CONTENTS CARNIVORES
Tyrannosaurus rex
Theropods and bipedalism
Allosaurus
Record-breaking carnivores
Hunting strategies
Feathers
Teeth and claws
Deinonychus
Carnotaurus
Ceratosaurus
Spinosaurus
Troodon
Velociraptor
Microraptor
Dilophosaurus
Citipati
Giganotosaurus
Oviraptor
Birth and care of offspring
Ichthyovenator
Gallimimus
Archaeopteryx
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Mei long and the Chinese dinosaurs
ALLOSAURUS
It might seem like a smaller version of T. rex...
...but it lived about 145–155 million years ago, long before the T. rex. It was a fierce predator, like the T. rex, and was as long as a school bus!
MYSTERIOUS accessories
ABOVE ITS EYES WERE SMALL HORNS OR CRESTS, THE PURPOSE OF WHICH IS STILL UNKNOWN. SCIENTISTS THINK THEY MAY HAVE BLOCKED THE RAYS OF THE SUN OR WERE USED FOR FIGHTING.
ITS NOSTRILS WERE LARGE, AND THE OLFACTORY BULBS IN THE BRAIN WERE HIGHLY DEVELOPED. IT MUST HAVE HAD AN EXCEPTIONAL SENSE OF SMELL, ALMOST LIKE SEARCH DOGS!
WHAT EYES!
IT HAD SUPER VISION AND WAS ABLE TO CALCULATE THE EXACT DISTANCE OF PREY, LIKE A BASKETBALL PLAYER AIMING FOR THE BASKET.
A LETHAL BITE
THE TEETH OF THE ALLOSAURUS WERE CURVED AND JAGGED, SIMILAR TO SHARP KITCHEN KNIVES, AND READY TO SINK INTO FLESH AS IF IT WERE BUTTER.
Distant COUSINS?
EVEN IF IT LOOKS LIKE T. REX, THEY WERE NOT RELATED AT ALL. THE TWO LIVED DURING DISTANT PERIODS, WITH THE ALLOSAURUS LIVING AROUND 80 MILLION YEARS EARLIER!
A DARING predator
MANY OF THE DINOSAURS HUNTED BY ALLOSAURUS WERE PLANT-EATERS, LIKE THE STEGOSAURUS OR EVEN THE GIGANTIC DIPLODOCUS. DESPITE THEIR SIZE, ALLOSAURUS LIKELY STILL PREYED ON THEM, ATTACKING YOUNGER OR WEAKER INDIVIDUALS.
CHARACTERISTICS
• ITS NAME MEANS: DIFFERENT LIZARD
• WHERE DID IT LIVE: NORTH AMERICA, EUROPE, AFRICA
• SPECIAL FEATURES: SMALL CRESTS ABOVE THE EYES
• WEIGHT: BETWEEN 3,100 AND 4,400 LB (1,400–2,000 KG)
• DIMENSIONS: AROUND 32 FEET (10 M) LONG
• PERIOD: 145–155 MILLION YEARS AGO, IN THE JURASSIC PERIOD
FEATHERS
What was the skin of the dinosaurs like?
Scaly and tough like that of a crocodile, or feathered and soft like that of a bird? For a long time scientists believed that all dinosaurs were covered in scales, but some discoveries left them amazed!
FEATHERS when young
RECENT STUDIES HAVE REVEALED THAT EVEN THE TERRIBLE T. REX HAD FEATHERS WHEN IT WAS YOUNG. HOWEVER IT PROBABLY LOST THEM AS IT GOT OLDER.
FEATHERED
reptiles
MANY DINOSAURS HAD BODIES COVERED IN FEATHERS, BUT THIS HAS ONLY BEEN DISCOVERED IN THE PAST FEW DECADES. WE MUST IMAGINE THEM AS BEING MUCH MORE LIKE BIRDS THAN REPTILES.
What a TAIL!
THE SMALL SINOSAUROPTERYX, WHICH LIVED 124 MILLION YEARS AGO, WAS THE FIRST FEATHERED DINOSAUR TO BE DISCOVERED. ITS FEATHERS WERE LONG, SLENDER, AND RUST-COLORED, WHILE ITS TAIL HAD RED AND WHITE STRIPES.
