Global Ethnic Conflicts

1 Global Ethnic Conflicts: Sudan Introduction An ethnic conflict is characterized by misunderstandings, tension, and violence between two or more ethnic groups. Ethnic groups dehumanize each other based on the differences in their ethnic identities. One of the most prominent and long-standing ethnic conflicts in the world is the Sudan conflict. Prior to its division Sudan was the largest African state. The population of the country is diverse in terms of religion and ethnicity. The majority of the population of South Sudan comprises Arab Muslims who migrated from Egypt in 652AD (Johnson, 2014). Upon entering the country, they converted the native inhabitants of the country to Islam, and acquired them as slaves. Essentially, Sudan’s crises emerge from the events of its history. The immigrants considered themselves to be superior, and this attitude has persisted to the modern-day. This is evidenced by the persistent struggle for power, inability to share resources, and oppression of ethnicities that are considered inferior.

Background of Sudan The population of Sudan comprises 19 ethnic groups that are further divided into 600 subgroups. The Arab Sudanese are found in North Sudan, while Sudanese of Black origin account for 55% of the population and are found in the South.

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2 (Maystadt, Calderone, & You, 2014). North Sudanese practice Islam as a religion and as a way of life. The South Sudanese are vehemently opposed to the North's attempts to impose Islam religion and practices on them. The North exercised authoritarian and often unjust rule against the South. These created tensions and subsequent civil wars. In 2011, the government of Sudan allowed the South to secede from the North, and in so doing, minimize the conflicts between the two regions. However, despite the separation, there are still struggles between the two states, and also among the people of South Sudan. The major causes of conflict are shared oil resources and disagreement over border demarcation. North Sudan is predominantly Muslim and Arab-speaking, while South Sudan follows Christianity and traditional religions.

Historical Timeline of Sudan Sudan was colonized by the British for a period spanning 56 years; that is, from 1899 – 1955. In 1956, the country gained independence from British rule. The first Sudanese civil war broke ut in 1962, and it was led by Anya Nya, who fought for the right of the Black Sudanese to have greater autonomy; the Arab Muslims severely oppressed them. The civil war continued for ten years and was ended in 1972 by the Addis Ababa Agreement (Reliefweb.int., 2010). This Agreement granted the South the right to govern itself. However, in 1983, President Numeiri revoked South Sudan’s autonomy and imposed Sharia law as the justice system across the entire state. This caused the civil war to begin again. This was the second civil war and it continued for 22 years, devastating the country. In 2003, the intense and persistent conflict began in yet another region of Sudan, the western part of the country, Darfur.

The 22-year long conflict between the North and the South ended in 2005 through the North/South Comprehensive Peace Agreement (Johnson, 2018). A power-sharing government was introduced where Omar al Bashir was the President, and John Garang, a Sudanese from the

3 South, was named the Vice President (Reliefweb.int., 2010). One month after Grang was sworn in, he was killed in a plane crash. His death led to devastating clashes in Khartoum between the north and south Sudanese. With the south Sudanese suspecting the north of assassinating Garang to sabotage the peace agreement. In 2008, yet another series of skirmishes began over oil resources in the oil-rich Abyei. In 2009, the International Criminal court declared the then president of the country, Omar al Bashir guilty of perpetrating war crimes in Darfur and issued an arrest warrant against him. In the same year, it was agreed that the south would gain independence in 2011 (Waldorf, 2016). In 2011, the government of Sudan granted South Sudan independence after drawn-out conflicts in the country. In 2019, the long-serving president Omar al Bashir was overthrown following strong public opposition to his rule.

Ethnic Groups Involved in the War Sudan, as a whole, has around 19 ethnic groups and 600 subgroups. The wide variety of ethnicities is a major cause of tensions and conflicts due to cultural differences, and disagreements over ownership of territories and resources. North Sudan’s ethnic groups include the Beja, Zaghawa and Nubian, while South Sudan’s ethnic groups include the Dinka, Anwak, Azande and Nuer (Manoeli, 2014). The ethnic conflicts and tensions between North and South Sudan are fuelled by disagreements over oil resources and religion. The north believes it is more powerful than the south, and as a result, committed atrocities against them such as enslavement, torture, and instigating conflicts.

