Dissertation

A dissertation submitted by Alexandra Kordella towards the degree of Master of Science in the Conservation of Historic Buildings at the University of Bath, Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering. Session 2012-13

Energy efficiency of heritage buildings as a strategy to achieve effective adaptive reuse and sustainability

Alexandra Kordella Student No. 129371553

Abstract This research deals with the role of the architectural patrimony in the sustainable development. It also examines the legislative framework for undergoing any modifications to historic buildings. What is more it articulates some of the modern technological systems that are used to achieve energy efficiency for buildings. The aim is not to prescribe a technical manual on how to upgrade historic dwellings but to cross examine whether sustainability issues and conservation is a viable combination. The research concludes that in order to stretch the environmental goals for reducing the carbon dioxide emissions for the future we should not only count on the new constructed buildings but the cultural heritage has a significant part in this effort. Along with the environmental gains from retrofitting, architecture of the urban environment is also enhanced as many historic buildings after adaptation and reuse became examples of the highest architectural quality. 1 Adapting cities to climate change is a priority for the urban designers.

“When we built let us think we built forever� - Ruskin in the Seven Lamps of architecture.

1

English Heritage(2012),p.23.

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To my parents

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Acknowledgements I am deeply thankful to my director of studies Dr. Michael Forsyth and also my supervisor prof. David Coley for providing me with valuable information for the writing of this research. I would also like to thank my family and friends, in particular, Angie Kordella, Eleni Kapogianni, Hector Skevington- Postles, David Taylor, and Matthew Cooper for their support.

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Table of contents

Abstract ...................................................................................................................................................... 2 Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................... 4 Table of contents ....................................................................................................................................... 5 List of Figures ............................................................................................................................................. 8 Chapter 1: Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 9 1.1 Methodology/approach ................................................................................................................... 9 1.2 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 9 1.3 Policy Background, planning consents and regulations .............................................................. 14 1.4 Ratings ........................................................................................................................................... 16 1.4.1 Energy performance of buildings directive.( EPBD) .............................................................. 16 1.4.2 The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) ........................................................................ 18 Chapter 2 : Philosophy of Interventions .................................................................................................. 18 2.1 Authenticity and creativity .............................................................................................................. 18 2.1.1 Minimum intervention .............................................................................................................. 19 2.1.2 Compatibility............................................................................................................................ 19 2.1.3 Authenticity .............................................................................................................................. 20 2.1.4 Reversibility.............................................................................................................................. 20 2.2 Adaptive reuse – Sustainable Urban Environment ....................................................................... 20 Chapter 3: The Principles of sustainable design .................................................................................... 21 3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 21 3.2 Passive design ............................................................................................................................... 22 3.2.1 Thermal mass .......................................................................................................................... 22 3.2.2 Insulation ................................................................................................................................. 22 3.2.3 U-Value .................................................................................................................................... 23 3.3 Comfort taking................................................................................................................................ 23 3.4 Rebound effect ............................................................................................................................... 24 Chapter 4: Retrofitting options for historic buildings .............................................................................. 25 4.1 Introduction to retrofitting ............................................................................................................... 25 4.2 Old versus the new ........................................................................................................................ 26 4.3 Removal of later alterations ........................................................................................................... 27 4.4 Types of historic dwellings............................................................................................................. 28 4.4.1 17th century building ................................................................................................................ 28 5

4.4.2 Georgian/18th century building or Edwardian building........................................................... 29 4.3 Suggested interventions to historic dwellings ............................................................................... 30 4.3.1 Draughtproofing ...................................................................................................................... 30 4.3.2 Roof insulation ......................................................................................................................... 31 4.3.3 Floor insulation ........................................................................................................................ 31 4.3.4 Internal solid wall insulation .................................................................................................... 31 4.3.5. Secondary glazing ................................................................................................................. 31 4.3.6 Boiler upgrade ......................................................................................................................... 32 4.3.7 Solar photovoltaic system ....................................................................................................... 32 4.3.8 External solid wall insulation ................................................................................................... 32 4.3.9 Other measures....................................................................................................................... 32 Chapter 5: Case study- 4 Catharine Place ............................................................................................. 33 5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 33 5.2 Site- Location ................................................................................................................................. 33 5.3 Historic background....................................................................................................................... 34 5.4 Description of the property ............................................................................................................ 36 5.4.1 Basement ................................................................................................................................ 37 5.4.2 Groundfloor ............................................................................................................................. 38 5.4.3 First Floor ................................................................................................................................. 38 5.4.4 Second floor ............................................................................................................................ 38 5.5.5 Third Floor ............................................................................................................................... 39 5.4.6 Roof ......................................................................................................................................... 39 5.4.7 Structure .................................................................................................................................. 39 5.5 Conservation philosophy ............................................................................................................... 39 5.6 Appearance .................................................................................................................................... 39 5.7 Legislation ...................................................................................................................................... 40 5.8 Suggested interventions ................................................................................................................ 40 5.8.1 Timber sash window and door draughtproofing .................................................................... 40 5.8.2 Chimney Draftproofing Balloon .............................................................................................. 40 5.8.3 Secondary glazing .................................................................................................................. 41 5.8.4 Shutter refurbishment .............................................................................................................. 41 5.8.5 Internally applied wall insulation ............................................................................................. 41 5.8.6 Roof and loft Insulation at rafter level ..................................................................................... 42 5.8.7 Boiler upgrade ......................................................................................................................... 42 5.9 Methods of calculations of thermal savings.................................................................................. 42 6

5.9.1 U-value calculations ................................................................................................................ 43 5.9.2 Degree days ............................................................................................................................ 43 5.10 Thermal simulation model ........................................................................................................... 44 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................................. 46 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................................. 48

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List of Figures Figure 1: „7 Centuries old Stone Houses in Iran‟,Fortuna (2012) [photograph ] Figure 2:‟Oia- Santorini‟, ALMYRA(n.d) [photograph ] Figure 3: „Ted,2008 Pulteney Bridge‟, Bath [photograph] Figure 4: „Pie chart of percentages of historic houses‟, English Heritage website[diagram].

Figure 5: „EPC example‟, Landlord blog.(n.d) [diagram] Figure 6: „Trombe Wall and Attached Sunspace‟, Autodesk sustainability workshop.2011. [diagram] Figure 7: „Energy consumption at home‟, Bath and East Somerset guide. [chart] Figure 8: „Bombing maps and key(1942).‟ Bath Record office [photograph].

Figure 9: „1774 map.‟ Bath Record office. [photograph].

Figure 10: „1777 map.‟ Bath Record office. [photograph].

Figure 11: „1786 map.‟ Bath Record office. [photograph].

Figure 12: „1793 map.‟ Bath Record office. [photograph].

Figure 13: „1800 map.‟ Bath Record office. [photograph].

Figure 14: „Site location plan‟, English Heritage website. [map] Figure 15: „Elevation‟ by the author. [Watercolour] Figure 16: „Front Elevation‟, Bath record office. [drawing] Figure 17: „ two-leaf double doors‟, by the author. [drawing] Figure 18: „Ground floor‟ by the author based on survey drawings from Bath record office [drawing] Figure 19: „First Floor‟ by the author based on survey drawings from Bath record office [drawing] Figure 20: „Second floor‟ by the author based on survey drawings from Bath record office [drawing] Figure 21: „Third floor‟ , by the author based on survey drawings from Bath record office [drawing] Figure 22: „Shutters‟ ,by the author. [drawing] Figure 23: „Internal wall insulation‟ ,Greenspec (2013). [diagram] List of Tables Table1: Table of degree days Table 2: Table of windows and doors Table 3: Table of U values

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Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Methodology/approach This paper examines the views of different experts in the field of architecture, philosophy and also in environment sustainability who have been involved in the adaptive reuse of heritage buildings. The research was based on an interpretative approach of their views and opinions that were compared and contrasted in order to collect the essential data to answer the questions imposed in the introduction of the dissertation. A series of diverse documents was considered to identify existing national and international research and guidance work of relevance to the subject of the retrofitting of traditional buildings. Finally taking into consideration this material I tried to present a synoptic conceptual case study for a historic dwelling in the area of Bath.

1.2 Introduction During the 20th century human settlements have shifted from sparse pattern to compact urban centres a change that has caused the vast transformation of the natural environment and consequently cased the current environmental problems.

The cities have been increasing their size with tremendous rates over the recent years and thus the impact that this has to the environment is beyond any other historic precedent.

Although cities occupy just 2% of the earthâ€&#x;s surface 2 they consume most of the natural resources in order to sustain and produce huge amounts of waste being the major cause of earth pollution.

It is now in question if the rapid growth of the urban centers as it has happened in the recent years can be sustained. They argue that it is of vital importance, in order to maintain and enhance the impact of the built environment to the natural environment, that the consumption of energy per person must be reduced.

There is an increasing concern on the understanding of the relationship between build and natural environment and the adverse impacts that human activity has on nature. Irrefutably the urban way of living offers many advantages to the quality of life to the modern man but these come hand in hand with environmental and social problems. Sustainability is about changing attitude and balancing the modern way of living with the renewable resources of the biosphere.

Sustainable development has been set as a fundamental goal in the agendas and strategies of governments. It was provided a global definition by the Brundtland Commission report (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987) as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.3 As Ruskin in his treatise on architecture described "...and we have no right, by any

2 3

Grierson, D. (2003).p.3.

Grierson, D. (2003).p.1

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thing we do or neglect, to involve them in unnecessary penalties, or deprive them of benefits which it was in our power to bequeath." 4 One of the main goals of UNESCO for climate change is to: Built and maintain the climate change knowledge base through science assessment, monitoring and early warning.

