Test Bank for Criminology a Canadian Perspective 9th Edition ISBN-13, 978-0176796068 Rick Linden

Test Bank for Criminology a Canadian Perspective 9th Edition ISBN-13: 978-0176796068 Rick Linden

Test Bank for Criminology a Canadian Perspective 9th Edition ISBN-13: 978-0176796068 Rick Linden

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Chap 01_9e Indicate whether the statement is true or false.

1. Historically, before the rise of the criminal justice system, harmful behaviour against others was treated as a

private matter. a. True b. False 2. Historically, white-collar crime was not studied by criminologists because no one knew such crimes were

taking place. a. True b. False 3. The depiction of crime in the Canadian media is a fair and balanced representation of the scope and nature of

crime in this country. a. True b. False 4. In Canada, provinces and territories can pass and amend criminal laws. a. True b. False 5. “If it bleeds, it leads” refers to the priority that police place on investigating violent crimes. a. True b. False 6. The most common definition of a crime in Canadian society is a legalistic one. a. True b. False 7. One of the earliest topics in the study of criminality by criminologists was white collar crime. a. True b. False 8. The criminalization of marijuana is a good example of the consensus perspective of criminal law-making. a. True b. False 9. Conflict theories of crime outline the ability of the lower classes to make change based on their power in

numbers. a. True b. False

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Chap 01_9e 10. As one of the major focuses of criminology, the social distribution of crime would include examining the causes

of crime and criminality. a. True b. False 11. The conflict perspective understands the definition of crime to be factual and precise. a. True b. False 12. There is something inherently unlawful about killing another human being. a. True b. False 13. According to Hagan’s continuum of crime and deviance, the degree of society’s consensus that an act is wrong

is the only factor that determines whether a particular act constitutes a crime. a. True b. False 14. Most Canadians learn about serious crime from first-hand experience. a. True b. False 15. Most Canadians learn about crime through the media. a. True b. False 16. Advocates of a human rights approach to criminology argue that social harms are largely committed by the

lower class against the lower class. a. True b. False 17. An act is deviant only if a society defines it that way. a. True b. False 18. According to the textbook, we need to reduce crime before we can understand it. a. True b. False 19. The “CSI effect” has led jurors to expect that they will be presented with forensic evidence that will make

their role easy. a. True b. False

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Chap 01_9e 20. Informal social control governs the vast majority of individual behaviour in Canadian society. a. True b. False 21. The where and when of crime can help us understand causes of crime. a. True b. False 22. Criminology is the scientific body of knowledge that examines crime (and its treatment) as a social

phenomenon. a. True b. False 23. Criminal and non-criminal acts are always two distinct categories. a. True b. False 24. Acts committed by terrorists fit within consensus perspectives because their intent to harm is clearly agreed

upon universally. a. True b. False 25. Hagan’s continuum of crime and deviance contends that the amount of harm caused by a particular act must be

taken into consideration when determining whether that act should be deemed criminal. a. True b. False Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

26. The statement “criminal behaviour is generally defined by criminal laws, but not all deviant behaviour falls under

criminal laws,” is consistent with which of the following criminological perspectives? a. legalistic perspective b. human rights violations as crime c. Hagan’s continuum of crime and deviance d. consensus theory 27. The cases of Robert and Danny Sand, the brothers from Alberta, and Aaron Driver, the “would-be bomber”

near London, Ontario, highlight which aspect of criminology? a. Penalties for homicide in Canada are too weak. b. Race is a better predictor of homicide than religion. c. Killing because of a strong religious belief can exonerate a suspect. d. There are many different theoretical explanations for homicide.

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Chap 01_9e 28. Which of the following scenarios best illustrates the social distribution of crime? a. programs that help young people avoid a life of crime b. an analysis of the relationship between school grades and violence c. the relatively higher rate of criminal offending by young aboriginal men d. changes in lengths of prison sentences over time 29. Which of the following is an example of a consensus crime? a. drug use b. homicide c. prostitution

d. pornography

30. Which of the following is indicated in the textbook as an important reason for us to know more about crime? a. Surveys have shown that crime is the most important social problem facing Canada today. b. It is worthwhile to learn about all aspects of social behaviour, including crime. c. Crime rates are steadily increasing and we need to be prepared. d. The criminal justice system is the biggest employer of new graduates out of post-secondary institutions

in Canada.

31. Which of the following is an example of informal social control? a. you stay late at work most nights and find that this helps you feel more organized b. a man is given a suspended sentence for a charge of arson c. the police charge a young person with theft after she is caught with three bags of candy in her purse d. you tell your slow friend that if he isn’t ready to go on time tomorrow you will leave without him 32. Which of the following labels do criminologists apply to crimes committed by middle- and upper-class people

in the course of their legitimate business activities? a. blue-collar crime b. white-collar crime c. pink-collar crime d. “society” crimes 33. According to “Box 1.1: Crime and the Media,” what is the news media’s informal rule for covering crime? a. “Cover Cops, Courts, and Corrections.” b. “Sex, drugs, and violence preferred.” c. “If it bleeds, it leads.” d. “Where there’s smoke, there’s fire, and a story.”

34. "Everyone believes that stealing goes against our belief in private ownership." Within which of the following

approaches to crime does this view fall? a. green criminology b. class conflict theory c. human rights criminology d. consensus theory

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Chap 01_9e 35. According to “Box 1.1: Crime and the Media,” what is meant by the term “cultural scripts” in relation to

rampage shooters? a. they typically leave a note outlining their reasons for committing the crime b. they usually are males between 17 and 24 years of age c. they tend to be classified according to cultural stereotypes in media reports d. they often plan their crimes based on information outlined in the media about previous rampage shootings 36. According to Edwin Sutherland and Donald Cressey, which of the following best describes criminology? a. a body of knowledge that focuses primarily on the creation of laws and reacting to the breaking of laws b. a body of knowledge made up of a consistent set of principles that guide different societies c. a body of knowledge that regards crime as a social phenomenon d. a body of knowledge that focuses on how crime is controlled 37. According to Hagan, how is the continuous variable of social deviance best understood? a. It is static and does not change over time. b. It is measured using a scale that ranges from the most to the least serious of acts. c. It is seen to increase as a society becomes more economically developed. d. It can best be defined by criminal laws.

38. The legalistic perspective of criminology is most closely associated with which of the following: a. how crime in a society is defined by laws b. how social patterns of crime emerge c. the causes of crime

d. how society is defined by criminal laws

39. According to “Box 1.1: Crime and the Media,” what is often overlooked or left out of media reports of crime? a. the role of the police in apprehending the criminal b. broader social issues such as class and ethnicity c. the sentence received by the offender d. the reasons the offender is thought to have committed the crime 40. Which of the following is considered an informal rule in Canadian society? a. “Don’t drive over the speed limit.” b. “Don’t talk with your mouth full.” c. “Thou shall not kill.”

d. “Obey the law.”

41. What does the textbook define as “illegitimate use of force to achieve a political objective by targeting innocent

people”? a. vigilantism b. crimes against humanity c. terrorism d. human rights violations

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Chap 01_9e 42. Theories of crime causation that view the root causes of crime as stemming from poverty, a lack of power,

racism, and marginalization would have a particularly difficult time explaining which of the following categories of crime? a. property theft b. organized crime c. white-collar crime d. violent crime 43. According to “Box 1.1: Crime and the Media,” which of the following is a consequence of the media’s

coverage of crime in Canada? a. Canadians are less likely to support greater crime control agendas. b. Canadians have a fear of crime that is lower than their actual risk of being victimized. c. Canadians greatly overestimate the amount of violent crime. d. Canadians underestimate the proportion of violent crimes committed by anonymous strangers.

44. Robert and Danny Sand, the brothers from Alberta, led undisciplined criminal lives, as described at the

beginning of Chapter 1. To which of the following can we largely attribute their criminal behaviour? a. sociological explanations such as early socialization b. cultural definitions of what constitutes crime at any given point in time c. psychological makeup d. biological traits 45. When criminologists ask such questions as: “Who are the offenders?”, “Who are the victims?”, and “Under

what social circumstances are offences most likely to occur?”, what are they attempting to Bloom’s Analyze? a. societal reactions to crime b. the social distribution of crime c. patterns of criminal behaviour d. the causes of crime 46. An analysis of how people break the rules established in a society is most closely associated with which of the

following criminological perspectives. a. the legalistic perspective b. human rights violations as crime c. Hagan’s continuum of crime and deviance d. conflict perspective 47. According to “Box 1.1: Crime and the Media,” what is the research consensus with regard to children who are

exposed to a great deal of television violence? a. They almost invariably become violent themselves. b. They do not differ significantly in violence from those less exposed to television violence. c. Research results are mixed but there is some suggestion that exposure to media violence may predispose children to be more violent. d. They almost invariably become more accepting of violent behaviour.

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Chap 01_9e 48. Historically, before the rise of criminal laws and the criminal justice system, harmful behaviour committed

against others was treated as which of the following? a. a private matter between private citizens b. a matter that always involved the state c. a matter that only involved lawyers d. acts considered as harms against society as a whole 49. In Canada most people would argue that mass murder is wrong, but there is little agreement over the issue of

using marijuana. This statement reflects which dimension of Hagan’s typology of crime and deviance? a. the severity of the society’s response to the act b. the assessment of the degree of harm of the act c. the degree of consensus that an act is wrong d. the accuracy of the belief systems 50. Hagan proposed that deviance and crime be considered on a continuum ranging from the least serious to the

most serious acts and that seriousness can be assessed on three dimensions. What are the three dimensions Hagan referred to? a. time of day, place, and harm done b. nature of punishment, government in power, and age of offender c. degree of harm, number of victims, and remorse d. degree of consensus, severity of society’s response, and degree of harm 51. What is the term for the established rules of behaviour or standards of conduct in a given society? a. beliefs b. conventions c. norms

d. values

52. Which of the following is an example of an issue covered by the discipline of green criminology? a. price fixing on environmental products b. violent acts committed by pipeline protestors c. the illegal dumping of hazardous waste d. teenagers violating smoking bylaws 53. Which of the following best describes Sutherland’s assessment of white-collar crime? a. it is just as harmful as street crime and is worthy of attention and research b. it is best dealt with internally as the harm is far less than that caused by street criminals c. it is easily detected and successfully prosecuted in court d. its impact is far more damaging than that caused by street crime

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Chap 01_9e 54. Which of the following types of crime are overrepresented in media coverage compared to their incidence in

real life? a. white-collar crime c. political crime

b. violent crime d. property crime

55. To understand crime we must know the different characteristics of people who commit crimes and study the

differences in crime found in the city versus a town. What aspect of criminology does this analysis fall under? a. origins and role of law b. causation of crime c. social distribution of crime d. patterns of criminal behaviour 56. Which of the following best describes criminologists? a. academics who study the criminal justice system and crime from a variety of perspectives b. front-line workers who detect and apprehend criminals c. investigators who determine the causes of crimes in their communities d. scientists who study changes in types of crime over time 57. Which of the following aspects of the criminology discipline would include prisons? a. origin and role of law b. definition of crime and criminals c. crime causation

d. societal reactions to crime

58. Which of the following statements best describes terrorism? a. the murder of innocent civilians by their own government b. the use of force committed against a government by another government c. illegitimate use of force committed by a government against its own people d. the use of force against innocent people by a group trying to achieve a political objective 59. According to Hagan’s typology of crime and deviance, which of the following best describes a social

diversion? a. somewhat harmful with strong agreement about the norm b. relatively harmless with confusion or apathy about the norm c. somewhat harmful with strong disagreement about the norm d. very harmful with strong agreement about the norm 60. Criminal laws are best described as which of the following? a. informal rules that govern behaviour in a society b. formal rules that govern behaviour in a society c. static rules that are consistent throughout time d. the part of the criminal justice system that applies to private individuals

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Chap 01_9e 61. Which of the following is a key issue being examined by those involved with surveillance studies? a. ensuring there are sufficient cameras to detect crime in public spaces b. balancing privacy rights and protection of the public c. educating the public on the benefits of surveillance d. involving businesses in criminal surveillance 62. Which of the following best characterizes the class conflict theory of lawmaking? a. Laws are passed to minimize conflict between competing criminals. b. Laws are passed by members of the ruling class in order to maintain their privileged position by keeping

the common people under control. c. Laws are passed based by a consensus of society in order to reduce conflict within that society. d. Laws are passed by governments in order to reduce conflict within society.

63. Which of the following pieces of legislation sets out the majority of criminal offences for Canada? a. the Charter of Rights and Freedoms b. the Canadian Constitution c. the Youth Criminal Justice Act

d. the Criminal Code of Canada

64. Which of the following statements best describes the perspective of group conflict theory? a. Laws are constantly changing. b. Not everyone will agree with the laws in place in a society. c. The powerful have the most influence over the nature of a society’s laws. d. Groups with opposing views impact policy and law through conflict and debate.

65. In Hagan’s typology of crime and deviance, which of the following is the most serious category? a. consensus crimes b. social diversions c. conflict crimes

d. social deviations

66. Which of the following best fits into Sutherland’s definition of white-collar crime? a. an offence committed by a lower-class person against a business run by an upper-class person b. a homicide committed by an upper-class person against another upper-class person c. an offence committed by a middle- or upper-class person in the course of running a legitimate business d. theft of property perpetrated by an upper-class person against another upper-class person 67. According to the textbook, the severe penalties in Canada for the trafficking of “street” drugs such as crack

cocaine, compared to the relatively lenient penalties for white-collar crimes, such as fraud, can best be explained through which of the following perspectives? a. human rights b. conflict theory c. consensus theory d. green criminology

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Chap 01_9e 68. The view that criminal laws and government policies support the wealthy and disadvantage the poor is

reflective of which of the following criminological perspectives? a. Hagan’s continuum of crime and deviance b. human rights violations as crime c. consensus theory d. legalistic perspective 69. Which of the following reflects the belief that criminal laws represent an agreement by most people in a society

that certain acts are harmful and should be treated as crimes? a. the sociological perspective b. the conflict theory c. the legalistic perspective d. the consensus theory 70. In Canadian society, we judge people on the basis of their honesty. In sociological terms, which of the

following does honesty best represent? a. informal rules b. norms c. values d. laws 71. In Canadian society, having children use a fork when eating (instead of using one’s fingers) is an example of

which of the following? a. a value b. a universal norm c. formal rules

d. informal rules (folkways)

72. What is a social norm? Why are criminologists interested in the study of social norms?

73. What is Edwin Sutherland’s justification for arguing that deviant acts committed by middle- and upper-class

people be defined as criminal and treated as such with respect to the criminal justice system? Consider the case of Conrad Black and reflect on harm caused and whether he received meaningful consequences for his actions.

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Chap 01_9e 74. Explain how crime is socially defined and how people’s ideas about crime change over time. Illustrate your

answer with examples from the textbook or from case studies you find in the media.

75. Describe and differentiate between informal means of social control and informal means of social control.

Provide examples that are illustrative of each category.

76. Define the consensus and conflict approaches and use each to discuss “who makes the laws in Canada?” Your

answer should outline evidence for each perspective.

77. List and describe the six major areas that make up the discipline of criminology. Explain the main differences

between each area.

78. Describe several ways in which the emphasis on preventing war on terrorism has curtailed due process and the

rights of accused persons in Canada. What do you think should be done about this?

79. Why is it challenging to define terrorism? Using the definition in the text, discuss how the case of Aaron Driver meets or does not meet the definition.

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Chap 01_9e 80. Why do we study crime in society? What does the scope (extent) of crime in a particular society say about

that society? Using violent crime as an example answer this question by comparing and contrasting Canada with the US.

81. Explain the different ways that crime can be defined. Explain the main differences between each of these

perspectives.

82. Bloom’s Analyze one of the three case studies presented at the beginning of the chapter using two of the three

methods of defining crime outlined in the chapter. Is one easier to apply than the others? Explain your answer.

83. What factors impact how the media portray crime in Canada? What, in turn, is the impact of the media’s

representation of crime in Canada?

84. What is surveillance and how are you under surveillance on any given day? Outline the positives and negatives

to pervasive surveillance and discuss your comfort level with the fact that your personal information is captured in so many ways.

85. Explain why the new subfield of green criminology has emerged in recent years. Indicate how norms as well as

informal and formal social control may factor into enforcing behaviours that are pro-environment.

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Chap 01_9e 86. Explain why it has been difficult in Canada to pass effective animal cruelty laws at the federal level.

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Chap 01_9e Answer Key 1. True 2. False 3. False 4. False 5. False 6. True 7. False 8. False 9. False 10. False 11. False 12. False 13. False 14. False 15. True 16. False 17. True 18. False 19. True 20. True 21. True 22. True 23. False 24. False 25. True 26. c

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Chap 01_9e 27. d 28. c 29. b 30. b 31. d 32. b 33. c 34. d 35. d 36. c 37. b 38. a 39. b 40. b 41. c 42. c 43. c 44. a 45. c 46. a 47. c 48. a 49. c 50. d 51. c 52. c 53. a 54. b

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Chap 01_9e 55. c 56. a 57. d 58. d 59. b 60. b 61. b 62. b 63. d 64. d 65. a 66. c 67. b 68. b 69. b 70. c 71. d 72. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Social norms are established rules of behaviour or standards of conduct.

- Norms outline what is considered deviant and what is not, which in turn results in some acts being codified in law making them illegal.

- Differentiation can be made among norms, folkways, and laws.

- An examination of a culture’s laws and penalties for breaking laws speaks to its general values with regard to how individuals are treated.

- Answers should mention variations in how various groups experience the justice system in terms of charges, punishment, labelling, and supports.

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Chap 01_9e 73. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Middle- and upper-class individuals were engaging in harmful behaviours that were not handled by police or courts and penalties were either minimal or non-existent.

- - Conrad Black had a previous pattern of deviance and crime and even while under investigation he continued his harmful behaviour that was defined as “successful” in the business world.

- - After completing his sentence he resumed a successful life with resources that lower-class individuals often do not possess.

74. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- An act is only deviant in the context of the rules set by a group and the rules can change by time, place, and from group to group.

- Some acts move from being deviant to being tolerated and accepted while others move in the opposite direction.

- Some acts are only deviant if done by certain individuals and at certain times in particular places.

- Students should explore examples of acts that vary in acceptability according to time, place, and who does them.

75. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Informal social control includes actions aimed at having others conform to social norms and folkways.

- Formal social control is used when informal means are not substantial enough to impact an individual’s behaviour or when the individual has broken a law.

- Formal social control is done by individuals in authority (e.g. police and courts) while informal social control may be done by any other individual attempting to have someone conform (e.g. friends, family, and other citizens).

76. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Consensus theorists take the view that laws reflect the main values shared by members of a society.

- In Canada and around the world, most cultures define acts such as murder, robbery, and burglary as criminal.

- Conflict theorists take the view that laws primarily reflect the views of the wealthy ruling class and that they are used to control the less privileged groups in a society.

- In Canada and around the world there are examples of laws that restrict the freedom of minority groups and those less privileged; there is also evidence of systemic racism in the criminal justice system that treats the wealthy differently from the lower classes at all levels from the police to correctional facilities.

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Chap 01_9e 77. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- the definition of crime and criminals - the origins and the role of law - the social distribution of crime - the causation of crime - patterns of criminal behaviour - societal reactions to crime -

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78. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The state has determined that the greater good must be served by assuming greater powers when fighting terrorism.

- Examples include how potential terrorists can be monitored and how they can be treated within the justice system with regard to arrest and detention.

79. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The main challenge to defining terrorism comes from the fact that individuals who engage in terrorist acts view their actions as brave and worthy of praise by the groups they align with.

- The text discusses the notion that terrorism is socially defined and also provides the guidelines around threat or use of violence in order to attain goals that are political, ideological, or religious in nature.

- Driver was linked to radical ISIS groups through online interaction and he justified his behaviours according to his belief that he was fighting for the ISIS groups that had been targeted by the Canadian military.

80. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Studying crime tells us about our society in general, e.g. values and norms.

- The scope or extent of crime in a society provides information about how that society defines deviance, which acts are to be considered illegal, and how various groups and social issues may be addressed such as racial and ethnic minorities, women, those living in poverty, etc.

81. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Legal Definition—crime is an act or omission that violates criminal law and is punishable with various sanctions.

- Human Rights Violations as Crime—crimes determined by acts that negatively impact rights as defined by Universal Declaration of Human Rights (life, liberty and security of person as well as right to be free of torture and degrading punishment).

- Continuum of Crime and Deviance—defines deviance and crime based on degree of consensus that an act is wrong, severity of society’s response to the act, and an assessment of the degree of harm of the act.

- Each definition captures different acts and places them within a framework. The legal framework is the most rigid and prescribed, the human rights framework is more global, and the continuum endeavours to blend law with social definitions of right and wrong.

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Chap 01_9e 82. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Legal Definition—crime is act or omission that violates criminal law and is punishable with various sanctions.

