TOPIC SUMMARIES FOR THE NEW MATURA EXAM (STANDARD LEVEL)
EDITED BY ÁDÁM LAJTAI
WITH WORK BY THE STUDENTS OF THE SZABÓ LŐRINC BILINGUAL HIGH SCHOOL
Copyright © 2024 Lajtai Ádám
Writers: Lajtai Ádám (main writer), Árpási Enikő, Blazsevácz Anna, Fazekas Dóra, Gyárfás Helga, Palotás Flóra, Pártos Csongor, Pintér
Márton (Chapters III and IV)
Editor: Lajtai Ádám
Design: Lajtai Ádám
We welcome all suggestions via email at lajtai.adam@szli.hu
This book contains a summarized version of all standard level history matura exam topics in English. The book follows the seven chapter structure of the exam requirements, in effect from the 2024 exam period.
The terms and other data next to each topic is in alignment with the standard level requirements of the framework curriculum. Also, in italics, you will find additional terms and data required only for higher level. In some cases, you will find terms in (brackets), which means that the terms are introduced in a chapter different from the one you are currently reading.
We hope that this book will help you prepare successfully for both your written and oral exam.
The writers
1. The Portuguese and Spanish discoveries and early capitalism
2. Reformation: the creation and spread of Protestant churches in Europe and Hungary
3. The Counter-Reformation, the Catholic Revival and the Baroque in Europe and Hungary
4. The Battle of Mohács and its antecedents, the dual coronation
5. The tripartition of Hungary and the Ottoman wars of 15411568
6. The unique ethnic and religious makeup of Transylvania
7. The causes, aims and turning points of Rákóczi’s war of independence, and the Peace of Szatmár
8. The repopulation of Hungary
9. The British constitutional monarchy and the Amercian republican system
10. The political theories of Enlightenment, the Declaration of the Rights of Men and the Citizen
11. The reforms of Maria Theresa and Joseph II
Terms:
colony, global trade, absolutism, inflation, workshop, capital, capitalist, wage worker, capitalism, bank, stock exchange, stock, second serfdom, Reformation, Protestant, Lutheran (Evangelical), Calvinist (Reformed), Anglican, Unitarian, religious tolerance, Counter-Reformation, Catholic Revival, Jesuits, Baroque, estates diet, hajdú freedom, Enlightenment, equality of rights, separation of powers, popular sovereignty, social contract, free market competition, constitution, constitutional monarchy, president, prime minister, responsible government, census, universal voting rights, revolution, dictatorship, Jacobin, Holy Alliance, Kuruc, Labanc, war of independence, dethronement, amnesty, Enlightened absolutism, dual tariff system, Urbarium decree, Ratio Educationis, Patent of Toleration, Decree on Language
Persons:
Christopher Colombus, Vasco da Gama, Ferdinand Magellan, Martin Luther, John Calvin, Gáspár Károli, Péter Pázmány, János Apáczai Csere, the Habsburg-dynvasty, Charles V, Ignatius of Loyola, Louis XIV, Suleiman I, Louis II, John of Szapolya, Ferdinand I, István Dobó, Miklós Zrínyi (hero of Szigetvár), István Báthory, István Bocskai, Gábor Bethlen, Miklós Zrínyi (poet and general), Leopold I, Eugene of Savoy, Nicolaus Copernicus, Isaac Newton, Charles Louis Montesquieu, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Adam Smith, George Washington, Maximilien Robespierre, Napoleon Bonaparte, Ferenc II Rákóczi, Maria Theresa, Joseph II
Chronology:
1492 the start of the Modern Age, 1492 the discovery of America, 1517 the start of the Reformation, 1545 the start of the Council of Trent, 1568 the edict of Torda, 1648 the Peace of Westphalia, 1526 the Battle of Mohács, 1541 the fall of Buda, 1552 the defence of Eger, 1566 the fall of Szigetvár, 1664 the Peace of Vasvár, 1686 the retaking of Buda, 1699 the Peace of Karlóca, 1689 the (English) Bill of Rights, 1776 the US Declaration of Independence, 1789 the French Revolution, 1804-1814/1815 Napoleon as Emperor, 1815 the Battle of Waterloo, 1703-11 Rákóczi’s War of Independence, 1740-1780 the reign of Maria Theresa, 1780-1790 the reign of Joseph II
Locations:
Spain, India, London, Paris/Versailles, Sárospatak, Mohács, Kőszeg, Eger, Szigetvár, Habsburg Empire, Principality of Transylvania, Ottoman Hungary (hódoltság), Kingdom of Hungary (Royal Hungary), Pozsony, Gyulafehérvár, Vienna, Great Britain, United States of America, Paris, Russia, Waterloo, Temesvár, Military Frontier, Prussia
Key data: colony, global trade, inflation, workshop, capital, capitalist, wage worker, capitalism, bank, stock exchange, stock, second serfdom, Spain, India, London, 1492 the discovery of America, Christopher Colombus, Vasco da Gama, Ferdinand Magellan, György Dózsa
The Age of Discovery, which began in the late 15th century, marked a significant turning point in human history. The motivations for these discoveries were multifaceted. One of the driving factors was the growing need for precious metals, such as gold and silver. European nations had been trading extensively with the East through the Levantine trade, but the expansion of the Ottoman Empire made this trade more expensive.
Navigation and shipbuilding advancements in the late Middle Ages played an important role in enabling these explorations. Tools like the magnetic compass, and the astrolabe allowed sailors to navigate more effectively. The development of new ship designs, including the caravel and the strong carrack, made longer voyages possible. Furthermore, Portuguese Prince Henry’s efforts in shipbuilding, navigation training and exploration greatly contributed to Portugal’s rise as a naval power.