ARCHAEOPTERYX
• ITS NAME MEANS: ANCIENT WINGS
• WHERE IT LIVED: EUROPE
• SPECIAL FEATURES: WINGS WITH THREE CLAWED FINGERS
• WEIGHT: 2 LB (1 KG)
• SIZE: 12-20 INCHES (30-50 CM) LONG
• PERIOD: 148-150 MILLION YEARS AGO, IN THE JURASSIC PERIOD
A PREHISTORIC record
THE FEATHERS OF THE CHINESE DINOSAUR YUTIRANNUS COULD EXCEED 8 INCHES (20 CM) IN LENGTH AND PROBABLY COVERED THE ENTIRE BODY, FROM THE NECK TO THE FEET. IT IS THE LARGEST SPECIES OF DINOSAUR DISCOVERED THAT RETAINED TRACES OF FEATHERS!
Like A PEACOCK
FEATHERS MAY HAVE BEEN BRIGHTLY COLORED, PROBABLY TO BE ABLE TO TELL EACH OTHER APART OR TO ATTRACT A PARTNER, JUST LIKE MANY BIRDS TODAY.
Feathers from the PAST
IN 2011 A GROUP OF PALEONTOLOGISTS IN ALBERT, CANADA, FOUND 11 WELL-PRESERVED FEATHERS IN A PIECE OF FOSSILIZED AMBER. IT APPEARED THAT THEY BELONGED TO A DINOSAUR THAT LIVED AROUND 80 MILLION YEARS AGO.
CERATOSAURUS
Its appearance was a little funny, with that conspicuous horn at the top of its nose...
...but its deadliness was not to be underestimated. Equipped with teeth as sharp as blades, the Ceratosaurus was a feared predator.
HORNED lizard
“CERATOSAURUS” MEANS “HORNED LIZARD,” AN APPROPRIATE NAME FOR THIS DINOSAUR THAT HAD A HORN ON ITS FACE AND TWO LARGE PROTRUSIONS ABOVE THE EYES, THE PURPOSE OF WHICH IS UNKNOWN.
A FISHING dinosaur
SOME SCIENTISTS BELIEVE THE CERATOSAURUS ALSO FED ON AQUATIC ANIMALS, SUCH AS FISH AND EVEN CROCODILES. LIVING CLOSE TO RIVERS AND LAKES, IT IS POSSIBLE THAT IT KNEW HOW TO FISH, JUST LIKE TODAY'S BEARS.
Strong STRANGE THINGS!
THE CERATOSAURUS BELONGED TO A SPECIAL FAMILY OF CARNIVOROUS DINOSAURS. ITS MOST FAMOUS RELATIVES, LIKE THE CARNOTAURUS, LIVED MUCH LATER, IN THE CRETACEOUS PERIOD, AND HAD EVEN STRANGER SHAPES.
NOT JUST DEFENSE
THE SMALL HORN ON THE FACE COULD HAVE BEEN USED DURING FIGHTS BETWEEN MALES OR TO ATTRACT THE ATTENTION OF A FEMALE COMPANION THANKS TO THE BRIGHT COLORS.
NATURAL armor
UNLIKE OTHER CARNIVOROUS DINOSAURS, THE CERTOSAURUS HAD A ROW OF SMALL PIECES OF BONE ALONG ITS ENTIRE BACK. MAYBE IT WAS A TYPE OF NATURAL ARMOR TO PROTECT A PARTICULARLY DELICATE PART OF THE BODY.
REALLY
BIG teeth
ITS TEETH WERE REALLY LONG: THE UPPER TEETH COULD EXCEED 3.5 INCHES (9 CM), ALMOST THE SIZE OF A PEN! WITH ITS MOUTH CLOSED, THE TEETH MUST HAVE STUCK OUT SO MUCH THAT IT LOOKED LIKE IT WAS ALWAYS SMILING.
CHARACTERISTICS
• ITS NAME MEANS: HORNED LIZARD
• WHERE DID IT LIVE: NORTH AMERICA, EUROPE
• SPECIAL FEATURES: A HORN ON THE NOSE AND TWO ABOVE THE EYES
• WEIGHT: 1,100 LB (500 KG)
• SIZE: 16–23 FEET (5-7 M) LONG
• PERIOD: 148-153 MILLION YEARS AGO, IN THE JURASSIC PERIOD
CITIPATI
How can a dinosaur seem like a ballerina?
