The United States War on Terror

1 The United States War on Terror Background The unprecedented plane hijackings that culminated in the September 11 terrorist attacks in the United States formed the beginning of a new chapter on the war on terror. These terror attacks led to the death of 3000 people and injuries of twice that number1. Scholars argue that the 9/11 related deaths were more than all forms of deaths due to terrorist activities from 1988 through 2000. The events leading to these attacks had a profound impact on the entire world.

The global security community instituted raft measures to curb further attacks and protect residents from death and destruction. A critical analysis of these measures reveals that they traded away civil rights for security. Other significant implications of the 9/11 attacks are massive losses in global stock exchanges and noticeable relocation of resources from one country to another to avert further terror attacks2.

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Gaibulloev, Khusrav, and Todd Sandler. "What we have learned about terrorism since 9/11." Journal of Economic Literature 57, no.

2 (2019): 275-328.

2 Gaibulloev, Khusrav, and Todd Sandler. 276

2 The U.S government launched the war on terror in liaison with its allies. This war was primarily focused on areas where terrorist groups operate most, including the Middle East, Asia, and Africa. The U.S used a wide range of proactive measures to reduce the activities of al-Qaida and its affiliated groups across the world. Lubin noted that the U.S also initiated stringent measures to limit funding for these groups3. However, the terror groups developed other means of financing their actions. These means include kidnapping for ransom and the hawala system of money transfer4. Terrorist activities in other regions, including the U.K, Tunisia, Spain, turkey, and the Netherlands, made the world deeply conscious of the increasing terrorist threat5.

Research Problem Terrorism is defined as a type of organized violence that leads to the death and destruction of property. This behavior has long been a problem for security agencies. The security communities have implemented crucial measures to address this vice, but terrorists still find ways to beat these measures. Therefore, the U.S and other countries are still faced with the threat of terror activities despite implementing different measures to curb this problem. Different research-based organizations and anti-terror entities have generated reports indicating that major terrorist groups comprise anarchists, white supremacists, and religious extremists 6.

The impact of terrorism on communities has triggered a change in how security organs deal with national security issues. Social groups, including religious communities and academia, have been drawn to the war on terror. The academia participates in research activities to determine the cause and predict terrorist activities. Regrettably, terrorism has remained a huge concern for the government. Besides threatening people’s peace, terrorism leaves a trail of destruction and 3 4 5

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Lubin, Alex. Never-ending war on terror. (California University of California Press, 2021) 12 Gaibulloev, Khusrav, and Todd Sandler. 277 Gaibulloev, Khusrav, and Todd Sandler. 277 Lubin, Alex. Never-ending war on terror. (California University of California Press, 2021) 12

3 hopelessness. Furthermore, the fight against terrorism has been criticized by some factions of society, arguing that despite using massive resources and risking the lives of American citizens, it does not have a definite end.

Research question Irrefutably, the U.S focus on terrorism shifted after the 9/11 attacks. The U.S government initiated the war on terror, targeting extremists within the country and other parts of the world where it had vested interests. The last two decades have seen the government invest massively in the global war on terror. Gaibulloev and Todd noted that the government has over the years channeled billions of dollars into security agencies mandated with the fight against terrorism7.

The budget for the department of homeland security, for instance, was increased by 9%. The 9/11 attacks also triggered other industrial countries to institute stringent actions to ensure their interests internally and externally were not affected by terrorist organizations. Economists have however, argued that the war on terror is consuming huge national resources. Humanitarian organizations have also faulted the strategies used to fight terrorism especially in the Middle East. These views have reverberated across other sectors, including academia. They form the base of the current research. The research aims to generate valid answers on whether the war on terror carries economic and political reverberations that may enervate the U.S and dent its legacy as a superpower and progressively wear down American dominance globally?

Thesis statement This paper will answer the research question negatively, arguing that even though the war on terror has significant political and economic implications, it does not wear down America's dominance and adversely affect its legacy as a superpower.

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Gaibulloev, Khusrav, and Todd Sandler. "What we have learned about terrorism since 9/11." Journal of Economic Literature 57, no.

2 (2019): 275-328.

