THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

1 THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE Question 2: Older Varieties a) The first text attempts to demonstrate the manner in which English is used. In using the subject of witchcraft as an entry point, it considers the various ways in which language can be used to communicate different things. One could therefore argue that this text seeks to impart wisdom to its readers. It is didactic in nature. The second text, on the other hand, seems to be addressed to a particular audience. In so doing, the text takes on a beseeching tone. The persona in the text appears to hold the addressee in high esteem.

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b) The texts were arguably written during the Old English period. One could argue that the Old English period was multi-lingual in nature. This means that it was a period where there was the use of several languages simultaneously. Due to this simultaneous use of language, there was the creation of the kind of contact that produced a rich system of communication. For this reason, even though Old English was rich in world-building possibilities, it was extremely sparse when it came to vocabulary.

There are several features that set apart the language. First, it was characterized by strong and weak verbs. Here, an example from the text is as follows: “I cannot but celebrate, & extol your magnifical dexteritie aboue all other.” Secondly, Old English tended to make use of a dual number for pronouns. Old English also has the tendency to incorporate grammatical distinctions in so far as gender was concerned. An example from the first text is as follows: “They of the fyrste sorte maye be termed Lykesounding wordes: They of secōnd sort, like meaning words: They of the thyrde sorte, playnemeaning wordes: and they of the fourth sorte, wordes fully differing one from an other.” c) It is difficult to determine the source of both texts because the manner in which the words were used does not reveal exactly how the words were used in their context. Due to the fact that Old English was multilingual in nature, it is difficult to determine the exact linguistic origins of the texts. d) The use of Estuary English is one of the main debates that caused significant controversy during this period. Essentially, the controversy that resulted from the use of Estuary English can be seen from the example that has been demonstrated by the two texts. Overall, Estuary English refers to the forms of English that are widely spoken in and around London. The two extracts could arguably be said to be one of the ways through which the long history of Estuary English reveals itself. Even though the term ‘Estuary English,’ was new when it

3 initially developed and gained widespread use, the phenomenon was not strictly new.

Svartvik and Leec (2016) note that it is a continuation of a trend that began about 500 years.

In this trend, certain features of popular London speech spread out geographically to other parts of the country or to other social classes other than where they initially originated.

One could argue that Estuary English is a new accent that is only undergoing standardization.

Still, the controversy that the taking of such a position brought up is that opponents of the standardization of Estuary English argued that the language had reached a level that entitled it to gain standardization. In other words, it was in such wide usage that not to give it the position of standard English would amount to an injustice. Still, not every person was in agreement with this line of thought. According to the opponents of the standardization of Estuary English, the language still had a long way before it became anything more than any other regional accent. Even so, the same opponents acknowledge that, despite the manner in which it is provincial, Estuary English shows the manner in which old social class distinctions that have always been enshrined in Standard English are eliminated.

4 Question 4: British English Dialects a) Svartvik and Leech (2016) note that in Britain, the most well-known difference is that which exists between the speakers in the North and those that are in the South. Generally, those in the North tend to pronounce words with a short vowel while those in the North typically use long vowels. Therefore, depending on the region that one comes from, there is likely to be a definite difference between Standard British English and the dialect in question.

Here, one is able to identify Standard British English as consisting of a small range of forms and not associated with any one particular accent. In other words, it is the variety of English that is used with extremely minor variations.

One of the first phonetic differences between Standard English and the dialect is that the latter is more logical in form and more regular than Standard English in so far as its use is concerned. In the video showing the Mancunian dialect, there is a reduction and omission of prepositions. In some cases, there is also evidence of the simplification of prepositions. The second phonetic difference is where the object pronoun ‘them,’ is used as demonstrative.

Even so, one could argue that, even though this is usually typical in the North, it is also evident in the rest of the UK. The third phonetic difference is where “what,” is used a relative pronoun and conjunction. This is not typically the case in Standard English. b) Brummie -

Owt This is an old English dialect. It means ‘anything.’ It is an informal dialect that came from the West Midlands.

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Oss

5 The word oss refers to ‘us’ when it is used in the English language. It is used by people who come from Birmingham. It is a local dialect and can therefore be considered to be a variation of Standard English.

Mancunian -

Chuddy The word ‘chuddy’ means ‘chewing gum.’ While it is not Standard English, it has origins in Manchester. It is a word associated with the act of chewing.

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Mither This word originates from the North of England. It is a dialect and its meaning is ‘make a fuss.’ It is usually considered to be a variation of Standard English.

West Country

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Alright In the manner it is used, this word is a standard agreement. It can be used as an alternative to ‘hello,’ or ‘hey.’

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Lover When used in the context of the West Country dialect, this word has a broader range of utility than in Standard English.

Glaswegian

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Aye This word is an archaic dialect that means ‘yes.’ It is said to have some Scottish origins.

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Naw The origin of this word is the Scottish language. It is a variant of the word ‘no.’ It is a dialect and a non-standard pronunciation.

c)

6 Generally, dialects and accents in the UK developed historically when different groups of people lived in relative isolation. This isolation meant that there was limited contact between people who were using the same kind of language. In the UK’s past, this type of isolation was possible primarily because transportation and communication models were not as advanced as they are in the current contemporary world. In the usual case, a person was likely only to hear the language that was used in their location. Furthermore, as the language changed, it began to take on the nuances and flavours of their regions. It is this process that has led to the diversity of dialects in the UK. Other factors that lead to the variation in dialects include class differentiations and the invasion of certain areas by certain groups of people.