- Human Rights Violations as Crime—crimes determined by acts that negatively impact rights as defined by Universal Declaration of Human Rights (life, liberty and security of person as well as right to be free of torture and degrading punishment).

- Continuum of Crime and Deviance—defines deviance and crime based on degree of consensus that an act is wrong, severity of society’s response to the act, and an assessment of the degree of harm of the act.

Students may find it easiest to apply the legal definition given that the acts outlined are clearly defined as criminal.

The application of the Human Rights and Continuum of Crime models will include reflection on norms, values, and definitions of deviance based on time, place, cultural background, etc.

83. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The goal of media is to make profits and the stories that attract readership do not represent the reality of crime.

- Property crime is more prevalent than violent crime but it receives less attention in the media.

- The consumer may be left with the idea that violent crime is more prevalent than it really is.

- Crime television shows and movies suggest that crimes can be solved quickly and that forensic evidence is readily available and indisputable.

- Canadians have a fear of crime that is higher than their actual risk of victimization.

- Public perception can sway government policy.

- There is mixed evidence about the connection between media violence and predisposition to violence but there is some suggestion that there is a correlation for some individuals.

- The news media’s reporting about rampage shootings may provide scripts for others to follow.

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84. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Bennett et al define surveillance as “any systematic focus on personal information in order to influence, manage, entitle, or control those whose information is collected.”

- Positives may focus on crime prevention and the ability to catch criminals who are increasingly using the Internet as part of their crimes, and the ability to access products and services easily that are tailored to our interests.

- Negatives include a net-widening that will impact individuals who are not criminal or who do not intend to purchase a particular product. This information may be shared and used to make decisions or to unfairly label someone leading to disadvantaged treatment.

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Chap 01_9e 85. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Increased attention on the causes and consequences of environmental destruction are at the forefront of political and social agendas given evidence that our environment has been eroding and animal rights are now being considered in ways that they had not been before.

- Some of the changes have resulted from slowly shifting norms related to how individuals conduct themselves with relation to the environment and strong evidence has come from the scientific community that more care and attention must be given to how we conduct ourselves with regard to the longevity of the life of the planet.

- Students should discuss informal social control methods of changing behaviour and formal rules and laws that are emerging to reinforce the values and norms of Canadians.

86. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Animal cruelty laws have been called for by those who feel that Canada’s laws are outdated.

- The challenge to updating these laws is the strong opposition from those who feel that changes may result in a negative impact on their livelihoods (hunters, trappers, farmers, and medical researchers).

- Values conflict between those believe animal cruelty laws must be strengthened and those who feel that changes would give animals the same legal rights as humans and that this will significantly change how many Canadians spend their work and leisure time as well as how they obtain sources of food.

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Chap 02_9e Indicate whether the statement is true or false.

1. Canada is one of the few nations that does not recognize sexual assault by a spouse to be a crime. a. True b. False 2. The restorative justice approach in Canada is currently limited to Aboriginal communities. a. True b. False 3. In small-scale societies the adversarial system of justice thrived until industrialization was introduced. a. True b. False 4. Peasants and workers were the driving influences behind how early Parliament was formed. a. True b. False 5. There are no real similarities between restorative dispute settlement processes today and those in existence in

small-scale societies of the past. a. True b. False 6. In small-scale societies individualism was critical to the survival of members. a. True b. False 7. Advocates of restorative justice seek to return the focus of the justice system to repairing the harm that has

been done to the victim and the community. a. True b. False 8. In hunting and gathering societies, influence was based on access to material resources. a. True b. False 9. Women played a significant role in resolving disputes that arose in small-scale societies. a. True b. False 10. The restorative justice approach helps empower the victims of crime in any community by increasing their

participation in the dispute resolution process. a. True b. False

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Chap 02_9e 11. There are no real differences between small-scale societies and complex industrial societies as far as dispute

settlement is concerned. a. True b. False 12. Transnational corporations remain some of the easiest interest groups to control and regulate through laws. a. True b. False 13. The power of the state is so unchallenged that laws are rarely shaped by special interests in society. a. True b. False 14. The rule of law has become a primary force in controlling behaviour in modern societies a. True b. False 15. The ability of a state to maintain authority is only as good as its legitimacy in the eyes of citizens. a. True b. False 16. In order to understand social order, criminal law should be seen in an historical and social context that

considers the full spectrum of dispute settlement practices a. True b. False 17. Social context is fundamentally important in understanding the existence and operation of different dispute

settlement systems. a. True b. False 18. In criminal law, the state declares itself the injured party based on the type of offence. a. True b. False 19. In small-scale societies, disputes were exclusively settled by the political authority in that society. a. True b. False 20. For most of human history, people have used laws to resolve disputes. a. True b. False

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Chap 02_9e Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

21. While harm to individuals in the workplace is often classified as accidental, some believe assault charges

should be laid. Why is this not the general practice? a. it is too difficult to prove who committed the crime in the case of large corporations b. there is no mechanism in the Criminal Code to charge corporate leaders with offences c. the state must balance harm done to individuals with the need to keep corporations running in order to employ many d. harm to workers and the public is very rarely caused by the practices of large corporations 22. Which of the following does self- or kin-based redress include? a. punishment determined by authorities of the state b. jail terms to be served outside the community c. mediation by respected elders d. punishment administered by the kinship group as a whole 23. Which of the following is a key characteristic of restorative justice? a. It provides a forum for corporations to voice their needs. b. Offenders have a more significant role in the process. c. Retribution is the ideal outcome. d. The state provides clearer sentencing guidelines.

24. According to the text, the state was created to represent the interests of the bourgeois class. What does the

text suggest is the role of the state in modern society? a. to define the nature of how social relationships will be conducted b. to act as a democratic agent to support the needs of the working class c. to regulate commercial relationships between groups d. to protect the property and interests of the bourgeois class 25. When a nation-state is ineffective in ensuring peace, security, good government, and protection from harm to

large portions of humanity, which of the following is most negatively affected? a. common law b. rule of law c. sovereignty d. stratification 26. For dispute settlement purposes, advisors are men who have a high social status within a small-scale society.

Which of the following qualities is this status based on? a. hunting, fishing, and trapping b. fighting, hunting, and speaking c. speaking, writing, and artistic ability d. birth order, family lineage, and property ownership

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Chap 02_9e 27. What is the term for the system of economic and social organization that included a central farm owned by the

landlord and small land holdings for a class of bonded farm labourers? a. tribalism b. feudalism c. agrarianism d. industrialism 28. Which of the following was the main function of the Black Act of 1723? a. to allow the Crown to expropriate Church property b. to expand the penalties courts could impose against commoners c. to encourage common people to become land owners d. to support the institution of slavery 29. Within the context of the overall theme of Chapter 2, what is the significance of the restorative justice dispute

settlement processes? a. It epitomizes how the state now controls the settlement of disputes between individuals. b. It represents a dispute settlement mechanism that was commonly used in pre-modern societies. c. It has been shown to be ineffectual in modern complex societies in resolving disputes between individuals. d. It is the culmination of the tough criminal laws imposed by the state and enforced by the criminal justice system.

30. Why might small group societies generally ostracize individuals for short periods of time rather than completely

expel them as a form of punishment? a. The expelled individual may join a competing group. b. The expelled individual may seek revenge against the group through violence. c. It would mean certain death for the individual expelled and would weaken the group. d. It often results in the expelled individual forming his or her own rival group to compete for resources.

31. Which of the following is a characteristic that a small-scale society is likely to have? a. very little collective solidarity across communities b. a kinship or cooperative system of dispute resolution c. economic inequality between citizens d. formal laws enforced by a tiered governmental structure 32. In the early feudal era in England, how were serious disputes typically settled? a. duelling with pistols b. money compensation and fines c. kin-based redress systems

d. jury trials

33. Which of the following categories best describes the present-day “mode of production” in Canada? a. hunting and gathering b. horticultural c. industrial

d. pastoral

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Chap 02_9e 34. Which of the following best describes common law? a. the law that is common to a group of different countries b. the law that regulates the relationships between countries c. the law that regulates access to Crown land d. the law that is available to all individuals 35. Which of the following is considered a common cause of disputes in hunting and gathering societies? a. inequitable food distribution b. poor manners c. excessive substance use

d. cruelty to animals

36. Which of the following was the economic foundation of the feudal system? a. retail merchants b. agriculture c. manufacturing

d. international trading

37. According to Ross (1989), why might an Indigenous victim not testify against an accused in court? a. The victim may refuse to testify due to fear or embarrassment. b. The victim may excuse the behaviour of the accused as a normal part of his standing in the community. c. The victim may believe that no crime was committed. d. The victim may refuse to testify because direct confrontation with the accused is considered wrong.

38. The growing importance of legal contracts, lawyers, and laws against theft and embezzlement were all the

result of the emergence of which of the following? a. feudalism and the feudal lords b. capitalism and a merchant class c. the sovereigns and Norman kings d. industrialization and the assembly-line form of manufacturing 39. Which of the following was a key factor in the shift from using mutually agreeable dispute resolution processes

to a power pyramid consisting of a small group of elite decision makers? a. a decrease in resources to be used in bargaining b. a lack of interest in reaching harmonious resolutions c. an increase in women in small communities d. the emergence of economic surpluses 40. During the reign of Henry VIII, which of the following was true of the state? a. It was essentially irrelevant. b. It replaced feudalism. c. It was largely controlled by the king with support from the merchant class. d. It was staffed with members of the nobility.

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Chap 02_9e 41. Which of the following statements best represents the changes to crime and dispute resolution that emerged as

hunting and gathering societies shifted to pastoral, horticultural, agricultural, and industrial societies? a. theft and contract disputes arose as issues and fines became possible sanctions b. assaults increased and courts were created to resolve disputes before judges c. poaching and theft were rampant but dispute resolution did not change significantly d. domestic assaults were of primary concern and mediation became the primary method of dispute resolution 42. When Karl Marx coined the term “bourgeois class” he was referring to which of the following social groups? a. common farmers

b. serfs

c. the capitalist ruling class

d. feudal lords

43. What was the nature of the relationship between the Crown and the merchant class during the mid-1500s? a. The Crown created small-scale societies within its ranks to be managed by merchants. b. The merchant class became the subject of increased legal sanctions imposed by the Crown. c. The merchant class supported the Crown in return for the creation of a stable legal system. d. The Crown decreased its demands on the merchant class.

44. Which of the following statements exemplifies the argument that laws alone cannot always control behaviour? a. Advisors could not always force compliance with recommendations they made to resolve a dispute. b. Feudal lords developed a body of law to deal with disputes after they consolidated power in England. c. Norman kings saw themselves as the injured party when a crime was committed. d. Transnational corporations are often successful in pressuring governments to be exempt from certain

laws and regulations.

45. What is the principal instrument used by the state to regulate human activity, ensure social order, and prevent,

control, and resolve disputes in modern societies? a. laws and legislation b. the restorative justice system c. the army d. Crown prosecutors 46. Max Weber saw power as the ability to realize one’s goals despite resistance from others. Which of the

following best characterizes power in small-scale societies compared to more modern, complex societies? a. The power to make decisions was shared by members of the group. b. The power to make decisions was held only at an institutional level. c. Power was formally encoded in law and authority. d. The legitimate use of power was held by an elite few.

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Chap 02_9e 47. Which of the following best characterizes self-based systems of redress in small-scale societies? a. There are customary expectations about the appropriateness of different punishments. b. There are vague notions of right and wrong behaviour. c. There is a strong centralized authority to mediate disputes. d. Punishment is carried out by a neutral third party.

48. Under capitalism, which of the following was used to maintain social relationships? a. customs b. parliament c. kinship

d. contracts

49. The textbook discusses how the interests of corporations have been given a higher priority than those of all

other members of society. Which of the following are implications of this? a. mandatory minimum sentences for executives of corporations that break the law b. increased harm to workers, consumers, and the environment c. increased regulations to prevent street and environmental crimes d. the inability of corporations to maintain their competitive positions in the global marketplace 50. Which of the following violates a principle of restorative justice? a. helping communities reintegrate victims and offenders b. restoring social relationships c. having judicial figures make key decisions d. reconciling offenders with those they have harmed 51. Which of the following might be a response to someone who has committed harm against another in a small-

scale society? a. a trial would be held and a judge would rule on the sentence b. the victim would be permitted to do whatever he or she wanted to the offender c. the offender may be ostracized from the group for a time d. the offender and victim would be expected to fight to the death 52. According to Rupert Ross (1989), how do the dispute resolution processes of small-scale societies compare

to those generally used in Canada today? a. They are in direct contrast. b. They are fairly similar. c. They are exactly the same. d. They cannot be compared easily.

53. According to Reasons (1981), the Ford Pinto design problem was an example of which of the following? a. crimes without victims b. victims without crimes c. crimes with victims

d. neither crimes nor victims

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Chap 02_9e 54. Under Anglo-Saxon law, who could be paid a fee as compensation for the rape of a woman? a. the victim b. the victim’s mother c. the victim’s husband or father

d. the victim’s father or brothers

55. During a dispute settlement on an Ojibway reserve observed by Rupert Ross (1989), what was the focus of

the intervention conducted by the Elders? a. the past history and reputation of the disputants b. the cleansing of the spirit for the future c. reconstructing the details of the specific incident d. fair compensation for the victim 56. In a small-scale society, the power of advisors who settle disputes is based on which of the following? a. hereditary position b. ability to enforce compliance c. moral authority d. connection to kin on both sides of the dispute 57. What is the primary role of law? a. to determine how society will evolve b. to ensure that individuals have rights c. to regulate some aspects of criminal behaviour d. to govern all aspects of human activity 58. According to the text, what is the main source of order and self-restraint in small-scale societies? a. the political processes put in place by leaders b. the influence of the church on the state c. the need to maintain connections required for survival d. the passive qualities passed down through generations 59. What is the role of a state in addressing crime? a. It controls the economy and therefore the amount of crime. b. It develops and enforces laws. c. It sponsors education programs. d. It monitors the fear of crime.

60. Which of the following terms is used to describe those who lobby the state to change laws? a. have-nots b. bourgeois c. legislative legacies

d. moral entrepreneurs

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Chap 02_9e 61. “A state of social bonding or interdependency that rests on similarity of beliefs and values, shared activities,

and ties of kinship and cooperation among members of a community.” Which of the following concepts does this definition apply to? a. mutual dependence b. mode of production c. collective solidarity d. role diffusion 62. Which of the following outcomes was a result of the vulnerable existence experienced by hunters and gatherers

who travelled often and could not accumulate a surplus of resources? a. significant inequality b. a strong collective solidarity c. high crime rates d. strong legal guidelines 63. Which of the following best represents the implications of powerful transnational corporations? a. They increase the power of the state. b. They decrease the power of the state. c. They do not affect the power of the state. d. They lead to monopoly.

64. Which of the following was an important consequence that followed the consolidation of power by lords in

England? a. They returned to a system of kin-based dispute settlement processes used in hunter-gatherer societies. b. They developed a body of law to deal with disputes. c. Dispute settlement practices used in small-scale societies were reinforced. d. They held elections among the serfs as a means to develop the political structures necessary to enact

new laws.

65. Which of the following is the major goal of dispute settlement processes in small-scale societies? a. to provide restitution to the victimized parties b. to identify and punish perpetrators c. to provide satisfaction to the offended party or parties d. to restore harmony between parties in conflict 66. Which of the following defines the elite class? a. age and long-standing membership in the community b. membership in several kinship groups c. ability to make wise decisions with little hesitation d. ownership of resources and power over decision making

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Chap 02_9e 67. Norman kings saw themselves as the injured party when a crime was committed because the harm was against

their peace. What was the implication of this development for the future of dispute settlement in western societies? a. Contract and tort laws emerged. b. Lords were increasingly recruited to better deal with crime on their properties. c. The state took on more responsibility over harms committed by one individual against another. d. Greater responsibility was placed on families to punish members that committed harms against other families.

68. What does civil law refer to? a. the law of medieval cities b. the law of dispute settlement between individuals c. the law that promotes peace and harmony d. the law that requires civility in public places 69. Discuss how the dispute settlement mechanisms in small-scale society were geared to the needs of that

particular society.

70. Describe the nature of dispute resolution among traditional Inuit and Ojibway.

71. What does it mean to say that a society is “tough on street crime, but soft on suite crime?”

72. The merchant class supported the aspirations of the Crown in England during the Industrial Revolution. Explain

what the advantages of this arrangement were for both parties.

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Chap 02_9e 73. Describe changes in dispute settlement that occurred in England with the arrival of the Norman kings.

74. Explain the term “moral entrepreneur” and give an example of one, with rationale.

75. What were the most common reasons for disputes in small-scale societies of hunter-gatherers and how were

they typically resolved?

76. Relationship to the mode of production. Small-scale societies were primarily involved in hunting and gathering

and all individuals played a key role in acquiring, sharing, and consuming goods for survival and prosperity for all. Once the structure shifted there were classes created and a more individualistic focus began.

3. Dispute resolution in small-scale societies was conducted through cooperation and kinship ties and various methods were used to keep the peace. Ultimately, no one individual had more power than another because no one had a surplus of goods and it was in everyone’s best interests to keep the peace for survival. Once the state evolved, disputes were resolved by the state with power residing with individuals who had power and status.

PTS: 1 REF: The Social Context of Dispute Settlement and the Rise of Law; The Transformation from SmallScale Society to the State Key: Bloom’s Higher Order 2) Identify and discuss the nature of community-based dispute resolution processes in small-scale societies,

and those controlled by the state in more complex societies.

77. Identify and discuss at least three differences between small-scale societies and complex industrial societies.

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Chap 02_9e 78. Based on information provided in the chapter, discuss the role of women in small-scale societies with regard to

disputes and their resolutions.

79. Using two examples, illustrate the impact of interest groups on legislation. Indicate the nature of the legislative

change or lack of change, the specific interest groups involved, and the way in which the interest group was able to influence legislation.

80. Outline the main assumptions of a restorative justice approach.

81. Define “transnational corporation” and describe how the actions of some manage to transcend laws that are

used to hold individuals accountable. Provide a real-life example for illustration.

82. How has the emergence and consolidation of social and economic power in human societies influenced dispute

settlement systems? More specifically, how has it influenced the emergence of the rule of law as the primary mechanism through which disputes have increasingly been resolved in most societies?

83. Despite the move away from small-scale conflict resolution and the emphasis on solutions that restore order in

a community, there is still a need to ensure that all citizens respect the rule of law and the solutions reached. If this respect erodes, the text asserts that citizens may become unwilling to comply with state rules. Describe an example of a potential issue that may result in the erosion of confidence in the state.

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Chap 02_9e

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Chap 02_9e Answer Key 1. False 2. False 3. False 4. False 5. False 6. False 7. True 8. False 9. False 10. True 11. False 12. False 13. False 14. True 15. True 16. True 17. True 18. True 19. False 20. False 21. c 22. d 23. b 24. d 25. b 26. b

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Chap 02_9e 27. b 28. b 29. b 30. c 31. b 32. b 33. c 34. d 35. a 36. b 37. d 38. b 39. d 40. c 41. a 42. c 43. b 44. d 45. a 46. a 47. a 48. d 49. b 50. c 51. c 52. a 53. b 54. c

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Chap 02_9e 55. b 56. c 57. d 58. c 59. b 60. d 61. c 62. b 63. b 64. b 65. d 66. d 67. c 68. b 69. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Small-scale societies were collectivistic as opposed to individualistic and dispute-resolution methods reflected this.

- Dispute resolution was largely left to community members to address on their own and resolutions were geared to restoring harmony. Given the reliance on all members of the community to participate in all aspects of life geared to survival, there was no time or room for discord as everyone was valued.

70. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The village was called together to consider a hypothetical event that may happen in the future and all present were asked to consider how this might be handled peacefully.

- The victim and offender or “miscreant” were further called before an Elders Panel and asked for their views on appropriate compensation.

- A private meeting with an Elder was conducted to complete the process of restoration of each participant to the community.

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Chap 02_9e 71. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The state must be seen as providing protection from harm, safety, and guidance, and all must be equal under the law. Where this is not the case based on status, power, and prestige, victims may not have the voice to seek redress.

- - A system that supports the “haves” rather than the “have-nots” creates disparity in how crimes are defined and how our justice system treats those who have been victimized or broken the laws.

- - Corporations, along with the wealthy, powerful, and prestigious, have a different experience in the criminal justice system than those with fewer resources or the ability to advocate for themselves.

72. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The Crown had the power to create laws and to dispense justice using these laws but the breakdown of the feudal system meant a decline in revenue from taxes.

- Negotiations took place with merchants where land was used as collateral for loans at a time when merchants were gaining power through trade expansion.

- The state, staffed by the merchant class, would define the social order and Parliament would pass laws.

- Ultimately, the merchant class supported the Crown in exchange for legal mechanisms that would strengthen their class position and increase their fortunes.

73. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Norman kings gradually accumulated power by controlling more land and as a result they were seen as the harmed parties in disputes.

- The notion of “the Crown” as injured party came with the notion that it was the “King’s peace” that had been disturbed.