Portuguese and Spanish explorers played a crucial role in the early discoveries. Bartolomeu Dias reached the southern tip of Africa (the Cape of Good Hope) in 1487. Later, Christopher Columbus, a Genoese sailor, set out to find a new route to India by sailing westwards. After being rejected by the Portuguese, he secured support from Spain and discovered America when he reached the Bahamas in October 1492. Another Portuguese sailor, Vasco da Gama launched an expedition and reached India in 1498, fulfilling Portugal’s dreams of finding a sea route to Asia. Ferdinand Magellan’s crew, despite his unfortunate death during the journey, completed the first circumnavigation of the Earth between 1519 and 1521.
These discoveries marked the beginning of colonization. Europeans made trade connections with India, China and Japan,
but when they found less developed civilisations (e.g. in the Americas), they simply conquered the territory and subjugated the indigenous people. Explorers were keen on finding valuable resources (e.g. gold), so they advanced in the depth of Central and South America. Monarchs encouraged these conquistadors because they saw the potential for riches and expansion of territories.
The economic effects of these discoveries were profound. The influx of precious metals from America, combined with the booming population and demand, sparked the Price Revolutiona massive inflation - in Europe, causing prices of both industrial and agricultural products to rise, first in Portugal and Spain, then in the rest of Europe. This era of exploration also marked a shift in the economic center of Europe, from Northern Italy to cities closer to the Atlantic Ocean, like London, Amsterdam or Seville. Also, a continental division of labor emerged in Europe: while western countries were more involved in the world trade and industry, the eastern countries specialized even more in agriculture. This situation was used and abused by the landowning nobility of the eastern countries, who bound the serfs to their lands even more. While western serfs became free wage working peasants as a result of the Great Plague and the discoveries, the eastern serfs had to endure even harsher conditions and the restriction of their rights in what is called “second serfdom” (e.g. in Hungary after the peasant revolt of György Dózsa).
This economic transformation gave rise to capitalism, an economic system based on private ownership, free market and wage labor. Workshops became vital to this early capitalist economy. They adopted a division of labor, with each specializing in a specific task, increasing productivity, and enabling mass production of goods. This contributed to the decline of guildbased industry in Western Europe. Banks also played a crucial role in facilitating economic growth. Banks started to lend money for various business ventures, making capital available for investments in exploration, industry, and trade. This and the idea of getting rich through investment led to the development of jointstock companies. Later, people could invest in these companies by purchasing their stocks at the stock exchange, which further propelled investment.
Key data: Reformation, Protestant, Lutheran (Evangelical), Calvinist (Reformed), Anglican, Unitarian, religious tolerance, Martin Luther, John Calvin, Gáspár Károli, János Apáczai Csere, Johannes Gutenberg,Charles V,1517 the start of the Reformation, 1568 the edict of Torda, Sárospatak, presbyter, predestination, 1555 the Peace of Augsburg, Péter Méliusz Juhász, Miklós Misztótfalusi Kis, Geneva
The Protestant Reformation was a transformative period in European history, with significant consequences for both religious and secular life.The Reformation itself was a complex movement, driven by various mixture of religious, political, and socio-economic factors. The leading causes were the corruption and abuses within the Catholic Church. Many clergymen lived too secular lives and popes led the Papal State as secular monarchs. One great example of the corruption of the church was, as seen by Martin Luther, the sale of letters of indulgences, which promised the forgiveness (absolution) of sins for a monetary contribution. This activity and similar financial practices had created widespread disappointment among the lay people and members of the clergy as well. Many people, particularly in Germany, began to call for reform and a return to the purity of early Christianity.
One such person was Martin Luther, a German monk, who became one of the most outstanding figures of the Reformation. In 1517, he nailed his “95 Theses” to the door of the church in Wittenberg, challenging the Church’s sale of indulgences and the power of the Pope. Luther’s main ideas, called the Five Solae, included the idea of justification (receiving absolution) based on faith alone (Sola Fide), the rejection of papal authority because there is no need for any other mediator between people and God, except Christ (Solus Christus), the importance of Bible as the ultimate source of authority (Sola Scriptura), the idea that salvation only comes from God’s grace (Sola Gratia), and that nobody (e.g. saints or the Virgin Mary) shall be glorified but God alone (Soli Deo Gloria). Luther’s translation of the Bible to German in 1534, allowed for a broader readership, enabling people to
engage directly with religious texts. Luther’s actions and ideas sparked a religious and intellectual revolution, leading to the formation of the Lutheran Church and setting a precedent for others to follow.
One of the people Luther inspired was John Calvin, a French theologian, who developed another Protestant theology, which became the Calvinist Church (or Reformed Church). His main ideas included predestination (the salvation of people is decided before their birth and there is nothing they could do to change it), the absolute sovereignty of God, and the importance of a disciplined, well-organized church. He also emphasized the significance of simplicity in lifestyle and religion as well. He created a Calvinist religious city state in Geneva, but also democratized the church organization, which would be ruled by presbyters (church elders) who make up a synod/consistory. Many Reformed churches were established in various parts of Europe (Scotland, Netherlands), teaching about the value of strict ethical standards.
