How do peer relationships affect depression?

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Peer Relationships and Depression What is the aspect of peer relationships that affects depression?

The quality and development of peer relationships is essential to predict further risk behaviors during adolescence. Adolescents spend more time in school than with family, therefore school is a better predictor of adolescents’ social network. Positive peer interaction may or may not predict better social interaction and self- esteem. A negative interaction among peers reduces communication skills which affect future social implications. To be particular, depression is one of the major predictors of suicide, most often occurring at a very early age. In severe cases, negative peer relationships can lead to internalizing symptoms such as depression that can affect adulthood.

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Depression is a mental disorder defined as the feeling of low self-esteem and loss of interest.

Relationships among peer victimization and depression can affect adolescent’s selfevaluation, as well as positive and negative friendship quality. Attachment security and preoccupation are also correlated with depression. However, not only peer relationships can affect depression but family conflict as well. As a result, it is important to pay attention to the relationship between peers and depression.

Victimization Researchers suggest that aggression in general accumulates due to negative internal experience. Aggression eventually leads to depression, and also other forms of internalizing symptoms (La Greca & Harrison, 2005). Relational aggression is one of the major causes of depression symptoms that affects peer relationships (Prinstein, Boergers, & Vernberg, 2011).

Relational aggression is an indirect form of aggression that tends to harm adolescents through gossip, rumors or by excluding other adolescents from social activities. This therefore decreases the victim’s self-confidence and social standing while the bully gains dominance and increases in popularity (Rose, Carlson & Waller, 2007). Even with friendship that has close proximity and positive qualities, this does not protect the adolescent against aggression (La Greca & Harrison, 2005).

Overt aggression is a more explicit form of aggression that intends to make a person inferior. An example of overt aggression is hitting and shoving peers around. Overt

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aggression might lead to depression symptoms in certain minority groups (La Greca, & Harrison, 2005). In general, overt aggression itself does not have a direct cause in depression and the finding has not been a clear pattern (La Greca, & Harrison, 2005). Ethnicity should also be taken into account. Recent research has found that minority groups such as White Americans are more vulnerable to depression symptoms than Hispanic Americans (La Greca, & Harrison, 2005). However, evidence also shows that ethnicity and culture may not be the factor, while being in a minority group is more vulnerable to victimization.

Yet, the opposite affect is also possible; an adolescent with depression symptoms is more susceptible to certain forms of aggression (Vernberg, 1990). For example, an adolescent with depression symptoms is more sensitive towards critiques due to their low self-esteem.

Therefore, the adolescent with depression symptoms can worsen the condition because of the internal attribution bias towards peers.

The gender perspective suggests that boys use more relational aggression while girls use overt aggression (La Greca, & Harrison, 2005). Other researchers suggest that both girls and boys engage in more relational aggression than overt aggression (Prinstein et al., 2001).

Yet, some researcher believe that girls engage in relational aggression (Crick & Bigbee, 1998). Therefore, these issues of gender effect are still unclear and controversial.

Age is another factor that can influence whether adolescents engage in relational or overt aggression. For example, a more sophisticated form of aggression is relational

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aggression, which most often occurs in older adolescents. A less sophisticated form of aggression is overt aggression, which most often occurs in younger children. Relational aggression is less obvious and hard to detect, therefore only adolescents are capable of engaging in this aggression while younger children will not be able to handle these skills.

Moreover, peer crowds with lower status can also be affected by depression (La Greca, & Harrison, 2005). For example, the nerd or loner is most often victimized or rejected by a peer crowd with higher status. This shows that peers with power and dominance tend to show aggression towards peers who are weak and of low social status. Not only does the negative interaction among peers result in depression but also into anxiety.

As a result, the different forms of peer aggression are an uncontrollable acts of behavior and hard to prevent. Recent research shows that aggressive behavior in school is hard to perceive by teachers, therefore it is a very problematic interpersonal issue that increase peer internalizing symptoms such as depression (La Greca, & Harrison, 2005). However, other research suggested that peer victimization can lead to poor academic performance (Schwartz, Gorman, Nakamoto, & Toblin 2005). Depression is not the only problematic consequence of peer relationships. Peer relationships have multiple negative aspects that should also be accounted for. The study by La Greca and Harrison (2005) can only be generalized to Hispanic culture. Participants in the study were mainly Hispanic-Americans although a few White Americans were selected to participate in the study. It is therefore important to take

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other research findings into consideration.