Promote mitigation and adaptation to climate change, including through enhanced education and public awareness.

Over the past few years it has been is a pivotal point of discussions the disruption of the relations between the man and the environment. The need for better quality of life and for upgrade of the residential accommodation promotes the need for solutions to the energy problems in order to ensure a sustainable future. The international fuel crisis has made more urgent than ever the need for dynamic and effective solutions as soon as possible. The frivolous choices and actions of man regarding the environment have caused severe damage that in some cases it is irreversible. As a result we have chain events that lead to the rapid destruction of the even “healthy” parts of this planet that are surviving so far.

The quality of our lives is affected from the quality of the built environment around us. This is the key factor when designing and for this reason conservation practice should be an integrated part of planning. Thus the quest of an architectural approach that respects the environment and realises the need to save the disposable sources of energy for the future, is now imperative. In order to reassure a good quality of life we need to look for the ethics of that approach. Trying to find the ethic framework to place the new architecture, inevitably we turn back to the tradition and the historic heritage. It is always striking the profound relationship between civilization and place. Traditional architecture has managed to adjust to the local environment and coexist with it by respecting its surroundings. It makes use of the local materials and climate conditions thus the buildings emerge as part of the landscape.[Fig.1-3] Figure 1: Oia- Santorini “a very unique settlement with half ruins of captainhouses and cave-houses from the 18th century.”

Figure 2: Seven Centuries old Stone Houses in Iran

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John Ruskin The Seven Lamps of Architecture ( a footnote in Grierson, D. (2003).p.1)

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Figure 3: Bath city buildings constructed from the local limestone being exported from the local queries

Figure 4: Pie chart of percentages of historic houses

Nowadays the green agenda and the environmental issues are concerning the governments of many countries as environmental problems that have occurred such as the greenhouse effect, deforestation, the decreasing amount of fossil fuels and many others affect the built environment that we live in and vice versa the build environment affects Nature. What is the participation of the built environment to the climate change and the environmental issues?

Apparently it is a lot.

The protection of the environment and the enhancement of the built environment are linked directly. Since the natural environment is the shell within which social and economic activities take place, our actions will inevitably be constrained by certain limits that ensure that our footprint on the environment is as small as possible.5 Environmental issues concern the governments of countries which are trying to include in their legislative framework measures to adapt and mitigate to the climate change. One of the goals of the UK government for 2050 is to mitigate the carbon dioxide emissions. One of the ways to achieve this is by retrofitting the existing buildings as the built environment counts for the 45% of the emissions and also the majority of the buildings, around 80%, that we are using today will still be in use in 2050. According to the English Housing Condition Survey 2007, England has the oldest housing stock in Europe with 21% constructed prior to 1919.6 That means that the building stock will have to adapt to the climate change.[ Fig.4] Today the problem of the sustainability is more urgent than ever before. Climate Change is an urgent problem that requires immediate action (Stern Review Report, 2006). According to Noam Chomsky: “Weâ€&#x;re facing the possibility of destroying the possibilities for decent human life.â€?7

5

Cassar,M. (2006).

City of Westminster retrofitting guide (2013).p.4.

7 The Cronicle(Aug.13).

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The words of the philosopher and writer Antonio Gramsci that past is an element of the present and the future explain in a profound way why in order to solve the problems of the present we should look in the past.8 The retrofitting and conservation of historic buildings is a challenging subject as there is the problem how to combine creativity and innovation with the eager to preserve the authenticity and the original fabric of the buildings. A concentrated effort is therefore needed to achieve a sensitive integration of the contemporary with the historic.

The importance of the built environment is also highlighted by Heidegger. Heidegger argues in his essay, "Building Dwelling Thinking," that the manner in which we dwell is the manner in which we are, we exist, on the face of the earth – an extension of our identity, of who we are.9 Consequently, since dwelling relates to the manner in which we exist, our "being in the world", Heidegger holds that problems of building are essentially problems of dwelling. 10 The historic properties are of great cultural and economic value. They are looked after because of their character and the history they carry but also because of economic and social benefits.

The National Planning Policy Framework (NPPF) sets out the basic principles of the conservation policy that the UK government follows. There, it is encouraged the reuse of existing buildings in order to achieve a low carbon future and at the same time protect the heritage assets so that they can be preserved for the future.

According to English Heritage reusing and conserving the historic environment serves sustainability in several ways, some of which are listed below (English Heritage, 2005) : 1. Waste Saving 2. Sense of place is further reinforced 3. Limit the risk of destroying the fine grain in historic areas 4. Historic buildings often have greater economic value than new ones 5. Conservation / revival of buildings / places creates jobs => growth of local economies 7. Enhancement of local identity => Community action is promoted11 However traditionally constructed buildings are often put into the category “hard to heat� as part of this research will be suggestions of how to improve the thermal efficiency of the buildings.

The sensitive character of the historic buildings is challenging in the sense of how to treat and upgrade them in order to adapt to the modern demands without harming their character and authenticity.

8

Fatouros (1982),p.12.

Martin Heidegger, "Building Dwelling Thinking," in Basic writings from Being and time (1927) to The task of thinking (1964) , ed. Farrell Krell, David (London: Routledge, 1993), p. 325 10 The cultural studies reader 11 Makrodimitri,M.(2010).

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Is it possible to achieve both comfortable living conditions and conservation of the building?

Do conservation and sustainability form the two sides of the same coin? At first glance someone might not be able to understand the connection of these two seemingly different fields; however the principles of sustainability are intertwined with the basic principles of conservation practices as conservation questions the need to add new stuff to the building stock that already exists in the built environment.

Sustainability is related to conservation in a broader ecological sense. It is often said by conservationists that the greenest building is the one that is already built, as this accounts for the massive amount of embodied energy that went into its construction.12 There are two ways that buildings use energy one is during construction and the second is during use „operational energy‟. 13 „Historic buildings are a reservoir of embodied environmental and energy capital‟: Historic buildings represent embodied environmental capital in the form of timber, stone, bricks, glass and metal. Research by the BRE in 2003 showed that a „typical‟ Victorian house contains the energy equivalent to 15,000 litres of petrol.

These materials (such as tropical hardwoods from non-renewable sources) are also irreplaceable and often represent craft skills that are no longer available. 14 Almost all types of historic buildings can be retrofitted to adapt to the modern standards of living and sustainable design. The aim of this dissertation however, is to limit the field of research only to historic dwellings. Thus it will be examined how they can be upgraded to make more environmentally friendly dwellings in order to meet the needs of the modern occupants and also help them escape the fuel poverty.15 It is also my aim to investigate how the conservation of heritage buildings may contribute to a more sustainable urban environment. The role of building conservation has changed from preservation to being part of a broader strategy for urban regeneration and sustainability16.

The benefits from an energy saving policy are local and global as well as social and economic. To start with the obvious one is that by reducing the energy consumption a country reduces the cost of the imported energy which can have important savings for the economy.17 In the 2000 Green Paper setting forth a strategy to secure energy supply, the European Union named energy efficiency as the best way to establish energy security over a longer term. 18 Energy efficient buildings help to reduce the gas emissions that are responsible for the greenhouse effect and also the pollution caused by the use of fossil fuels.19

12

Makrodimitri,M.(2010).

Bath and North East Somerset council (2013) and B. Dimitrijevic, D. Langford, I. MacLeod, T. Maver,(n.d) 14 Cassar,M. (2006) 15 “Fuel povery occurs when a household has to spend more than 10% of its disposable income to heat the home adequately” , Edinburgh world heritage, (n.d.a)“Energy heritage”,p.11.

16 Bullen,P. & Love,P. (2011).

17 International Energy Agency,2008,p.9 18 International Energy Agency,2008,p.9 19 Laustsen,J(2008)p.10.

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Aim of this dissertation is to highlight the ways in which cultural heritage can be enhanced and conserved along with the vital need of the occupants for energy efficiency. Architecture and technology are combined in order to reduce carbon dioxide emissions of the buildings, and use renewable sources of energy in order to help the environment. This is attempted through the prism of ethics and cultural heritage. So these two meanings become the tenet to support the practical application of solutions that support sustainable design.

1.3 Policy Background, planning consents and regulations Building codes and standards are invented in order to regulate the construction process and the safety of the occupants. Building codes are not new; one of the earliest examples dates back around 1790 BC and is Hammurabi‟s law from Mesopotamia. Among the 282 rules or contracts, which regulated every part of society, six concern the construction of houses and the penalties for builders.20 In more recent years the Kyoto Protocol which came into force on 16 February 2005 set legally binding emissions reduction targets on all developed and developing countries which ratified it. The UK was one of those countries. 21 The planning system has a very important role to the protection of the heritage. National Planning Policy Framework (NPPF) represents the official Government statement for the policies regarding planning. It sets out the general framework within which sustainable development should be achieved for the future. Section 12: „Conserving and enhancing the historic environment‟, according to it councils design their own Local plans which satisfy the needs and priorities of each community. In addition it is securing the conservation of historic environment by its continual enhancement and adaptation to the demands of modern living.

Many countries and cities have integrated in their Local plans and legislation articles to control the interventions implemented in order to adapt the historic buildings to modern requirements and achieve the well maintenance of the properties. For example in the planning policy of Scotland it is recognised that: “ listing should not prevent sympathetic adaptation and innovative solutions may be appropriate providing the special interest of the building is protected” ( Draft Scottish Planning Policy23: Planning and Historic Environment,2008). 22 In addition building regulations have a special provision for the application of Part L, which is about conservation of fuel and power23, for existing buildings. It provides special advice on how to repair, and insulate a historic building. Particularly section L1 is about existing buildings that are dwellings which is relevant to the research of this paper. Part L is the main tool for the government to control the reduction of the carbon dioxide emissions as it set out the targets that houses in the UK must meet and also be in accordance with the European targets specified by the European Performance Directive. It has been revised frequently, every three years, setting each time tighter conditions and increasing the percentage of the desired reduction of the carbon dioxide emissions. Thus

20

Lausten.J(2008)p.12.