7 Question 5: Pidgins and Creoles In Tok Pisin, the grammaticalization usually makes use of the suffix -pela, whose origins can be found from the English word ‘fellow.’ However, in this extract, the first notable feature is that there is reliance on bilong, which is a word from English’s ‘belong.’ Its key use is to indicate possession. There are two key considerations about the manner in which bilong has been used here. First, there is phonetic reduction. In this extract ‘bilong’ becomes ‘blong.’ It is worth noting that even though there is no shift in meaning, in certain areas of Papua New Guinea, speakers are dropping the /i/ in bilong and using ‘blong’ instead.

Furthermore, blong has now encountered a broadening of meaning. Initially, the word was a possessive marker. Here, blong – as used with reference to Mt Sion – is used in a different manner.

The second notable feature is the use of the word ‘em.’ This word comes from ‘he,’ or ‘him,’ in English. It is a second-person pronoun. In this regard, it can be argued that it does not deviate from the use that it is typically put to in Standard English. It is also notable that the use of the suffix -im is also evidence of grammaticalization. Even so, it underwent phonological reduction in its continued use. It is worth noting that this suffix does not only apply to masculine nouns or singular objects. Instead, it is applicable in a wider context. In light of the fact that the features of the word ‘him’ were lost in the grammaticalization process, the manner in which -im is used in Tok Pisin was expanded to bring into effect the direct marking of objects in various sentences.

The third feature is the use of certain adverbial expressions to indicate the tense. In many pidgins and creoles, there is an insufficient number of inflectional morphemes that can be used either for case or for agreement. In colloquial Tok Pisin, therefore, the primary tense markers are bai and pinis. Bai comes from the English idiom ‘by and by.’ In the typical case, it is used specifically to refer to the tense that the use in question refers to.

8 The fourth feature is there is a general tendency to grammaticize words into adverbs and adjectives. Indeed, an analysis of the excerpt demonstrates that there are several adverbs and adjectives that are used to relay the message in question. This tendency in the language can be explained by the fact that, in general, creoles and pidgins usually have a limited vocabulary. For this reason, there is a reliance on adjectives and adverbs to achieve diversity and complexity in language. In addition to this, the use of adverbs and adjectives makes the language easily adjustable as the building blocks of the said language are found in it. This allows for easier comprehension between speakers of the language even as the language continues to evolve.

The fifth feature is concerned with the influence of English on the language. Indeed, it is notable that the foundation of Tok Pisin is English. Even so, the language has developed to such an extent that, if one were not a speaker of Tok Pisin, they would find the language difficult to understand. From the extract, words like ‘polisi,’ have a clear English origin. This similarity to the word ‘police’ proves that the building block of the language will always be English. Even so, as the language is malleable, it is possible that later iterations of Tok Pisin will use more loan words from other languages to create the type of creole that, while steeped in English, has gone on to have its own character.

9 Question 6: World Englishes a) As per Kachru’s model, English can be put into three categories. The first category is ENL. This category consists of native speakers that have been born in an English-speaking country. In this case, English is their mother tongue. The second category is known as ESL. Under this category, the people who use English use it as a second language. This category consists of non-native speakers who happened to learn English almost at the same time that they learned their mother tongue. The third category is known as EFL. This category consists of people who use English as a foreign language. This category consists of non-native speakers who learned English in a country that does not usually speak English.

These three categories are essential to understanding the three circles. Typically, the inner circle consists of traditional English bases. In the usual case, it is its speakers that are in charge of providing the norms. It is in these places that the norms are created and from which they are spread. The outer circle consists of places where English speakers speak official and non-native English varieties as a result of their colonial history. Not only do these circles challenge norms, but they also develop them. Most of the speakers in this circle use English as a second language. Finally, the expanding circle is made up of people for whom English is a foreign language. In this circle, the speakers originate from places where English is not typically spoken. Additionally, those who find themselves in this circle typically have to follow rules that have been established either by the inner circle, or challenged by the outer one. b) One of the most notable aspects of English in Sweden is the fact that the language is widely spoken in the country. School-going children are taught English as part of their school curriculum. Part of the explanation for this phenomenon is the fact that English and

10 Scandinavian countries have a lot in common as both languages have origins in Germanic languages and Old Norse. Therefore, when using Kachru’s model, one would argue that in as far as English in Sweden is concerned, the language belongs to the outer circle. In this circle, the English speakers speak both official and non-native varieties of English. Furthermore, most of the speakers speak the language as a second language. Finally, it is notable that the speakers of English not only challenge English-speaking norms, but also develop them. c) World Standard English is English that is not only used as a world language, but also considered as belonging to anyone who speaks the language. As such, when this notion of language is investigated, it can be used to offer an explanation of how English is spoken in Sweden. Indeed, according to the Kachru’s model, it is the inner circle that provides the norms that have to be used. On the other hand, the outer circle is usually dependent on the inner circle in so far as the use of the language is concerned. In this regard, therefore, Sweden cannot be said to be completely norm-dependent. This is because the extent to which English is spoken in the country demonstrates that they are also responsible for the development of norms. Under the concept of World Standard English, there are no English varieties that can be said to be the norm. Instead, every place that has English speakers has the ability to determine the version of English that should be used. In this regard, therefore, one could argue that it would be better for one to consider Sweden not as being the expanding circle, but as part of the inner circle.

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Reference Svartvik, J. and Leech, G., 2016. English–One tongue, many voices. Springer.