blowing CO2 into one microalgae sack

Courtesy EcoLogicStudio ����������������������������� 72

Fig 4.21 Overview of H.O.R.T.U.S ZKM

Courtesy EcoLogicStudio ����������������������������� 73

Fig 4.22 Detail view of the flexible tubes carrying microalgae Courtesy EcoLogicStudio ����������������������������� 73

Fig 4.23 Overview of HORTUS Astana

Courtesy EcoLogicStudio ������������������������������74

Fig 4.24 Detail view of the reflective metallic structure Photo by NAARO ����������������������������������������������74

Fig 4.6 Scheme that describes the installation’s configuration and operation mechanisms

Fig 4.25 Overview of HORTUS XL

Fig 4.7 Technical drawings

Fig 4.26 Biogel microalgae on the 3D printed substrate

Courtesy Jacob Douenias and Ethan Frier �����������������������������������������������������������������������������62 Courtesy Lorenzo Ceccon, Nahid Mousavi, Golnaz Nouri and Ingrid Paoletti ����������������� 64

Fig 4.8 Assembly process of the installation at Triennale di Milano Courtesy Ingrid Paoletti ��������������������������������� 64

Fig 4.9 Detail photo of the installation showing the transparent microalgae tubes with LED strips next to them.

Courtesy Lorenzo Ceccon, Nahid Mousavi, Golnaz Nouri and Ingrid Paoletti �����������������66

Fig 4.10 Overview of STRUNA installed at Superstudio during the Milan Design Week 2018.

174

Courtesy EcoLogicStudio ����������������������������� 75

Courtesy EcoLogicStudio ����������������������������� 75

Fig 4.27 Overview of the pavilion

Photo by NAARO ���������������������������������������������76

Fig 4.28 Bio.light Room

Photo by NAARO ���������������������������������������������76

Fig 4.29 Detail of the glass photobioreactors

Photo by NAARO ���������������������������������������������76

Fig 4.30 Acquarium tank employed as photobioreactor

Courtesy Spirulina Systems ������������������������� 78

Fig 4.31 Front view of the Algae Experiment prototype Photo by Karolos Mouchtaris ����������������������79

Fig 4.32 Top view of the Algae Experiment

Photo by Karolos Mouchtaris ����������������������79

Fig 4.33 Farma

Courtesy Will Patrick �������������������������������������80

Fig 4.34 The metal base plate with the components

Courtesy Will Patrick �������������������������������������80

Photo by NAARO ���������������������������������������������97

Fig 4.54 The Algae Dome by SPACE10 and IKEA

Courtesy SPACE10 and IKEA �����������������������99

Fig 4.55 Algae Dome’s plan drawing

Courtesy Aleksander Wadas, Anna Stempniewicz, and Rafal Wroblewski ����100

Fig 4.35 Filtering system on four layers.

Fig 4.56 Interior top view of the Algae Dome

Fig 4.36 Interior of the BIQ Hamburg building, with different wall colours for the various apartment’s spaces

Fig 4.57 Detail of the transparent tubes filled with algae

Fig 4.37 Technical detail drawing of the facade panels

Courtesy Civic Architects ��������������������������� 102

Courtesy Will Patrick �������������������������������������80

Photo by Bernadette Grimmenstein - IBA Hamburg GmbH ���������������������������������������������83

Courtesy Arup & IBA Hamburg GmbH ����� 84

Courtesy SPACE10 and IKEA ���������������������� 101

Courtesy SPACE10 and IKEA ���������������������� 101

Fig 4.58 Culture Urbaine Genève seen from the top of the viaduct

Fig 4.59 A person walking by seen through the tubes Courtesy Civic Architects ��������������������������� 103

Fig 4.38 Render of one Solar Leaf panel

Fig 4.60 Views of the tubes in perspective

Fig 4.39 Scheme showing the expected figures of operation

Fig 4.61 Microalgae inside the ETFE cushinons

Fig 4.40 Scheme showing the cycles of operation

Fig 4.62 The Urban Algae Canopy at Ca Granda, Milano

Fig 4.41 Front view of the BIQ Hamburg building

Fig 4.63 Interior view of the Algaevator

Fig 4.42 Detail photo capturing the compressed air bubbles through the microalgae liquid

Fig 4.64 Night drone photo of the illuminated pavilion

Courtesy Arup & IBA Hamburg GmbH �����85

Courtesy Arup & IBA Hamburg GmbH �����86 Courtesy Arup & IBA Hamburg GmbH ����� 87 Courtesy Arup & IBA Hamburg GmbH �����88

Courtesy Arup & IBA Hamburg GmbH �����89

Fig 4.43 BIQ Hamburg building

Courtesy Arup & IBA Hamburg GmbH �����90

Fig 4.44 BIQ Hamburg building

Courtesy Civic Architects ��������������������������� 103 Courtesy EcoLogicStudio ��������������������������� 104

Courtesy EcoLogicStudio ��������������������������� 104 Courtesy Jie Zhang, Tyler Stevermer and Selgascano ����������������������������������������������������� 105 Courtesy Jie Zhang, Tyler Stevermer and Selgascano ����������������������������������������������������� 105

Fig 4.65 Drone photo of the Folly

Courtesy EcoLogicStudio ���������������������������106

Fig 4.45 Drawing of the three different configurations

Fig 4.66 The installation in Aarthus’ harbour, Denmark

Fig 4.46 Prototype photo

Fig 4.67 Inside the pavilion

Fig 4.47 The facade photobiorector

Fig 4.68 The installation at night

Fig 4.48 View of the building with context

Fig 4.69 The installation in Braga, Portugal

Fig 4.49 Side view of the installation

Fig 4.70 Photo of the Urban Algae Folly in the Future Food District of Expo Milano 2015

Courtesy Arup & IBA Hamburg GmbH ������91 Courtesy Arup �������������������������������������������������93 Courtesy Arup �������������������������������������������������93 Courtesy MINT Engineering ������������������������� 94 Courtesy MINT Engineering ������������������������� 94 Courtesy Cesare Griffa Architetti ��������������95

Fig 4.50 Front view of the modules

Courtesy Cesare Griffa Architetti ��������������95

Fig 4.51 Photo of the building with the Algae Curtain

Photo by NAARO ���������������������������������������������96

Fig 4.52 Injecting the microgel algae into the ETFE cavity

Photo by NAARO �������������������������������������������106

Courtesy EcoLogicStudio ��������������������������� 107 Courtesy EcoLogicStudio ��������������������������� 107 Courtesy EcoLogicStudio ��������������������������� 107

Photo by FoodBev Photos - Flickr ����������� 108

Fig 4.71 Plan with panel typology and quotes

Courtesy EcoLogicStudio ���������������������������109

Fig 4.72 Elevation showing the algae paths in the cushions

Courtesy EcoLogicStudio ���������������������������109

Photo by NAARO ���������������������������������������������97

Fig 4.53 Detail of the bottom of the panels

175

Thank you

to Ingrid Paoletti, my supervisor, for having given me the opportunity of discovering and learning on this innovative topic, for her precious advice and for believing in my work to my parents and family that have always been by my side to my friends and in particular Teresa, Paolo and Eureka for all the happy times passed together over these three amazing years of university to all the creative people whose work has been featured in this thesis