4 Significance of the research issue Following the 9/11 attacks, the U.S launched a global war on terror defined by nationbuilding and military intervention. This war aimed to reshape global and the Middle East political relations besides promoting global peace. In its scope, this war is comparable to the cold war8. It has created new phases in global politics besides influencing global security, international law, human rights, governance, and cooperation. The world has long been at risk of terrorist attacks. These fears came to light during the September 11, 2001 attacks of the world trade center in the United States. Previously, American interests overseas had experienced terror attacks from time to time. However, the magnitude of these attacks was insignificant in comparison to 9/119. This attack created the realization that the oceans did not protect the U.S from external attacks. The threat of attacks had been brought closer home, thus, shattering the people’s perception that they were safe at home. The Bush administration termed 9/11 as a deliberate terrorist attack. The American war on terror marked a new chapter to crash terror cells across the globe. The U.S government vowed to liaise with its allies globally to ensure all terror activities were eradicated10. The war served as a sign that the U.S government was committed to protecting its citizens nationally and internationally.

Unfortunately, critical discussions point to a possibility of failure in the war on terror.

Thrall and Erik, for instance, argued that the war on terror did not protect Americans from possible attacks11. These researchers also noted that the failure to adopt an aggressive military intervention strategy might have cost the war for Americans. The war on terror generated valid lessons indicating the need to employ a different approach to fighting terrorism.

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Thrall, A. Trevor, and Erik Goepner. "Step back: lessons for US foreign policy from the failed war on terror." Cato Institute, Policy Analysis 814 (2017). 1-14.

Sahill, Pamil. The US War on Terror Discourse. Insight Turkey, 21(2019), 1: 189-210.

Sahill, Pamil. 189 Thrall, A. Trevor, and Erik Goepner. "Step back: lessons for US foreign policy from the failed war on terror." Cato Institute, Policy Analysis 814 (2017). 1-14.

5 Exploring the economic and political implications of the war on terror is important for Americans and interested parties. This research generates crucial information for determining the impact of the war on American legacy and dominance. The global war on terrorism has been extremely costly. Brown University noted that in the last 20 years, the government has spent over $8 trillion on this war. Regrettably, over 900,000 deaths have occurred either directly or indirectly from the war12. These figures indicate that the war on terror has a huge toll on human life. Besides being long, the war has been complex and horrific. It has been fought in over 80 countries with no end in sight. Although it has remained a secret, the U.S military absorbs the largest portion of the federal budget13.

Recently, American troops were withdrawn from Afghanistan, leading to the recapture of major cities by the Taliban insurgents. The Taliban also seized government control and started implementing extremist laws. This move appears to have watered down the progress of the war on terror over the last two decades. The U.S government acknowledged it lost in terms of opportunities and hence could no longer send American troops to war with no end in sight yet should have been over by now14. Given the economic base of the U.S and its allies, a critical view of the war on terror is necessary to determine its worth.

History of terrorism Literature shows that terrorism has a history dating back many years. Terrorism is largely associated with religious groups, specifically radical Islamists and extremist Christians, filled with an overwhelming desire to establish authority over their rivals. Christianity began in

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Brown University. Costs of the 20-year war on terror: $8 trillion and 900,000 deaths. October 11, 2021 https://www.brown.edu/news/2021-09-01/costsofwar Brown University. Costs of the 20-year war on terror: $8 trillion and 900,000 deaths. October 11, 2021 https://www.brown.edu/news/2021-09-01/costsofwar Brown University.

6 Jerusalem in the 1st century CE with the gospel of Jesus Christ15. The teachings, life, and death of Jesus Christ form the foundation of Christianity. The origin of Islam, on the other hand, is associated with Prophet Muhammed’s teaching in Mecca in the 7th century CE16. The spread of Islam occurred through trade, military congest, and pilgrimage. Arab Muslim forces established imperial structures in all conquered territories. Unlike Islam, Christianity was spread through missionaries and the promise of resurrection.

The different beliefs between these two religions and the different modalities of spreading their values and principles to the rest of the world have long been a bone of contention17. Mayer and Neil argued that conflict has been an unavoidable face of religion since its invention18. Researchers clarify that the violent response of these groups towards each other was the beginning of terrorism19. These groups continue to clash due to their ideological differences and the proximity of their geographical locations.

Modern terrorism, however, differs from terror activities conducted centuries ago. In the past, terror activities were conducted in strict codes that respected military distinctions, innocent civilians, government officials, and other groups20. The UNODC noted that the increased production of industrialized weaponry facilitated modern terrorism21. Killings became indiscriminate and more deadly, unlike in the past when they were targeted. The industrialized and unselective warfare modalities utilized by various groups during the First and the Second World wars created a solid foundation for those who became post-war revolutionary terrorists 22.

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Chaliand, Gérard, and Arnaud Blin.. The history of terrorism: from antiquity to ISIS. (California, University of California Press Law. 2016) 9 Randall D., ed.. The Routledge history of terrorism. (Routledge. 2015) 1 Mayer, Wendy, and Bronwen Neil, eds. Religious conflict from early Christianity to the rise of Islam. Vol. 121. (Walter de Gruyter, 2013).