The Citipati had long legs and a slender body, but in particular, it had a crest that decorated its small head. It certainly didn’t dance but roamed the desolate lands of what is now Asia.
A
TOOTHLESS carnivore?
EVEN THOUGH IT WAS THE COUSIN OF THE TERRIBLE VELOCIRAPTOR, THE CITIPATI WAS COMPLETELY TOOTHLESS. IT HAD ONLY A SHORT, STURDY BEAK, WITH WHICH IT ATE A BIT OF EVERYTHING: SMALL PREY LIKE LIZARDS OR INSECTS, BUT ALSO SEEDS AND ROOTS.
Lord of the TOMBS
ITS NAME CAN SEEM A LITTLE GRIM BECAUSE IT MEANS “LORD OF THE TOMBS." IN THE BUDDHIST RELIGION, CITIPATI ARE DANCING SPIRITS THAT PROTECT CEMETERIES, JUST LIKE THIS DINOSAUR PROTECTED ITS EGGS.
Union MAKES STRENGTH
IT IS ALMOST CERTAIN THAT THE CITIPATI LIVED IN GROUPS AND THAT THEY HELPED EACH OTHER TAKE CARE OF THE EGGS. THEY BUILT NESTS CLOSE TOGETHER, LIKE MANY BIRDS TODAY, AND GAVE EACH OTHER A HAND TO PROTECT ALL THE BABIES.
What a CREST!
GRACEFUL giant
ITS BODY, WHICH WAS COVERED IN FEATHERS, COULD REACH 10 FEET (3 M) IN LENGTH (LIKE A COMPACT CAR), AND WAS THE WEIGHT OF AN ADULT MAN. DESPITE THE DIMENSIONS IT WAS PROBABLY RATHER AGILE.
ON ITS HEAD A TALL CREST ROSE, SIMILAR TO THAT OF A CASSOWARY. IN SOME INSTANCES IT WAS VERY LARGE AND SQUARE-SHAPED. MAYBE IT SERVED TO ALLOW CITIPATIS TO RECOGNIZE EACH OTHER, OR IT WAS PUT ON DISPLAY DURING COURTSHIP.
CHARACTERISTICS
• ITS NAME MEANS: LORD OF THE TOMBS
• WHERE IT LIVED: ASIA
• SPECIAL FEATURES: LARGE CREST ON THE HEAD
• WEIGHT: BETWEEN 165 AND 190 LB (75-85 KG)
• SIZE: 10 FEET (3 M) LONG
• PERIOD: 75 MILLION YEARS AGO, IN THE CRETACEOUS PERIOD
CASSOWARY
MEI LONG AND THE CHINESE DINOSAURS
Millions of years ago, China was populated by an incredible variety of dinosaurs.
Many were small and fast, others were gigantic. Various layers of volcanic ash and mud that were deposited over time preserved some incredible details, like their skin and even full stomachs!
Like a RACCOON
BY STUDYING THE FOSSILS OF SINOSAUROPTERYX, A SMALL FEATHERED DINOSAUR FOUND IN CHINA, SCIENTISTS MANAGED TO FIGURE OUT ITS COLOR! WITH POWERFUL MICROSCOPES THEY SAW THE MINUSCULE STRUCTURES THAT GIVE FEATHERS COLOR. IT WAS THUS DISCOVERED THAT IT HAD A LONG TAIL WITH ORANGE AND WHITE STRIPES.
SLEEPING dragon
ONE OF THE BEST KNOWN AND MOST CURIOUS DINOSAURS OF CHINA IS THE MEI LONG. SMALL AND FEATHERED, IT LIVED ABOUT 125 MILLION YEARS AGO. THE NAME HAS AN ALMOST FAIRYTALE SIGNIFICANCE, MEANING “SLEEPING DRAGON." A FOSSIL WAS IN FACT FOUND IN A RESTING POSITION, WITH ITS HEAD HIDDEN UNDER THE WING, JUST LIKE BIRDS WHEN THEY SLEEP.