English Heritage(2012) 22 Edinburgh world heritage, (n.d),p.11.

23 English Heritage website “Listed buildings”.p.5 21

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according to Part L in 2010 the target to reduce the emissions for homes was 25%, in 2013 was 44% and the target for 2016 is zero carbon for homes.

It is an undeniable fact that conserving heritage buildings provides significant economic, cultural and social benefits24 . The refurbishment and retrofit of historic buildings is the key to this vision. However because of the sensitive nature of these buildings permissions and consents are required in the following cases25 : • Unlisted properties in a conservation area • Listed properties

It would be necessary at this point to mention the definitions of historic building and listing.

Listed buildings are the buildings that are included in the Statutory List of Buildings of Historic or Architectural Interest. According to the English Heritage listed buildings are all buildings before the 1700, also buildings that date between 1700 and 1840 are in their majority listed.

What is more some buildings after 1945 are also listed but the criteria for this category are more tight and they should be of exceptional importance to be listed. Buildings that are more than 30 years old are eligible to be listed. 26 Buildings can be designated as listed or designated as being inside conservation areas.27 Conservation areas are „any areas of special architectural or historic interest, the character or appearance of which it is desirable to preserve or enhance‟.28 So any works that alter or affect the appearance of the historic fabric are subjected to several constraints that require listed building consent from the authorities. Consent is required for any internal or external works. Thus it is important to know what type of protection applies to the historic dwelling before any interventions and what scope you have for alterations by the authorities. There is guidance from the local authorities on the desired strategies that need to be followed in the case of listed dwellings and dwellings in conservation areas and also what consents are required in order to start the works. It is particular challenging to comply with the regulations and adapt to the climate change as many retrofit measures might affect the historic character, for example measures concerning the external façade or windows. 29 Especially in places like Bath that have a World Heritage designation, or that buildings that are in conservation areas, is more difficult to have permitted development rights and almost any work needs either planning permission or listed building consent or both.

One factor that often is suspensory for owners and developers regarding the reuse of historic buildings is the cost of any modifications. They consider the upgrade of historic buildings as an unviable option because of the restrictions that the planning system imposes.

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Bullen,P and Love,P.( 2010) City of Westminster retrofitting guide. (2013).p.4 26 English Heritage (n.d.b) “Listed buildings”.

27 Edinburgh world heritage, (n.d)“Energy heritage”, p.12.

28 English Heritage ( 2012) ,p.14.

29 External wall insulation or replacement of windows to install double or triple glazed windows.

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However in addressing the issue many local councils have specified that only the best and most important features of a historic dwelling should be retained. So that they can function efficiently with the application of the energy upgrade systems.30 In addition any considerations regarding the cost of the upgrade should be disregarded as the green deal is that the cost of energy efficiency improvements consequently will pay back from savings on the utility bills.

1.4 Ratings There are several environmental assessment ratings. These methodologies are used from the authorities to assess the environmental credentials of the interventions to the buildings. Such ratings are BREEAM, LEED, SKA, CEEQUAL. In addition to these the European directive which dates back to 2002, sets the minimum energy standards. Refurbishments and other improvements of existing buildings often are based on building codes and the efficiency standards that serve as targets. 31 Energy efficiency requirements are important as they ensure that energy efficiency is secured by design and this way it is potential to achieve the energy goals set by the government.32

1.4.1 Energy performance of buildings directive.( EPBD)

According to this directive, European countries have to set minimum standards for energy efficiency for new buildings based on the energy performance of the building.

The performance has to take into account the building shell including air-tightness, heating and cooling installations, ventilation, the orientation and position of the building, passive solar systems and solar protection and the indoor climate according to the annex to the directive.33

It also sets the requirement for the energy efficiency certificates and the regular inspection of boiler and air conditioning systems. The EPBD aims so that all buildings by 2021 will be near or zero carbon. In addition according to the directive all buildings in order to be rented or sold the owners must display energy performance certificate which assesses the energy efficiency of the building. The certificate has a rating of A to G scale (A being the best) and from 2018 it is making it illegal to rent or sell a home that rates worse than E in the EPC scale.

What is more, for public buildings larger than 1000sq.m. it is obligatory to display the certificate showing the energy that the building is using. [Fig.5]

30

Bullen, P.A. and Love, P.E.D. (2010), p.412.

Laustsen,J(2008)p.8.

32 [Ibid] 33 [Ibid]p.38.

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With these new obligations coming into force for the landlords along with the fact that the prices of fuels are raising it is easy for someone to understand the danger that exists for historic buildings to fall into the category of properties that cannot be rented out.

The modern construction methods require achieving air tightness which is ensured by good insulation to the house. However this is very challenging with old buildings that are constructed with different techniques than the modern homes. In order to maintain the character of the historic buildings and also to motivate their owners to keep them in use, the legislation has exempted historic buildings from full requirements. They are however expected to be made as energy efficient as possible as long as this does not prejudice their character and does not cause any risk for deterioration. For these buildings the exemption applies only to the extent that compliance with the energy efficiency requirements would unacceptably alter their character or appearance.34 The aim is to build homes near level 4 of the EPBD as trying to compile with levels 5 and 6 is more expensive.

Annex with calculation elements required in the Energy Performance Buildings Directive35 Annex 1 1. The methodology of calculation of energy performances of buildings shall include at least the following aspects: (a) Thermal characteristics of the building (shell and internal partitions, etc.). These characteristics may also include air-tightness; (b) Heating installation and hot water supply, including their insulation characteristics; (c) Air-conditioning installation; (d) Ventilation;

Figure 5: EPC example

(e) Built-in lighting installation (mainly the non-residential sector); (f) Position and orientation of buildings, including outdoor climate; (g) Passive solar systems and solar protection; (h) Natural ventilation; (i) Indoor climatic conditions, including the designed indoor climate.

34 35

English Heritage(2012),p.21.

Laustsen,J(2008)p.38.

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1.4.2 The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

The Environmental Impact Assessment ( EIA) is one more tool for planners to make decisions and assess how the natural environment is affected by human activities and society.36 Its aim is to protect the environment by ensuring that there is an assessment of the impact that projects have on environment, either because of size or location, before they are granted with permission.

Chapter 2 : Philosophy of Interventions 2.1 Authenticity and creativity Nowadays the matter of conservation is examined under the lens of the historic memory and monuments are important features of the built environment if it is going to remain sustainable and pleasant place to live. What is more the threat of globalization created the need of the preservation of a national identity. It is a society of contradicting character that on one hand constantly consumes, commercializes and destroys but on the other hand takes care about the culture and preserves historical monuments.

What is however the correct way to approach the sensitive subject of conservation? Through conservation history we can see different doctrines adopted in different eras and conferences as well as various charts which all impose the same question: Which is the most correct way to do an intervention and how important is the authenticity of the building and how is its character going to be enhanced and preserved for the future generations. Many different aspects have been adopted over the years; however these questions still do not have one answer. Today the conservation of the monuments does not follow any doctrines but each case is considered separately. In every conservation project the benefits and the drawbacks of the intervention should be considered and until today the aesthetics of restorations remain a matter of subjective judgement and debate.37 What is it to save? Heidegger suggested that "saving" is more than hauling something back to its original form; instead, it should be construed as bringing something back into its essence.38 It is important to find the balance between the need to protect the historic value and the need for retrofitting.39 As Semper states the characteristics of the different systems of architecture will remain obscure to us as long as we have no idea of the social, political and religious conditions of those nations and ages to which these styles of architecture belonged. Monuments of

36

B. Dimitrijevic, D. Langford, I. MacLeod, T. Maver,(n.d),Introduction Kotoula(n.d).

38 Beckman,T(2000).

39 Edinburgh world heritage, (n.d),p.11.

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architecture are in fact nothing but aesthetic expression of social, political, and religious institutions.40 The contemporary philosophy about conservation had its roots to the ideas and achievements of the 19th century. The love for knowledge was combined with the turn to the study of the past. This will impact on one hand to the architecture 41 and on the other hand to the perception and appreciation and consequently the promotion of conservation of the monuments in Europe. The list of monuments that are in need to be preserved includes both monumental architecture, such as churches, and also works of folk-everyday architecture.

Historically the focus in conservation has been always on the monumental, it is only a recent phenomenon the attention that has been given to the conservation of the simple residencies.

A new ethical approach is required to govern our relations with the environment. 42 Any environmental adaptation should ensure minimum interruptions to the appearance and behaviour of structural materials and artworks.43 The protection of every single piece of the heritage is of vital importance as if it is destroyed it is gone for ever. English heritage therefore advises that a conservative approach is needed.

Any modifications should be characterised by the following principles:44

2.1.1 Minimum intervention

This principle applies to all scales of heritage and it implies that all proposed works to repair the building or monument should be kept to the minimum necessary so that there is no distraction of the historic fabric and consequently the value and the significance that it carries.

2.1.2 Compatibility

Compatibility refers to the necessity to apply materials or techniques that are compatible with the historic fabric. As modern materials tend to have different properties than the traditional ones sometimes the mix use of modern and traditional can result to distraction or cause accelerated decay of the original fabric. As we will see in a following chapter the removal of later additions because of incompatible materials is a very subtle procedure. Modern materials are harder and less permeable than the traditional ones and they do not allow the 40

Pevsner(1972),p.261.