Mayer and Bronwen Mayer and Bronwen Chaliand, Gérard, and Arnaud Blin 95 UNODC. Introduction to International Terrorism. June, 2018, https://www.unodc.org/e4j/en/terrorism/module-1/index.html UNODC, 4

7 Indiscriminate weaponry typified by high-level bombing, suicide bombing and weapons of mass destruction has become a recurring feature in the modern world23.

Neocolonialism Contemporary writers have lamented that the fight against terrorism has transformed planes from symbols of adventure and freedom into instruments of suspicion and fear. The use of planes as terror weapons was not invented by al-Qaeda but by former colonizers, including British, French, Italians, and Germans in the 1900s. The colonial powers utilized military strength to exert mastery over the colonized24. Similarly, in its war on terror, the U.S uses air policing and bombardment to exert military might over perceived terrorists25. Some writers consider the American approach to the war on terror to reflect colonial reasoning, yet it is celebrated as a symbol of justice and outstanding rationality26. The East believes that the war on terror is a guise by the West to acquire natural resources including oil, gas and minerals.

In the 19th century, the Middle East recorded the lowest levels of socioeconomic development. However, the discovery, utilization, and exportation of oil triggered major social, economic, and political changes in the region27. The vast oil reserves in the Middle East have attracted the attention of industrialized countries that want a share of these resources. Middle East countries have developed policies to protect their interests from invasion by trade partners.

These policies prevent former colonizers and other developed nations from directly exploiting

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25 26 27

UNODC, 4 Garner, Godfrey, and Maeghin Alarid-Hughes. Origins of Terrorism: The Rise of the World’s Most Formidable Terrorist Groups.

CRC Press, 2021.

Azeezah Kanji. War of terror: Legal colonialism reincarnated. September, 2021. https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2021/9/18/warof-terror-legal-colonialism Azeezah para 8 Malachova, Anastasija. "The Middle East and oil: Economic modernisation and political stagnation." E-International Relations Publishing, Lancaster University (2012).

8 the oil reserves. These nations are governed under the Islamic political philosophy. They have shown little willingness to accept western principles and political views28.

Although most of the countries in the Middle East do not support terrorism, they reluctantly liaise with the U.S in the war on terror. The U.S has been the engine in this war over the last two decades. It has been assisting its allies in the Middle East and other parts of the world to establish concrete frameworks necessary to eradicate terrorism29. The U.S uses sophisticated equipment to identify, locate and destroy terrorists globally. The Middle East has been immensely affected by the war on terror since the largest proportions of terrorists are Islamic extremists in the region.

The effects of the war on terror in the Middle East The war on terror profoundly impacted the Middle East politics, social framework, and economic base. The initiatives launched by the U.S in fighting terrorism are aimed at remaking and strengthening peace and stability in the East. Some of the remarkable impacts of this war include the overthrow of Saddam Hussein, the killing of Osama Bin Laden, the restructuring of Iraqi politics, and the proposal of an Israeli-Palestine peace accord. The U.S has also been an active player in multilateral efforts to control nuclear proliferation, promote the free flow of oil to the rest of the world, promote democratization, and support industrial and economic growth in the region. Writers have argued that the war on terror is among the most ambitious foreign policies ever implemented to transform the prospects of a region ruined by religious turmoil, economic sluggishness, and violent conflicts30.

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Malachova, Anastasija. Para 10.

Garner, Godfrey, and Maeghin Alarid-Hughes, 74 Byman, Daniel, and Sara Bjerg Moller. "The United States and the Middle East: Interests, Risks, and Costs." Sustainable Security: Rethinking American National Security Strategy (2016): 272-273.

9 However, Middle East residents have a skeptical view of the west due to foreign wars on their territories. Residents argue that foreigners are not primarily interested in the region’s progress and prosperity but in protecting their vested interests. Therefore, although the war on terror has produced positive results, including disrupting enemies, it has frequently exacerbated internal conflicts besides fueling anti-Americanism31. Scholars argue that despite the foreigners' role in the war on terror is welcome by many residents, it is almost impossible to change the views of many others concerning the west. Byman and Bjerg pointed out that the west should focus on containing the violence orchestrated by terrorists, weaken the Islamic State, and promote peace among warring religious groups to improve its image in the East32.

America and its allies appear to have a biased view of the Middle East. Scholars have noted that whereas some nations such as Qatar and Saudi Arabia were given a chance to sign diplomatic agreements, others such as Iraq, Afghanistan, and Syria paid a heavy price to the war on terror33. In Iran, for instance, the west destroyed the traditional leadership of the Shia clergy.