Friendship Friendship among peers also leads to depression when problematic issues occur during communication. Negative aspects of friendship, such as peer pressure and rejection increase depression symptoms (La Greca, & Harrison, 2005). Positive friendship among peers does not decrease the likelihood of depression, but only decrease that of anxiety (La Greca, & Harrison, 2005). Few possible explanations include the co rumination theory (Rose, 2002).

Co rumination theory is the communication between different peers that focuses on negative problem solving (Rose, 2002). The focus on negative emotions will be reinforced among each peer. Past researchers suggested co rumination increases the proximity of friendship and support, thus increases positive friendship (Rose, Carlson, & Waller, 2007). However, co rumination among best friends can reinforce negative emotions such as depression, especially in girls (Rose, Carlson, & Waller, 2007). As the proximity of friendship is closer, girls engage in discussions and eventually lead to a more negative aspect of friendship, thus development of depression symptoms (Rose, Carlson, & Waller, 2007).

Gender plays a different role in co rumination. Some researchers believe girls engage in more internal attribution than boys (Stevens & Prinstein, 2005). Boys who engage in co rumination increase in positive friendships but do not increase in depression levels (Rose, Carlson, & Waller, 2007). This indicates that boys are less affected by emotions than girls.

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Despite this finding, other researchers argue that positive friendship will develop better emotional stability (Nestmann & Hurrelmann, 1994). Negative emotions are emphasized during the interaction among peers and that will eventually lead to poor friendship (Rose, 2002). However, co-rumination theory also has its limitations. The research conducted only used self-report, while other measurement such as teacher report should also be considered.

Adolescents who use self-reports can over estimate or under estimate the process of co rumination due to their health condition.

On the other hand, excessive reassurance seeking has been found to reduce the quality and stability of best friendships (Prinstein et al., 2005). A person who engages in excessive reassurance seeking irritates his or her friends because of excessive reassurance, such as relationship problems. Friend’s withdrawal thus decreases the quality and stability of friendship. The person who engages in this behavior will become anxious and vulnerable to depression. As a result, the person who engages in excessive reassurance seeking is rejected and isolated from their friends due to negative social interaction. Other explanations of excessive reassurance seeking are the individual’s negative perspective and excessive focus of oneself (Hamilton & Deemer, 1999; Pyszczynski & Greenberg, 1987). People who engage in excessive reassurance seek for approval; they are uncertain, timid and have low selfesteem. Excessive reassurance seeking alone can be a predictor of depression (Prinstein et al.

2005) but the combinations of excessive reassurance seeking with negative social factors can

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also be a predictor of depression; for example, peer rejection and victimization. Girls are found to engage in more reassurance seeking rather than boys during friendship. Girls engage in more excessive reassurance seeking when they develop a negative peer relationship, have high levels of depression, and are rejected by peers (Prinstein et al. 2005).

Possibly, the importance of positive social interaction and emotions will develop healthy friendship and peer relationships. If the person who engages in excessive reassurance seeking or co rumination understands his or her own behavior, this can help to improve the relationship between friendships. Nevertheless, excessive reassurance seeking and co rumination theory is not the only predictor of depression; other theories can also explain the positive and negative aspects of friendship. It is important for researchers to explore on other factors, other than the aspect of peer relationships, which can contribute to excessive reassurance seeking.

Depression leads to negative peer relationships Some researchers propose that depressed people struggle during social interaction (Rudolph, Lambert, Clark, & Kurlakowsky, 2001), therefore they exhibit a reciprocal relationship. Depressed people already have a negative mindset and possess a different way of perceiving the world. This can affect social interaction among friendships because they misperceive friendship behavior (Rudolph & Clark, 2011). For example, friends may have good intentions but a depressed person may perceive this as harmful due to internal

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attribution, hence distortion of perception. As a result, depression can lead to rejection by peers and other negative experiences. Depressed adolescents may affect their relationship with family (Sheeber, et al., 2007). According to the skill deficit model, not all depressed adolescents misperceive friendship behavior. Adolescents who accept depression perform better than kids who are unpopular but depressed (Rudolph & Clark, 2011). In other words, an adolescent who is unpopular but also depressed will have a negative mindset of themselves and also other peers while an adolescent who accepts depression is less likely.