The Reformation had political, social, and cultural effects across Europe. The political landscape was reshaped as monarchs and princes seized the opportunity to strengthen their independence from the Pope and the Holy Roman Empire. One example was the English king Henry VIII creating his own independent Anglican Church, and another were the Protestant princes of the HRE won against HRE Charles V and their right to choose their religion was confirmed in the 1555 Peace of Augsburg. From a social point of view, this movement brought about changes in personal life, as it encouraged the reading of the Bible within households and a stronger sense of personal faith. This was also helped by the rise of printing, revolutionized by Johannes Gutenberg in the middle of the 15th century.The emergence of Protestant work ethic, emphasizing diligence, saving, and responsibility, contributed to the rise of capitalism and the modern economic system, while culturally, the Reformation had a profound impact on art and education. The translation of the Bible into languages of more nations and the increased emphasis on literacy opened new opportunities for intellectual and artistic expression.
Hungary was not immune to these reforms either. It was also influenced by the ideas of Luther and Calvin: the Hungarian nobility in Hungary and Transylvania became predominantly Calvinist, while the German-speaking Saxons of Hungary
converted to Lutheranism. Prominent figures like preacher Péter Méliusz Juhász, who organized the Hungarian Reformed Church in Debrecen or the teacher-philosopher János Apáczai Csere, two of the most important members of the Calvinism in Hungary. Also well known are Calvinist Gáspár Károli, who translated the Bible into Hungarian in 1590, and Miklós Misztótfalusi, a printer, who played key roles in spreading protestant books in the country. Calvinist colleges were founded throughout the western parts of the country in Debrecen, Sárospatak and Gyulafehérvár. A decree, called the Edict of Torda, issued in 1568 in the Principality of Transylvania, granted religious tolerance to different faiths, including Catholicism, Calvinism, Lutheranism, and Unitarianism (the rejection of the divine nature of Christ) in the Principality of Transylvania.
Key data: Reformation, Counter-Reformation, Catholic Revival, Jesuits, Baroque, Charles V, Ignatius of Loyola, Péter Pázmány, 1545 the start of the Council of Trent, recatholicization, Nagyszombat, 1555 the Peace of Augsburg, 1606 Peace of Vienna
The 16th century was a period of wide-ranging religious transformation in Europe. The Reformation, initiated by Martin Luther, John Calvin, and many others, spread like wildfire, creating new denominations across the continent.
As a result of the Reformation’s challenging of the traditional dominance of the Catholic, a treaty was made between Charles V and the Protestant princes of the HRE in 1555, the Peace of Augsburg. It acknowledged the coexistence of Catholicism and Lutheranism in the Holy Roman Empire under the idea of “cuius regio, eius religio” (“who has the land, chooses the religion”). This marked a turning point in religious tolerance. The Catholic Church faced the challenge of losing its followers and responding to the theological and political shifts brought about by the Reformation. They started a movement, the so-called Counter-Reformation (or the Catholic Revival) which aimed at reaffirming and strengthening Catholicism.
To address the challenges of Reformation, Pope Paul III convened the Council of Trent in 1545 (until 1563). The Council played a central role in the Catholic Revival. Its main decisions included reaffirming the traditional Catholic doctrines, e.g.: traditions were as much a source of truth as the scripture (Bible); the belief in purgatory; the pope was the vicar of Christ and the head of the church; the importance of honoring saints and Virgin Mary. It also addressed clerical abuses and encouraged the training of priests in newly established seminars. It restricted the holding of ecclesiastical offices: one person could hold only one church office. A list of forbidden books was made, called the index. The Papal 2 was reinstated to be able to find and eliminate suspects who were against the church. Basically, the Council of Trent provided a theological and organizational restructuring for the Catholic Church and a basis for Counter-Reformation.
The Jesuits, an outstanding Catholic order, founded by St. Ignatius of Loyola in 1540, also played a significant role in the Counter-Reformation efforts. With their military-like and highly obedient organization, they established schools and universities, and promoted Catholicism through missionary work.
Hungary, like many other European nations, witnessed the effects of the Reformation. In the early 16th century, the Reformation began to spread to Hungary, primarily through Calvinist and Lutheran influences. In the Peace of Vienna in 1606, the Habsburg kings recognized religious diversity in Hungary and permitted the practice of both Catholicism and Protestantism.
However, the Counter-Reformation played a crucial role in Hungary as well. One of the most notable examples of this effort was the establishment of Nagyszombat University (now Trnava, Slovakia) in 1635. It was founded by Péter Pázmány, Archbishop of Esztergom and one of the most important leaders of the Hungarian Counter-Reformation, who was involved in high-profile debates with Protestant teachers in Hungary. The university founded by Pázmány became a center for Catholic education and theology.
In the Habsburg-controlled lands the Counter-Reformation was not always peaceful, they often attempted to reconvert people by force or by threatening them with legal actions. By 1600, most of the Hungarian nobility had converted to Protestantism, so this religious difference led to several conflicts between the nobility and the
Habsburg court. However, the effects of the Counter-Reformation can be seen in the fact that by 1700, around two-thirds of the Hungarian nobility recatholicized.
One of the tools of the Counter-Reformation was creating a new, ornate and quite dramatic artistic and architectural style, the Baroque. With this, the aim of the Catholic Church was to evoke emotional and spiritual responses in the viewers. In Hungary, the Baroque was seen in grand churches and monasteries, such the Jesuit church of Nagyszombat or the Zirc Abbey Church, which reflected the Catholic Church’s attempt to reassert its dominance in the region. A larger Baroque church-building program was carried out in the 18th century.