Resulting in Greek and Gothic revival 42 Beckman,T(2000).

43 Makrodimitri,M.(2010).

44 English Heritage(2012),p.27.

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flow of air “breathing� of the historic shell. A good practice is to make the new materials and additions weaker than the original to ensure that it will weather preferentially to the more significant older work.45

2.1.3 Authenticity

By respecting the historic fabric of the building its authenticity is protected. All modern additions should appear to be of their time. The history of the building should be respected allowing all the different eras that the building survived to be clearly read. For the same reasons any works that are speculative with no clear evidence of what was originally built should be avoided.

2.1.4 Reversibility

Any alterations or additions to the historic building should be reversible. This way the impact of the modern intervention is minimised and the original plan is still retained should in the future the technology improves so a better solution can be applied.

2.2 Adaptive reuse – Sustainable Urban Environment As a way to promote sustainability within the built environment is the adaptive reuse of historic buildings. Instead of being demolished, through adaptive reuse new life is breathed into them. This leads to a wider revitalisation of the urban environment which is in its entity more sustainable because of the conservation of heritage buildings. Many cities have realised that the reuse of heritage building is vital for every regeneration programme. Old buildings through adaptive reuse can be transformed in accessible and useable buildings as well as helping regenerate the area in a sustainable manner. Reusing instead of replacing buildings is the best way to provide accommodation with the resource savings. Reuse of an old building does not mean that its historic value is diminished. In fact with adaptive reuse can enhance the heritage significance of a building by respecting it and also adding a contemporary layer that ensures usefulness and value for the future. This way more pleasant environment is created for the users of the buildings. As David Canter says in his book about psychology and architecture, man tends to interact with his environment rather than react to it 46 and also that space is defined by people but also space defines their behaviour.47

45

English Heritage(2012),p.27.

Canter,D.(1990).p.22.

47 [Ibid].p.144.

46

20

Energy efficiency upgrading is often an essential requirement for building conversions. The adaptive reuse is about making the building capable of undertaking the change of use. This usually involves refurbishment and or renovation of existing structures. The outcomes of adaptive reuse include improvements in material and resource efficiency (environmental sustainability), cost reductions (economic sustainability) and retention (social sustainability).48

Chapter 3: The Principles of sustainable design 3.1 Introduction Looking back in history Vitruvius was one of the pioneers to introduce the importance of sustainable design. In his first book he talks about how to select the best place to build a city and gives a description in the context of a discussion of the winds and their effect in the siting and orientation of buildings. 49 Today orientation is recognised as well one of the major principles of passive design in order to have the maximum solar gain and efficient ventilation.

Energy efficiency is identified as the key factor that to achieve sustainability. The challenge is to retrofit the buildings of the past to fit the needs of the future.50 This is challenging because old buildings are built in a very different way than the modern ones. Key elements to the thermal behaviour of the buildings are moisture and air movement. The major difference between the old buildings and the modern is that modern buildings are made “sealed” whereas historic structure is made to“breath”.51 The materials that are used in historic buildings such as plasters and mortars allow the air to flow inside the structure of the building and thus ventilating determines the levels of moisture.

On the other hand modern buildings are constructed with moisture proof materials that do not allow the air to flow and usually they require mechanical ventilation. These factors affect the energy efficiency of the buildings.52 Refurbishment of historic buildings is crucial for their sustainable future. Thus the improvement of the environmental performance of buildings and conservation are complementary objectives.

Sustainable design can be achieved with “active” or “passive” measures. The active measures refer to the addition of renewable energy technologies such as solar panels. On the other hand it is possible to achieve energy efficient by designing the building in such way that it will have a passive approach to energy gains.

48

Bullen, P.A. and Love, P.E.D. (2010), p.2.

Vitruvius, Lefas,P.2000.p.69-79.

50 Edinburgh world heritage, (n.d),p.14.

51 [Ibid],p.15.

52 [Ibid]p.16.

49

21

3.2 Passive design Passive design takes advantage of the local conditions of the place and making use of renewable sources of energy such as sun (solar energy) and wind to maximize the energy savings. Using passive design improves the human comfort in the house by improving air quality inside the residence and controlling the temperature. It can also help the occupants of the house save energy and money from fuels. Consequently it helps reduce the carbon dioxide emissions. It is has been off growing interest over the last decade and it is part of the movement for a sustainable future and energy efficiency. The benefits of the passive design outweigh the costs of applying the passive systems which generally are easy to apply in new and existing buildings. Some passive design measures are the following:

3.2.1 Thermal mass

This is often a special design element such as a Trombe wall53 created of a high density material, or a concrete slab facing direct sunlight. With the term thermal mass we mean the ability of a material to store heat energy. The way it works is by simply storing heat when the ambient environment is hotter than the mass54 and then releasing it when it is cooler. It is usually combined with ventilation so the heat that is released, is being distributed over the whole area of the building 55 . [Fig.6] In historic buildings the big mass external walls can function as Trombe wall, and the thermal performance of the house is not as bad as it is often regarded because of the inherit qualities of the structure.

Figure 6: Trombe Wall and Attached Sunspace

3.2.2 Insulation

Insulation helps to keep the house warm in winter and cool during summer months. There different ways of insulating the building both externally and internally. It needs however to consider very carefully the impact on the character, the appearance and the historic significance before doing any alterations as well as technical issues. However the attention should be given to the fact that by the application of insulation there is the danger of accelerated decay of the historic fabric as modern materials tends to have smaller life span 53

Passive solar building technique that captures the energy during the day and reflects it back at night. level(n.d) [online] 55 They are referred as solar chimneys.

54

22

usually 30-40 years. So the more insulation applied the greater the risk of fabric decay particularly in areas where there is thermal bridging such as joist ends.56

3.2.3 U-Value

As a result of the increasing standard of living the need of thermal comfort became primary motive for raising the requirements of construction.57 Back in the late 1950s and the early 1960 in the Scandinavian countries first specified the insulation requirements for U- Values and multiglazing. These national requirements were intended to improve comfort in buildings and also achieve energy efficiency. The aim was to make more environmentally friendly buildings and also reduce the cost of maintenance.

The thermal efficiency of a building element is defined by the U values of its materials. This mathematical value represents the rate in which the heat is lost through the material or a combination of materials.58 The definition in that English Heritage gives is: U values describe the thermal transmittance of materials. This is measured by how much heat will pass through one square metre of a structure when the air temperatures on either side differ by one degree. U values are expressed in units of Watts per square metre per degree of temperature difference (W/m2 deg K).59 The lower the U value the better the thermal efficiency of the element.

The average U value(W/m2K) –thermal transmittance of a building is the sum of the different elements that constitute the structure like walls , roof, floors and windows. In addition this includes the thermal resistances of all the layers from witch the different elements are made.

That includes even air cavities, and surfaces resistances of both sides.

The proposed interventions must comply with the Building Regulations. For different countries the values vary as the thermal behavior of the buildings is expected to be different depending on the climate of each country. In the Approved documents of the building regulations are specified in more detail the target U values of the different elements and the standard method for calculating the U value.

3.3 Comfort taking Comfort taking is one of the most anticipated qualities of the space we live. The values that create human comfort are the air quality and the temperature across the building. How the achievement of these values along with the reduction of the carbon dioxide emissions is

56

STBA,Sustainable traditional building alliance.2012.p.42.

Laustsen(2008),p.6 58 Edinburgh world heritage, (n.d.a)“Energy heritage�,p.24.

59 English Heritage(2012),p.60.

57

23

combined is a matter of research. The improvement of Comfort levels by the refurbishment is not necessarily accompanied by reduction of fuel60.

Thermal Comfort can be improved by different ways. The different methods can be applied individually or combined in order to achieve the best results.

The thermal comfort is an indicator for the success or the failure of energy efficient retrofit interventions.61

3.4 Rebound effect The energy performance of a building is dependent also to the way it is operated62. An analysis of the habits of the tenants is therefore needed to be taken into consideration along with the systems of passive design.

This leads as to the phenomenon of the rebound effect. It is defined as the ratio of the lost benefit compared to the expected environmental benefit when holding consumption constant 63 . The idea is that despite all the measures taken to achieve energy usage reduction, all the gains will be lost because of the change in the behaviour of the tenants as well. The validity of such contentions is still controversial as others like Kenneth Gillingham and colleagues claim that such rebound effect is an exaggeration. 64 There is still a lot of research going on to assess the impact of the rebound effect. So far workshops about that were held to identify and develop research needs in respect to different approaches to measuring direct and indirect rebound effects that may arise from investments in and policies regarding energy efficiency, have reached to the following conclusions: 65

60



While rebound effects could be large in the developing world, among low income groups, and in the production sector of the economy, there has been too little study of these group



Among reasonable well-to-do consumers, rebound effects appear to be modest (typically < 15%)



There is very little evidence of rebound effects exceeding 100% (so called “backfire”)



In situations in which empirical analyses suggest that rebound effects are nonnegligible, these effects should be considered in the design of policy program



Care should be taken that energy efficiency policies are not called into question in general

STBA,Sustainable traditional building alliance.2012.p.28.

61

STBA,Sustainable traditional building alliance.2012.p.28.

62

Sjo¨gren .J.-U., Andersson .S, Olofsson .T(2007),p.952.

Grubb, M.J. (1990) pp. 783–785.