However, this study had limitations; results recorded from teacher and self-report were inconsistent (Rudolph & Clark, 2001). Teachers can only monitor adolescents within the classroom, but are unable to observe adolescents in other contexts.

Attachment Attachment security serves as a mediator between peer relationships and depression.

Security is essential during the critical period of adolescence in order to develop better peer interactions (Allen, Porter, McFarland, McElhaney, & Marsh, 2007). Poor security in peer relationships predicts depression, and also other externalizing symptoms. On the other hand, secure attachment among peers leads to less vulnerability during peer pressure (Allen, et al., 2007). A secure attachment often refers to better emotional stability and regulation. This model suggests that attachment security can affect peer relationships, thus the ensuing depression. However, the link between peer relationships and depression is not just a simple

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casual explanation. The correlation between attachment-security is a weak association with depression (Allen, et al., 2007). Other variables such as family harsh treatment can affect attachment security. For example, different discipline strategies used by father and mother can affect children security during critical period (Allen, et al., 2007). This can therefore affect peer interactions and depression.

A longitudinal study of adolescents’ state of mind, such as the process of being preoccupied is related with depression (Chango, McElhaney, & Allen, 2009). A peer who is preoccupied interacts with peers who avoid disputes and will have lower depression levels.

On the other hand, peers who are preoccupied interact with peers who emphasize more on personal issues during disputes and will have higher depression levels. In other words, the engagement in disputes and problem solving can affect an adolescent’s self-esteem and interpersonal issues (Chango, McElhaney, & Allen, 2009). Furthermore, mood stability from disputes is also another significant factor that relates to depression. More importantly, an adolescent who is more preoccupied but also focused on personal issues is at a higher risk for depression due to their sensitivity towards their environment. This suggests that preoccupation alone is not a predictor of depression, but a more complex procedure which requires further study.

Family Insecure attachment with caregiver and family is not only a predictor of depression but

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also other externalizing symptoms. Poor affiliation with mother is linked to relational aggression (Marini, Dane, Bosacki, & Ylc-Cura 2006). Some researchers suggest that gender can play a different role; girls become more depressed when rejected by the mother while boys become more depressed when rejected by the father ( Roelofs, Meesters, Ter Huurne, Bamelis, & Muris 2006). However, results in this study were most significant for anxiety disorder but less significant for depression symptoms. Most importantly, it was found that the relationship between father and boys can lead to insecure attachment, but not for girls (Roelofs, et al., 2006). Other researchers suggest that fathers show less support towards adolescents; therefore more problematic issues occur with fathers rather than mothers (Sheeber, Davis, Leve, Hops, & Tildesley 2007). Sheeber, Davis, Leve, Hops and Tildesley (2007) study suggested that mothers show more support towards adolescents than fathers; therefore less problematic issues occur with mothers. Despite these findings, support from the other family member does not buffer the relationship and prevent depression symptoms (Sheeber, et al., 2007). This study did not show gender effect for adolescents but a gender effect for parent. Even though the outcome of this study was important, there are still limitations. The level of support and problematic issues from family was not very significant, (Sheeber et al., 2007) therefore further studies should be conducted. Other researchers suggest that girls are more vulnerable towards internalizing symptoms such as depression (Weissman & Olfson, 1995). Even though adolescents spend more time with peers, family

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can still influence adolescents.

Discussion Previous research highlights the different aspects of peer relationships that can affect depression. The different physical forms of aggression, both positive and negative quality of friendship and attachment style are all sources of depression. However, peer relationships are not a direct causality of depression. A depressed adolescent can have social interaction problems. Furthermore, relationship with family members can also contribute to children’s depression. Therefore, depression is a very complex model that requires further understanding. Other factors should explain relationships in depression in details. Depression can predict many risk factors, such as suicide. Further solutions and interventions should be taken more seriously, especially in the aspect of peer relationships.

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Rose, A. J. (2002). Co-rumination in the friendships of girls and boys. Child Development, 73, 1830-1843 Rose, A. J., Carlson, W., & Waller, E. M. (2007). Prospective associations of co-rumination with friendship and emotional adjustment: Considering the socioemotional trade-offs of co-rumination. Developmental Psychology, 43(4), 1019-1031.

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Rudolph, K. D., & Clark, A. G. (2001). Conceptions of relationships in children with depressive and aggressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29(1), 41.

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