Key data: Suleiman I, Louis II, John Szapolyai, Ferdinand I, 1526 the Battle of Mohács, Mohács, (spahi), (janissary), Pál Tomori
The early 16th century saw the decline of royal power in Hungary the early 16th century due to various internal conflicts that affected the country. The high nobility and the common nobility was in constant struggle for power and wealth, and the attempts of young King Louis II Jagiello to unite the country failed. The king was more or less a helpless “prisoner” of the Hungarian aristocracy, who had to be involved in decision-making. Also, already during the reign of his father Vladislaus I, the southern border fortress system was underfunded and in disrepair. Matthias’ famous Black Army was also unfunded and then later dissolved.
At the same time, the Ottoman Empire, under the new sultan Suleiman I, aspired to expand its influence into Central Europe, and began taking castles in the south of Hungary, like Belgrade (Nándorfehérvár) in 1521. Archbishop of Kalocsa, Pál Tomori was tasked with fortifying the Hungarian border in the south, and despite using his own clerical incomes, he only achieved partial and shortterm successes.
Although the king knew that an Ottoman attack was imminent, he still could not muster the Hungarian nobility behind himself. He also failed to gain allies or military support from the west as all states
were involved in conflicts. His wife’s family, the Habsburgs were pinned down in the Italian Wars and the uprisings inspired by Luther. So, the king only managed to get about 5,000 knights from the Pope to fight the Turks.
In the middle of 1526, the Ottoman troops under Suleiman and Ibrahim Pasha, started advancing towards the center of Hungary, taking castles like Pétervárad and Újlak in the south. It was only then that the call to arms was sent around the country, thus, the rallying of troops was slow. Only about 3,000 knights from royal banderia arrived, and following the advice of the nobility, the king did not wait for about 8,000 German and Bohemian knights to arrive. Also, the troops of John Szapolyai, stationed in Transylvania could not merge with the king’s army. Altogether, the Hungarian army led into battle by Louis II and Pál Tomori counted about 30,000 men and only about 80 cannons.
The Ottoman army was at least twice the size of the Hungarian one, but some sources suggest that it was comprised of 100,000 troops. Their army was heavily reliant on the artillery (about 300 cannons) and the musket-armed elite infantry, the janissaries. Another large portion of the Ottoman army was made up of the spahi heavy cavalry.
In the middle of August, the slowly-moving Hungarians missed the opportunity to stop the Ottoman advance at the Drava River and only met the Ottoman army on 29 August 1526 at Mohács. The battle was a quick and ruthless victory for the Ottomans. Despite an early promising cavalry charge by the Hungarian knights, the Ottomans encircled and destroyed the deep-charing cavalry, and then later routed the Hungarian army through cannon and musket fire. King Louis II tried to flee the scene of the battle, but fell and drowned in a small river. It was, however, not just the king, but the complete Hungarian elite (except for a few) was wiped out in the battle.
The victory gave a chance to the Ottomans to march towards the center of the country. They entered the evacuated Buda weeks later and pillaged the castle and the surrounding city, but soon left the country. However, amid political vacuum, the divided Hungarian nobility elected two kings simultaneously, John Szapolyai (Eastern Hungary) and Ferdinand I Habsburg (Western Hungary) in 1526. The two would start an internal war for Hungary that would last until 1538.
Key data: John of Szapolya, Ferdinand I, István Dobó, Miklós Zrínyi (hero of Szigetvár), Kőszeg, Pozsony, Eger, Szigetvár, Buda, Principality of Transylvania, Ottoman Hungary (hódoltság), Kingdom of Hungary (Royal Hungary), 1541 the Fall of Buda, 1552 the defense of Eger, 1566 the Battle of Szigetvár, Brother George (Fráter György), 1568 the Treaty of Edirne, 1570 the Treaty of Speyer
After the death of Louis II, two kings were crowned at the same time (double coronation): the high nobility crowned Ferdinand Habsburg (1526-1564), who ruled the western lands, while the common nobility crowned John Szapolyai (1526-1540), who ruled the east. As the Ottomans left Hungary after 1526, they fought an internal war for the leadership of the country. In 1529, Szapolyai was on the backfoot, so he sought help from Suleiman I, who recognized him as king of Hungary, but also made Szapolyai his vassal. Suleiman attempted to besiege Vienna twice during these years: his 1529 siege lasted only two weeks, and his 1532 siege attempt was foiled by long-lasting siege of the small fort of Kőszeg.
In 1538, the Peace of Várad was signed, in which the old and heirless Szapolyai promised to give the Holy Crown to Ferdinand after his death, but a few months before his death, Szapolyai had a son (János Zsigmond) and the promise was never kept. In revenge, Ferdinand besieged the castle of Buda, held by the Szapolyai family. When asked for help by the family, Suleiman broke the siege and captured Buda, but kept the Buda Castle (1541) for himself. He approved John Sigismund as king on the eastern side of Hungary. This resulted in the division of Hungary into three parts in 1541: the western part remained in the hands of the Habsburgs as Royal Hungary with Pozsony as its new capital, the eastern part, held by the Szapolyai family, became the Principality of Transylvania after the 1570 Treaty of Speyer, and the central part became the territory of Ottoman Hungary (hódoltság).
After 1526, the fortification system along the southern border collapsed and was occupied by the Ottomans. The Habsburgs, who ruled Royal Hungary, began to build and modernise a new system of fortifications along the new frontiers, using the most modern
technology of the time. The Habsburgs also reorganized Hungary into capitancies, around which the main administrative units in Hungary were organized.
Between 1541 and 1551, the relations between Transylvania and Royal Hungary were maintained most importantly by the priest Brother George (Fráter György), who ruled in the east as regent. He made several attempts to invite the Habsburgs to take over Transylvania, while, at the same time, he paid tribute to the Ottomans as Transylvania was still their vassal. However, both the Habsburgs and the Ottomans grew suspicious of his actions. In 1551, the Ottomans took over some castles from Transylvania, while Brother George was killed by Habsburg soldiers.