64 Kenneth Gillingham, Matthew J. Kotchen, David S. Rapson, Gernot Wagner, 2013.

65 International Risk Governance Council,2013 63

24



So far, rebound effects are neglected in energy scenarios and models. Clear definitions and common wording for rebound effect are needed

Chapter 4: Retrofitting options for historic buildings 4.1 Introduction to retrofitting Historic buildings that are listed or in conservation areas enjoy high level of statutory protection nevertheless there are ways to upgrade the buildings successfully.

With conservation and retrofit of historic buildings it is possible to extend of their life span despite their age, type or use. Main goal of the interventions is to reduce the fuel costs of the tenants and reduce the C02 emissions. The challenge is to introduce innovative but at the same time realistic solutions. For this reason renewable energy is incorporated into the retrofitting options, such as geothermal, biomass and photovoltaic panels but at the same time concern is being given to the design of these systems to enhance the architecture of the building or to be discreet as possible in order not to disturb the eye.

Only after the building is fully understood then it is possible to design upgrade proposals that balance the character and significance of the building with the requirements of the building regulations.66 Three are the principle criteria to consider:   

The impact on the historic fabric The anticipated benefits from the alterations The ease of the installation of the new systems

There are several questions to ask before beginning to think ways to retrofit a dwelling. First of all it is necessary to start thinking what simple changes could be first implemented and then to move on to the more complicated and demanding options. Two major questions that should be considered are what house type does the dwelling belongs to and secondly what low cost measures can be applied to make it more energy efficient easily.

For existing buildings, some of the mere causes of building faults are the insufficient thermal insulation of the building‟s envelope and rain infiltration 67 . The improvement of U Figure 7: Energy consumption at home

66 67

English Heritage,p.38.

Harvey and Ashworth, 1996-A footnote in B. Dimitrijevic, D. Langford, I. MacLeod, T. Maver(n.d).

25

values of the building‟s envelope and the reduction of air infiltration can improve the energy efficiency significantly.68

Factors like the performance of the building envelope, climatic conditions, fuel poverty, installed heating or cooling system, affect the performance of buildings. 69 The biggest amount of heat loss occurs from the energy used for heating (61%). The typical energy loss in a house is as follows: 33% is lost through the walls, 26 % from the roof, 21% from windows and doors, 12% of energy loss is caused by drafts and finally 8% of the energy is lost through the floor.70 In addition energy is consumed daily for activities of the household like lighting, cooking and appliances. [Fig.7]

4.2 Old versus the new It is often believed that older buildings are not energy efficient or at least they are much less efficient than the contemporary ones. However that is not the case. We should bear in mind that historic residencies were built back in an era that the central heating was not introduced and energy was not as cheap and abundant as it is today so they were designed to function and have the maximum thermal performance under different regimes of use of energy. Some key features that differentiate them from today‟s buildings are: thick solid walls71, the use of permeable materials that could breath and natural ventilation.72 So are historic buildings behaving in a more energy saving way than the modern ones or vice versa? Recent studies show that historic residencies have less utility bills than the modern houses however the comparison is quite difficult due to the fact that most modern buildings are big commercial structures that heat and use energy in a very different way than the small residential buildings. 73 There are many differences between the thermal behaviour of the old buildings and the standards of today. Particular emphasis should be given to understand the way all these traditional environmental systems work before trying to alter them and “improve” them as they might as well being already insulated by the way they were designed. Historic buildings have relatively small amounts of insulation and high thermal mass.

It is quite controversial approach how to handle a situation where there is a conflict between conservation and energy efficiency targets. For example are the original old windows cost and energy effective to retain them for the sake of authenticity instead of replacing them with

68

B. Dimitrijevic, D. Langford, I. MacLeod, T. Maver,(n.d).

Buildings Performance Institute Europe (BPIE)(2011).p.9.

70 Bath and North East Somerset council .2013a,p.20.

71 As mentioned in a previous chapter they function as modern Trombe walls.

72 Bath and North East Somerset council .2013.

73 Hamer, D. (2000), a reference in Bullen, P.A. and Love, P.E.D. (2010), p. 412.

69

26

a double glazing?74 Rather than trying to upgrade the insulation values to historic homes it would be more useful to try to make use of the regimes applied in the use of old buildings back in time.

Bringing historic internal shutters back into use, using lobbies, recognising the beneficial effects of deep eaves and surrounding trees for shading can achieve significant improvements in thermal performance.75 The old buildings due to the fact that didnâ&#x20AC;&#x;t have central heating were designed to take advantage of the thermal mass of the external walls and heat only the rooms in use rather than achieving the same steady temperature for all the spaces. Older buildings were generally constructed with a cellular arrangement of rooms that would be individually heated.

This made best use of the thermal mass of the structure and involved heating only those rooms in use rather than the whole building.76 Some more practical norms during the use of the house had substantial contribution to the thermal benefits and should not be ignored. For example the fact that the house was constantly occupied and not just in the mornings and evenings77, also the practice to use heavy curtains and the habit of closing the internal shutters and isolate the rooms was contributing to retain a better interior temperature to the rooms in use.

In modern buildings we tend to turn on (or set a time clock) the central heating so that is comfortable temperature during the hours that it is occupied. However this doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x;t necessarily work for historic buildings which due to the fact that have big thermal mass the warmth would be taken by the structure and it would be radiated back later when no one would be there so it would be wasted. In this specific case the best approach would be the one in keep with the thermal response of the house. It might actually be more suitable to keep the heating on a level 12-15oC , which is relatively low for internal comfort , but then use local heating to warm each room individually when it is being occupied.78

4.3 Removal of later alterations Throughout the years the historic buildings have been under a number of alterations even change of use. Their tenants in order to achieve comfortable environments had used all the disposable means. Although in most cases this was happening with the best intentions, sometimes the adaptation was done by using inappropriate materials or methods so it is a question how you remove later additions that harm the original fabric. Cement mortars, 74

Cassar,M. (2006) Cassar,M. (2006) 76 English Heritage p.40 77 In modern societies we assume that the average family is working the middle hours of the day and the house remains empty but in older times the landlords used to have living in servants and employers so the house was not empty.

78 English Heritage p.41.

75

27

plastic paints are some of the materials that reduce the breathability of the original fabric and have detrimental impact on the energy efficiency performance. However the removal of any later additions should be performed with special care in order not to cause any further aggravation and also the matter of authenticity and minimum intervention should be constantly considered.

Sometimes the removal of later additions is very subtle. The reason being is that sometimes the new materials have adhered to the original ones and their separation is impossible without causing further damage to the original. However it is an issue of concern to match the existing features as it is more difficult to find the same materials now and it is definitely pricier.

4.4 Types of historic dwellings When it comes to retrofit a historic building it is important to understand it first. What this means is that you must understand its construction, condition and the way it performs and also the buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x;s qualities.79 In general the issues that old buildings are facing are the environmental pollution and the burning of fossil fuels that deteriorates the original fabric, the weathering of the external fabric due to weather circles, like extreme frost and hot temperature. In addition the continuous rise in the fuel prices caused historic building owners to fall into fuel poverty and as a result they cannot afford living anymore in historic dwellings and they neglect their maintenance.

The way a structure is made affects the way it deteriorates thus different housetypes have different problems .There are 3 different housetypes of historic dwellings that can be found in the city of Bath. Each one has its own characteristics and also its own demands in the treatment required in order to be more energy efficient. This has to do with the different ways of building during the years. In â&#x20AC;&#x153;Bath and East Somerset guide 2012 for retrofitting Historic buildingsâ&#x20AC;? are described in detail the different types of residencies that can be encountered in the area and the associated problems with their structure.

4.4.1 17th century building

Usually buildings of the 17th century comprise windows of small size and deep reveal characteristics which do not allow much natural light to penetrate into the internal.

Consequently the need to light the internal space is more and also the nead to heat it. On the other hand if the small windows are facing the north side of the house that would help reduce the heat loss. 80 The need of draughtproofing these houses in vital as some of their 79 80

English Heritage,2012,p.22.

Bath and North East Somerset council .2013b.p.23

28

construction features can be source for drafts. Windows on the upper floors are often set close to the floor, characteristic which is creating drafts. What is more they are thermally poor as normally they are singe glazing, and the iron casement usually creates drafts. The roof is usually stone tiled but many do not have a roof underlay. Special attention should be given that mortar fillets are in good condition so that they protect the gable wall from being draughty from the roof dripping. The underside of the roof is usually insinuated and thick timber purlins that are usually present is such roofs can make the insertion of insulation difficult. In addition big fire places are not energy efficient as 80% of the heat is lost up in the chimney and can be source of draughts. In addition there is not internal wall insulation as the traditional timber walls or stud walls are very slender and allow heat to transfer to rooms that are not in use. Also the insulated ground is allowing for rising damp to go into the walls.

Colder air is penetrating the building through cracks in the external masonry usually caused by large timber beams.

The high thermal mass does reduce the need for summer cooling of the building but poor insulation at roof level can lead to rapid heat gain in summer and heat loss in winter.81 Another characteristic of the 17th century building is the modular rooms. This kind of arrangement imposed a heating regime that each room was heated separately and not through central heating like modern open plan houses.