The Shia had long been the Iranian first line of defense against colonialism. However, westernbacked forced facilitated the overthrow of the Shia dynasty in the 1940s and the replacement of Islamic laws with western policies. In 1991, the U.S invaded Iraq following its threats to Kuwait.

The second invasion occurred in 2003 to overthrow the Iraqi regime accused of using weapons of mass destruction, harboring and supporting terrorists34.

The implication of research to contemporary problems related to terrorism Research on contemporary issues associated with terrorism is crucial for understanding factors that trigger and sustain organized violence besides identifying effective interventions to 31

Byman, Daniel, and Sara Bjerg Moller. "The United States and the Middle East: Interests, Risks, and Costs." Sustainable Security: Rethinking American National Security Strategy (2016): 272-273.

32 Byman, and Moller, 272.

33

Kareem, Dhiaa. "'The Butcher of Baghdad': US Press Hyper-personalization of the US-led Invasion of Iraq." Annual Review of Education, Communication & Language Sciences 16, no. 2 (2019).108 -136.

34 Kareem, 114.

10 conflicts and terror. Research also generates reliable information regarding the current war on terror. It creates a platform for understanding the dynamics and the implications of this war.

While launching the war on terrorism, the U.S government noted that eliminating extremist groups and toppling them from power would mark the end of terrorism. However, the government emphasized that achieving these objectives would be a costly affair necessitating a major and prolonged undertaking. Research helps people understand that when the war on terror succeeds, the battle against terrorism will only have started. The dynamics of terrorism make it hard to eradicate terror activities with finality. Similar to how the communist expansion never ended but was blunted by the Korean War, ending terrorism will become a long, difficult and costly campaign to disrupt terrorist operations globally.

Conclusion Although the U.S war on terror has noteworthy political and economic inferences, it neither breaks down American dominance nor adversely affects its legacy as a superpower. The war on terror has achieved most of its objectives, including promoting peace, preventing terror activities, and protecting properties from destruction. Unfortunately, many residents of the Middle East nations have a negative perception of this war. They believe the war is an American guise to access their oil and other resources. Irrefutably, the war on terror was an approach to protect American interests overseas. However, the U.S does not protect its properties while selectively destroying other people’s property. The U.S utilizes its superpower status to promote global peace and free oil flow from the Middle East to the outside world.

11 Bibliography Azeezah Kanji. War of terror: Legal colonialism reincarnated. September 2021. https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2021/9/18/war-of-terror-legal-colonialism Brown University. Costs of the Twenty-year war on terror: $8 trillion and 900,000 deaths.

October 11, 2021, https://www.brown.edu/news/2021-09-01/costsofwar Byman, Daniel, and Sara Bjerg Moller. "The U.Sand the Middle East: Interests, Risks, and Costs." Sustainable Security: Rethinking American National Security Strategy (2016): 272-273.

Chaliand, Gérard, and Arnaud Blin.. The history of terrorism: from antiquity to ISIS. University of California Press Law, 2016 Gaibulloev, Khusrav, and Todd Sandler. "What we have learned about terrorism since 9/11."

Journal of Economic Literature 57, no. 2 (2019): 275-328.

Garner, Godfrey, and Maeghin Alarid-Hughes. Origins of Terrorism: The Rise of the World’s Most Formidable Terrorist Groups. CRC Press, 2021.

Kareem, Dhiaa. "'The Butcher of Baghdad': US Press Hyper-personalization of the US-led invasion of Iraq." Annual Review of Education, Communication & Language Sciences 16, no. 2 (2019).108 -136.

Lubin, Alex. Never-ending war on terror. California, California University of California Press.

2021.

Malachova, Anastasija. "The Middle East and oil: Economic modernization and political stagnation." E-International Relations Publishing, Lancaster University (2012).

Mayer, Wendy, and Bronwen Neil, eds. Religious conflict from early Christianity to the rise of Islam. Vol. 121. Walter de Gruyter, 2013

12 Medina, Richard M., and George F. Hepner.. The geography of international terrorism: an introduction to spaces and places of violent non-state groups. New York, CRC Press.

2013 Randall D., ed. The Routledge History of terrorism. New York, Routledge. 2015.

Sahill, Pamil. The US War on Terror Discourse. Insight Turkey, 21(2019), 1: 189-210.

Thrall, A. Trevor, and Erik Goepner. "Step back: lessons for US foreign policy from the failed war on terror." Cato Institute, Policy Analysis 814 (2017). 1-14.

UNODC. Introduction to International Terrorism. June 2018, https://www.unodc.org/e4j/en/terrorism/module-1/index.html