In 1552, the Turks launched an extensive campaign to expand their territory. Ali Pasha, starting from Buda, captured several castles in the Transdanubian region (e.g. Veszprém), while Kara Ahmed, starting from Belgrade (Nándorfehérvár), conquered some eastern territories, especially the castle of Temesvár. Later in the year, the two armies joined forces to march northwards to take Eger, the ‘gateway to Upper Hungary’. Some castles in Nógrád County were captured (e.g. Drégely), but Eger was successfully defended in 1552 by Captain István Dobó and his 2,000 castle defenders, who repelled the attacks until the Ottomans decided to retreat.
In 1566, the elderly Suleiman I decided to launch a campaign to capture some of the Habsburg-Hungarian held castles. In the same year, Pertev Pasha captured the castles of Jenő, Lippa and Gyula in the east. In the summer of 1566, Suleiman decided to besiege the castle of Szigetvár, which disrupted the Ottomans’ supply and reinforcement routes. The 2,000 soldiers stationed in the castle under the command of Miklós Zrínyi fought valiantly against the 100,000-strong Ottoman army. (Zrínyi’s great-grandson, also Miklós Zrínyi immortalized in his poem The Peril of Sziget). The siege lasted a month; by the end, all the Hungarians had fallen. It is important to note, however, that during the siege the elderly Suleiman died of illness. The Ottomans lost 20,000 men in the capture of the castle, which meant the loss of 1/5 of their main force.
The heavy losses of the campaigns prompted the Ottomans to sign the Treaty of Edirne in 1568 with the Habsburgs, which secured 25 years of peace in the region. However, looting campaigns on the borders still continued, and thus, often the serfs living in these regions were subject to tax collection by both sides.
Key data: Unitarian, religious tolerance, (Székelys), (Saxons), John of Szapolya,1568 the Edict of Torda, Principality of Transylvania, Brother George (György Fráter), three united nations,1570 Treaty of Speyer, Partium, Gyulafehérvár, Partium
Transylvania had existed as a semi-autonomus region since the Late Middle Ages. However, when in 1526, the John of Szapolya (formerly vajda of Transylvania) was crowned king of Hungary, Transylvania was given its own path in history. After his death in 1540, Transylvania was governed by György Fráter (Brother George) as regent for the infant king John Sigismund of Szapolya. Later, in the 1570 Treaty of Speyer, John Sigismund agreed with HRE and King Maximilian that he gives up the title of King of Hungary, but will be recognized as Prince of Transylvania and the Partium (attached territories). Although the principality was essentially independent, it existed as an Ottoman vassal state for the majority of the 16th and 17th centuries, overseen by Ottoman Turkish sultans but ruled by Hungarian princes. At various points during this period, the Habsburgs also exerted a degree of suzerainty in the region.
The population of Transylvania consisted of approximately 800,000 inhabitants around the year 1600. Its ethnic makeup was highly varied, with Hungarians, Székelys, Saxons and Romanians living in the land. The first three nations were in a union (three united nations) since 1437, meaning that these three were the political nations of Transylvania, who were represented at the diets.
The Hungarians lived in their noble counties and were led by the Hungarian nobility as in the other Hungarian lands. Except for one occasion, the Hungarian nobility always gave the new princes of Transylvania.
The Székelys had collective privileges since the Middle Ages: they were given “collective nobility” - tax exemption in return for their service defending the borders. The Székelys were independent from the county-system, and were organized into seats (szék). Their society had three layers: footmen (gyalogok),
horsemen (lófők) and primors (chief Székelys), which reflect the fact that they were organized based on military duties.
The Saxons arrived in Transylvania from German lands in the middle of the 12th century. The Saxons had a widely autonomous council for their own territory (the “Saxon University”) since Matthias Corvinus, which was led by a Saxon count seated in the city of Nagyszeben, where he was also mayor. The Saxons also had their own administrative system: they did not have counties but Saxon seats (székek) that were independent from the Hungarian county system. Furthermore, they could pay their taxes in one sum on one occasion during the year.
The Romanians had been migrating into Transylvania since the 15th century, fleeing from Moldavia and Wallachia to escape the Ottomans. They mostly settled down in mountainous territories as shepherds and peasants. The majority of the Romanians had no autonomy or collective privileges.
The Reformation found its way quickly into the lands of Transylvania, and Lutheranism was adopted by many Saxons due to its German origins, but the Hungarian population also widely adopted Lutheranism, although to a lesser extent. Later, Calvinism also quickly spread among Hungarians, and a Calvinist Church was established by Péter Méliusz Juhász in Debrecen, which later became known as “the Calvinist Rome”. The princes of Transylvania were mostly Calvinists, and thus sponsored the founding of Calvinist printing houses, schools and even a university (first in Gyulafehérvár, then in Nagyenyed) across the region. A third Protestant religion, Unitarianism (or Anti-Trinitarianism(the rejection of the divine nature of Christ) was also accepted in Transylvania, and after the teachings of Ferenc Dávid, Prince John Sigismund also converted to the Unitarian religion. The Székelys mostly retained their Catholic faith. Uniquely, there were no religious wars in Transylvania and the Transylvanian Diet slowly accepted the free practice of any religion: in the 1568 Edict of Torda, four religions were given free practice rights: Catholicism, Calvinism, Lutheranism and Unitarianism; thus Transylvania was one of the most well-known centers of religious tolerance.The Romanians were unaffected by the Reformation and insisted on keeping their Orthodox religion.