- Compensation was paid to the Crown rather than to the kinship groups and distancing the justice system from the individuals in the community to be governed by a central authority.

74. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Moral entrepreneurs use lobbying and public pressure to change legislation. This is often done using moral arguments about good and bad and often focuses on issues that are not agreed upon by all.

- An example is gun-control lobbyists who argue either that guns require greater control through legislation and penalties or that individuals are entitled to make their own decisions and have the right to carry guns. Both sides base their arguments around notions of morality, rights, and the greater good.

75. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Some common causes of disputes included adultery, failure to honour marriage agreements, the taking of women by the enemy, improper distribution of food or other resources, theft, murder, laziness, and stinginess.

- Resolution was most commonly sought through self- or kin-based redress that could include discussion between the victim and perpetrator or violence at the other extreme. - Advisors were used occasionally as well and this involved seeking out a distinguished member of the community to make a recommendation.

- Ultimately, the goal was peaceful resolution and restored harmony.

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Chap 02_9e 76. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Community-based dispute resolution: focuses on restoring order, which can enhance productivity among community members and contribute to positive relationships, allows all members of the community to be involved, and provides opportunities to ensure survival of all members of society.

- State-controlled dispute resolution: removes the community-level involvement; provides a controlled approach that results in clear penalties laid out for those who have broken laws and follows guidelines set by the elite members of society that often serve their interests more than those of the lower classes.

77. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

1. The small-scale society existed pre-state and all members were considered equal. Once the state evolved, a hierarchy developed so that there were individuals with more power and control than others and this impacted laws, production, status, and all other aspects of social life.

78. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Many disputes in small-scale societies centred around women.

- Women were considered valuable to production and survival so any issues involving marital infidelity or enemies taking women were treated with the highest concern.

- They were seen as assets to control and there was great interest in preserving their role in communities.

- They were not, however, used as advisors to dispute resolution. Men, apparently, held this role predominantly.

79. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Feminists lobbied against laws that protected men and defined women and children as property of men.

- Sexual assault became recognized as a crime against the woman who was victimized rather than against the male figures in her life (father, brothers, husband), and husbands can now be charged with raping their wives.

- Attempts to control amphetamine production failed because of the power of a group that gave large donations to political campaigns to stop any changes.

-

80. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- As with small-scale dispute resolution from the past, restorative justice seeks to restore relationships and to heal communities.

- Repairing harm is a priority that is believed to lead to safer and more productive communities as opposed to simply punishing an offender and ignoring the voice and rights of victims.

-

-

r

81. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Transnational corporations operate across nations, and this makes it difficult to determine which laws they are required to abide by and how they are to be held accountable and by whom.

- - Additionally, it is difficult to determine who to prosecute since it is difficult to track accountability for decisions and actions down to one or several individuals in large corporations.

- - The text provides the example of the Pinto car; there also are examples of mining deaths, oil spills, and pollution dumped in waterways for which it is challenging to ensure accountability for harms done.

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Chap 02_9e 82. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- With transformation of hunter-gatherer societies into pastoral, horticultural, agricultural, and industrial societies, the emphasis on face-to-face conflict resolution decreased. Accumulation of goods, wealth, and power by a few led to a change in social order as the elite became influential on decision making and laws were created to protect their interests.

-

- The accumulation of property also increased instances of theft. The merchant class was eventually supported by the Crown and a reciprocal relationship was established to protect the class position and fortunes of the merchant class in exchange for their support of the legislative and judicial power of the Crown.

83. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Corporate dumping of chemicals into water and land resulting in disease that is not monitored or penalized by government.

-

-

i

n

- Extreme income disparity such that the rich are getting rich and the poor are getting poorer without resources to change their fate.

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Chap 03_9e Indicate whether the statement is true or false.

1. The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms guarantees the “right to freedom of thought, belief, opinion and

expression” and under this provision child pornography is reasonable. a. True b. False 2. The legal defence of duress may be used if the accused is threatened with death or serious bodily harm if he or

she does not commit a crime for another person. a. True b. False 3. A successful defence of not criminally responsible on account of mental disorder acquits a defendant of any

criminal charges. a. True b. False 4. The most common defence that successfully allows a defendant to escape a criminal charge is ignorance of the

law. a. True b. False 5. The crime of conspiracy is established only when three or more individuals form a common intention to commit

a crime. a. True b. False 6. The threshold for assessing self-defence in domestic violence cases is the reasonable woman standard. a. True b. False 7. A crime consists of a prohibition against certain conduct and a penalty. a. True b. False 8. Only the federal and provincial governments can enact legislation that amends the Criminal Code of Canada. a. True b. False 9. Regulatory offences include crimes such as theft, assault, and sexual assault. a. True b. False

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Chap 03_9e 10. The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms gives judges the power to invalidate criminal law that

unjustifiably infringes on an accused person’s rights. a. True b. False 11. Just thinking about committing a crime is enough in Canada to make one guilty of criminal attempt. a. True b. False 12. Substantive criminal law defines the nature and scope of the powers of police and courts. a. True b. False 13. Necessity as a defence to a criminal charge occurs when the accused person commits the lesser evil of a crime

in order to avoid the occurrence of a greater evil. a. True b. False 14. Automatism is a form of subjective mens rea. a. True b. False 15. The actus reus generally consists of three components: conduct, circumstances, and consequences. a. True b. False 16. The Charter of Rights ensures that police are never allowed to intervene before a particular crime is

committed. a. True b. False 17. In order to claim self-defence using the battered wife syndrome, the wife must show she is in imminent danger

of death or grievous bodily harm. a. True b. False 18. Subjective mens rea may consist of intention and knowledge; recklessness; or wilful blindness. a. True b. False 19. Driving at a high rate of speed (stunt driving in Ontario) is a regulatory offence. a. True b. False

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Chap 03_9e 20. A person who counsels another to commit a crime becomes party to that crime. a. True b. False 21. The two main sources of criminal law are legislation and judicial decisions. a. True b. False 22. NCRMD is an inefficient and ineffective way to deal with truly disturbed and dangerous individuals. a. True b. False 23. In Canada, failure to help another is a crime given the duty to act. a. True b. False 24. A person suffering from a mental disorder who is capable of understanding what he or she did but who

succumbed to an irresistible impulse would be found not criminally responsible on account of mental disorder. a. True b. False 25. Provocation is only a partial defence and can only be used when the charge is murder. a. True b. False Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

26. What would most likely happen to a person who broke into a warehouse to obtain lifesaving equipment for

use in an emergency? a. The person would be convicted of the crime of break and enter. b. The person would be acquitted on the grounds of compulsion. c. The person would be acquitted on the grounds of necessity. d. The person would be acquitted on the grounds of self-defence.

27. Which of the following best describes automatism in the context of criminal law? a. it is unavailable in Canada b. it describes unconscious, involuntary behaviour c. it is available only for indictable offences d. the burden of proof is on the Crown to prove that the individual was unconscious

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Chap 03_9e 28. Which of the following is not considered an inchoate offence? a. An offender plans and undertakes a murder. b. An offender plans a murder but does not follow through. c. A crime boss orders one of his underlings to smuggle drugs into the country. d. A crime group consisting of five people plan together to smuggle drugs into the country.

29. Which of the following is a common law offence in Canada at the present time? a. assault causing bodily harm b. homicide in the form of manslaughter c. contempt of court

d. fraud

30. What are the three inchoate offences in the Criminal Code? a. attempt, conspiracy, or counselling b. procuring, soliciting, or inciting c. attempt, conspiracy, or inciting

d. aid, abet, or counsel

31. Which of the following correctly lists the three forms of subjective mens rea recognized in Canada as

necessary for conviction for a crime? a. intention and knowledge, recklessness, automatism b. recklessness, ignorance of the law and wilful blindness c. recklessness, wilful blindness, intention and knowledge d. ignorance of the law, automatism and wilful blindness 32. In Canada, you are a party to a crime and liable for conviction for murder in all of the following circumstances

except one. Which is the exception? a. You plan a murder with others, but change your mind and tell the others you do not want any part of it, but they go ahead and commit the murder anyway. b. You counsel the commission of murder with another person who actually commits it. c. You plan and commit a robbery, but during it, without your knowledge, your accomplice kills a guard. d. You help another person commit murder.

33. The Criminal Code of Canada includes a number of provisions to address crime in Canadian society. Which of

the following does substantive criminal law address? a. the classification of offences and how they must be addressed in courts b. the guidelines to be followed by police in addressing crime c. general principles of criminal responsibility d. the nature and elements of various criminal offences 34. The police are called to a school to address an altercation between two boys. Jim has a broken arm after Tom slammed him into the wall of the school because Tom believed Jim had stolen his phone. It was a case of mistaken identity. What is the material circumstance component of actus reus in this event? a. Jim has a broken arm b. Jim was not the intended target c. Tom slammed Jim into the wall

d. Jim did not consent to being pushed

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Chap 03_9e 35. The criminal defence of NCRMD stands for which of the following? a. no criminal responsibility on account of moral defence b. no criminal responsibility on account of medical disorder c. not criminally responsible on account of medical disorder d. not criminally responsible on account of mental disorder 36. Which of the following situations might result in an accused being found NCRMD? a. A man blames his wife for the fact that he lost his job and he assaults her. b. A teenager assaults his best friend after he hears that the friend has been seen kissing his girlfriend. c. A woman runs her car into a crowd of pedestrians after she hears a voice telling her to do so. d. A man with anxiety stabs his neighbour who is playing his stereo loudly.

37. For which of the following types of cases is the defence of intoxication most likely to be successful? a. murder b. assault c. damage to property

d. sexual assault

38. Which of the following describes the situation when someone deliberately ignores what may possibly be a

criminal act by another person? a. negligence b. mistake of fact c. intention d. wilful blindness 39. Which of the following elements is missing from regulatory offences resulting in their classification as quasi-

criminal laws? a. police intervention c. legislation

b. public evil d. judicial decisions

40. What is the term used to denote the most serious offences in the Canadian Criminal Code? a. true crime b. summary offence c. hybrid offence

d. indictable offence

41. Which of the following defences is based on the assumption that the accused was forced to commit a crime as

a consequence of threats of death or serious bodily harm made by another person? a. provocation b. necessity c. self-defence d. duress 42. Which of the following is now legal after the previous law was deemed unconstitutional in 2015? a. non-medically assisted death b. active euthanasia c. active suicide

d. physician-assisted suicide

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Chap 03_9e 43. Which of the following scenarios involves a consideration of objective mens rea (reasonable person) in the

context of a criminal law? a. a woman stops her car in the middle of the road to allow ducks to cross on a foggy day and a family is killed when their vehicle runs into hers b. a drug trafficker is convicted after selling cocaine c. a woman is convicted of first-degree murder after killing her husband in his sleep d. a burglar is convicted of robbery after stealing from an individual who left the doors unlocked 44. What circumstances must be present in order for courts to accept the defence of self-defence? a. the accused was suffering from a mental disorder b. the accused felt that there was a reasonable threat of harm c. the accused was intoxicated at the time of the event d. the accused acted out of passion in the moment 45. Which of the following is the main source of criminal law in Canada? a. the Criminal Code b. the Youth Criminal Justice Act c. the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act d. the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms 46. Criminal law is based around the presence of two elements. Which element refers to the conduct of an

individual with regard to a criminal event? a. actus reus b. facit reum c. mens rea d. nisi siti 47. Which of the following terms best represents an accused deliberately intending to bring about some social

harm that is prohibited by law? a. subjective mens rea b. objective mens rea c. subjective actus reus d. objective actus reus 48. Procuring, soliciting, or inciting another person to commit at crime all fall under which of the legal terms? a. actual offence b. conspiracy to commit an offence c. criminal attempt

d. counselling an offence

49. The defence of provocation can be raised when the accused is charged with which of the following crimes? a. arson b. drinking and driving c. murder

d. sexual assault

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Chap 03_9e 50. Ben sold an undercover police officer heroin. Ben told the police he truly believed it was not heroin but only

milk sugar. It turned out to be heroin, but Ben was found not guilty. What defence would he have used? a. mistake of fact b. entrapment c. wilful blindness d. duress 51. What is the legal term that can best be applied to the case of the individual who tries to steal a car that does

not run? a. criminal endeavour c. criminal effort

b. criminal attempt d. criminal enterprise

52. Which of the following is considered an inchoate crime? a. break and enter b. manslaughter c. conspiracy to kidnap

d. sexual assault

53. The Criminal Code classifies offences into which of the following categories? a. misdemeanours, mixed or hybrid, indictable b. felonies and misdemeanours c. summary, indictable, mixed or hybrid d. misdemeanours, indictable, mixed or hybrid 54. According to the Supreme Court of Canada in the case of Théroux (1993), a defendant can only be

convicted of a criminal offence if that defendant acted voluntarily when committing that offence. Which element of a crime must include an element of voluntariness according to the justices in this case? a. mensa sana b. habeas corpus c. mens rea

d. actus reus

55. In which of the following situations is the defence of mistake of fact most likely to fail? a. A woman is charged with bigamy, having participated in a wedding ceremony, erroneously believing that

her first husband was dead. b. A man is charged with sexual assault but claims that the victim consented. c. A woman is charged with endangering her employees, but she believed she was not doing so, having heeded the advice of a health and safety inspector. d. A factory owner manufactures an unsafe device after being given erroneous advice by a government inspector that the device was safe.

56. What is the term for a body of legislation that specifies the steps to be followed in the prosecution of a criminal

case? a. the Charter of Rights and Freedoms c. crime

b. criminal procedure d. common law

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Chap 03_9e 57. Which of the following crimes does NOT require proof of objective mens rea? a. murder b. dangerous driving c. assault causing bodily harm d. criminal negligence causing death or bodily harm 58. Which of the following is a source of Canadian criminal law? a. municipal legislation b. victim statements c. police arrests

d. federal legislation

59. Which of the following best describes regulatory offences? a. They can be enacted only by the Parliament of Canada. b. They involve prohibited conduct that is also a serious breach of community values. c. They are created by legislation (federal, provincial, or territorial) that regulates inherently legitimate

activities. d. They can only be enacted by provincial governments.

60. For most regulatory offences in Canada, which of the following is correct? a. The Crown has to prove mens rea but not actus reus. b. The Crown has to prove neither actus reus nor mens rea. c. The Crown has to prove actus reus but not mens rea. d. The Crown has to prove both actus reus and mens rea.

61. What is the minimum number of people who can be charged with conspiracy in Canada? a. one b. two c. three

d. four

62. Under the provisions of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which of the following best describes

the role of the Supreme Court of Canada? a. decides whether the Charter is a valid piece of legislation b. declares invalid any piece of legislation that infringes on an individual’s Charter rights c. decides if the provincial government can introduce criminal legislation d. helps judges determine common law that is applicable to the Criminal Code 63. Which of the following is true of the defence of intoxication? a. It cannot reduce the severity of a charge such as murder to manslaughter. b. It is primarily a “common law” defence. c. It traditionally has applied to all offences. d. It is based on the idea that alcohol acts as a disinhibition

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Chap 03_9e 64. Criminal law is based around the presence of two elements. Which element refers to the state of mind of an

individual with regard to a criminal event? a. actus reus b. facit reum c. mens rea d. nisi siti 65. Which of the following is the legal term used when two or more individuals form a common intention to commit

a crime? a. criminal attempt c. criminal organization

b. criminal conspiracy d. criminal counselling

66. Which of the following individuals would be the most likely to qualify for a medically assisted death under the

new Criminal Code provisions? a. an 80-year-old man with dementia b. a 45-year-old man with kidney disease c. a 78-year-old woman with final stage pancreatic cancer d. a 12-year-old boy with a heart defect 67. What piece of legislation does the Supreme Court refer to in determining whether the rights of an individual

accused of a criminal offence are being protected? a. Criminal Code of Canada b. Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms c. Canadian Bill of Rights d. Constitution Act of 1967 68. A severely developmentally disabled person attacks someone, causing death. Because of the disability, he

could not have foreseen that the attack could cause death. Which of the following would most likely happen to this person in court? a. He would be acquitted of any criminal charge. b. He would be found guilty of murder. c. He would be found guilty of manslaughter. d. He would be found guilty of criminal negligence causing death.

69. When is failure to come to the rescue of someone in serious danger a crime in Canada? a. under any circumstance b. only when the person in danger communicates his/her plight c. only when there is a pre-existing legal duty to act, such as a parent failing to come to the rescue of

his/her small child d. only when there is a pre-existing duty to act and an emergency call to officials (like 911) is not available

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Chap 03_9e 70. In general, for an act to be defined legally as a crime, which of the following must be true? a. The perpetrator must realize it is a crime. b. There must be a prohibition against the conduct. c. It must contravene a society’s moral code. d. The entire society must condemn the act.

71. Define and distinguish between subjective and objective mens rea.

72. Explain the difference between strict liability and absolute liability as forms of objective mens rea.

73. The text identifies three elements of actus reus. Identify them and outline a scenario that does not require all

three to be present or that challenges the presence of at least one element in the form of a defence.

74. Outline the definition of medically assisted dying. Indicate the nature of the challenge launched using the

Charter of Rights and Freedoms and the guidelines that must be followed according to changes to the Criminal Code.

75. Define and distinguish between a regulatory offence and a “true crime.”

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Chap 03_9e 76. How do the Charter of Rights and Freedoms and the Criminal Code work together?

77. Can individuals be convicted of criminal offences even if they were not the persons who actually committed

them? Justify your answer with specific references to the Criminal Code.

78. Describe the different ways in which a person may become a party to a criminal offence.

79. Describe the major defences that may be raised in response to a criminal charge. For each, provide an

example.

80. What is the difference between counselling and conspiracy within the context of the Criminal Code? Illustrate

your answer with an example of each.

81. Describe what is meant by the legal defence of not criminally responsible on account of mental disorder.

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Chap 03_9e 82. A teenager goes to the next door neighbour’s house after dark, dressed in dark clothing with a hood over his

head. He places a ladder under a window and climbs the ladder. He has his hands on the window when the police arrive. He insists that he has not committed a crime. What do you say to this? Explain your answer referencing the Criminal Code.

83. List and describe the two primary sources of Canadian criminal law. Provide examples of both sources.

84. Judicial decisions: these include the interpretations of criminal law that clarify or covers areas not already

covered by legislation - the example given in the text relates to fraud and expanding the definition in relation to a criminal case that then sets a precedent for future cases PTS: 1 REF: What Is Criminal Law? Key: Bloom’s Bloom’s Higher Order 2) Compare and contrast substantive criminal law and procedural criminal law. Provide examples for both

from the Criminal Code.

85. “The Supreme Court of Canada has broken new legal ground in Canada in its treatment of battered wife

syndrome.” Discuss this statement, showing developments in jurisprudence relating to battered wives, and offering your own views on the pros and cons of the changes.

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Chap 03_9e Answer Key 1. False 2. True 3. False 4. False 5. False 6. True 7. True 8. False 9. False 10. True 11. False 12. False 13. False 14. False 15. True 16. False 17. False 18. True 19. True 20. True 21. True 22. False 23. False 24. False 25. True 26. c

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Chap 03_9e 27. b 28. d 29. c 30. a 31. c 32. a 33. d 34. d 35. d 36. c 37. a 38. d 39. b 40. d 41. d 42. d 43. a 44. b 45. a 46. a 47. a 48. d 49. c 50. a 51. b 52. c 53. c 54. d

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Chap 03_9e 55. b 56. b 57. a 58. d 59. c 60. c 61. b 62. b 63. b 64. c 65. b 66. c 67. b 68. a 69. c 70. b 71. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Subjective mens rea refers to the fact that individuals must have “deliberately intended” to commit the offence and that that they must have “subjectively” realized that they were engaging in illegal activity but continued to do so anyway or that they were “wilfully blind” and deliberately ignored the criminal nature of their actions.

- Objective mens rea is based on the notion that “reasonable” people should be able to appreciate the nature of the consequences of their actions in terms of breaking the law and of the harm that could come from those actions prior to committing illegal acts.

72. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Strict liability is used when dealing with regulatory offences and this means that the Crown does not have to prove mens rea beyond a reasonable doubt. Strict liability offences put the onus on the defendant to prove that they took every action that a reasonable person would in order to avoid the offence, e.g. careless driving.

- Absolute liability offences require the defendant to show that the Crown did not prove beyond a reasonable doubt that they committed the offence, e.g. speeding.

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Chap 03_9e 73. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The three components of actus reus are: o A) conduct (a voluntary act or omission constituting the central feature of a crime) o B) the surrounding or material circumstance o C) the consequences of the voluntary conduct - Perjury and dangerous operation of a motor vehicle do not require proof of consequences.

- In some cases the question arises as to whether or not the accused acted involuntarily and in the case of automatism this is questioned but difficult to prove.

74. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Physician-assisted suicide involves a doctor helping a patient to commit suicide.

- Active euthanasia involves a doctor actively bringing death to an individual.