FEATHERED tyrant
IN 2012 THE YUTYRANNUS HUALI, AN ENORMOUS CARNIVORE, WAS DISCOVERED. ITS NAME MEANS “BEAUTIFUL FEATHERED TYRANT." IT MUST HAVE BEEN VERY ATTRACTIVE WITH ITS BODY COVERED IN SOFT FEATHERS SIMILAR TO THE PLUMAGE OF CHICKS.
The MYSTERIOUS egg
IN ADDITION TO BONES, VARIOUS DINOSAUR EGGS HAVE ALSO BEEN FOUND IN CHINA. IN 2021, AN EGG SMALLER THAN A QUARTER WAS DISCOVERED! IT WAS LAID ABOUT 80 MILLION YEARS AGO, BUT WE DON'T KNOW BY WHAT SPECIES.
THE SMALL MEI LONG FOSSIL, FOUND IN CHINA, REMINDS US OF A SMALL SLEEPING BIRD.
A TINY DINOSAUR of the Cretaceous Period
THE MEI LONG WAS JUST 20 INCHES (53 CM) LONG, ABOUT THE LENGTH OF A HOUSE CAT. EVEN THOUGH IT WAS SMALL, IT HAD A PROPORTIONATELY LARGE BRAIN, AND THIS COULD MEAN THAT IT HAD SHARP SENSES AND A CERTAIN AMOUNT OF INTELLIGENCE.
STEGOSAURUS
The Stegosaurus is one of the strangest and most fascinating dinosaurs of all time.
It had a double row of plates on its back and a tail armed with spikes.
All muscle and NO BRAIN
THE STEGOSAURUS COULD REACH
A LENGTH OF 30 FEET (9 M) BUT HAD A TINY HEAD COMPARED TO THE REST OF ITS BODY.
ITS BRAIN WAS THE SIZE OF A TANGERINE AND WEIGHED LESS THAN 3 OUNCES (80 G), SIMILAR TO A CHOCOLATE BAR!
CHARACTERISTICS
• ITS NAME MEANS: ROOFED REPTILE
• WHERE DID IT LIVE: NORTH AMERICA, EUROPE
• SPECIAL FEATURES: LARGE PLATES ON THE BACK
• WEIGHT: 11,000-15,500 LB (5,000-7,000 KG)
• SIZE: 30 FEET (9 M) LONG
• PERIOD: 150-155 MILLION YEARS AGO, IN THE JURASSIC PERIOD
Look at the PLATES!
AT FIRST, SCIENTISTS THOUGHT THESE PLATES LAY FLAT ALONG THE ANIMAL'S BACK, BUT TODAY WE KNOW THAT THEY STOOD UPRIGHT AND WERE ARRANGED IN TWO NEAT ROWS.
In a single BITE
THE STEGOSAURUS ATE ONLY PLANTS. IT DID NOT CHEW LIKE WE DO, BUT USED ITS BEAK TO STRIP LEAVES AND THEN SWALLOWED THEM ALMOST WHOLE.
SURPRISE ending
AT THE END OF THE TAIL THERE WERE FOUR LARGE SPIKES AS LONG AS BASEBALL BATS, WHICH IT USED TO DEFEND ITSELF FROM PREDATORS SUCH AS THE ALLOSAURUS.
No HURRY
WITH LONG REAR LEGS AND SHORTER FRONT ONES, THE STEGOSAURUS MAY HAVE WALKED IN A FUNNY WAY. IT WAS NOT A RUNNER BUT MOVED AT ABOUT 4 MILES PER HOUR (6 KM/H), LIKE A PERSON WALKING AT A BRISK PACE.
Reptile with a ROOF
THE NAME “STEGOSAURUS” MEANS “ROOFED REPTILE” AND DERIVES FROM THE TILE-LIKE PLATES THAT THE ANIMAL HAD ON ITS BACK.
DIPLODOCUS
It was a rather common dinosaur that certainly never went unnoticed.
With a length equal to a basketball court, it was impossible not to notice it, especially when traveling in groups.