Key data: absolutism, Kuruc, Labanc, war of independence, dethronement, amnesty, Leopold I Habsburg, Louis XIV of France, Ferenc II Rákóczi, 1686 the retaking of Buda, 1699 the Peace of Karlóca, 1703-11 Rákóczi’s War of Independence, new acquisitions’ right, Sándor Károlyi, Charles III, 1687 the Diet of Pozsony, 1705 the Diet of Szécsény, 1707 the Diet of Ónod
In the last decades of the 17th century, the Habsburgs under Emperor/King Leopold I liberated Hungary from Ottoman occupation, first by retaking Buda in 1686 and then by driving out the Turks from Hungary, which was conculded with the Peace of Karlóca in 1699. However, the absolutist policies of Leopold I after liberating Hungary made the whole of society discontented: the castle warrirors lost their jobs as they were replaced by German soldiers, the serfs’ taxes were increased, the nobles had to face the effects of the Counter-Reformation, the loss of their rights and the taxes imposed in the form of “armoury fee”, in which they had to pay 10% of their reclaimed lands’ value as the court’s New Acquisition Committee claimed right over it.
In response to these grievances, in 1703, a Kuruc rebellion broke out in the Tiszántúl region, and Ferenc Rákóczi II, the wealthiest Hungarian nobleman, was invited to lead it. In his proclamation of 1703 in Brezán, under the slogan ‘Pro Patria Et Libertate’ (For the Fatherland and Freedom), Rákóczi called on all ‘nobles and nonnobles’ to fight for Hungary’s independence from the Habsburgs. Thousands of nobles and serfs joined Rákóczi in his war of independence (1703-1711), but many Hungarians remained loyal to the Habsburgs (Labanc) and fought against Rákóczi.
Fortunately for Rákóczi, the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714) was fought at the same time as his war: he received financial support from King Louis XIV of France to fight the Habsburgs. However, after Louis was defeated at the Battle of Höchstädt in 1704, it became clear that Louis would not send his troops to help Rákóczi.
During the war, two important Diets were held. The Diet of
Szécsény (1705) declared Hungary a Confederation of the Estates and appointed Rákóczi as its sovereign prince. The Diet of Ónod (1707) declared the dethronement of the House of Habsburg as rulers of Hungary. This made reconciliation with the Habsburgs impossible and isolated Hungary on the European stage.
During the war, Rákóczi’s troops easily conquered large parts of Hungary thanks to the speed of the Kuruc light cavalry. However, this also meant that they were mostly unable to capture castles, so their conquests were temporary at best. After their defeat at the Battle of Trencsény (1708), it became clear that the armed uprising was lost.
In 1711, in the absence of Rákóczi, the Kuruc general Sándor Károlyi signed a peace treaty with the new king, Charles III (17111740). The Kuruc soldiers laid down their arms at Majtény and signed the Peace of Szatmár (1711). This was a peace of reconciliation and compromise: the rebels swore an oath to Károlyi III, who promised to convene the estates diets, to respect the rights of the nobles, to lawsuits against the nobility, to ensure the rights of the Protestants, and to grant amnesty to all who participated in the war.
However, the nobles were not given back the right to choose their king and the right of resistance, which they gave up at the Diet of Pozsony in 1687. Although Rákóczi himself, who died in the Ottoman Empire in 1735 and never accepted the peace or the amnesty, the Peace of Szatmár ensured peace between the Habsburgs and the Hungarian nobility for more than a century.
Key data: Enlightened absolutism, Maria Theresa, Joseph II, 17401780 the reign of Maria Theresa, 1780-1790 the reign of Joseph II, Military Frontier, Temesvár, Habsburg Empire, Bánság/Temesköz
The Ottoman invasion and the Habsburg-Ottoman wars left Hungary significantly depopulated and Hungary as an integral, but separate part of the Habsburg Empire. While the population of most European countries doubled in 150 years, the population of the countries of the Hungarian Crown (including Croatia and Transylvania) remained around 4 million (stagnated) for 200 years. The natural population increase resulting from peacetime, the
enlightened absolutist policies of the Habsburg rulers (Maria Theresa - 1740-1780 and her song Joseph II - 1780-1790) and spontaneous immigration meant that by the end of the 18th century there were about 9 million people living in the lands of the Hungarian Crown. Three important and distinct processes contributed to the demographic-ethnic changes: internal migration, spontaneous immigration and resettlement.
By 1700, only four areas remained densely populated: Transylvania, Partium, Felvidék and Western Hungary, while the lowlands, the Tisza Valley and the southern part of the Danube region were largely depopulated. In the process of internal migration, mainly Hungarians, but also Slovaks and Romanians, moved from densely populated, peripheral areas to sparsely populated central areas in search of better living opportunities. These people were mainly serfs who were also enticed local landowners promising lower taxes and larger plots of lands.
Spontaneous immigration was a consequence of the above migration. After many people left their lands due to internal migration, people from across the border moved into Hungary to take their place on the periphery of the country. This is how the Romanians of Wallachia and Moldavia came in even bigger numbers to Transylvania, the Serbs to Bánság region, the Slovaks to the Felvidék and the Ruthenians to Transcarpathia. A few other national minorities (Czechs, Poles) and some ethnic and ethnoreligious minorities also arrived (Jews, Gypsies).