- The key challenge to the Charter in 2015 was that the Criminal Code preventing physician-assisted suicide was unconstitutional based on the right to life, liberty, and security.

- New amendments to the Criminal Code outline specific requirements that must be met: individual must be 18 years of age, competent to make decisions, have “grievous and irremediable medical condition” and be informed about alternatives to dealing with suffering.

-

-

75. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- “True crimes” are those around which there is consensus. They are considered wrong because they go against commonly held values. They include crimes such as theft, assault, and sexual assault - Regulatory offences are those that lack the element of “public evil” and generally involve aspects of regular activities such as driving, fishing, etc.

76. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The Criminal Code defines prohibited acts along with the penalties and procedures for addressing individuals who commit these acts.

- The Charter of Rights and Freedoms guarantees various rights to all Canadians and empowers judges to declare pieces of legislation invalid if they infringe on particular rights.

- The Charter may guide judicial decision making or changes to legislation if it is deemed (as with the prostitution laws) that they infringe on rights.

- Balance is required where certain laws are felt to be reasonable and just because they protect the larger good.

The example given in the text is related to pornography laws and freedom of expression having limitations to protect vulnerable populations.

77. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Section 22 of the Criminal Code states that a person is a party to a criminal offence in the following ways: the person commits the offence, aids another person to commit it, or encourages someone else to commit an offence.

Having made an agreement with others to commit a crime also can put someone in the position of being a party to a crime. A person may be exempted from being charged along with those who actually commit the crime if they were part of the initial plan but then clearly revoked their intention to be involved. .

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Chap 03_9e 78. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- A person is a party to a criminal offence in the following ways: the person commits the offence, aids another person to commit it, or encourages someone else to commit an offence. Having made an agreement with others to commit a crime also can put someone in the position of being a party to a crime. A person may be exempted from being charged along with those who actually commit the crime if they were part of the initial plan but then clearly revoked their intention to be involved.

79. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- NCRMD or not criminally responsible on account of mental disorder—the individual must be “incapable of appreciating the nature and quality of the act or omission or of knowing it was wrong.” It must be clear that the individual was experiencing hallucinations of delusions at the time of the event, e.g. someone assaulting someone else because a “voice” in their head told them to do it.

- Mistake of fact—may be argued if the accused engages in actions that they did not know were criminal and can demonstrate that they made an honest mistake. The example in the text is of a woman marrying a man while under the impression that he was single when in fact he was already married.

- Intoxication—used when an accused argues that he or she was so intoxicated at the time of the event that mens rea was impacted. This has resulted in a reduction in charge but generally not a complete dismissal of charge. For example, a charge of murder has been reduced to manslaughter.

- Necessity and duress—these defences are used to make the case that the offender did not “have a genuine choice at the time” of the event. An individual may use the excuse of necessity if he or she broke into a cabin to stay warm when stranded on a hike. Duress may be used by someone who is forced by someone else to commit a harmful act.

- Provocation—a partial defence that may be used when the accused is charged with murder in order to have the charge reduced to manslaughter.

- Self-defence—used when a person engages a “reasonable amount of force in self-defence if she or he reasonably believes they or another individual are the target of actual force or threat of force.” An example might include assaulting or killing another who is trying to kill you.

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Chap 03_9e 80. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Counselling an offence that is not committed is outlined in section 22 of the Criminal Code and states that it is a “crime to counsel another person to commit an offence that is not ultimately brought to fruition.” An example might be to provide another person with information about a crime target with the knowledge that they were planning to use the information for the commission of a crime.

- Conspiracy to commit crime happens when “two or more individuals form a common intention to commit a crime.” It must be proven that each person intended to put the plan into action. Two or more people who plan to rob a bank and put a plan together and acquire any tools necessary would be conspiring whether or not they actually commit the crime. The threshold must go beyond simply talking about or musing about committing a crime in order to meet the threshold of conspiracy.

81. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- NCRMD or not criminally responsible on account of mental disorder—the individual must be “incapable of appreciating the nature and quality of the act or omission or of knowing it was wrong.” It must be clear that the individual was experiencing hallucinations or delusions at the time of the event, e.g. someone assaulting someone else because a “voice” told them to do it. .

82. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Criminal attempt is an inchoate crime outlined in Section 24(1) of the Criminal Code. This section states “everyone who, having an intent to commit a crime, does or omits to do anything for the purpose of carrying out his intentions is guilty of an attempt to commit the offence whether or not it was possible under the circumstances to commit the offence.”

- In the case above, the teen demonstrated clear intent in what he did prior to being apprehended.

83. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

1. Legislation: may be enacted by federal, provincial, and territorial governments - the legislation will include the laws as well as the procedures to be followed when addressing criminal matters - laws include those pertaining to street crimes as well as other legislation related to regulatory offences such as the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act 84. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

Substantive criminal law refers to the legislation that defines the nature of offences, outlines the legal elements necessary in order to achieve a conviction, and defines various defences that may be used.

- Examples of offences include murder, robbery, theft, and assault. Penalties would be outlined in the Criminal Code along with possible defences such as provocation, duress, and self-defence.

Procedural criminal law refers to the specific procedures that must be followed by all those involved in the criminal justice system and whether an offence will be treated as indictable, summary, or hybrid.

- Examples include the scope of police powers of arrest and detention as well as whether a case will be heard by a judge, or judge and jury.

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Chap 03_9e 85. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The Supreme Court of Canada has updated self-defence provisions to address the unique circumstances faced by women in abusive relationships. The old standard of what a “reasonable man” would do or use in terms of force to defend himself has been abandoned in favour of adopting the threshold of a “reasonable woman.”

- Battered woman syndrome is introduced by expert witnesses at trials so that juries are enlightened as to why an abused woman might stay in an abusive relationship, what types of violence may exist in such relationships, how a woman may perceive her partner’s level of dangerousness, and whether or not she believes she can protect herself.

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Chap 04_9e Indicate whether the statement is true or false.

1. Crimes known to the police will always be biased by inconsistencies in reporting and recording. a. True b. False 2. As the reliability of a statistical measure increases, its validity as a count of crime frequently decreases. a. True b. False 3. One of the issues with relying on police statistics is that officers use judgment at calls to determine whether or

not lay charges. a. True b. False 4. Data elements describe how data are to be combined. a. True b. False 5. In the Canadian UCR system, thefts and attempted thefts are recorded under the same category. a. True b. False 6. UCR data can give us a clear picture of what crimes the police are processing. a. True b. False 7. Correctional statistics are the most accurate taken within the criminal justice system. a. True b. False 8. Compared to the UCR1, the UCR2 has reduced the amount of information collected on crime by the police. a. True b. False 9. If a fight occurs and four people are assaulted, four incidents of assault will be recorded for statistical

purposes. a. True b. False 10. Fortunately, it is easy to combine and compare police statistics since they are all using the same formula for

recording data. a. True b. False

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Chap 04_9e 11. Crime rate is calculated by dividing population by 100. a. True b. False 12. Self-report studies complement UCR data because they help answer specific questions related to

understanding the causes and correlates of crime. a. True b. False 13. A court survey entails the administration of a questionnaire to a random sample of criminal court judges. a. True b. False 14. Administrative records are the primary foundation of research studies on crime rates. a. True b. False 15. Victimization surveys are dependent on respondents’ ability to place the incidents correctly in time. a. True b. False 16. Online crimes are among the easiest to detect and are one of the most reported types of crime. a. True b. False 17. If several crimes are committed in one incident, only the most serious crime is counted. a. True b. False 18. The crime funnel depicts how only a fraction of criminal incidents result in a police report. a. True b. False 19. The dark figure of crime refers to violent personal crime such as murder and sexual assault. a. True b. False 20. The risk of violent victimization is highest for older Canadians, especially those 65 years of age or older. a. True b. False 21. In research, reliability refers to the consistency of results over time. a. True b. False

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Chap 04_9e Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

22. Which of the following terms best describe when governments introduce tough-on-crime legislation despite the

fact that statistics show the crime rate is falling? a. ideology b. theory c. numerology d. scatology 23. Which of the following would be selected to represent a case by the courts under the “most serious decision”

rule? a. not criminally responsible

b. guilty

c. acquitted

d. withdrawn, dismissed and discharged

24. Two people assault three victims during the same incident. Under the UCR system, how many offences will be

recorded? a. one b. two c. three d. six 25. According to the textbook which of the following most accurately accounts for the statistics indicating an

overall increase in the average daily count of adults in custody in Canada between 1978 and 2013? a. an increase in the crime rate in Canada b. an increase in harsher sentencing practices c. an increase in tough-on-crime legislation d. an increase in the Canadian population 26. Which of the following makes up the statistics in the Uniform Crime Reports? a. police-reported data b. victimization surveys c. self-report surveys

d. criminal court surveys

27. According to Figure 4.2 in your textbook, which of the following best represents the trend in the average daily

count of adults in custody in Canada between 1978 and 2013? a. There was an overall decrease in the average daily count of adults in custody. b. There was an overall increase in the average daily count of adults in custody. c. The average daily count of adults in custody stayed the same. d. There was a rapid increase and then a rapid decrease in the average daily count of adults in custody.

28. Which of the following is the basic unit of count for the court surveys? a. the offence b. the case c. the individual

d. the judge

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Chap 04_9e 29. Which of the following statements best describes the so-called “crime funnel”? a. Over time the number of violent offences has decreased significantly. b. Only some of those who commit crimes as teenagers continue to do so as adults. c. Very few offenders are ever released back into society after they are processed by the judicial system. d. Only a portion of the crimes detected by police make their way through the system to incarceration.

30. According to the 2014 General Social Survey, which group reports the highest rate of violent victimization? a. 20- to 24-year-olds b. 10- to 15-year-olds c. 80- to 85-year-olds

d. 45- to 55-year-olds

31. In the 1960s and 1970s, what did social scientists begin to suggest regarding official records of crime? a. They were basically good measures. b. They were systematically biased. c. They were poor measures of how the criminal justice system works to create crime. d. They only small parts of the country.

32. According to the text, what impact does the seriousness rule have when offences are recorded in the Canadian

Uniform Crime Reporting system? a. It inflates the total crime count and inflates serious crime as a proportion of the total. b. It inflates the total crime count but deflates serious crime as a proportion of the total. c. It deflates the total crime count and deflates serious crime as a proportion of the total. d. It deflates the total crime count and inflates serious crime as a proportion of the total.

33. Which of the following is a limitation of victimization surveys? a. Definitions of victimization vary across time. b. Crimes designed to keep victims unaware they have been victimized cannot be captured accurately in

victimization surveys. c. Survey data may lack reliability; they depend on language barriers, time constraints, and geography. d. Victimization surveys are influenced by how police collect, maintain, and report the data.

34. Despite the challenges with self-report studies, there are some benefits to conducting them. Which of the

following is one such benefit? a. they outline information about crime victims not otherwise available b. they provide information about the motivation and techniques of offenders c. they allow police services to decrease resources in certain areas d. they provide information about where the next criminal event is likely to happen

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Chap 04_9e 35. The term “gross counts of crime” refers to which of the following? a. Criminal Code violations only b. Criminal Code violations and violations of other federal statutes c. Criminal Code violations and violations of other federal, provincial, and municipal statutes and bylaws d. Criminal Code violations and violations of other federal and provincial statutes 36. Which of the following terms refers to the consistency of research results over time? a. validity b. stability c. reliability

d. methodology

37. What information does a statistical count of prison populations provide? a. how much crime a society is experiencing b. how a society responds to crime c. the murder rates for a society at a given time d. the nature of judicial discretion in a society 38. How often are victimization surveys conducted as part of Canada’s General Social Survey? a. every 2 years b. every year c. every 10 years

d. every 5 years

39. Which of the following statements best reflects the impact of cybercrime on crime statistics? a. It is much easier to track than traditional offline crimes. b. It is likely underreported and may be replacing some offline crimes. c. It provides a better picture of victim characteristics given data mining techniques available. d. It is mainly focused on teenagers as the victims.

40. Under the seriousness rule of the UCR, what happens if there are several crimes committed in one incident? a. Only the most serious crime is counted. b. Every crime is counted no matter how trivial. c. Only the least serious crime is counted. d. Only the indictable crimes are counted.

41. Which of the following criminal justice agencies completes a report that then becomes part of the Uniform

Crime Reporting system? a. police b. courts c. corrections d. Canadian Centre for Justice statistics

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Chap 04_9e 42. Drug offences declined in 2016. How can this trend be explained? a. It is likely a statistical anomaly. b. Recreational drug use has become less morally acceptable in Canada. c. Fewer youth report using drugs than in the previous year. d. Cultural shifts and legislative changes impact police discretion.

43. In the UCR system, the crime rate is calculated using which of the following? a. Unfounded incidents. b. Unfounded incidents plus incidents reported to the police. c. Incidents reported to the police. d. Incidents reported to the police minus unfounded incidents.

44. Compared to police counts of crime, which of the following can be said of correctional counts? a. They are more valid and reliable. b. They are more reliable but less valid. c. They are more valid but less reliable.

d. They are less valid and less reliable.

45. Polsky (1967) argued that our understanding of crime would never be significantly advanced if we relied solely

on statistical data. To further our understanding of crime, which of the following would fit with the methods Polsky advocated we use? a. official data collected by the RCMP b. police statistics gathered across communities c. time in the community interacting with offenders on parole d. anonymous surveys counting crime rates 46. Which of the following best represents why crime rate statistics are cited more frequently than the actual

number of crimes experienced by a jurisdiction? a. The crime rate is more accurate than the actual number of crimes. b. The crime rate is easier to calculate than the actual number of crimes. c. The crime rate allows for a comparison between different cities and over time. d. The crime rate provides a better reflection of the social distribution of crime compared to the statistics on the actual number of crimes.

47. Which of the following statements about crime counts is correct? a. Statistical descriptions of the prison population are the least valid indicators of how the criminal justice

system responds to crime. b. Counts of convictions are valid reflections of the causes of criminal behaviour. c. As the reliability of a statistical measure increases, its validity as a count of crime also increases. d. In general, the official (UCR) crime rate statistics underestimate the actual level of crime.

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Chap 04_9e 48. Which of the following refers to what, specifically, is to be collected to compile criminal justice statistics? a. counting procedures b. data elements c. units of count

d. levels of aggregation

49. Which of the following scenarios best reflects Kaplan’s “law of the hammer”? a. Police-reported crime data continue to be used by social scientists, despite knowledge of their

weaknesses. b. Assaults and other violent crimes are underreported in crime statistics. c. “Hard” (quantitative) measures of crime are more accurate than “soft” (qualitative) measures. d. Crime resists measurement.

50. Which of the following factors most consistently impacts the UCR data? a. the number of police officers hired in a given year b. the number of days a police officer works in a week c. police discretion and public pressure to crack down on certain crimes d. the number of schools in a police reporting district 51. Which of the following pairs of terms best describes the nature of crime rate statistics across the criminal

justice system from crime detection to incarceration? a. The information is neither a reliable nor a valid measure of crime rate. b. The information is a valid but not a reliable measure of crime rate. c. The information is a reliable but not a valid measure of crime rate. d. The information provides both a reliable and a valid measure of crime rate.

52. Which of the following is the result of taking police-reported crimes, dividing this figure by the size of the

national population, and then multiplying it by 100,000? a. crime rate b. victimization rate c. self-report crime rate d. adult crime offender rate 53. What information does a victimization survey gather? a. personal stories of crimes committed for which they were not caught b. experiences that friends or family members have had as victims of crime c. personal experiences of victimization and fear of crime d. predictions about future trends in crime rate

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Chap 04_9e 54. Which of the following best describes the differences between a criminal justice administrative record and

statistical data? a. Administrative records are concerned with individual cases while statistics are aggregated data. b. Administrative records provide information for policies and planning while statistics are geared toward making decisions about individual cases. c. Administrative records are gathered by police services while statistics are generated at the court level. d. Administrative records are more reliable measures of crime rates than statistical data.

55. What is the name of the agency within Statistics Canada that produces much of the criminal justice statistical

information in Canada? a. the National Centre for Justice Statistics b. the Canadian Centre for Crime and Justice Statistics c. the Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics d. the National Centre for Crime Statistics 56. How can a social movement such as #MeToo impact crime statistics? a. It can lead to different reporting rates as well as different crime recording practices. b. It can create a distraction from the root causes of crime. c. It can make crime statistics more difficult to track. d. It is not likely that such a movement will have any impact on crime statistics in most communities.

57. Which of the following best represents the difference between the UCR1 and UCR2 systems? a. UCR1 collects summary data for separate criminal offences while UCR2 uses a weighting system to

indicate more serious offences. b. UCR1 collects summary data for separate criminal offences while UCR2 collects more detailed information on each incident, the victims, and the accused persons. c. UCR1 collects data on federal criminal offences while UCR2 collects data on both federal and provincial criminal offences. d. UCR1 follows the seriousness rule while the UCR2 survey does not.

58. The “dark figure of crime” refers to which of the following? a. the total number of all violent offences combined b. the amount of crime that is unreported or unknown c. the statistical weighting of violent offences for the crime severity index d. the statistics on organized crime in Canada 59. According to the textbook, statistical facts without theory are best classified as which of the following? a. ideology b. numerology c. penology

d. scatology

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Chap 04_9e 60. An offender goes on a break-and-enter spree and hits six houses in one evening. Which of the following refers

to the question of whether one or six offences should be included in the official crime rate? a. counting procedures b. level of aggregation c. data elements d. unit of count 61. A person steals money from a victim, assaults the victim, locks the victim in a car trunk and drives him to a

remote field, and finally kills the victim, all during the same incident. Which of these crimes actually is counted in the UCR system? a. the theft b. the assault c. the kidnapping d. the homicide 62. Which of the following refers to how criminal justice data are to be combined? a. data elements b. units of count c. levels of aggregation

d. counting procedure

63. Which of the following is a challenge when comparing court survey information to that gathered by the UCR? a. the sensitive nature of the information being recorded in both cases b. the difficulty tracking offenders down to have them complete the surveys c. the lack of honesty captured when police and judges complete the surveys d. the time lag between the charge and the decision when the two types of surveys collect their data 64. Which of the following is the most commonly used source of data for measuring crime in Canada? a. police-reported data b. correctional data c. court data

d. census data

65. Discuss the impact of cybercrime on crime statistics.

66. How might gross counts of crime create unwarranted fear among Canadians?

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Chap 04_9e 67. Describe what is meant by the “crime funnel.” Why is it significant when considering the reliability and validity

of criminal justice statistics?

68. Compare and contrast the UCR Aggregate (UCR1.0) Survey and the UCR Incident-Based (UCR2.0)

Survey.

69. Given what we know are the limitations of crime statistics, what can we expect for the future of data collection

and interpretation?

70. What are the strengths and limitations of self-report surveys?

71. What is meant by the term the “dark figure of crime”? What factors contribute to this phenomenon?

72. Compare and contrast “administrative records” and “statistics” within the context of the criminal justice system.

Note the respective roles that each play within the criminal justice system.

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Chap 04_9e 73. “Seniors’ perceptions of their personal safety are not supported by victimization surveys.” Discuss this

statement and make note of some of the research finding that support this statement.

74. Identify and describe the three main methods for measuring crime in Canada. Compare and contrast the three

and include an analysis of the pros and cons of each as far as the validity and reliability of the statistics produced.

75. What are the strengths and limitations of victimization surveys?

76. Your friend tells you he is concerned about the amount of crime in Canada based on what he has heard about

the number of incarcerated individuals in a correctional facility close by. You suggest that he access reliable information on crime statistics. Where would you refer him and what cautions would you give him about interpreting statistics on incarcerated adults?

77. Identify, compare, and contrast the concepts of reliability and validity within the context of statistics and crime

statistics specifically.

78. Describe the crime severity index. Why was it developed (i.e., what limitations of existing UCR statistics did it

address)?

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Chap 04_9e 79. The textbook notes that official crime data (UCR statistics) “may tell us more about police activities than about

crime.” What is meant by this statement? What are some examples of how official crime data may be more a reflection of a police agency than the actual level of crime?

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Chap 04_9e Answer Key 1. True 2. True 3. True 4. False 5. True 6. True 7. True 8. False 9. False 10. False 11. False 12. True 13. False 14. False 15. True 16. False 17. True 18. True 19. False 20. False 21. True 22. a 23. b 24. c 25. d 26. a

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Chap 04_9e 27. b 28. b 29. d 30. a 31. b 32. d 33. b 34. b 35. c 36. c 37. b 38. d 39. b 40. a 41. a 42. d 43. d 44. b 45. c 46. c 47. d 48. b 49. a 50. c 51. c 52. a 53. c 54. a

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Chap 04_9e 55. c 56. a 57. b 58. b 59. b 60. a 61. d 62. c 63. d 64. a 65. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Internet crimes are sometimes replacements for traditional crimes as new methods of theft and selling of illegal

goods. In other situations they represent new types of crimes such as computer hacking.

- These crimes are often difficult to detect and may not be readily reported if the victim does not recognize that a crime has occurred or if he or she feels that it would be too difficult to detect the offender given that they can be somewhat anonymous online.