GROWING UP
Diplodocus
AS THE DINOSAUR GREW, THE SHAPE OF ITS SNOUT CHANGED, AS DID THE POSITION OF ITS TEETH. IN FACT, YOUNG INDIVIDUALS HAD TEETH ALONG THE ENTIRE JAW, WHILE ADULTS HAD TEETH ONLY AT THE FRONT BECAUSE THEY ATE DIFFERENTLY.
Mouth like a RAKE
ITS TEETH WERE LONG AND SLENDER, SIMILAR TO PENCILS, AND THE MOUTH WAS USED LIKE A RAKE TO STRIP BRANCHES AND GATHER THE GREATEST NUMBER OF LEAVES POSSIBLE.
CHARACTERISTICS
• ITS NAME MEANS: DOUBLE BEAM
• WHERE IT LIVED: NORTH AMERICA
• SPECIAL FEATURES: LONG TAIL WITH A VERY THIN END
• WEIGHT: 22,000-35,000 LB
(10,000-16,000 KG)
• SIZE: 110 FEET (33 M) LONG
• PERIOD: 152-154 MILLION YEARS AGO, IN THE JURASSIC PERIOD
SECRET weapon
THE FRONT FOOT HELD A SURPISE: THE THUMB ENDED IN A CLARGE CLAW WITH ONE FLAT SIDE, WHICH COULD HAVE BEEN USED TO DEFEND AGAINST AN ENEMY THAT CAME TOO CLOSE.
Without EFFORT
THE DIPLODOCUS GOT UP ON ITS BACK LEGS AND USED ITS EXTREMELY LONG TAIL AS SUPPORT. BY DOING THIS, IT MANAGED TO REACH THE HIGHEST BRANCHES, EVEN OVER 36 FEET (11 M) FROM THE GROUND, AS IF THEY WERE ON THE ROOF OF A FOUR-STORY BUILDING.
Question of BALANCE
THE TAIL HELPED COUNTERBALANCE THE HEAVY NECK, WHICH, ACCORDING TO SOME RECENT STUDIES, WAS HELD ROUGHLY HALFWAY BETWEEN THE VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL POSITIONS. LIGHTWEIGHT...giant
INCLINED plane
THE REAR LEGS WERE SLIGHTLY LONGER THAN THE FRONT ONES, SO THE BODY WAS ALWAYS TILTED FORWARD A BIT.
IT HAD A LONG, SLENDER BODY, WITH A NECK AS TALL AS A TWO-STORY HOUSE AND AN EVEN LONGER TAIL. DESPITE ITS ENORMOUS SIZE, HOWEVER, IT WASN'T VERY HEAVY, ROUGHTLY THE WEIGHT OF TWO OR THREE ELEPHANTS.
FLYING REPTILES
They are also called Pterosaurs.
They were the first vertebrates that learned how to fly. They lived on Earth for a very long time, from 230 million years ago to 66 million years ago.
Two GROUPS
WE CAN DIVIDE THE PTEROSAURS INTO TWO LARGE GROUPS: THE RHAMPHORHYNCHUS, WITH LONG RIGID TAILS, SHORTER WINGS, AND TEETH; AND THE PTERODACTYLS, WITH VERY SHORT TAILS, ELONGATED WINGS, AND BEAKS WITHOUT TEETH.
PREHISTORIC superheroes
THEY HAD A MEMBRANE THAT STARTED ON THE ARM AT THE FOURTH DIGIT OF THE HAND AND EXTENDED TO THE ANKLES. WHEN THEY OPENED THEIR WINGS, THESE ANIMALS SEEMED LIKE SUPERHEROES WITH LARGE FLAPPING CAPES.
Fingers like ANTENNAE
THE FOURTH FINGER OF THE HAND WAS VERY LONG, LIKE AN ENORMOUS ANTENNA, AND WAS USED TO SUPPORT THE WING. THE OTHER THREE FINGERS WERE SHORTER, LIKE SHARP CLAWS, USEFUL FOR CLINGING TO TREE TRUNKS OR ROCKS.
Big and
SMALL
THE DIMENSIONS OF THE PTEROSAURS VARIED QUITE A BIT. NEMICOLOPTERUS, FOR EXAMPLE, HAD A WINGSPAN LIKE THAT OF A SPARROW, WHILE THE QUETZALCOATLUS WAS AS BIG AS AN AIRPLANE.