Organised immigration refers to the official policies of the Habsburg court. The Habsburgs invited mainly German (Swabian) settlers to Hungary because of their loyalty and Catholic faith. In return for settling, the settlers were exempted from taxes and military obligations for many years, and were often allowed to live in prefabricated houses. These Swabian groups settled in large numbers near Buda and also in the Baranya region. In the Military Frontier (southern border) and the region of Temesvár (Temesköz/Temesi Bánság), for decades, the Habsburgs did not allow Hungarians to settle, favouring only Germans and Serbs, as the Hungarians were not trustworthy people for living and serving along the borders.
These ethnic-demographic processes significantly changed the ethnic composition of Hungary and Transylvania. The Hungarians
remained in relative (but not absolute!) majority, but only made up about 40% of the population of the Carpathian Basin. In Transylvania, Romanians made up more than 50% of the population, so Hungarian speakers became a minority there.
Key data: separation of powers, constitution, constitutional monarchy, president, prime minister, responsible government, census, universal voting rights, revolution, George Washington, Great Britain, USA, 1689 Bill of Rights, 1776 Declaration of Independence, electoral system
Changes in the society as a result of economic developments, as well as the development of early Enlightened thinking led to new forms of government in the Western world: constitutional monarchies and modern republics.
The creation of the British constitutional monarchy was a significant step towards modern democracies. At its core, the British constitutional monarchy is a system of government where the monarch’s powers are limited by a constitution, and the dayto-day affairs of governance are carried out by elected politicians.
Central to the British constitutional monarchy is the concept of responsible government, where the executive branch, led by the Prime Minister, is accountable to the legislature (the Parliament), elected by the people. The British system uses a bicameral parliament comprising the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The House of Commons, representing the people, holds significant legislative power, including the authority to approve budgets and pass laws. Today, of course, there are universal voting rights for all people of age; however, at the time a wealth or income census meant a restriction for voting..The House of Lords, although its powers are limited, serves as a revising chamber, amending legislation proposed by the Commons. The Prime Minister, appointed from the majority party in the House of Commons, exercises executive authority, forming and leading the government.
The key moment in the establishment of the British constitutional monarchy occurred in 1689 with the enactment of the English Bill of Rights. This crucial document, following the Glorious Revolution in which the absolutist King James II was ousted, laid the groundwork for parliamentarianism and constitutional monarchy by curbing the powers of the monarchy and affirming the rights of Parliament and the people. Only a bit more than a decade later, England and Scotland were merged into the United Kingdom of Great Britain.
The republican system of the United States of America is a testament to the principles of democratic governance and Enlightenment thinking, enshrined in the country’s foundational documents and institutional framework.
During the American Revolutionary War (1775-1783), the founding fathers of the USA argued for the separation of the Thirteen American Colonies from Great Britain in their 1776 Declaration of Independence, in which they listed numerous Enlightened ideas, such as popular sovereignty, natural rights and the breaking of the social contract as reasons why they are becoming independent. Enlightenment thinking also influenced the writing of the Constitution, adopted in 1789, which put other ideals into practice, such as the concept of the separation of powers and the system of checks and balances, a cornerstone of the U.S. system designed to prevent the concentration of authority.
At the helm of the executive branch is the President, who serves as both head of state and head of government. The President holds significant powers, including the authority to enforce laws, command the military, and conduct foreign affairs. Importantly, the President is subject to term limits, they can serve a two four-year terms maximum, which was customary as the first President, George Washington also stepped down after 8 years. The President is elected using the electoral system, in which the people’s votes are transferred to members of the Electoral College (today 538 members), who then later cast votes on the new president.
The legislative branch consists of two houses: the House of Representatives and the Senate, collectively known as Congress. A bicameral representative system, these chambers serve as forums for debate, lawmaking, and oversight. The House, with its proportional representation based on population, and the Senate,
with equal representation for each state (two senators per state), together form a balance of interests and perspectives within the federal legislature.
Key data: Enlightenment, equality of rights, separation of powers, popular sovereignty, social contract, free market competition, constitution, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Adam Smith, Paris, 01776the US Declaration of Independence, 1789 - the start of the French Revolution, mercantilism
The Enlightenment is an intellectual and philosophical movement that emerged in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries.It meant a new era of thinking that profoundly shaped the political landscape. Enlightenment thinkers sought to apply reason and empirical evidence to understand the world, challenging traditional authorities and dogmas. In terms of politics, these thinkers were the first to spread ideologies such as natural law/rights, popular sovereignty, separation of powers, and representation.
The primary ideals of the enlightenment consisted of the ideas of a few philosophers, most importantly people like John Locke, an English philosopher, often regarded as the father of liberalism. His most significant work, “Two Treatises of Government” (1689), argued for the natural rights of individuals, including life, liberty, and property and that people should be equal in enjoying these rights. Locke’s ideas greatly influenced the formation of democratic governments and the concept of the popular sovereignty, wherein the legitimacy of the state is derived from the consent of the governed (and from divine right).
Probably the key idea of the Enlightenment, however, was published by Jean-Jacques Rousseau, in influential works, such as “The Social Contract” (1762) where he explored the concept of a social contract, wherein people voluntary give up some of their natural rights, so to secure protection from the dangers inherent in the freedom of others. In this way, they participate in creating a state that has laws and authorities to enforce them and protect
other citizens. Rousseau was also critical of bourgeois society and private property, and he argued for going back to times before states and civilizations as he thought that private property was the source of inequality. Rousseau’s ideas laid the groundwork for democratic governance and influenced political thinkers, like the leaders of the French Revolution or Karl Marx.