- Some criminologists believe that online crimes make up for any drop in traditional crime reflected in statistics.

66. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Gross counts of crime measure total violations across categories. If people hear that total convictions for all criminal offences have increased they may assume this refers to violent crimes since these are the ones most often discussed in mainstream media. In fact, the most prominent type of crime is property crime.

- The differential treatment of property and personal crimes also leads to interpretation errors since property crimes with multiple victims will be recorded as a singe event while a personal crime will be recorded based on the number of victims.

67. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The criminal justice system is conceptualized as a funnel because only some incidents actually reach police attention and of those only some result in charges. Subsequently, only a portion of those charged are convicted and a smaller number are incarcerated.

- Reliability factors in because any method we use to examine crime statistics is impacted by the stage in the criminal justice system we are examining.

- Validity is impacted because the most reliable count of offenders (those incarcerated) is not a valid count of crime since so few of those who commit crimes are actually ever incarcerated.

- As the reliability of statistical measures increases the validity of the count often decreases.

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Chap 04_9e 68. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The UCR1.0 uses the most serious offence rule to classify incidents. Violent offences take priority over nonviolent offences and are sorted in order based on the maximum sentence under the Criminal Code. For violent incidents a separate incident is recorded for each victim, and for property crimes only a single incident is recorded even if multiple victims are involved.

- The UCR2.0 provides additional information including details about the victim and accused persons that can round out our understanding of crime.

69. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- It is anticipated that new information technology will only improve the nature of data recording and perhaps consistency.

- It is acknowledged that individual recording will still contribute to some differences, but the hope is that new developments in recording and data management systems within police services will decrease error and differences in interpretation.

- Victimization and self-report survey methods have also improved in recent years and these in addition to official police data will continue to provide a well-rounded picture of crime in Canada.

70. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Self-report surveys take the approach that those who commit crimes know the most about what they do and how often. They can provide valuable information about when crimes are most likely to take place and where, and what the motivating factors might be. This also accounts for crimes that remain undetected by police.

- One of the limitations is that some individuals are likely to underreport their criminal behaviour and there are variations in the reliability of reports for more serious types of crime.

71. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The term “dark figure of crime” refers to crimes that are unreported, unrecorded, and unknown.

- Some crimes are harder to detect than others and some offenders are harder to detect.

- Some victims are hesitant to report being victimized or may not recognize that they have been the victim of a crime.

72. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Statistics provide information on trends and are helpful in work that seeks to address planning, evaluation, policy, theory testing, etc.

- Administrative records are more focused on individual cases that move through the criminal justice system. These are helpful in making decisions about these cases and developing best practice approaches with particular environments or with regard to particular individuals.

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Chap 04_9e 73. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- While seniors may be most likely to report that they fear being victims of crime, they are not as likely as several other demographic populations to be victimized.

- Young, single males are the most likely to be victims of crime and this is augmented if the individual is not employed full-time and has an active social life that means being out after dark and in high-risk situations involving alcohol and drug use.

74. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) measure crime by collecting information provided by the police. This is an incident-based reporting system that collects data for each criminal incident including detail about the incident, the victims, and the accused persons. This method of data collection is relatively valid and reliable with some exceptions around individual officer or department-level discretion in charging and recording.

- Victimization surveys ask individuals about their experiences as victims of Criminal Code violations. Victims are asked about the nature and consequences of the victimization, and the criminal justice system response if, in fact, it was reported. This method allows for a measure of those offences that have been processed through the criminal justice system in addition to some that were never reported. Reliability is relatively good in that results are comparable across regions, but as a valid measure of crime they are not strong as they are missing the events that are not well reported (e.g. sexual assault) and those for which no report is possible (e.g. homicide).

- Self-report studies ask individuals if they have committed a crime and what the details were in terms of when, where, what, and whether or not they were caught and charged. These reports provide helpful information about offenders including those not processed through the criminal justice system. These surveys are impacted by differences in reporting across populations and types of crime making complete reliance on them problematic.

75. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- They provide more well-rounded information about criminal events and the response of the criminal justice system to the needs of the victims. They may help answer the question of why victims are less likely to report certain types of crimes to the police and why certain individuals may be more at risk of criminal victimization than others.

- The limitations include the fact that they do not capture all criminal events due to underreporting, and they do not provide information about the perpetrator. They may also be skewed by the individual’s perception of harm and his or her treatment by the criminal justice system.

- Some victims are more likely to speak openly about their experiences than others.

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Chap 04_9e 76. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Statistics provide helpful information but we need to know what we are looking for since different people use statistics for different purposes. Some use them to build theories, others want to plan and monitor programs, and the public often want to know what the risk of victimization is in their communities.

- In Canada we rely on the Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics to provide reliable and valid information about crime.

- How we count crimes can impact how data are captured and then interpreted by the public.

- The most reliable information comes from counting inmates, but this population is only representative of those who got caught, were prosecuted, and were sentenced to custody.

- How we define “offender” can include only those incarcerated in secure facilities rather than those on parole, probation, or house arrest.

- Daily counts can include those not sentenced as well as immigration holds.

- Daily counts tell us more about our justice system and sentencing practices than they do about crime rates.

77. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Reliability refers to consistency of results over time.

- Validity refers to measuring the concept the researcher seeks to research rather than some other variable.

- Both of these standards are important in ensuring that research is being conducted effectively.

- In the case of crime statistics and research it is important to understand how reliability may change as legislation and criminal justice practices change across time and place - Validity is critical as well and it is important that researchers and consumers of data understand what is being measured and what the implications are of the information, e.g. crime rates or type of crime or criminal. This can impact policy decisions, funding, and how the public perceives safety and security.

- As the reliability of statistical measures increases the validity of the count often decreases.

78. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The crime severity index assigns weight to each offence based on sentencing in criminal courts. This was developed to address the fact that the UCR counts incidents and that more prevalent but less serious property offences make up the bulk of the overall crime rate.

79. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Decisions about how police will react to and process different types of criminal events can be shaped by the policies of the department, the nature of public reaction to certain events in a community, as well as individual officer discretion. Not only do these factors impact the response to events but they also impact the recording of events, e.g. a theft may receive police attention but it could be diverted rather than processed through the court.

- Victims, witnesses, and public perceptions, fears, and concerns will shape police responses to events across time and place.

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Chap 05_9e Indicate whether the statement is true or false.

1. Young people have the highest rate of criminal offending in all categories of crime. a. True b. False 2. People with high socioeconomic status are overrepresented in police-reported statistics. a. True b. False 3. The overrepresentation of Indigenous peoples in the criminal justice system is only a factor at the level of

police contact but disappears when incarceration rates are examined. a. True b. False 4. The differential treatment hypothesis suggests that there are actual differences between racial groups in terms

of the incidence, level of seriousness, and persistence of offending patterns. a. True b. False 5. The link between socioeconomic status and crime is direct and robust across a number of variables. a. True b. False 6. There is evidence to suggest that despite overrepresentation in the criminal justice system Indigenous peoples

continue to hold positive views of police and other professionals. a. True b. False 7. The role convergence hypothesis suggests that as more women choose to work outside the home their

likelihood of committing crimes increases as a result of increased opportunities. a. True b. False 8. One category of crime that young women are most likely to be charged with is theft. a. True b. False 9. According to Heimer and De Coster (1999) the gender gap in violent crime can be explained in part by

research suggesting that young boys learn more violent definitions and have greater experience with violence compared to young girls. a. True b. False

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Chap 05_9e 10. There are greater incentives for older adults to conform to mainstream society and thus they become less

involved in crime compared to young people. a. True b. False 11. Race is a stronger correlate of crime than age or gender. a. True b. False 12. The suggestion that chronic drug users commit crime to sustain their habit is a myth since they would be

incapable of carrying out crime while under the influence. a. True b. False 13. Women’s imprisonment has not increased in the past few decades. a. True b. False 14. No single factor explains any particular crime. a. True b. False 15. While blacks are highly discriminated against in the US criminal justice system, there is no evidence of that in

Canada. a. True b. False 16. Education level is strongly correlated with likelihood to commit violent crime. a. True b. False 17. Young men commit crimes such as fraud more frequently than young women. a. True b. False 18. The linkage between alcohol and substance abuse is weak and disappears when age is factored in. a. True b. False 19. Maturational reform refers to the evidence that involvement in crimes tends to decrease as people age. a. True b. False

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Chap 05_9e 20. According to Hagen, the relationship between crime and class is complex because various classes are involved

in different kinds of criminal behaviour due to differential opportunities to commit crimes. a. True b. False 21. Violent males tend to come from a high level of privilege and their violence is the result of their being spoiled as

children. a. True b. False 22. Criminal activity declines during adolescence and young adulthood and then increases thereafter. a. True b. False 23. A basic explanation for the theory of maturational reform is that adolescence is a period of transition,

ambiguity, and nonconformity. a. True b. False 24. The rate of increase in the Indigenous prison population is the same as the rate of increase of the Aboriginal

population in Canadian society. a. True b. False 25. There is no difference between the rate of criminal offending among adolescence and older adults. a. True b. False 26. Identifying the correlates of a particular crime problem will identify the causes of that crime problem. a. True b. False 27. One dominant explanation why women receive more lenient treatment in the courts compared to men is

because they commit less serious crimes. a. True b. False 28. Structural explanations for Aboriginal overrepresentation in the criminal justice system centre on the social and

economic oppression of Aboriginals by the dominant white society. a. True b. False

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Chap 05_9e 29. Labelling of a neighbourhood as “high-risk” by police results in greater scrutiny and greater likelihood that

crimes will be discovered. a. True b. False Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

30. The argument that older men have more social bonds, such as marriage and children, and become less

involved in crime is an example of which of the following theories? a. life course theory b. age-crime theory c. middle age theory d. patriarchal theory 31. According to the textbook, which of the following best characterizes the relationship between illicit drug use

and crime? a. It is a weak relationship and valid only for females. b. It is unknown because of limited evidence. c. It is a complex relationship. d. It is a strong relationship for some street crimes.

32. The textbook examines six variables that correlate with crime. Which of the following are included in the

factors examined? a. offender’s birth order c. offender’s gender

b. offender’s place of birth d. offender’s employment history

33. What does research suggest is the relationship between the nature of the neighbourhood one lives in and

crime? a. Crime rates are impacted by the nature of the relationships in neighbourhoods. b. Crime rates vary by city rather than by neighbourhood. c. Crime is highest in rural settings rather than city settings. d. Crime rates are not impacted by neighbourhood relationships.

34. According to the textbook, which of the following best characterizes the relationship between socioeconomic

class and crime? a. It is simple to understand. b. It is unknown because of limited evidence. c. It is complex. d. It is a myth.

35. Which of the following regions of Canada has the highest incarceration rate of Indigenous peoples? a. the Northwest Territories b. the prairies c. Central Canada

d. Atlantic Canada

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Chap 05_9e 36. Which of the following scenarios best reflects the term “maturational reform”? a. Judy became more skilled at using the Internet as she aged and she also became more involved in

cybercrime. b. Fred’s shoplifting increased significantly after he turned 24 years of age. c. Jim started a family and became less involved in the street gang of which he was once the leader. d. As Allen rose through the ranks of the bank as he got older, his family’s financial pressures prompted him to embezzle large amounts of money.

37. Which of the following is important to consider when studying crime rates according to the colonial model? a. historical context

b. educational systems

c. social norms

d. geography

38. Given the increase of women in the workforce one would expect increases in corporate crimes committed by

women. What is the involvement of women in corporate crime according to the text? a. men are less likely to commit significant financial crimes than women across all settings including the corporate world b. women and men are now on equal footing in more large-scale corporations and now their offending behaviour is similar c. women occupy positions that present few opportunities for large-scale financial crimes d. women’s involvement in corporate crime has doubled since 1997 39. Which of the following statements represents the nature of the relationship between age and crime? a. White-collar crime follows the general age pattern of crime. b. Young people are overrepresented among accused persons. c. The age distribution is stronger for violent crime than for property crimes. d. Persons 55 or older are overrepresented among accused persons.

40. Which of the following statements best depicts Canada’s violent crime rate compared to other countries? a. It is lower than that of the United States but the same as European countries. b. It is lower than that of the United States but higher than European countries. c. It is at the same level as that of the United States and European countries. d. It is a higher rate compared to the United States and European countries.

41. Which of the following statements is generally true? a. Criminal activity intensifies in adolescence and young adulthood and declines thereafter. b. Criminal activity declines during adolescence and young adulthood and then increases thereafter. c. There is no difference in the rate of criminal offending among young adults and older adults. d. Young people have the highest rate of criminal offending in all categories of crime.

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Chap 05_9e 42. Which of the following countries had the highest homicide rate in 2011? a. United States b. England and Wales c. Canada

d. Japan

43. Which of the following is true regarding Indigenous offenders when compared to non-Indigenous offenders? a. They are more likely to be placed in their home communities on house arrest than non-Indigenous

offenders. b. They spend less time in pre-trial detention than non-Indigenous offenders. c. They are more likely to have legal representation at court proceedings. d. They are more likely to have parole revoked than non-Indigenous offenders.

44. Which of the following theories of why Aboriginal people are overrepresented in the criminal justice system

includes the notions of learned helplessness and fatalism? a. colonial model b. historic trauma transmission model c. critical race theory d. the code of the street theory 45. In general young women are most likely to be involved in which types of crimes? a. violent assaults b. weapons offences c. fraud

d. drug trafficking

46. Which variables make up socioeconomic status? a. education, prestige, and religion b. religion, income, and prestige c. income, education, and occupation

d. occupation, power, and prestige

47. Which of the following best represents the differential treatment hypothesis? a. There are actual differences between racial groups in terms of the incidence, level of seriousness, and

persistence of offending patterns. b. Structural inequality in the administration of justice is responsible for the overrepresentation of minority groups in the criminal justice process. c. Structural injustices in society are responsible for the overrepresentation of minority groups in criminal offending. d. There is a higher rate of criminal offending by racial minority groups because they receive preferential

treatment by government.

48. Which of the following conclusions can be drawn from the knowledge that there is a correlation between

poverty and crime? a. Crime is the sole cause of poverty. b. Poverty is the main cause of crime. c. Poverty is one of several causes of crime. d. Poverty may be a cause of crime.

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Chap 05_9e 49. According to Wright and colleagues (1999), the relationship between socioeconomic status and crime is

indirect and operates through mediating variables. Which of the following statements best represent this argument? a. High SES promotes delinquency because it increases risk-taking behaviours. b. Low SES promotes delinquency because it creates greater opportunities for fraud. c. Low SES promotes delinquency by reducing bonds to conventional values while increasing risk-taking behaviours. d. High SES promotes delinquency because it reduces one’s bonds to conventional values.

50. Which of the following best describes female offenders in Canada? a. young, well off, well educated b. young, poor, undereducated c. young, poor, well educated

d. older, poor, undereducated

51. Assigning the poor living conditions among Indigenous peoples as the reason for their overrepresentation in the

criminal justice system is an example of which of the following theories? a. critical race theories b. structural theories c. cultural theories d. post-structuralist theories 52. According to your textbook, why do women generally receive more lenient treatment in the courts in Canada

compared to men? a. There is insufficient space in correctional facilities for women in this country. b. They commit less serious crimes. c. Judges have a tendency to feel sorry for women. d. The Criminal Code dictates that women should receive more lenient sentences due to sexism in

Canadian society.

53. In recent years police-reported crime statistics for Canada depict which of the following trends? a. Female crime rates increased faster than male crime rates, but there is still a large gap in crime rates

between the genders. b. Female crime rates increased faster than male crime rates, and the gap in crime rates between the genders has practically disappeared. c. Male crime rates increased faster than female crime rates, but the absolute gap in crime rates between

the genders did not change much. d. Male crime rates increased faster than female crime rates, and the absolute gap in crime rates between the genders increased.

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Chap 05_9e 54. Which of the following best represents the concept of “collective efficacy”? a. Criminals are more effective when working together. b. Neighbourhoods are safer where there is a higher level of social cohesion among neighbourhood

residents. c. Police are involved in socially sorting who belongs to the neighbourhood collective and who does not. d. Neighbourhoods are safer where there is a higher level of racial integration, rather than segregation.

55. Which of the following statements is true regarding the relationship between criminal and violent behaviour and

socioeconomic status? a. Most violent men are overwhelmingly from high SES. b. Employment reduces violent and property crimes. c. There is a low correlation between dropping out of high school and violence. d. Older and better educated people generally commit more violent crimes.

56. Heimer and De Coster (1999) have made an important contribution to our understanding of the gender gap in

violent crime by examining structural positions and cultural processes, including social learning. Which of the following is one of their conclusions? a. Violent delinquency is learned and internalized equally by boys and girls. b. Boys learn more violent definitions and have greater experience with violence. c. Girls are able to use deception to avoid detection more readily than boys. d. Parents supervise girls far more closely than boys.

57. Which of the following statements best outlines the nature of correlates of criminal behaviour? a. Correlates provide concrete information about what causes crime and why crime varies across

geographic region. b. Each correlate has connection with criminal behaviour but no single factor explains any particular crime. c. The strongest predictors of crime rates tend to be the correlates of geographic location and school attendance among teens. d. It takes a complex set of statistical methods to interpret data related to correlates of crime.

58. Which of the following statements best represents the role convergence hypothesis? a. As women become more involved in the workforce, they become more involved in property crime. b. Stay-at-home moms commit far fewer crimes than working moms. c. Rates of crime by transgendered people fall somewhere between the rates of crime committed by men

and women. d. The convergence of sexism and lower pay for women in society means they play a greater role in the sex trade.

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Chap 05_9e 59. What is the term used for the fact that people are less likely to commit crime as they grow older? a. correlation reform b. delinquency reform c. maturational reform

d. demographic reform

60. Research in Canada shows that one minority group reported being much more likely to be stopped and

searched by the police than those from other racial backgrounds. Which of the following groups was this? a. Hispanics b. Blacks c. South Asians d. Aboriginals 61. Studies show that offenders can reduce their likelihood of reoffending by doing which of the following? a. Registering with their local police service after release. b. Engaging in neighbourhood watch programs after release. c. Returning to a familiar neighbourhood for comfort after release. d. Changing neighbourhoods and routines after release.

62. Which of the following statements about the correlation between gender and crime is accurate? a. Women have been offending at the same rate as men over the past five years. b. Men are more likely to be charged with criminal offences. c. Men and women commit completely different types of crimes so it is difficult to compare them. d. Women offend more frequently than men until the age of 21 and then the pattern reverses.

63. Which of the following is a key assumption of the critical race theory? a. There is a causal link between race and criminal behaviour. b. Most races are equally impacted by changes to the criminal justice system over time. c. The law reflects the norms and values of the dominant group and favours that group. d. There is a direct link between trauma and criminal behaviour.

64. Which of the following situations fits the definition of the “romance–crime nexus”? a. A 28-year-old female has been the girlfriend of a gang member since she was 17 years of age. b. A 35-year-old male becomes engaged to his partner and becomes more involved in crime. c. A 21-year-old female breaks up with her partner and enrolls in school to study criminal behaviour. d. A 19-year-old male breaks up with his partner and his offending behaviour increases.

65. Phenomena that are regularly associated with crime and criminal offending are known as which of the

following? a. correlates c. crime rates

b. explanations d. theories

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Chap 05_9e 66. Which of the following statements best describes the experience of Indigenous people in the Canadian criminal

justice system? a. Indigenous adults are underrepresented at all stages of Canada’s criminal justice system. b. Indigenous people are overrepresented at all stages of Canada’s criminal justice system. c. Indigenous female youth are underrepresented in Canada’s prison population. d. Indigenous youth are underrepresented among criminal offenders.

67. Which of the following statements best reflects the cultural theories of Indigenous overrepresentation in the

criminal justice system? a. The sharing of material possessions implies reciprocal action in Indigenous communities but in the dominant culture it is called theft. b. Indigenous peoples are overrepresented in the criminal justice system because of the culture of racist

policing in mainstream society. c. Three to four times as many Indigenous people live in poor neighbourhoods. d. A much smaller proportion of Indigenous inmates have a high school education.

68. Based on 2016 statistics, which age category correlates most strongly with homicides in Canada? a. 12 to 17 b. 18 to 24 c. 40 to 49

d. 50 and above

69. According to the text, which of the following is a major reason why crime rapidly declines as adolescents

move into adulthood? a. Adults are physically weaker and less agile than their younger counterparts. b. The criminal justice system at all levels is biased in favour of older adult offenders. c. Adults are more mature and have more incentives to conform to mainstream social values. d. Adult offenders are more practised at avoiding detection.

70. Explain the maturational reform thesis. How does this theory account for the decline of criminal behaviour after

adolescence?

71. Describe some of the major differences in crime rates and patterns between the genders.

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Chap 05_9e 72. According to the textbook, there are three broad factors that link alcohol/drug misuse and crime. Identify and

describe each of these factors.