4.4.2 Georgian/18th century building or Edwardian building

Georgian/18th century buildings or Edwardian building incorporate usually parapet walls at roof level which hide the gutters behind them which are insinuated and allow cold bridging and condensation risks to the roof. Tall room and big windows usually allow for sufficient light into the interior and ventilation however they are poor elements thermally. Cracks are caused to the external walls because of suspended timber floors built into them, allowing for air penetration. The internal insulation of floors and walls is poor and heat is transferred from one room to another. The windows are single glazed and usually the timber cash is need of repairs. The window shutters are sometimes missing. The external walls are usually quite slender and allow for heat loss through the masonry. Roof are also unsinsulated . Vaults are an characteristic of 18th century houses and as they are under the earth have a steady temperature and could be habitable rooms at basement level however they luck of natural light and ventilation. Keeping internal doors shut is an effective way to prevent heating being lost .External doors often contain slender timber panels and single glazed fan-lights which readily allow heat transfer.82 The Victorian houses have usually numerous fireplaces, almost one in every room, this results in heat to be lost through the flues and draughts to enter the house. On the other hand this is good for the air quality.

81 82

Bath and North East Somerset council .2013b.p.23 [Ibid] p.25

29

4.3 Suggested interventions to historic dwellings It is inevitable that the old buildings have been decayed over time and have worn under the adverse effects of weather. In order to make them suitable for benign habitation again we should undergo to repairs in order to restore their thermal performance and stop the decaying.

The works are divided into two major categories. In the first one belong the works that do not affect the character of the buildings and are of minor disturbance. They are associated with simple alterations like changing some of the everyday living habits of the tenants and they are low cost measure. In the second category belong works that require more intrusive interventions and some of them are likely to affect the character of the building.

To start with the energy efficiency upgrade starts with repairs of the damaged parts of the building to bring it to the technical performance that it used to be. Repairs on cracked doors and windows can keep the weather out and improve the heat loss.

The low cost measures are also associated with the habits of the tenants but also with minor interventions that do not affect the historic fabric and they are likely not to require planning permission. In several guideline documents from local authorities and the English Heritage the suggested low cost measures could be: 

the replacement of the light bulbs with low energy ones (Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL) bulbs and halogen spotlights)83



Insulate hot water tanks and pipes.



Repair and draught proof windows and doors



Repair and use original internal shutters where possible. Although not as effective as secondary or double glazing, they will reduce heat loss to some extent, as will closing the curtains.(English heritage).



Use a removable chimney balloon to seal the drafts from the chimney



Use energy and water efficient fittings and appliances

For all works in listed buildings or buildings in conservation areas is required building consent if the architectural character or historic interest is affected by them.84 4.3.1 Draughtproofing

Draughtproofing is the first step to take when retrofitting a historic building in order to create a comfort environment. Permission is not normally required. The majority of the suggested ways are relatively of low cost and the occupants should expect significant savings on the cost of fuels. The types of interventions vary from sympathetic repairs of the original fabric to

83 84

City of Westminster retrofitting guide (2013)p.10.

Bath and North East Somerset council .2013b.p.6.

30

change of lifestyle in order to manage the building to its optimum performance. For example such interventions according to English Heritage guides85 may be: • repairing cracks and holes in the construction • installing draught-stripping to external doors and windows.

• restoring window shutters to full operation

• installing heavy curtains and carpets • installing secondary glazing.

4.3.2 Roof insulation

Roof insulation can be installed at rafters level (warm roof) or to the underlay of the roof (cold roof). If the loft space has been converted to be additional living space the installation of the insulation is more demanding?86 There should be provision however for air circulation to carry away any condensation that might dump the timber of the ceiling or the roof. Wool can be a very beneficial insulating material as it is natural and allows the building to breathe.

Straightforward loft insulation is unlikely to require planning permission.

4.3.3 Floor insulation

Floor insulation is of higher disruption. In some cases it may be required listed building consent may be required depending on the floor. The insulation can be installed between the floor joists by lifting them. Sometimes replacement may be required. Again attention should be paid to maintain a ventilation path below the insulation to control damp and avoid rot.

4.3.4 Internal solid wall insulation

Listed building consent is required as well as experts‟ advice. Specified materials should be used for this purpose. Internal solid wall insulation is more useful to buildings of mid18th century with slender wall that have poor thermal performance. Also if possible, it can be highly beneficial to apply cavity fill insulation although it is probably unsuitable for the earliest cavity walls. It prevents the heat being transferred though the slender walls from one room to another. As the rooms are heated individually the thermal bridging of internal spaces allows the heat to be wasted in areas that are not in use.

4.3.5. Secondary glazing

The Secondary glazing is normally a single or double glazed unit made from glass or polycarbonate sheets which can be secured to the rear of the existing window frame. It can be even secured with magnetic tape making it easy to remove it if required. It is discreet and reversible as well as very cost effective. It enhances the performance of the existing windows towards double or triple glazed performance levels without the need to replace the existing 85 86

English Heritage(2012),p.42.

City of Westminster,2011.p.27.

31

window. It can also limit draughts and improve acoustic insulation from outside disturbance.

If combined with timber shutters or heavy curtains it can reduce heat loss by 58% and makes the window even more efficient almost like modern windows. In Part L of the regulations it is suggested an effective way to meet the U value targets.87 Listed building consent is required.

4.3.6 Boiler upgrade

Gas boilers are responsible for around 60% of the CO2 emissions. 88Condensing boilers can provide a considerable improvement to the thermal efficiency of historic buildings. Both planning permission and listed building consent may be required. Provision should be given for the position of the flue. Its installation may require penetrating the building envelope and it should be located in a visually discreet position.

4.3.7 Solar photovoltaic system

Panels should be applied as discreet as possible: panels â&#x20AC;&#x17E;hiddenâ&#x20AC;&#x; inside the double-pitched roof valley, external wiring run behind a downpipe to minimise visual impact, a board- mounted inverter to minimise fixings to original fabric, and a high position ensuring the roof is not overlooked.89 Roof valleys can be exploited for this purpose and behind parapet walls. The orientation of the panels is very important for their efficiency and they should be as south facing as possible. Listed building consent and planning permission is required.

4.3.8 External solid wall insulation

The external wall insulation is very intrusive method of insulation and it is likely to alter the appearance of the historic building for this reason its application is limited in listed buildings and conservation areas.

4.3.9 Other measures

Other measures that can be implemented are: Micro Combined Heat and Power (CHP), Air Source Heat pump, Ground source heat pump, Living Roof. They need planning permission and listed building consent and they are of low risk regarding the disruption that they can cause to the original fabric with the exemption of the living roof that has to be ensured that the existing roof can bear the weight of the damp soil and other safety measures whistle being visually discreet. Much guidance and details of the requirements of each specific technique can be acquired from the English Heritage and of course by consultation with conservation officers.

87

Bath and North East Somerset council .2013a,p.42.

City of Westminster,2011. p.30.

89 Bath and North East Somerset council .2013a 88

32

Chapter 5: Case study- 4 Catharine Place 5.1 Introduction The principle objective is to refurbish and renovate this townhouse residence that it is currently functioning as double occupancy. The suggested intervention aims to retain the current arrangement and reconcile the past with the future of the building. The aim is to bring the building services back to date and undertake works that will improve the energy efficiency of the building, following the strategies of sustainable retrofitting to meet the carbon reduction targets and improve energy costs. The proposals will provide an enhanced property. The key considerations for the proposals have been the:    

Improvement of energy efficiency Appearance of the building Innovation Impact on the historic fabric

Figure 8: Site location map

5.2 Site- Location Catharine Place is located on the north centre of Bath, in an established residential district between the area of Royal Crescent and the Circus. No.4 is situated in the middle of a short terrace on the east side of Catharine place square and it is a very prominent building both in style and location. The site is defined to its north and south by other buildings forming the terrace. [Fig.14] 33

The front elevation of the building faces Catharine place square. Catharine Place is an urban square which comprises maybe the only natural garden in the city of Bath and around the square the elevations of the streets are formed from standard terrace style properties.

The building is approached to the rear via Catharine Mews. The site slopes gently form north to south, with a fall of approximately 2 metres across the garden.

5.3 Historic background A historic survey of the buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x;s background has been undertaken. This included visual inspection of the external and internal areas and also investigation of the documentary record of the building in the Bath record office. According to the principal findings, 4 Catharine Place is a grade 2 listed property dating from the mid -18th century. It was designed and built by the architect John Wood the younger as part of the development of the area of the Royal Crescent- Circus â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Brock Street. The property was subject to reconstruction during the â&#x20AC;&#x17E;70s with additions like a conservatory in the back garden.

The various historic maps acquired from the Bath record office show the gradual development of the layout at and around Catharine Place. Through the bombing map that indicates the damages of the buildings in Bath during the Second World War we see that 4 Catharine Place is indicated with burnt sienna which symbolises the buildings with slight damages. Consequently the repairs of the war did not alter significantly the original fabric and as Bath Preservation Trust recorded in 1989, most of the interior decoration remains intact. [Fig.8-13]

34

Figure 9: Bombing maps and key 1942

Figure 10: 1774 ,Catharine place does not exist yet

Figure 12: 1777 The streets around Catharine Place have started shaping

Figure 11: 1786, Catharine place is indicated.

Figure 13: 1800 The map confirms the arrangement of the plots in the area as they exist until today.

Figure 14: 1793 map

35

Figure 15: Elevation watercolours and pencil

5.4 Description of the property It is a Georgian type of building which has been remodelled during the nineteenth and twentieth century. It is a three storey building comprising basement with further rooms added in roof. The range of windows is the same in all floors. The front elevation of the building faces due west and is set behind railings, creating a small surrounding front area, off the main footway, which are also listed. The materials of the building are limestone ashlar to front, ashlar and rubble to rear.90 [Fig.15 & 16] The property is divided as a maisonette, the first two floors are occupied by the ownerâ&#x20AC;&#x;s family and the third floor along with the loft is arranged into a flat and is rented to lodgers.