PTEROSAURS IN FLIGHT
THE NAME “PTEROSAURUS” MEANS “WINGED REPTILE” (FROM THE GREEK: PTERON = WING, AND SAUROS = REPTILE). IT IS A PERFECT NAME FOR THESE INCREDIBLE PREHISTORIC FLIERS!
The inventors OF FLIGHT
THE PTEROSAURS INVENTED FLIGHT LONG BEFORE BIRDS AND BATS. THEIR WINGS WERE NOTHING MORE THAN MODIFIED ARMS. THE WINGS DID NOT HAVE FEATHERS, BUT WERE FORMED BY A MEMBRANE OF ELASTIC AND RESISTANT SKIN CALLED PATAGIUM.
Like four LEGS
EVEN THOUGH THEY FLEW, THE PTEROSAURS WERE ALSO AGILE ON THE GROUND. THEY WALKED WITH BOTH THEIR WINGS AND LEGS, ALMOST AS IF THEY HAD FOUR FEET!
Say it WITH WINGS
LIKE BIRDS TODAY, THE SHAPE OF THEIR WINGS TELLS US HOW THEY FLEW. LONG, NARROW WINGS WERE PERFECT FOR LONG TRIPS, WHILE SHORT, WIDE WINGS MADE RAPID MOVEMENTS, WHICH HELPED TO AVOID PREDATORS OR CARRY OUT CHASES.
THE GREAT EXTINCTION
If a catastrophe strikes Earth, everything can change in an instant.
That's what happened at the end of the Mesozoic, when a terrifying and unexpected event forever changed life on our planet.
The beginning OF THE END
IT ALL BEGAN WHEN A GIGANTIC ASTEROID, ABOUT 6 MILES (10 KM) WIDE, LONGER THAN 100 FOOTBALL FIELDS LAID END TO END, CRASHED INTO EARTH IN THE AREA THAT IS NOW MEXICO.
The consequences of the IMPACT
THE IMPACT WAS VERY POWERFUL, LIKE A BILLION ATOMIC BOMBS EXPLODING AT THE SAME TIME, AND TRIGGERED POWERFUL EARTHQUAKES, OCEAN WAVES TALLER THAN A 10-STORY BUILDING, AND FIRES THAT BURNED IMMENSE FORESTS.
An eternal WINTER NIGHT
AFTER THE IMPACT, THE ATMOSPHERE WAS FILLED WITH DUST AND GAS THAT BLOCKED THE LIGHT AND HEAT OF THE SUN FOR MONTHS. EARTH IMMEDIATELY BECAME DARK AND COLD, AND TEMPERATURES DROPPED MORE THAN 50 DEGREES.
DOMINO effect
WITHOUT THE LIGHT OF THE SUN, PLANTS COULD NOT PHOTOSYNTHESIZE. THEREFORE MANY DIED, ALONG WITH THE ANIMALS THAT ATE THEM. HERBIVOROUS DINOSAURS WERE THE FIRST TO DIE OF HUNGER, FOLLOWED BY THE CARNIVORES WHO WERE WITHOUT THEIR PREY.
THE FEW THAT SURVIVED
SMALL MAMMALS THAT WERE THE SIZE OF A MOUSE OR CAT, LIZARDS, TURTLES, CROCODILES, AND SOME BIRDS MANAGED TO SURVIVE, HIDING IN THEIR DENS AND EATING WHAT THEY COULD FIND.
Effects ON THE OCEANS
NOT EVEN THE OCEANS WERE SPARED: AMMONITES AND BELEMNITES (ANIMALS SIMILAR TO SQUID), FISH, AND MARINE REPTILES DISAPPEARED ONE AFTER THE OTHER. THE OCEAN BECAME AN EMPTY EXPANSE.
Author Cristina Banfi, a graduate in Natural Sciences from the University of Milan, has taught at several schools. For over 20 years, she has worked in scientific communication and educational play and has enjoyed several editorial experiences in both scholastic and educational publishing, especially projects aimed at young audiences.
Credits
All the illustrations are by Valentina Figus
Other images:
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Translation: Qontent
Editing: Michele Suchomel-Casey
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