73. Distinguish between cultural and structural explanations of Aboriginal overrepresentation in the criminal justice

system. Provide specific examples to substantiate each of these explanations.

74. The media often feature stories related to the ongoing “war on drugs.” What evidence does the chapter

provide to link illicit drug distribution and other types of crime?

75. According to Figure 5.13, Winnipeg and Saskatoon have the highest rate of police-reported crime, as

measured by the Crime Severity Index. Based the information presented about the dominant correlates of crime in Canada, what factors might account for these two cities having the highest ranking on the crime severity index?

76. What is the nature of the relationship between socioeconomic status and crime, and has this changed over

time?

77. Is there a direct link between alcohol/drug misuse and criminal behaviour? Support your answer by citing

statistics and research findings.

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Chap 05_9e 78. Wright and colleagues (1999) made three fundamental findings concerning the link between socioeconomic

status and crime or delinquency. Briefly summarize each of these findings.

79. What is the nature of the controversy over collecting statistics on race and crime in Canada? Would there be

an advantage to having this information?

80. What does it mean to say that Indigenous peoples are subjected to systemic bias within the criminal justice

system? Provide examples to support your answer.

81. Choose one major correlate of crime as documented in your textbook and describe its relationship with crime,

using theories and research to substantiate your arguments.

82. What is meant by collective efficacy and why does it often translate into lower crime rates for

neighbourhoods?

83. This chapter explores how certain variables correlate with crime. Yet, it emphasizes that just because a

variable is associated with crime, this does not mean it causes crime. Explain the difference between a correlate of crime and a cause of crime. Use information from the chapter to support your explanation.

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Chap 05_9e 84. Explain the role convergence theory. How does it account for the rising crime rate among women? Is this

explanation substantiated by empirical research? Elaborate on your answer.

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Chap 05_9e Answer Key 1. False 2. False 3. False 4. False 5. False 6. False 7. True 8. True 9. True 10. True 11. False 12. False 13. True 14. True 15. False 16. True 17. False 18. False 19. True 20. True 21. False 22. False 23. True 24. False 25. False 26. False

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Chap 05_9e 27. True 28. True 29. True 30. a 31. d 32. c 33. a 34. c 35. a 36. c 37. a 38. c 39. b 40. b 41. a 42. a 43. d 44. b 45. c 46. c 47. b 48. d 49. c 50. b 51. b 52. b 53. a 54. b

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Chap 05_9e 55. b 56. b 57. b 58. a 59. c 60. b 61. d 62. b 63. b 64. d 65. a 66. b 67. a 68. b 69. c 70. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Maturational reform refers to the fact that there is a reduction in criminal behaviour as an individual gets older. The suggestion is that as the individual becomes more committed to conventional values and has more status or social position based on connection to a workplace and relationships, he or she will be less likely to want to risk losing this position by continuing to be involved in crime.

71. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Males are more likely to commit crimes than females and males are more likely than females to be involved in violent, serious offences. Females are more likely to commit theft and fraud.

- Females are less likely than males to be sentenced to custody.

- One explanation for different offending patterns is that males are socialized to respond with violence more so than females and they have lower levels of emotional attachment to their families. Despite this, marriage is one event that is related to decreases in male offending patterns.

72. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Efforts to support addiction can lead to criminal involvement.

- Some commit crimes because they are under the influence of alcohol or illicit drugs.

- The possession of illegal drugs is a crime in itself.

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Chap 05_9e 73. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Cultural theories focus on traits, characteristics, or the way of life of a group of people.

- Indigenous peoples are viewed as different from the dominant group in terms of how they live and express themselves. These behaviours, beliefs, and values place them in conflict with Euro-Canadian cultural values and practices.

- Structural theories focus on historical context and how a society is structured. The argument is that over many years, Indigenous peoples were dislocated from their own culture and economic practices and that this has led to a loss of connection and community fragmentation that contributes to socioeconomic disadvantage.

74. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- A systemic linkage between drugs and crime is outlined by Goldstein (1985), who itemizes a number of connections including disputes over territory between rival drug dealers involving assault, homicide, and robberies.

- In Canada, clashes between bikers involving bombings and murders are connected to the drug trade.

75. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- There might be a higher concentration of young men.

- There might be variations in socioeconomic status without strong connections to community.

- There may be systemic bias at work if there are larger populations of Indigenous peoples.

- There may be higher rates of drug and alcohol abuse.

- Lack of connection to community based on transient work in oil may contribute to higher crime rates if individuals feel disconnected or lack collective efficacy.

76. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Throughout history the lower or underclass were seen as responsible for the majority of crime. These groups are associated with unemployment, dangerousness, poor education, and poverty.

- Sutherland challenged the notion that the lower SES groups were mainly responsible for crime when he highlighted white-collar crimes. Later, the introduction of self-report studies of crime outlined the reality that crime crosses all class boundaries.

- Any perceived strong relationship between SES and crime was small and declined over time.

77. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- There is evidence of a strong relationship between crime and alcohol and drug involvement. Those under the influence are more likely to commit crimes, those trying to support an addiction are more likely to commit crimes, and possessing illegal drugs is a crime in itself.

- There is a strong link between illicit drug use and street crimes.

- The majority of offenders who violate release conditions are under the influence of alcohol and drugs.

- The majority of offenders have substance abuse issues upon incarceration.

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Chap 05_9e 78. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The link between SES and crime is indirect and is influenced by attitudes, behaviours, neighbourhood, peer group, family conditions, culture, and economic opportunities.

- Low SES promotes delinquency by causing alienation, financial strain, and aggression.

- High SES promotes delinquency by reducing the need to follow conventional values as social power increases along with risk-taking behaviours.

79. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The argument against collecting data related to race and crime focuses on poor quality police recording of data, difficulties in measuring race, and the possibility that this information would be used to justify racist theories of crime leading to increased discrimination by the criminal justice system.

- The arguments for collecting this information focus on the opportunity this data would present to confirm or debunk notions of differential treatment in the criminal justice system and that the data would allow researchers to challenge racist ideology.

80. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Across all levels of the criminal justice system Indigenous individuals experience differential treatment that disadvantages them.

- For example, they are more likely to be arrested, more likely to be detained, have less access to legal counsel, are more likely to be incarcerated, are less likely to receive bail and parole, and are more likely to be placed in segregation.

81. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Age: young people commit disproportionately more crime than older adults with the exception of white-collar and political crimes. As social commitments and positions change through aging, crime rates decline.

- Gender: males commit disproportionately more crime than women and this is particularly true for violent crimes.

Research suggests that males and females are socialized to particular behaviours conducive to crime and deviance.

- Race: while data on race and crime is not generally kept by most levels of the criminal justice system, incarceration information is recorded and blacks and Indigenous peoples are overrepresented in prisons in Canada.

Various theories to explain overrepresentation of Indigenous peoples have been proposed and most acknowledge systemic bias.

- Drugs and alcohol: there is evidence of a strong relationship between crime and alcohol and drug involvement.

Those under the influence of alcohol and drugs are more likely to commit crimes, those trying to support an addiction are more likely to commit crimes, and possessing illegal drugs is a crime in itself.

- Socioeconomic status: the relationship is complex and varies by type of crime and is mediated by other variables including attitudes, behaviours, neighbourhoods, peer groups, family conditions, cultures, and economic opportunities.

- Spatial location: patterns of crime vary by street, neighbourhood, city, and larger geographic region.

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Chap 05_9e 82. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Collective efficacy refers to “social cohesion among neighbours combined with their willingness to intervene on behalf of the common good.”

- If people do not know their neighbours or feel invested in the common good of the community they will be less likely to have an awareness of the comings and goings of others, they will be less likely to take the pride necessary to protect their neighbourhoods, and they may be more likely to engage in criminal behaviour.

83. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- All of the variables discussed in the chapter are correlates of crime in that none of them definitively determine that an individual will commit crime but they create a greater likelihood of this happening. Some variables are more strongly linked to criminal behaviour than others and these are better thought of as risk factors.

- Being a young, Indigenous male living in a disadvantaged neighbourhood would put the young person at greater risk of being involved in the criminal justice system but these qualities do not ensure or guarantee that the young person will commit crime.

84. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- This theory suggests that as the roles of women change and they become more involved in work outside the home that is similar to that of men, it explains increases in crimes committed by women.

- The gender gap has declined but that depends on time and type of offences.

- It is difficult to determine whether crime rates of women have increased as significantly as statistics suggest or if policing and court practices have changed to create a decrease in the gender gap. Self-report studies would suggest that the system has changed more than the behaviour of women has.

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Chap 06_9e Indicate whether the statement is true or false.

1. The basis of most early theories of women’s crime has fortunately all but disappeared. a. True b. False 2. A feminist approach ignores the collective experiences of all women in order to emphasize the importance of

examining each female offender individually. a. True b. False 3. Indigenous women are even more overrepresented in prisons than Indigenous men. a. True b. False 4. According to role theory, in the egalitarian family, girls are more at risk of being delinquent because both

control efforts are more egalitarian so daughters are less controlled. a. True b. False 5. Power-control theory is designed to explain the sex differences in delinquency by drawing linkages between

variations in parental control and the delinquent behaviour of boys and girls. a. True b. False 6. Women have largely been rendered invisible in much of criminology, except as victims of violence which has

been the subject of considerable research by mainstream criminologists. a. True b. False 7. According to Lombroso and Ferrero’s early theory, women had not advanced as far along the evolutionary

continuum as males. a. True b. False 8. The primary reason for involvement in the sex trade is substance abuse. a. True b. False 9. One of the main critiques of conservative theories of women and crime is that they failed to consider how the

structured features of society prescribe gendered roles for men and women. a. True b. False

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Chap 06_9e 10. The women’s liberation thesis argues that the scope and nature of female violence will more closely resemble

men’s as differences between the sexes are diminished by women’s biological evolution towards becoming physically strong as men. a. True b. False 11. Conservative approaches to understanding women and crime were powerful because they dispelled many of

the myths and folk tales about women. a. True b. False 12. Breaking the silence around male violence against women has meant questioning the ways in which societal

and legal responses reinforce and reproduce the problem. a. True b. False 13. The liberal approach views differences between men and women as resulting from more learned gender roles

and socialization patterns. a. True b. False 14. The cultural construction of rape refers to the different ways rape is perpetrated in different cultures. a. True b. False 15. The majority of feminist criminologists perceive Karla Homolka to be a “dangerous woman” rather than a

“woman in danger.” a. True b. False 16. Canada’s rape laws prior to 1983 granted husbands immunity from rape charges. a. True b. False 17. Otto Pollak suggested that while women were very good at faking organisms they were not very good at

committing crimes compared to men who could not fake organisms. a. True b. False 18. Feminists argue that crime is gendered and, while women’s experiences have been overlooked, theories of

male crime have been equally troublesome. a. True b. False

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Chap 06_9e 19. After decades of fighting for equality there are still inequalities in pay between men and women. a. True b. False 20. Criminalized women tend to be young, poor, undereducated, and unskilled. a. True b. False 21. The gender-ratio problem raises the issue of whether mainstream theories of crime can be made to "fit"

women. a. True b. False 22. Research indicates a strong causal relationship between women being victims of abuse and their later criminal

behaviour. a. True b. False 23. Conservative theories on women and crime have largely focused on biological differences between men and

women a. True b. False 24. According to the textbook, in recent years it has become increasingly popular among feminist criminologists to

distinguish clearly between women as offenders and women as victims. a. True b. False 25. Research that supports the chivalry hypothesis indicates that when it does exist, chivalry benefits all women

who come in contact with the law regardless of race or socio-economic status. a. True b. False 26. One of the immediate effects of the 1995 O’Connor decision in the Supreme Court of Canada was an

increase in women claiming to be victims of sexual assault. a. True b. False

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Chap 06_9e Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

27. Which of the following is an example of “double victimization” often experienced by sexual assault victims? a. Women who are sexually assaulted once are more likely to be sexually assaulted a second time. b. Survivors have to endure a degrading process of questioning by authorities when they report a sexual

assault that was itself degrading. c. The moral character of the woman is questioned in regard to whether she provided consent. d. Wives who expect to be protected by marriage vows may be sexually assaulted by their husbands and not be able to lay charges.

28. According to the 1992 amendments to Canada’s sexual assault laws (Bill C-49), in which of the following

circumstances is consent for sexual activities considered to have been obtained? a. when the complainant is too drunk to be capable of consenting b. when the complainant has engaged in sexual activity with the accused previously c. when the accused shows he took reasonable steps to ascertain consent d. when the complainant expresses lack of agreement in action but fails to express such feelings in words 29. What is the mandate of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls? a. to draw conclusions about the most dangerous places in Canada b. to expand the scope of the investigation into Robert Pickton c. to examine systemic causes of violence against Indigenous women and girls d. to conduct healing circles with families of missing women and girls 30. According to the Stolen Sisters report, what is the nature of violence experienced by Indigenous women? a. they are five times more likely to die as a result of violence b. they are impacted similarly to other women living in northern or rural communities c. they are less likely than Indigenous men to die as a result of violence d. they are more likely to be harmed but less likely to die as a result of violence 31. Which of the following describes “A system of male domination that includes both a structure and an ideology

that privileges men over women”? a. matriarchy b. patriarchy c. egalitarianism d. concurrence 32. Which of these approaches views gender role socialization as the main factor for explaining female criminality? a. conservative b. feminist c. liberal

d. medical

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Chap 06_9e 33. What did Lombroso and Ferrero contend with their atavistic theory of female criminality? a. Criminal women were more sensitive to pain and required more social reassurances than men. b. Criminal women were considered more intellectually advanced and more skilled than men. c. Criminal women were more advanced on the evolutionary continuum than men. d. Criminal women were seen as less ladylike and genetically more male than female.

34. According to the text, how has violence against women come to be perceived? a. risky b. rare c. routine

d. taboo

35. Before 1983, which of the following was true with respect to rape laws in Canada? a. Husbands could not be charged for raping wives. b. The woman’s testimony was sufficient for police to lay charges. c. The moral character of the man was questioned if he harmed his wife in public. d. Husbands had the right to use any force necessary to correct the behaviour of their wives.

36. Which of the following was at the root of early explanations of women’s criminality? a. psychology b. sociology c. biology

d. anthropology

37. What proportion of women will be sexually assaulted at some point in their lives, according to a 1980 report

by the Canadian Advisory Council on the Status of Women? a. 1 in 5 b. 1 in 10 c. 1 in 150 d. 1 in 1000 38. Feminist criminologists suggest that female crime is most directly associated with which of the following? a. the feminization of poverty b. women’s emancipation c. genetically based sex differences

d. differential sex role socialization

39. Which of the following terms refers to a perspective on a subject that is shaped by cultural assumptions rather

than having a natural or objective basis? a. patriarchy b. conservative approach c. cultural construction d. liberal approach

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Chap 06_9e 40. Which of the following statements is most closely associated with the view of feminist criminologists? a. Framing explanations for women’s criminality that isolate the source of the problem in women’s bodies,

ignores the cultural means and social contexts that are at play. b. There are no biomedical tests for determining the existence of premenstrual syndrome. c. The focus of theories needs to be shifted to biologically-based theories that show the subordinate role of women in a capitalist economy. d. Labelling women with premenstrual syndrome is unfortunate but necessary as it enables women to gain access to medical treatments that can suppress criminal tendencies.

41. What is the general view of women within mainstream theories of crime? a. Women are submissive, dependent, and dull where crime is concerned. b. Men are compliant and make better research subjects than women. c. Women provide new and interesting opportunities for sex comparisons. d. Women are rarely studied because they are difficult to access.

42. According to Otto Pollak, a woman’s devious nature was rooted in what aspect of her physiology? a. menopause b. ability to get pregnant c. ability to fake orgasm

d. menstruation

43. Which of the following represents the feminist critique of criminology? a. It has poorly represented the similarities between women and men as offenders. b. It has focused too much on women as both offenders and victims. c. It has been sexist and women have been invisible in mainstream theories. d. It has focused on women as offenders but not as victims.

44. Which of the following is the estimate of the number of women who had been physically abused as children or

adults, according to research conducted in the 1990s for the Task Force on Federally Sentenced Women? a. the majority b. about half c. less than half d. very few 45. How did the legislative changes to the old rape law impact police practices? a. Police funding was decreased because the streamlined processes required fewer officers addressing

domestic violence. b. Police were encouraged to lay charges rather than leave the decision to the complainant. c. Police were encouraged to do more intensive investigations into the past history of complainants. d. There was no change to the role of the police as a result of legislative changes.

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Chap 06_9e 46. Which of the following is true of Indigenous women offenders in Canada? a. They are overrepresented in Canadian prisons compared to non-Indigenous women. b. They are less likely to be incarcerated for violent crimes than non-Indigenous women. c. They are less likely to have had alcohol involved in their offence than Indigenous men. d. They are less likely to have had alcohol involved in their offence than non-Indigenous women.

47. As a result of the Supreme Court of Canada’s O’Connor ruling (1995), which of the following materials are

subject to being turned over to the courts in sexual assault cases? a. neither records kept by therapists and rape crisis counsellors nor personal diaries or letters kept by the complainant b. records kept by therapists and rape crisis counsellors but not records kept by the complainant c. personal diaries and letters kept by the complainant and records kept by therapists and rape crisis

counsellors d. personal diaries and letters kept by the accused but not records kept by therapists and rape crisis counsellors 48. In Hagan and colleagues’ power control theory, an egalitarian family is associated with which of the following? a. a cult of domesticity b. a cult of equality c. employment by both the husband and wife in authority positions outside the home d. socialization of sons toward production activities and daughters for consumption 49. In criticizing early theories of female criminality, what did Heidensohn suggest? a. They lacked any basis in empirical research. b. They failed to account for individual motives. c. They lent intellectual respectability to folk tales about women and their behaviour. d. They focused entirely on the psychological state of the offender.

50. Adler’s women’s liberation thesis posits which of the following ideas? a. As women attain higher levels of education, they will commit more white-collar crimes. b. Violence against women will increase as the equality of women increases. c. As women supplant men in political and economic spheres, there will be a decrease in criminality. d. The increase in women’s crime can be attributed to the influence of the women’s movement.

51. Which of the following was a consequence of the 1993 zero tolerance policy of the Winnipeg Police Service

regarding domestic violence? a. a decrease in the overall number of women charged b. a decrease in the number of charges that were dismissed or were stayed c. a decrease in the overall number of men charged d. an increase in “double charging,” or charging of both spouses Copyright Cengage Learning. Powered by Cognero.

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Chap 06_9e 52. In the 1970s, which type of academic framework did theories of women’s crime begin to shift towards? a. psychological b. biological c. sociological

d. economical

53. How did the theories of women’s crime evolve after the early work of Lombroso? a. They reflected more realistic perspectives based on the emergence of new research methods. b. The basic assumptions and premises did not change significantly through the 1960s. c. They gradually became less sexist, classist, and racist. d. They took on a more scientific approach to women and their behaviours.

54. According to Lombroso and Ferrero, which of the following best described female criminals? a. They were excessively vile and cruel in their crimes. b. They possessed male qualities like rationality and decisiveness. c. They had far too much maternal instinct. d. They appeared to be ladylike on the surface.

55. What term do feminist criminologists use to refer to women who commit crimes and who share many

experiences with other women in society? a. criminalized women b. sexist victims c. feminine offender d. criminal women 56. Which of the following is the concept used to refer to the experiences of women who are victims of violence as

well as social and economic marginalization that link them to criminalization? a. victim–offender thinking b. victimization–criminalization continuum c. criminal dualism d. intersectional feminism 57. The cultural construction of rape refers to which of the following? a. the attitudes toward victims of rape adopted by the police and court workers b. how myths about the nature of rape, rape victims, and offenders form widespread public beliefs c. the rationales for rape used by specific rapists d. the new ideas and conceptions concerning rape fostered by feminist scholars 58. Which of the following best represents the focus of early theories of women's crime? a. Men’s crime was so pervasive that there was little time to focus on women’s crime. b. Women were seen as less intelligent and more full of revenge and jealousy than men. c. Women were physically weaker but cognitively superior to men. d. Women were equally capable but not recognized as such by men.

59. In Hagan and colleagues’ power control theory, a patriarchal family is associated with which of the following? a. a cult of patriarchy b. a cult of sexism c. a cult of domesticity

d. a cult of masculinity

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Chap 06_9e 60. Which of the following is a myth about rape as described in the textbook? a. Men who commit rape are an “abnormal” group in society. b. The majority of sexual assaults are designated as unfounded. c. The act of rape has long-term impact on the woman. d. Many rapists do not believe that they have done anything wrong.