Internally at ground floor a timber staircase provides access and links all floors. As recorded by the Bath Preservation Trust: Most of the original mouldings and frieze decoration remain intact on the ground floor, and two panelled cupboards in front room are thought to be sword cupboards. On ground and first floor two-leaf double doors connect front and back rooms with large brass hinges. [Fig.17] Most doors are the traditional solid wood panelled and some on the loft are plyfaced. All doors, mouldings and architraves have been redecorated.

90

English Heritage website , list entry 4 Catharine Place , Listing NGR: ST7467065433

36

In the back garden there is a monopitched extension of an attached conservatory, which was added during the 70â&#x20AC;&#x;s. There is an exterior metal staircase to the rare. The basement remains unoccupied and it is used as a store with potential conversion of it a s a guest room in the future.

Figure 16

Building details91 Building name: NO. 4 AND ATTACHED RAILINGS Parish: Bath District: Bath and East Somerset County : Somerset Postcode: BA1 2PR LBS number: 1395303 Grade : II Date first listed: 12-Jun-1950 Figure 17

5.4.1 Basement

The basement has two six/six sashes in plain reveals with stone sills with C20 guards, C20 door in ashlar infilling under crossover, no area steps. One double dormer with six/six sashes in moulded architraves. Band course over ground floor; modillion eaves cornice and coped parapet. Lead downpipe to left shared with No.5 Catharine Place.92

91 92

English Heritage website , list entry 4 Catharine Place , Listing NGR: ST7467065433 [Ibid]

37

5.4.2 Groundfloor

The Ground floor comprises two main rooms which are used a s professional spaces from the owners. The ground floor has two six over six horned sashes in splayed reveals with stone sills to right, to left six-panel door with flush moulded, fielded and single glazed panel in stone doorcase with cyma moulded architrave and moulded cornice on console brackets forming hood, pennant paved crossover flush with pavement93 [Fig.18]

Figure 18

5.4.3 First Floor

The first floor comprises the main living spaces of the family. It has the kitchen and a big living room. First floor has three six/six horned sashes in splayed ovolo moulded architraves with friezes and moulded cornices and lowered moulded stone sills on console brackets.94 At the middle of the stair there is a small landing which is lit by its own six over six

Figure 19

sash window.[Fig.19] 5.4.4 Second floor

The second floor has comprises 2 bedrooms and the main bathroom. The floor has in total three six over six sashes windows in splayed ovolo moulded architraves with stone sills. 95 [Fig.20]

Figure 20

93

English Heritage website , list entry 4 Catharine Place , Listing NGR: ST7467065433 [Ibid] 95 [Ibid] 94

38

5.5.5 Third Floor

The Third floor is configured into a 2 bedroom flat for the lodgers.

The first two rooms are accessed off the small landing at the top of a single stair flight with winder. The space is lit by four six over six light sash window.

[Fig.21] Figure 21

5.4.6 Roof

The roof is covered with Welsh slate to the front and rear, coped gable wall with two ashlar stacks with some early clay pots to right, Double pile parapeted mansard roof raised to accommodate further rooms in roof.

5.4.7 Structure

The structure of the building is load bearing timber and masonry. The suggested interventions are causing minimum disturbance to the original fabric and thus the original weight distribution of the building is not disrupted but strengthened where possible.

5.5 Conservation philosophy A sustainable approach is followed which aims to retain the critical assets of the building including the interiors to the ground and first floor, basement, the circulation areas and service spaces. In all the other places, elements of modern technology or quality are considered appropriate if needed.

What is more, all the proposed modifications to the building are following the conservation philosophy described in previous chapter and they are characterised by reversibility and minimum intervention so they are kept in small scale.

5.6 Appearance The external appearance of the building is unlikely to be affected although some alterations.

The materials employed for the scheme are on the basis like for like with the existing fabric.

Any repairing details will be a mixture of traditional and contemporary to suit the application and context.

39

5.7 Legislation As the government has committed to reduce the C02 emissions and the existing built environment should comply with this vision. By upgrading the historic fabric the building will adapt to the modern environmental standards and also become more cost efficient for the owners.

There are several frameworks in National and Local level that provide guidance for the upgrade of the building.

In National level, National Policies that are relevant to this proposal are contained in the following documents: National Planning Policy Framework ( NPPF) .In Local level it would be in accordance with the BANES draft Core Strategy 2010 Environmental and especially with policies CP1, CP2 and CP3 of the Bath & North east Somerset Draft Core Strategy.In addition a useful guide would be BANES Sustainable Communities Strategy, the emerging BANES SPD on Retrofitting of Buildings.

5.8 Suggested interventions The building is generally in good condition but it is in need for some comprehensive services to be added. It is also suggested to upgrade the historic fabric to modern environmental standards so that it would become a low carbon and economic home. All the alterations however would be under the scope of the protection of the architectural interest of the listed building. In first stage the measures that will be taken in order to improve the energy efficiency of the building will concern the living habits of the tenants, like closing doors, economy in water consumption, replacing light bulbs with energy efficiency ones, even wearing warmer clothes inside the house. All these measures can make a substantial contribution to the improvement of energy consumption.

5.8.1 Timber sash window and door draughtproofing

The doors and windows will be upgraded where possible to improve their thermal performance. It should be checked that the frames are maintained in good condition and any gaps should be repaired with brush seal draughtstrips that fit within frames. This would seal the gaps between top and bottom when the sashes are closed.96 As mentioned in previous chapter is very important to keep the internal shutters and windows closed so that the temperature of the room is kept inside. In addition heavy curtains and draught excluders are effective ways to achieve that.

5.8.2 Chimney Draftproofing Balloon

The open fireplaces will remain as a decorative feature of the rooms however they will be blocked with a chimney draftproofing balloon and it can be easily used when required. This is not a permanent alteration and the existing flue remains capable of functioning as normal when the balloon is deflated.

96

City of Westminster(2013).p.29.

40

5.8.3 Secondary glazing

It is proposed the installation of secondary grazing in the areas of main use such as the kitchen, the bedrooms, second and third floor.

Secondary glazing can reduce draughts and improve comfort as heat is getting lost through the glass or by gaps in the frames. If combined with repairs to existing windows, secondary glazing can have positive impact in energy efficiency.

The existing windows will be retained and a secondary glazing system will sit inside the window reveal adjusted to the existing joinery.

5.8.4 Shutter refurbishment

Figure 22: Existing window shutters in the sitting room

All the properties of mid 18th century were built with internal window shutters that helped the insulation during the night. It is suggested to reinstate them to the original working condition.

[Fig.22] As secondary glazing is also suggested so the shutters should be installed but the standard brass knobs should be replaced with recessed ring pulls to avoid hitting the secondary glazing when shut. The shutters would improve the thermal behaviour of the window which with the double glazing system addition and if being combined with heavy curtains could have similar performance with modern windows.

Figure 23

5.8.5 Internally applied wall insulation

The suggested intervention would require listed building consent. As mentioned before around 33% of heat loss from a house occurs through the walls. Internal wall insulation can be a way of providing thermal efficiency to the building. The existing walls are un-insulated. The external walls are made from tightly joint limestone and they are quite slender. It is proposed to apply internal insulation to the front and rear walls of 41

the building. The selected insulation system should be moisture regulating so that it would allow the building to continue to breathe. The insulation would carry up to the edges of internal features of the wall like skirtings and it wouldnâ&#x20AC;&#x;t require any removal original features.

The insulation would be carried into reveals of windows to ensure there is no heat loss where the wall is thinner.97 [Fig.23]. The aim is to improve the U value of the wall and reduce the thermal bridging.

5.8.6 Roof and loft Insulation at rafter level

At present the roof does not have any insulation. It is proposed to adjust a highly breathable insulation boards at rafter level. 98 In addition insulation will be applied to internal box-gutter that runs behind the front and rear parapet. Rigid insulation boards are fixed under the rafters in alternate directions in order to eliminate the heat loss from the joists.

5.8.7 Boiler upgrade

The boiler in the house is 30 years old and needs to be replaced urgently. A new highperformance condensing gas-fired boiler will be used for heating the building, for hot water and for cooking. Condensing boilers are more efficient as they extract extra latent heat from water vapour.99 The new boiler for the house will be placed at the roof level and it will use the existing chimney.

5.9 Methods of calculations of thermal savings The research suggested ways of retrofitting the grade II listed residence. The aim of these interventions was to increase the thermal comfort of the occupants and also increase the energy efficiency of the building. In order to see if the proposed measures have the anticipated results we need to estimate what would be the buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x;s fabric performance before and after the alterations. For this purpose it is required to estimate the U- values of the elements of the building like external walls, roof windows and doors and compare them with the new U- values that would occur after the retrofit. Finally using the U values and the day degree method, which will be described in the following section, it would be possible to estimate the total power of energy that the building consumes in a specific amount of time.

The thermal simulation of the house is required to estimate the expected energy consumption. However this thermal model might not be accurate due to several factors as the occupants living habits or the systems not working as expected. A simulation model should take into account details as the occupancy, internal temperature and demand in heating.100 97

Bath and North East Somerset council .2013a,p.45.

Similar studies have been applied to various historic houses around the area. A research in the accompanied documents of planning applications implemented the described ways of action. In addition information was acquired from the Bath and East Somerset guide documents for retrofitting of historic buildings.

99 City of Westminster retrofitting guide (2013) p. 36.

100 Day,T(2006).p.15 98

42

It must be stressed that for estimation purposes there is a number of simplifying assumptions that need to be made and the results are approximate. The aim in this instance is not to calculate accurately the thermal gains but to see if there is an improvement after the suggested interventions and indicate the method of calculations. The theory of the method of calculation of the thermal efficiency is therefore more important from the actual numbers since they are just indicative.