Despite gaining independence from the North, South Sudan to this day, is embroiled in ethnic conflict. The country has 64 tribes. The majority are the Dinkas, who comprise 35% of the population. They also make up the majority of the government. In South Sudan, the ethnic groups that are in conflict with each other include; the Murle and Nuer, the Dinka and Nuer, the

4 Murle and Dinka, the Shilluk and Dinka, the Fertit, Jur and Dinka, the Equatorial and Dinka, the Dinka and Arab, the inter-Dinka, and the inter-Nuer. The clashes are mostly a result of the struggle for a power-sharing structure that gives other tribes equal access to power.

How Conflict Affects the Country The conflicts between North Sudan and South Sudan, Darfur, and South Sudan amongst itself have affected Sudan severely (Maystadt, Calderone, & You, 2014). Despite being abundant in oil and other natural resources, it is one of the world's poorest countries. There are also severe food shortages because farmers are unable to plant crops due to violence. The country has declared famine several times in the past, and as a result, has had to rely on food donations from the rest of the world. Essential services such as health, water, education, and electricity are accessed by only a small fraction of the population. Additionally, the country's infrastructure is highly under-developed.

In the process of the civil wars, clashes and conflicts, severe crimes against humanity have been committed against the population. There have been several cases of rape and acts of sexual violence committed by armed militia groups, recruitment of children into the army, destruction and looting of property, and displacement of people (Saunders Jr, & Mantilla, 2001).

The civil wars have severely reduced the GDP of the country. The country’s economy suffers because Foreign Direct Investment and tourism in the country is low because it is perceived internationally as a volatile and politically unstable country. South Sudan, particularly, suffers severe social effects of years of oppression and humanitarian atrocities. This trauma is evident in the fact that despite gaining independence, it is still unable to maintain peace and effective selfgovernance.

The Social Construction of Ethnic Division

5 Sudan is divided along ethnic, social, and economic lines. The North, which consists of African Arabs who migrated from Egypt, considers itself superior to the South, which consists of Blacks. These divisions are therefore caused and perpetuated by the belief that Islam is superior to Christianity and traditional religions, and Arabic complexions and cultures are superior to those of native Africans. South Sudan, on the other hand, is divided along ethnic lines, where the Dinka, being the majority, consider themselves to be superior to the other minority tribes (Knopf, 2016). North Sudan feels entitled to higher government positions and greater access to resources than South Sudan. The same conflicts are also experienced in the South. Therefore, Sudan's conflicts are similar; struggle for power, disagreements over resources, and belief in the superiority of one ethnicity over another (Johnson, 2018). Additionally, there is a severe identity crisis in South Sudan due to years of oppression, hatred and divisions that were first introduced when the North Sudanese captured them thousands of years ago.

Conclusion Among African countries, Sudan stands out as one of the most oil-rich and fertile countries in the continent. However, despite its wealth in natural resources, it is also one of the poorest countries in Africa. Sudan has been socially and economically devastated by years of ethnic conflict. The current state of Sudan is a result of centuries of conflict and human rights injustices among the country's inhabitants. Ethnic conflicts have cost Sudan a significant proportion of its past and present. To emerge from its deep crises, the country should ensure the stringent implementation of power and resource sharing treaties, and peace agreements.

6 References Johnson, D. H. (2014). Briefing: the crisis in South Sudan. African Affairs, 113(451), 300-309.

Johnson, H. F. (2018). South Sudan: The Untold Story from Independence to Civil War. Bloomsbury Publishing Knopf, K. A. (2016). Ending South Sudan’s Civil War. Council on Foreign Relations Manoeli, S.C. (2014). Sudan’s “Southern Problem”: Race, Rhetoric and International Relations, 1961-1991. Springer Nature.

Maystadt, J. F., Calderone, M., & You, L. (2014). Local warming and violent conflict in North and South Sudan. Journal of Economic Geography, 15(3), 649-671.

Reliefweb.int. (2010). [online] Available at: <https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/75A0AC0657DEF0EBC12577E7 0035788F-Full_Report.pdf> [Accessed 15 July 2020].

Saunders Jr, W. L., & Mantilla, Y. G. (2001). Human Dignity Denied: Slavery, Genocide, and Crimes Against Humanity in Sudan. Cath. UL Rev., 51, 715.

Waldorf, L. (2016). Inhumanity’s law: Crimes against humanity, RtoP and South Sudan.

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