61. According to the 1993 Violence Against Women Survey, who is a woman most likely to experience violence

at the hands of? a. a teenager with poor impulse control b. a stranger who has not yet been identified as a predator c. an intimate partner or other man she knows d. a man on parole after a previous sexual assault conviction 62. In 1991, section 276 of the Criminal Code (the so-called “rape shield” provision) was struck down by the

Supreme Court. What was the rationale used by the court to rule that this provision was unconstitutional? a. because it could deny the accused his right to a fair trial b. because it effectively resulted in the victim being on trial c. because a women’s sexual past is key to the guilt or innocence of the accused d. because the complainant’s name may be released to the public at the time of the trial 63. Which of the following theories is designed to explain the sex difference in delinquency by drawing linkages

between the variations in parental control and the delinquent behaviour of boys and girls? a. social Darwinism b. power-control theory c. women's liberation thesis d. sex role socialization theory 64. Which of the following terms is used to describe the challenge of making mainstream theories “fit” female

criminality? a. the gender-ratio problem c. the feminist thesis

b. the women’s liberation thesis d. the generalizability problem

65. Under old English law, which of these situations would have been considered a “species of treason”? a. a man beating his children b. a woman killing her husband c. a husband having sex with his wife against her wishes d. a man beating his wife to death 66. Which of the following raises the issue of why women are less likely than men to be involved in crime? a. the gender-ratio problem b. the generalizability problem c. the feminist approach

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Chap 06_9e 67. Which of the following approaches to the study of criminality assumes that differences in the nature and scope

of offending between men and women are biologically based? a. liberal b. mainstream c. conservative d. feminist 68. State the main differences in rape laws before and after the 1983 legislative amendments. What are some of

the limitations of the new sexual assault laws and their interpretation in Canadian courts?

69. Describe how some mainstream theories of criminality have been applied to women and crime. What are some

of the critiques of attempts to apply mainstream theories to women and crime?

70. Discuss what is meant by the gender-ratio problem and describe the research that sought to explain this

problem.

71. Construct the biographical history of a fictitious person who illustrates what feminist criminologists refer to as

“the criminalized woman.”

72. List the main arguments of a feminist approach to understanding women and crime. What are the main causes

of female criminality according to this school of thought?

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Chap 06_9e 73. Describe the liberal approach to understanding the causes behind female criminality? What are the basic

assumptions underlying this school of thought? Provide at least two examples of theories provided in your textbook that could be considered part of this liberal approach.

74. What has been the legacy of early theories of women’s crime?

75. What is meant by the term the cultural construction of rape? List three myths that illustrate the cultural

construction of rape. For each, explain the myth, noting how it reinforces the use of sexual assault by men.

76. What is meant by the term “hegemonic masculinity”? How does it explain men’s criminality?

77. Describe what is meant by “pathways research” and how has it been revised to make research into women’s

crime more meaningful.

78. Describe how the practices of the criminal justice system perpetuate or condone violence against women.

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Chap 06_9e 79. Compare and contrast the conservative (biological) and the liberal (structuralist) approaches to understanding

female crime. List some of the differing assumptions for each that make them so different in how they seek to understand women and crime.

80. Describe how the inquiry into the missing and murdered Indigenous women in Canada has highlighted the

gendered and racialized nature of violence in Canada.

81. Describe the conservative approach to understanding female criminality. What is the basic assumption that

differentiates men from women in this school of thought? Provide at least two examples of theories provided in your textbook that could be considered part of this conservative approach. What are the main critiques of this conservative approach?

82. Describe what your textbook means by the “invisibility of women.” What accounts for this invisibility within the

realm of criminology? What are the implications (for criminology, crime prevention, and criminal justice) that result from the “invisibility of women”?

83. Discuss what is meant by the generalizability problem for criminological theories dealing with women and crime

and explain how criminologists have tended to respond to this problem.

84. List the main arguments of the women’s liberation thesis. What are some of the main critiques of this thesis?

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Chap 06_9e

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Chap 06_9e Answer Key 1. False 2. False 3. True 4. True 5. True 6. False 7. True 8. False 9. True 10. True 11. False 12. True 13. True 14. False 15. False 16. True 17. False 18. True 19. True 20. True 21. False 22. False 23. True 24. False 25. False 26. False

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Chap 06_9e 27. b 28. c 29. c 30. a 31. b 32. c 33. d 34. c 35. a 36. c 37. a 38. a 39. c 40. a 41. a 42. c 43. c 44. a 45. b 46. a 47. c 48. c 49. c 50. d 51. d 52. c 53. b 54. a Copyright Cengage Learning. Powered by Cognero.

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Chap 06_9e 55. a 56. b 57. b 58. b 59. c 60. a 61. c 62. a 63. b 64. d 65. b 66. a 67. c 68. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Prior to the 1983 amendments wives had a legal obligation to have sex with their husband and to respect his wishes.

- Husbands who raped their wives were not seen to have committed a crime.

- The legislation also required that there be corroboration of a crime, so without physical evidence of bruises or cuts no crime was seen to have been committed.

- After 1983 the rape law was repealed and three levels of sexual assault were created.

- Husbands could now be charged with raping their wives.

- Limitations were placed on the ability of the defence to ask questions about the past sexual history of a complainant.

- The corroboration requirement was dropped.

- There was no longer a recent complaint requirement.

- Complainants were now protected by publication ban.

- There is still evidence of rape myth acceptance and even judges have been found to hold such beliefs and use them in making their rulings.

- A continuing issue is the competing rights between the accused’s right to a fair trial and the right of the complainant to privacy.

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Chap 06_9e 69. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Mainstream theories have been criticized for their inability to provide explanations of crime that apply to women and they have been dubbed “malestream” rather than mainstream.

- Strain and differential association theories are examples of mainstream theories that have been criticized because they by their nature should explain a higher involvement of women in crime (poverty, lack of access to goals, etc.) but this does not bear out when we look at statistics.

- The generalizability and gender-ratio problem are examples of critiques of these theories.

70. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- This refers to the higher likelihood that men will be involved in crime than women and that the types of crimes committed by men and women differ.

- Pollak suggested that chivalry was the issue and that women are treated more leniently by the justice system than men. This was refuted by those who argued that chivalrous treatment would preserve women’s subordinate position in society and it was criticized for defining men as the norm to which women are to be compared.

71. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The answer should include references to marginalization, stereotypical gender roles, myth construction and perpetuation, race, gender, and poverty.

72. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Feminists argue that criminological research should not follow the same lines of reasoning when examining women’s crime as it has historically done.

- Defining categories of the criminal and non-criminal ignores the fact that women are defined by a number of roles that they hold including mother, daughter, sister, wife, etc.

- They propose that the language be changed from “criminal women” to “criminalized women” and acknowledge that there is no one explanation that can be applied to all women.

- Larger inequalities must be considered: class, race, and gender.

- Criminalized women tend to be young, poor, undereducated, and unskilled. They tend to be more likely to be involved in property crimes as a result of the feminization of poverty.

- In terms of race, Indigenous women in Canada are disproportionately represented in the criminal justice system.

- Gender inequality is reflected in women’s involvement in prostitution reflecting their subordinate social and economic position in society.

73. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The liberal approach takes more of a sociological focus and looks at differences between men and women that can be attributed to learning gendered behaviour.

- This approach examines the ways that men and women learn how to navigate the world according to gender.

- Roles, parenting styles, and societal norms are all put forward by the liberal approach to explain differences in men’s and women’s crimes.

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Chap 06_9e 74. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- As ridiculous as some early theories sound, there are elements that continue to influence research and justice practices today.

- Women are still often perceived as weak or sick and structural factors related to socialization and the roles of men and women continue to impact how they are perceived by the justice system.

75. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The cultural construction of rape refers to the lack of regard for male violence against females that is perpetuated by stereotypical myths and assumptions that are accepted to be true about men and women.

- Women ask for it in how they dress or behave: does not hold true for other types of crime but is willingly applied to sexual assault victims because women have lower status than men.

- Men have uncontrollable urges that can’t be stopped once they are turned on: oversimplification that ignores coercion, fear, and threats.

- No means yes: women are expected to follow stereotypical flirtatious behaviour and men are encouraged not to take no for an answer legitimizing rape.

- Women who have had past sexual relations are bad or loose and they deserve to be raped.

- Women are untrustworthy: They will make false accusations about men.

- Sexual assault does not really have any long-term impact: harm is denied.

- Men who rape are “abnormal”: this lets men off the hook when rape is seen as a women’s issue.

76. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Hegemonic masculinity is an ideal, stereotypical form of masculinity that associates masculinity with physical strength, aggression, independence, ambition, lack of emotion, and heterosexuality.

- Committing crimes allows men to fit this stylized version of masculinity in order to achieve gendered power.

77. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Pathways approaches looked for connections between women’s law violations and their histories of abuse.

- Questions have more recently been raised about the notion that there is a clear continuum and it led to blurring of boundaries between offender and victim.

- Rather than see this as a straight line, others suggest that it be conceptualized as a web with many issues, forces, and events playing a part in criminal behaviour.

78. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The beliefs about sexual violence in society translate into less chance of detection, higher acquittal rates, and lighter sentences.

- Sexual assault remains one of the most underreported crimes in Canada based on the acceptance of rape myths and the perpetuation of victim blaming.

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Chap 06_9e 79. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The conservative approach views women as biologically inferior to men.

- This approach assumes that women are incapable of functioning at the same level as men and that women’s crime comes from this inferiority or an inherent deceptiveness or evil.

- The liberal approach takes more of a sociological focus and looks at differences between men and women that can be attributed to learning gendered behaviour.

- This approach examines the ways that men and women learn how to navigate the world according to gender.

- Roles, parenting styles, and societal norms are all put forward by the liberal approach to explain differences in men’s and women’s crimes.

80. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The Stolen Sisters report points to cultural and systemic discrimination as playing a role in perpetuating the violence against Indigenous women.

- Indigenous women are five times more likely to die as a result of violence but this received little or no attention by the media and the criminal justice system.

- Indigenous women outline the risk factors highlighted by feminist criminologists who point to poverty, race, and gender as being the factors underlying women’s victimization as well as their crime. Many of the missing and murdered women live on the streets and experience marginalization based on all three of these factors.

81. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The conservative approach operates under the assumption that women are biologically inferior to men.

- Women who commited crime were viewed as particularly primitive, vile, and cruel.

- Theories proposed over the years that fit this approach include evolutionary theories that place women on an evolutionary continuum in a less advanced position to men.

- Thomas asserted that men and women differ in terms of biological instincts related to anger, fear, love, and the desire to gain status and power. Women need to be loved and this accounts for their criminality according to Thomas.

- The Gluecks perceived women to be feebleminded and psychopathic.

- Pollak spoke of the “masked” nature of women’s crime and believed that women were instigators of crime but that their deception allowed them to remain less detected than men.

82. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Historically, research was done on men by men and little research or energy was spent looking at women’s involvement in crime.

- Analysis of women and crime was described as “lonely uncharted seas.”

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Chap 06_9e 83. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The generalizability problem refers to the fact that theories of men’s crime can not be simply applied to or easily modified to fit women’s crime.

- Modifications were criticized for relying on idealized or romanticized versions of women’s lives rather than on reality.

- Revisions were criticized for taking an “add women and stir” approach.

84. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- This theory states that women’s crime will come to resemble that of men as they move toward equality in society.

- Changes to women’s employment outside the home will be reflected in their criminal involvement.

- Despite women’s increased involvement in the labour force, their white-collar offences remained minor when compared to men and the argument was put forward that this is because women still do not occupy positions of trust to the same extent as men.

- Women’s offences continue to be tied to poverty and inequality.

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Chap 07_9e Indicate whether the statement is true or false.

1. In 1967, Alberta became the first province to provide compensation for victims of crime in Canada. a. True b. False 2. Victims of crime can incur significant medical costs in Canada because the universal health care system does

not cover crime-related injuries. a. True b. False 3. International organizations agree that the needs of victims are best categorized as support, justice, and

governance. a. True b. False 4. One of the criticisms of the federal government in Canada in its approach to crime victims is that its

ombudsman has an overwhelmingly large staff and a budget that is too costly. a. True b. False 5. Victim impact statements have a significant impact on judicial sentencing decision making. a. True b. False 6. A victim fine surcharge is a monetary penalty that can be assessed against convicted criminal offenders to help

pay for victim services. a. True b. False 7. Victimization surveys in Canada are conducted annually. a. True b. False 8. Research suggests that offenders are more likely to reoffend if permitted to follow a restorative justice process

that involves meeting with the victim. a. True b. False 9. Services for crime victims in Canada lack the integration across sectors of the justice system that those in other

countries have. a. True b. False

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Chap 07_9e 10. One of the most common reasons cited by Canadians for not reporting victimization to the police is that they

didn’t feel it was important enough. a. True b. False 11. The Canadian Victims Bill of Rights was introduced in 1983 as part of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms. a. True b. False 12. In general, victims of crime do not have the right to any form of reparations for their losses. a. True b. False 13. One of the criticisms of the Victims Bill of Rights in Canada is that it does not provide sufficient information

about the role of police services in providing information to victims of crime. a. True b. False 14. Most women who are victims of sexual assault or rape report their victimization to the police. a. True b. False 15. Financial loss is the only harm that is considered in relation to the victims of crime. a. True b. False 16. Canada has truly become an international leader in establishing a comprehensive regime of rights for the victims

of crime. a. True b. False 17. Secondary victimization refers to the high likelihood that victims of violence will be victimized in similar

incidents within three years. a. True b. False 18. Most Canadian police services have well-established 911 policies related to victims that are routinely followed. a. True b. False 19. In Canada, only a small minority of people victimized by crime utilize victim service facilities. a. True b. False

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Chap 07_9e 20. In Canada in recent years, the percentage of victims of crime that have reported their victimization to the police

has been dropping. a. True b. False 21. One of the four steps Waller recommends for Canadian police services to reach international standards is to

hold police officers accountable for providing information in a timely manner to victims. a. True b. False 22. The most universally recognized mental health issue surrounding victimization is post-traumatic stress disorder. a. True b. False 23. Most victims of crime will see “their” offender convicted. a. True b. False 24. More emphasis on tough penalties for offenders is the best way to reduce the number of victims. a. True b. False 25. The best way to reduce harm to victims is to prevent victimization in the first place by investing in what we

know will reduce crime. a. True b. False 26. Many criminologists blame political pressure from victims of crime for the increases in incarceration that

politicians have implemented. a. True b. False 27. The chapter refers to victims of crimes as the orphans of the criminal justice system. a. True b. False Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

28. Which of the following does the textbook suggest is partially to blame for the slow progress to attain victim

rights in Canada? a. frequent changes in the Criminal Code b. reluctance on the part of victims to advocate for change c. resistance to change within the traditional criminal justice system d. lack of interest from the general public Copyright Cengage Learning. Powered by Cognero.

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Chap 07_9e 29. Which of the following are the four ways to rebalance justice for crime victims as advocated by Waller? a. model legislation, international collaboration, an amendment to the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, and

more research b. model legislation, an independently funded institute, social science evaluations, and an amendment to the Charter of Rights and Freedoms c. model legislation, international collaboration, an independently funded institute, and increased policing d. tougher laws, more policing, an independently funded institute, and an amendment to the Charter of Rights and Freedoms 30. According to research conducted in Australia and the UK, how do victims feel about restorative justice

processes? a. most victims had not heard of restorative justice b. they feel that they are ineffective c. they prefer them to traditional court d. they prefer them only in property crime cases 31. What is the primary goal of most restorative justice programs? a. reconciliation of the two parties b. reaching a verdict of guilt or innocence c. allowing the victim an opportunity to vent emotions d. punishing the offender 32. According to a Statistics Canada study (Allen, 2014) what percentage of adults who were known to be crime

victims were treated by victim service providers in Canada? a. 80% b. 50% c. 30% d. 10% 33. Which of the following decades marked the beginning of pioneering efforts to address the needs of victims of

crime? a. 1940s c. 1970s

b. 1960s d. 1980s

34. Which of the following is a tangible victim cost of crime? a. productivity losses b. victim services and compensation programs c. pain and suffering d. loss of life 35. In which of the following are most victims services units in Canada located? a. police b. courts c. non-government community groups Copyright Cengage Learning. Powered by Cognero.

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Chap 07_9e 36. According to a 2011 Department of Justice report, which of the following represents the single largest cost to

crime victims in Canada? a. health care b. stolen/damaged property c. victim services and compensation programs d. emotional pain and suffering 37. Which of the following expressions does this chapter use to refer to victims of crime within the criminal justice

system? a. problems c. survivors

b. orphans d. witnesses

38. Which of the following is one of the core rights of victims outlined in the textbook? a. the right to reparations b. the right to meet with the judge before trial c. the right to meet privately with the offender d. the right to address the court 39. Which of the following is a means through which a victim of a crime can seek restitution in Canada? a. engaging in a personal letter campaign to the chief of police b. a civil suit brought against the municipal government c. the wages of a criminal offender are garnished d. a restorative justice (victim–offender mediation) process 40. What is the trend for Canadian victims reporting their victimization to police? a. It has been declining. b. It has been increasing. c. It has stayed the same. d. There is insufficient data to determine a trend.

41. According to the textbook, who are the most common victims and offenders involved in sexual assault cases? a. common-law spouses b. students attending the same post-secondary institution c. residents of the same long-term care facility d. individuals out at the same bar late at night 42. Approximately what percentage of victims of crime who report to the police will see “their” offender

convicted? a. 24% b. 14% c. 10% d. 4% Copyright Cengage Learning. Powered by Cognero.

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Chap 07_9e 43. How frequently are victimization surveys administered in Canada? a. every year b. every two years c. every five years

d. every ten years

44. Which of the following most closely represents Waller’s proposed amendment to the Canadian Charter of

Rights and Freedoms? a. having victim rights respected and balanced fairly against the rights of the accused and having them heard through participation and representation equal to that of the accused b. having victim rights respected and balanced fairly against the rights of the accused/offender and having them heard through participation and representation that supersedes the rights of the accused/offender c. having victim rights respected and having them balanced fairly against the rights of the accused/offender d. having victim rights listed and respected 45. Which of the following is one of the rights spelled out in the Canadian Victims Bill of Rights? a. the right of the victim for legal standing in a criminal trial b. the right of the victim to information about the status of the investigation and criminal proceedings c. the right of the victim to determine the amount of compensation from the offender d. the right of the victim to have their moving expenses paid for by the offender 46. Which of the following best represents the key contribution of the World Society of Victimology to date? a. influencing the recognition by the United Nations that crimes are not just against the state b. hosting a major international symposium every three years c. identification and establishment of the Core Rights of Victims in North America d. offering graduate courses every year for police officers and other front-line workers 47. Which of the following does the textbook refer to as the Magna Carta for Victims? a. the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (1983) b. UN Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power (1985) c. the Canadian Victims Bill of Rights (2014) d. the US Crime Victim Rights Act (2004) 48. According to victimization surveys in Canada, what percentage of adults report more than one victimization in

the past year? a. 10% b. 20% c. 30% d. 40%

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Chap 07_9e 49. Which of the following best represents the three-pronged approach to reducing victimization called for by the

United Nations and other influential bodies? a. enforcement, community treatment for persons at risk of offending, and prevention b. increased opportunities, community treatment for persons at risk of offending, and prevention c. enforcement, prevention, and restitution for victims d. enforcement, prosecution, and incarceration 50. Which of the following best represents a victim fine surcharge? a. Police fine individuals who fraudulently pretend to be victims of crime to collect compensation. b. The court fines an offender as part of his or her criminal sentence. c. The provincial government sues an offender to help pay for victim service units. d. The police levy a charge to victims to help re-coup policing costs.

51. Which of the following is an example of “secondary victimization”? a. being victimized again with a year of the initial incident b. retelling the story of the incident several times with police and court officials c. trying to Bloom’s Remember what the offender looked like d. staying calm enough to call the police at the time of the incident 52. Your friend is interested in working in a sexual assault crisis centre in Canada. What can you tell her about this

work now that you have read Chapter 7? a. The agencies are mainly located in urban areas and they provide effective supports, but the pay is much less than that earned by other justice professionals. b. There are no agencies available in half of Canadian provinces, a small fee to use the services of the facility is required, and it is difficult to be hired because staff do not leave these excellent jobs. c. For most agencies care is provided only for those who have first contacted the police to report a crime, so many agencies are closing due to lack of numbers and this is not a productive field to work in. d. Most services provide care for women and children only, they rarely hire because staff turnover is low, and the quality of life is good because most are rurally located.

53. Which of the following statements best captures the status of police service practices for working with victims

of crime? a. Victim services units have only been established in some police services and there is no systematic data on how many victims are assisted and how effectively. b. Victim services units have been set up in all police services in Canada, and training of all officers is well established. c. There is strong relationship between police services and mental health support agencies so most victims are effectively referred to these supports for assistance. d. Police have become much more effective in dealing with victims and offenders and data supports an improvement in service to both.

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Chap 07_9e 54. Which province was the first in Canada to provide compensation to victims of violent crime? a. Alberta b. Saskatchewan c. Ontario

d. Quebec

55. According to the textbook, a significant shift is needed in the way Canadian police respond to victims of crime.

Which of the following is one of the four steps Canadian police need to do in order to reach international standards, as recommended by Waller (2010)? a. Improve the proportion of victims reporting to police. b. Establish victim assistance units. c. Faster response times for 911 calls. d. More emphasis on a zero tolerance approach to domestic violence by police.