These assumptions are regarding the average conditions of temperature, air infiltration, areas, and materials. An initial assessment of the building thermal behaviour and heat loss is attempted in combination with climate data to estimate what will be the buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x;s heating requirements for the future. Gas and electricity consumption was not possible to be obtained.

5.9.1 U-value calculations

The actual U-values as would be if measured in situ and the standard calculated values are different. With regard to the understanding of the heat loss of solid walls, there is a gap between the theoretical assumption and the measured reality .101 Therefore any interpreting of U value figures for existing buildings should be quoted with considerable caution as the thermal behaviour of the materials to avoid upgrade in inappropriate ways. To avoid deviations it is recommended an in-situ measurement of the performance of the element by calculating the actual heat flow through it and uses that as a basis for any proposals for upgrades instead of using the standard data that exist for each material. However in this thermal model for the U values will be used the standard U values according to the estimated existing materials and the proposals. In addition the house envelope will be simplified and regarded as a rectangular 3 floor building with roof.[tables 2-3]102

5.9.2 Degree days

The heating or cooling of buildings depends on external temperature in combination with the heat gained from the building in a passive way and it depends on various sources such as the occupants, building equipment, lights.

Degree days are a method to analyze the energy consumption of the buildings related to the weather. The relation is that the bigger the degree day the more extreme conditions were that period of time. The method of degree days can be useful to energy management.103 There are three different types of degree days: the heating degree days, the cooling degree days and the growing degree days. All types are based on the same principle.

For the retrofitting of the selected case study more useful is the heating degrees day

101

STBA,Sustainable traditional building alliance(2012).p.23.

Data for table 1 were retrieved by the degree days website after using the online calculator and specifying the area of study. Then the results were summed up for the final number of degree- days for one year.

103 Cavan,G and Aylen,J.2012.p.12.

102

43

as it is located in Bath, UK where the climate most times during the year is cold and the need to heat the buildings is more imperative than cooling them.

In simple terms heating degree days are a measure of how much (in degrees), and for how long (in days), the outside air temperature was below a certain level 104.

The mathematical expression of that is described as the summation of temperature differences over time. 105 The temperature difference is calculated from the difference of the outdoor temperature with a reference temperature 106

5.10 Thermal simulation model In order to calculate the degree days for the building it was taken as reference temperature the standard temperature for England and Wales which is 15.5oC.To start with we must calculate how many degree days did the area of Bath had over the period of one year ( between September 2012 and September 2013). In order to do that online calculating systems were used that collect data for the area of Bath from local weather stations. In order to calculate the degree days it was measured by the weather station in Bath how many days per month the outside temperature was less than 15.5 oC. The differences from this reference temperature for every day was then summed up for the whole month and then it was summed up for the whole year, ending with 2344 heating degree-days for the period Sep.â&#x20AC;&#x;12- Sep.â&#x20AC;&#x;13 as it is illustrated in Table 1 .107 Table 1 Description:Celsius-based heating degree days for base temperatures at and around 15,5C Source: www.degreedays.net (using temperature data from www.wunderground.com) Accuracy: Estimates were made to account for missing data: the "% Estimated" column shows how much each figure was affected (0% is best, 100% is worst) Station: Oldfield Park, Bath, Bath, SOMERSET (2.37W,51.38N) Station ID: ISOMERSE15 (Column titles show the base temperature in Celsius) Month starting 12,5 13 13,5 14 14,5 15 15,5 16 16,5 17 17,5 18 18,5 % Estimated

1/1/2013 1/2/2013 1/3/2013 1/4/2013 1/5/2013 1/6/2013 1/7/2013 1/8/2013 1/9/2012 1/10/2012 1/11/2012 1/12/2012

245 252 280 148 79 15 1 3 32 87 170 211

260 266 296 162 90 19 2 5 39 99 185 227

276 280 311 176 102 24 3 7 46 113 200 242

291 294 327 190 114 31 4 10 54 127 215 258

307 308 342 204 127 38 6 12 63 142 230 273

322 322 358 219 140 47 9 16 73 157 245 289

338 336 373 234 154 56 12 21 84 172 260 304

353 350 389 249 168 66 16 26 95 188 275 320

369 364 404 264 183 77 21 31 108 203 290 335

384 378 420 279 197 89 27 38 120 219 305 351

2344

104

Bromley,M.2009.

Day,T(2006).p.15 106 This could be different for each building or an agreed temperature for each place.

107 Martin Bromley (2009) online calculation for degree days.

105

44

400 392 435 294 212 102 34 46 134 234 320 366

415 406 450 309 227 114 41 56 147 250 335 382

431 420 466 324 242 128 48 67 161 265 350 397

0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0,3 0,3

The second step for the simulation of the thermal behaviour of the building is the estimation of the U values for each material. The U values were estimated for before and after the proposed interventions. The data that were used are the standard U values of the materials and not the actual U values of the specific building but are estimated according to similar case studies and the standard U values of the materials.108 Insulated solid wall is required to have a U value no more than 0.30 W/m2K, for England and Wales.109 Target U-values for wall improvements, 0.3 W/m2K, are taken from Approved Document Part L.110 [table3] Table 2

Windows and Doors

Type of windows Ground floor First Floor Second Floor Third Floor and basement

dimention (mm) 950 x 2000 950 x 2400 950 x 1650 950 x 1300

External doors Ground floor

2100 x 1 Sum

Table 3

area m2

number 4 5 6 6

7,6 11,4 9,4 7,4 35,8

2

4,2 40

U values table 2

2

2

building elements area m U value before W/m K U value afterW/m external stone walls 136,66 2,1 tiled roof 95,22 2,3 timber sash windows* 35,8 4,8 floor 69 0,43 external timber solid door 4,2 0,64 Sum 340,88

K 0,3 0,16 2,2 0,43 0,64

*After the intervantion : Timber framed-sash and case window-draughtproofing-timber internal shutters

The formulas used for the calculations are the following: 111 1. Heating energy demand (kW) = overall heat loss coefficient (kW·K–1) x degree-days (K·day) Or

P=Uaverage x degree-days

108

Useful source of information have been the Energy Heritage guide from the Edinburgh World Heritage.

Energy saving trust available online.

110 STBA,Sustainable traditional building alliance.2012.p.42.

111 Day,T(2006).p.6.

109

45

The fabric coefficient (Uaverage) is the sum of the U A values (U-value times area, A) for all the building components.

2. Uaverage =[(Awall x Uwall)+(Aroof x Uroof) + (Awin x Uwin)+(Adoor xU (Awall+Aroof+Awin+Adoor+Afloor)

door

)+(Afloor x U

floor

)]/

Taking into consideration the existing materials and the proposed interventions the U values of the elements have changed as follows: According to formula (2) we have the following two results if we replace the U values before and after from table 3 : 3. Uaverage1= [(136.66 x 2.1)+(95.22 x 2.3)+(35.8 x 4.8)+(4.2 x 0.64) +(69 x 0.43)]/ (136.66+95.22+35.8+4.2+69)=710.19 W/m2K 4. Uaverage2= [(136.66 x

0.3)+(95.22 x 0.16)+( 35.8 x 2.2)+(4.2 x 0.64)+(69 x0.43)]/ ( 136.66+95.22+35.8+4.2+69)=166.45 W/m2K

What is more by combining formulas (1) and (3) and table 1 : P1=710.19 W/m2K x 2344 K路day= 1664685.36KW Also combining formulas (1) and (4) and table 1 P2=166.45 W/m2K x 2344 K day = 390158.8 KW From the results it is obvious that P2<P1 consequently the heat loss after the suggested interventions would be less by 1274526.56 KW which is 76% improvement.

Conclusions Cultural heritage, offers to local communities unique streetscapes and more sustainable lifestyle. People feel a unique connection between them and the historic environment. That is due to the fact that historic buildings are finite in contrast with the modern building stock which can be replicated in any place. For this reason the connection between the modern buildings and the local is smaller than with the historic buildings. Besides having some difficulties complying with the modern standards of energy efficiency, historic buildings are inherently sustainable and contribute to the well-being of our society.

Heritage buildings act as cultural icons that their conservation has a direct impact on the social sustainability. The reuse of historic building is therefore imperative than their

46

replacement with new ones. 112 The conservation of historic environment has social and economic benefits and is one of the measures in order to adapt to the climate change.

The cultural heritage must respond to the efforts of the countries to adapt and mitigate to the climate change. In order to meet the modern standards of energy efficiency they need to be retrofitted. However in many cases historic buildings have been more energy efficient than the modern ones and their performance can be improved with just some repairs to maintain them. It is a unique opportunity to repair a historic building and at the same time apply low cost measures to improve its energy efficiency.

Costs effective energy efficiency upgrades in buildings are of vital importance for the reduction of the energy consumption. Through deep understanding of the building itself and comprehension of the environmental and heritage considerations we can achieve the appropriate changes. Most savings can be gained from heating and ventilation but also change of our lifestyle is critical for energy saving. Finally the energy consumption of heating systems should be converted into fuel consumption and carbon dioxide emissions.

The goal is to intervene effectively to diminish CO2 emissions, ensure thermal comfort of the occupants, reduce energy consumption and costs and preserve the original characteristics of the building. In order to achieve that it needs to comply with the national legislation about energy efficiency and the constraints of the conservation philosophy.

Human behaviour will have more effect on energy efficiencies and carbon emissions than any amount of building up-grading. If we take energy issues seriously we should re-examine our attitudes to comfort113

112 113

Bullen, P.A. and Love, P.E.D. (2010) Ray,N. (2010).

47

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