The French aristocratic philosopher Charles Montesquieu is another important thinker who shaped politics and philosophy as whole with ideals such as the basics of separation of powers, which he expounded on in his treatise “The Spirit of the Laws” (1748). In his explanation, political power should be separated into 3 branches, the legislative, the judicial and the executive branches, thus making the first steps towards the system of checks and balances, in which the different powers supervise each other in order to prevent tyranny. Montesquieu also wrote about the idea of decision-making in politics: he argued for representative systems out of mostly practicel reasons, while Rousseau argued for direct democracy.
With new ideologies came several documents adopting them, importantly the “US Declaration of Independence” in 1776 and the “Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen”, published during the French Revolution in 1789, which broke out in Paris, encapsulated the Enlightenment’s political ideals. This latter document affirmed the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity, echoing the natural rights philosophy of Locke and Rousseau. It proclaimed the equality of all citizens before the law, emphasizing individual freedoms and the right to participate in the political process. The declaration also emphasized popular sovereignty and the concept of government serving the common good. In one of its points it highlighted that states should have a constitution (a basic groundwork of the political system) that enshrines the idea of the separation of powers.
The field of economics was also inspired by Enlightened thinking. Scottish economist Adam Smith published his groundbreaking book The Wealth of Nations in 1776, in which he put down the theoretical groundwork for free market capitalism. He underlined that states should only be minimally involved in the economy (“laissez faire”) and criticized the prevalent policy of mercantilism.
The Enlightenment, with its emphasis on reason, individual rights, popular sovereignty, and the separation of powers, laid
the foundation for modern democratic societies. Enlightenment philosophers challenged the existing order, paving the way for the establishment of governments that respect the inherent dignity and rights of every individual.
Key data: Enlightened absolutism, dual tariff system, Urbarium decree, Ratio Educationis, Patent of Toleration, Decree on Language, Maria Theresa, Joseph II, 1740-1780 the reign of Maria Theresa, 1780-1790 the reign of Joseph II, Habsburg Empire, Prussia, 1723 the Pragmatica Sanctio, Charles III, mercantilism
The reign of Queen Maria Theresa (1740-1780) of Hungary was prepared for by the Pragmatica Sanctio of 1723, in which the Hungarian estates agreed to a female succession as her father, Charles III only had daughters. Later, the Hungarian nobility supported the queen in the War of the Austrian Succession (17401748), but afterwards Maria Theresa largely ignored the nobility and did not convene the Diet. Instead, she ruled by decree as an enlightened absolutist monarch (with the help of Kaunitz or Haugwitz’s advisers), and sought to catch up with the developed and industrialised Western countries through reforms in education, religious tolerance, the military, population, health, the economy and taxation. Other states that followed similar policies were Prussia under King Frederick the Great and Russia under Empress Catherine the Great.
Its economic policy was based on mercantilism (maximise exports, minimise imports). This protected the development of Austrian industry inside the Habsburg Empire by imposing high import duties on industrial products from Hungary in the dual tariff system (1754). It allowed Hungary to export agricultural goods to Austria at low tariffs, and also to import industrial goods only at low prices. This meant, in effect, that Hungary was set on a path of agricultural development rather than industrialisation, and Austria became Hungary’s main trading partner.
The purpose of the 1767 Urbárium decree was to increase the country’s ability to pay taxes. The serfs paid most of the taxes
- the noblemen were exempt from taxation - and his decree sought to protect the serfs’ rights and their land from the landlords. The decree standardised the size of the serfs’ lands, the taxes (ninth) they had to pay to the landlord, and the number of days of socage they had to do for free.
Maria Theresa believed that the education of good citizens was the basis for the development of her country. She wrote her education decree, Ratio Educationis (1777), to modernise education. The decree introduced state (and not religious) education with standardised levels (primary school, secondary school) and curricula. For higher education, the Theresianum University was established in Vienna.
Like his mother, Joseph II (1780-1790) was a modern advocate of enlightened absolutism: all his policies were in the interests of the state. He never crowned himself Hungarian king in order to avoid having to cooperate with the estates. During his 10 years as king, Joseph II ruled by decree, and was an extremely hard-working and ambitious monarch, issuing more than 6,000 decrees.
Joseph was keen to standardize and uniformize his countries. To break the resistance of the noble counties, he created a new administrative level, the level of districts, above the counties. In his Decree on Language (1784) he made German (and not Latin!) the official language of the Habsburg Empire. This provoked opposition from the nobility and later a movement to modernise the Hungarian language (e.g. by Ferenc Kazinczy).
Probably his most important decree was the Patent of Toleration in 1781, in which he ended religious conflicts in Hungary and his empire. He allowed Lutheran, Calvinist and Orthodox people to take offices as civil servants. The decree also allowed these groups to establish “clandestine churches” (churches with no bell, tower and street-facing door), where they could practice their faith. Joseph later also gave religious rights to Jewish people.
Joseph’s Decree on Serfs (1785) gave serfs throughout the empire the rights to move, to study, to inherit freely and to marry. However, this still did not mean freedom to serfs. He also planned to abolish the privileges of the Hungarian nobility and started a census of the Hungarian population, but his plan never materialised.
Famously, he also increased his influence over the Church: he closed down monastic orders not involved in education or health
care and confiscated their property, and took away the Church’s right to censorship. Pope Pius VI tried to protest against this, but to no avail. Nevertheless, he spent a great deal of money on training priests and increasing the number of parishes, so that he included the lower clergy in the reforms.
Joseph’s reforms met with resistance from the Hungarian estates and the Catholic Church, but some Hungarians (the socalled Josephites) considered the reforms timely and important. Joseph died in 1790 and, on his deathbed, revoked all his decrees except those on religious tolerance and serfs (the so-called ‘notable