56. Which of the following is the most important contribution that the Stop Now and Plan (SNAP) initiative can

make to reduce crime? a. It teaches children and youth how to access victim services units. b. It helps children overcome factors that may put them at risk of future criminal behaviour. c. It helps reduce the opportunity for a crime to occur in a specific time and place. d. It teaches children and youth how to avoid being victimized in the future.

57. Within the context of the rights of crime victims, what does the right to reparations refer to? a. the right to know everything about the offender b. the right to see the evidence the offender will be presenting in his/her trial defence c. the right to receive restitution from the offender and/or compensation from the state d. the right to engage in a reparative justice process in which the victim can confront the offender 58. According to this chapter, which is the best way to reduce victimization and the resulting harms and costs? a. tough on crime legislation b. more resources for victim service units c. preventing crime from occurring in the first place d. more police resources 59. Which of the following most accurately describes the rights for victims of crime in French courts? a. They have legal standing in a criminal court and legal standing in civil proceedings. b. They have legal standing in a criminal court but no legal standing in civil proceedings. c. They have neither legal standing in a criminal court nor legal standing in civil proceedings. d. They have legal standing in civil proceedings but no legal standing in a criminal court.

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Chap 07_9e 60. What does the Victims Bill of Rights advocate for with regard to victims’ right to participation? a. The opportunity to write new guidelines themselves to be included in judicial practice. b. The right to provide sentencing guidelines based on personal assessments of harm. c. The right to convey views about decisions and to present and have a victim impact statement

considered. d. The opportunity to provide direct involvement in the treatment plans of offenders of violent crimes.

61. Which branch of the criminal justice system is the costliest? a. corrections b. police c. prosecution

d. victim services

62. Which of the following is the most accurate depiction of the office of the federal Ombudsman for Victims when

it was established by the Canadian government in 2007? a. It had a small staff and budget. b. It had a large staff with a significant budget. c. It became a model for the rest of the world. d. It was derided as a useless instrument of the government to protect victim rights.

63. Which of the following was one of the groups responsible for implementing initiatives to address the unique

needs of victims? a. parents of murdered children c. judges

b. offenders who expressed remorse d. social service agencies

64. Which of the following is a major component of the UN Resolution on the Declaration of Basic Principles of

Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power of 1985? a. to implement new standards for interrogating witnesses and offenders b. to prevent victimization through stricter sentencing guidelines c. to shift the justice systems from an offender focus to one balancing offenders and the needs of victims d. to ensure national governments paid for the costs of pain and suffering incurred by victims of crimes 65. Which of the following is one of the critiques of the Canadian Victim Bill of Rights? a. It does not allow victims to access information about their court cases. b. It does not specify how victims will be protected from future victimization. c. It does not provide victims access to restitution from the offender. d. It does not provide victims with the right to participate in criminal justice proceedings that affect them.

66. According to the General Social Survey, who is most likely to be an adult victim of crime in Canada? a. an 80-year-old female b. a 50-year-old male c. a 40-year-old female

d. a 22-year-old male

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Chap 07_9e 67. Which of the following government policies best represents the term “the prevention dividend”? a. greater investments in programs that work to prevent crime and criminal behaviour b. a financial dividend provided by governments to people who take measures to avoid being victimized c. a private-sector initiative that helps business avoid victimization d. funding provided to community groups by provincial governments to establish victim services units 68. Which of the following statements best summarizes the effectiveness of the victim surcharge process? a. it provides the bulk of the funding for all victim services b. it is not consistently applied by judges c. it has not been started in Canada as of yet d. only judges in Manitoba use this process 69. According to a 2011 report by the Department of Justice, which of the following figures is closest to the total

annual cost of harm to crime victims in Canada in 2008? a. $100 million b. $1 billion c. $10 billion d. $100 billion 70. According to the textbook, which is a predominant hypothesis as to why Canadian crime victims report their

victimization to police at a lower rate compared to victims in other countries? a. Canadian victims are too busy. b. Victim services and compensation are not available or well known to Canadian victims. c. Canadian victims know they have little hope of getting their stolen goods returned by police. d. Police are notoriously slow to respond to crimes in Canada.

71. Compare and contrast the Canadian Victims Bill of Rights to the American federal Victim Rights Bill. What are

some of the critiques of the Canadian version when compared to its American counterpart?

72. Explain what a victim fine surcharge is and how it works.

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Chap 07_9e 73. Describe the key steps a victim must undertake to obtain restitution from an offender. Suggest some difficulties

in getting this accomplished in Canada.

74. What is meant by the term “prevention dividend”? Give an example of how such a dividend could be earned.

.

75. What is the most universally recognized mental health issue experienced by victims of crime and how does it

impact individuals?

76. Identify and summarize the model law on victim services that Waller suggests could be adopted by Canadian

provinces.

77. Why does this chapter refer to victims as the “orphans” of the criminal justice system? Explain why shifting the

criminal justice system from a focus on the offender toward the needs of victims has been such a slow process.

78. To what extent are restorative justice initiatives used in Canada? How do they differ from traditional approaches to crime where victims are concerned?

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Chap 07_9e 79. What types of costs do victims, their families, and various justice agencies experience as a result of crime?

80. Identify and describe the different types of services and facilities available to crime victims in Canada.

81. Identify and describe the origins of victims’ rights policies and programs in Canada.

82. What have been some of the criticisms of police initiatives to help the victims of crime in Canada?

83. Identify and describe the four steps that Canadian police services must take to reach international standards in

their response to victims of crimes.

84. While Canada seems to lag behind other countries in terms of supports to victims of crime, there are some

unique programs available to victims including for those who have experienced sexual assault. Outline the services provided by Nina’s Place in Burlington, Ontario.

85. The text states that some individuals are at greater risk of victimization than others. Explain why this is the case.

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Chap 07_9e Answer Key 1. False 2. False 3. True 4. False 5. False 6. True 7. False 8. False 9. True 10. True 11. False 12. False 13. True 14. False 15. False 16. False 17. False 18. False 19. True 20. True 21. True 22. True 23. False 24. False 25. True 26. True

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Chap 07_9e 27. True 28. c 29. b 30. c 31. a 32. d 33. b 34. a 35. a 36. d 37. b 38. a 39. d 40. a 41. b 42. d 43. c 44. a 45. b 46. a 47. b 48. d 49. a 50. b 51. b 52. a 53. a 54. b Copyright Cengage Learning. Powered by Cognero.

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Chap 07_9e 55. a 56. c 57. c 58. c 59. a 60. c 61. b 62. a 63. a 64. c 65. b 66. d 67. a 68. b 69. d 70. b 71. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- On all fronts the US Federal Victim Rights Act is as or more comprehensive than the Canadian Victims Bill of Rights.

- This applies to information about the proceedings, information about the offender, compensation, and specific involvement in making statements of impact.

72. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- This is a penalty like a fine that is ordered by a judge at sentencing, or it could be in addition to a fine and can only be used to fund services for victims including support services and compensation money.

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Chap 07_9e 73. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- In the US restitution is paid to the victim if the following steps are followed: 1. Victim requests it in writing 2. Victim demonstrates losses 3. The offender’s assets, income, and liabilities are identified at the beginning of the justice process 4. Restitution payments are made automatic 5. Payments are monitored 6. Compliance is enforced 7. Restitution payments are made the priority over other government payments such as fines - In Canada, it is not known how consistently restitution is considered, ordered by the courts, or actually paid out.

74. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The prevention dividend refers to a cost–benefit analysis that demonstrates that spending money on crime prevention programs saves money and harm through reduced crime rates.

75. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) manifests in a number of ways and it includes symptoms that exceed the expected shock, numbness, and disorientation following a victimization experience.

- Some common symptoms of PTSD include difficulty sleeping, reliving the experience mentally, avoidance of normal situations that now trigger upsetting memories, etc.

76. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Waller’s model law includes support, justice, and good government.

- Support refers to recognition, information, and assistance for victims of crime.

- Justice includes provisions for restitution, repayment, protection, participation, and representation.

- Good government outlines effective policies to reduce victimization and implementation.

77. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Victimology is not the subject of as much research or attention in post-secondary education as criminology and the text states that victims are the orphans of criminology because they receive far less attention than offenders.

- The shift to including victims in conversations about crime has been slow because it has not been seen as an important part of prevention and addressing rehabilitation and reintegration of offenders.

- Reactive policing, mass incarceration, and longer prison sentences satisfy public outcry more effectively than addressing victims’ needs and rights.

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Chap 07_9e 78. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- In the 1980s there was a move to spread restorative initiatives across Canada after they gained popularity in Ontario.

- While the discussion is rich in classrooms, they have not been embraced as extensively in practice.

- Research in Australia and the UK found that victims prefer these approaches because they lead to lower recidivism rates.

79. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Costs to the victim can include the impact of physical injury such as broken bones, cuts, disease; emotional trauma expressed as anger, fear, depression, or post-traumatic stress disorder; financial losses resulting from stolen or damaged property and medical care costs.

- These costs can be heightened by financial costs associated with travel and missing work for required interviews, meetings, or court attendance and the emotional trauma of reliving these events.

- There are also costs to various departments in the criminal justice system such as police, courts, and corrections and costs to family members (emotional and financial).

80. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Health care services are available without charge to Canadians to address physical injuries, disease, and pregnancy resulting from crime.

- Emotional and psychological supports are less clearly outlined.

- Most victim supports are available through police services, some through community agencies, a few through the courts, and others in sexual assault crisis centres.

- There are not enough supports available for all crime victims, nor are they well advertised so that victims readily know where to go or how to access them.

- Some examples in Ontario include Victim Assistance and Referral Services (VCARS), Victim Quick Response Program (VQRP), Victim Support Line (VSL), Sexual Assault/Rape Crisis Centres (SACs), Victim/Witness Assistance Program (VWAP), Criminal Injuries Compensation Board (CICB).

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Chap 07_9e 81. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The initial shifts in policies to focus some attention on victims of crime happened in Canada in the 1960s.

- Saskatchewan began to provide compensation to victims of violent crime in the 1970s.

- In the early 1980s a federal–provincial task force made recommendations to begin to address the nature of victimization and provide some guidelines for services to address their needs.

- Canada expressed support for the UN General Assembly declaration for basic human rights for victims of crime but resistance to change within the traditional criminal justice system impeded progress.

- Manitoba adopted a victim surcharge in 1986.

- In 1988 the federal and provincial ministers agreed to a Canadian Statement of Principles of Justice but this fell short of the scope set out by the UN. - Various reports and recommendations have been made since but many have fallen short of actually delivering change.

- The Federal Ombudsman for Victims of Crime was established in 2007 and in 2014 the Victims Bill of Rights was introduced.

- While this has many positive elements it is criticized for not going far enough to provide tangible supports for victims of crime.

82. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Reports of victimization to police are dropping in Canada and it is speculated that this is because of the lack of services and compensation.

- Results of surveys asking why Canadians did not report crime to the police indicate that victims may not have perceived the crime to be serious enough, may not have believed the police could do anything about it, felt that the crime could be dealt with another way, or didn’t want to have outside involvement in a personal matter.

- Also of issue is the police response to women who are victims of sexual or domestic violence.

- Statistics indicate that less than 4% of victims see the offender of their crime convicted and this could lead to a lack of confidence in the system.

- Police services do not have consistent supports in place when dealing with victims at or after calls for service.

83. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

1. Improve the proportion of victims reporting crimes to police and hold officers accountable for providing timely information to them about services available.

2. Work to better meet the needs of victims who are women, children, Indigenous, or disabled.

3. Implement the International Association of Chiefs of Police strategy to make victims a primary concern of law enforcement.

4. Independently survey victims to ensure that their core needs are met.

84. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Nina’s Place provides a wrap-around approach including health care, police services, and other agency referrals.

- No police contact is required to access the services and yet they provide all of the forensic elements that would be needed if the victim decided to involve the police.

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Chap 07_9e 85. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Approximately 40% of those who have been crime victims will be victimized again within 12 months.

- Those at highest risk of victimization seem to be women, Indigenous people, youth between the ages of 20 and 24, those using drugs and alcohol, those who are often out at night, those with mental health concerns, members of the LBGTQ community, those who experienced abuse as a child, and the homeless.

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Chap 08_9e Indicate whether the statement is true or false.

1. Positive theorists believed that crime was caused largely by social factors, such as poverty. a. True b. False 2. According to the Classical School, the social contract between the state and its citizens meant that punishment

should be very harsh as this was necessary to deter criminals and protect citizens. a. True b. False 3. The Neoclassical school was important because it introduced the idea that punishment should take into

consideration the circumstances of individual offenders. a. True b. False 4. These reforms brought about by the Classical School provided the foundation for the modern criminal justice

system. a. True b. False 5. A focus on pathological differences between criminals and non-criminals allows for greater attention on social

structure issues that contribute to crime. a. True b. False 6. For Classical School theorists, punishments do not need to be severe as long as they are swift and certain. a. True b. False 7. One of the contributions of the Statistical School was the use of maps to plot out crime, which is still used

today. a. True b. False 8. Goddard’s research argued that feeble-minded people were more apt to be criminals. a. True b. False 9. Despite evidence criticizing the link between intelligence and crime, thousands of people in North America with

intellectual disabilities were institutionalized and even sterilized. a. True b. False

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Chap 08_9e 10. According to the Classical School, crime is considered an irrational behaviour committed by intellectually

inferior people. a. True b. False 11. On the basis of their height and weight, Hooton argued that criminals were biologically superior organisms. a. True b. False 12. One of the specific reforms that emerged from the Classical School was that judges should be given more

independent power to ensure justice is carried out. a. True b. False 13. The Classical School of crime brought about notions of due process and rights that are still reflected in our

criminal justice system. a. True b. False 14. Prior to the 18th century “theories” of criminal behaviour were inspired by religious beliefs and superstition a. True b. False 15. Positive theorists claimed that crime could be controlled if society designed punishments to fit the crime. a. True b. False 16. According to Beccaria, the best way to prevent crime in the long run is through the use of the most severe

punishment possible. a. True b. False 17. Prior to the 18th century, wrongdoing by human beings was thought to be due to social factors. a. True b. False 18. Tortures used to drive evil spirits from the body were generally successful and those who were deemed

innocent went on to live healthy lives. a. True b. False 19. The Statistical School’s focus on biology simply created a resurgence of the challenges that had been present

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Chap 08_9e 20. Lombroso’s theories focused on a physically distinct type of individual with atavistic qualities who would be

most likely to commit crime. a. True b. False 21. According to the Classical theory of crime the most effective and just deterrent was for the punishment to fit

the crime. a. True b. False 22. During the medieval period in Europe, many people who were branded as heretics and criminals and punished

by the state were often reformers who were challenging the status quo. a. True b. False 23. During the 1950s Sheldon advanced a theory that drew a correlation between personality types and criminal

behaviour. a. True b. False 24. Indeterminate sentences are a legacy of the Positive School as they were seen as the only option for born

criminals. a. True b. False 25. Today, the evidence supporting a link between biological or intellectual deficiencies and criminal behaviour is

very strong. a. True b. False 26. Despite the fact that their theories are now refuted, most of the researchers discussed in this chapter employed

very rigorous research methods. a. True b. False 27. In the 15th century, charges of witchcraft served to reassert the authority of male leaders. a. True b. False Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

28. According to Goring, which of the following was the most important correlate of criminality? a. low intelligence b. social deprivation c. lack of self-control

d. physique or body type

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Chap 08_9e 29. What “humane” approach did the Positive School offer with regard to dealing with crime? a. Linkages to poverty and social status allowed for indeterminate sentences to be justified. b. The assurance that social structure factors were the primary causes of crime provided better options for

treatment. c. Knowing that biology was the primary cause of crime gave the public confidence in the justice system. d. Scientific study could be used to determine the most appropriate treatment for deviant individuals.

30. According to the Classical School, which of the following should punishment be proportionate with? a. the state b. the crime c. the Lord

d. the criminal

31. What was one of the reforms that directly resulted from the ideas of the neoclassical theorists? a. France’s penal code was revised to include more discretion for judges as well as consideration of

extenuating circumstances. b. France’s penal code was revised to include less discretion for judges so they could not take into consideration extenuating circumstances. c. Greater severity in punishment by judges in France in order to better deter would-be criminals d. Expert court testimony by criminologists who were able to determine whether a defendant was guilty

based on his physical characteristics.

32. Prior to the 18th century, theories about crime causation were largely based on which of the following? a. superstition and religious beliefs b. biology and heredity c. heredity and religious beliefs

d. natural causes and the environment

33. What was Goddard’s main research finding into the legitimate and illegitimate offspring of Martin Kallikak? a. Feeble-mindedness and criminality were inherited. b. Body type and criminally were inherited. c. Social factors were highly influential in criminal behaviour. d. Atavism and criminality was inherited.

34. Which of the following were key notions that the Classical School of crime was based on? a. policy, religion, and justice b. punishment, retribution, and deterrence c. rights, fairness, and due process

d. sin, temptation, and possession

35. Which of the following best represents Lombroso’s recommendation on how born criminals should be treated

by the judicial system? a. They should be incarcerated but treated humanely as they have no control over their behaviour. b. Stiff penalties should be imposed so as to deter criminals from future crimes. c. They should be executed or else they may reproduce genetically inferior offspring. d. They should be treated at mental institutions to correct any psychological defects.

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Chap 08_9e 36. Which of the following specific reforms did Beccaria call for? a. reducing due process b. setting out punishments in law c. executions for minor offences

d. increasing judges’ power

37. Which of the following practices were used historically to address possession by the devil which was thought

to be responsible for criminal behaviour? a. family interventions b. torturous water trials c. immersion in Judeo-Christian training d. threats of banishment 38. According to Lombroso, which of these groups would be expected to exhibit the greatest number of stigmata? a. the criminally insane b. criminaloids c. born criminals

d. mesomorphs

39. According to the Positive School, punishment should fit which of the following? a. the criminal b. the crime c. the prison

d. the state

40. Which of the following best represents Sheldon’s somatotype theory? a. Someone’s body type could predict criminal behaviour. b. Someone’s intellect could predict criminal behaviour. c. The shape of someone’s head could predict criminal behaviour. d. The social environment in which one lives could predict criminal behaviour.

41. Which of the following was a principal critique of the Classical School of criminology by the neoclassical

theorists? a. Classical theorists did not consider inequalities and other factors that may influence decisions to commit a crime. b. Classical theorists did not base findings on subjects who were representative of the criminal population as a whole. c. Classical theorists overemphasized the role of supernatural forces or demonic possession as causes of criminal behaviour. d. Classical theorists ignored the importance of punitive sentencing as a deterrent to would-be criminals.

42. Which of the following philosophies was part of the Classical School of criminology? a. feminism b. egalitarianism c. Darwinism

d. utilitarianism

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Chap 08_9e 43. Which of the following scientific theories had the greatest impact on Lombroso’s theories of criminality? a. Einstein’s theory of relativity b. the Bible’s theory of creation c. Darwin’s theory of evolution d. Beccaria’s theory of crime and punishment 44. Which of the following statements is reflective of the Classical theory’s perspective on why people break the

law? a. If we don’t know any better we will make mistakes. b. If we need it we will take it. c. If we think we can get away with it we will break the law. d. If the devil makes us do it we can’t help ourselves.

45. Which of the following concepts best represents the intentions of a judge handing down a sentence of life

imprisonment in order to send a message to others who might commit the same crime? a. rehabilitation b. deterrence c. rehabilitation d. vengeance 46. Which of the following best represents Lombroso and colleagues’ conclusions regarding criminal behaviour? a. Crime is caused by biological factors beyond the individual’s control. b. Crime is caused by social factors beyond the individual’s control. c. Crime is caused by supernatural factors beyond the individual’s control. d. Crime is caused by personality factors beyond the individual’s control.

47. Which of the following was the first to use scientific methods to study crime and criminality? a. the Classical School b. the Neo-classical School c. the Positive School

d. the Biological School

48. Which of the following is one of the extenuating circumstances emphasized by Neoclassical theorists as part of

their reforms to the offender sentencing? a. IQ b. gender c. mitigating circumstances

d. attire

49. Which Canadian province was successfully sued for sterilizing an individual mistakenly labelled as mentally

retarded? a. Ontario c. British Columbia

b. Alberta d. Quebec

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Chap 08_9e 50. Beccaria argued that punishment for crimes should be swift and certain for what reason? a. in order to drive out the Devil b. to protect the rights of citizens c. in order to effectively deter further crimes d. to avoid overcrowded jails 51. Which of the following can be considered a limitation of the Classical School? a. Due process safeguards were never built into the legal system. b. Characteristics of the offender and the circumstances of the offence could not be considered at

sentencing. c. Judicial and legislative functions could not be separated, with the result that politicians often decided who should be executed. d. Fixed penalties could be set for only minor offences.

52. For Beccaria, which two factors are most important for punishment to be effective in deterring crime? a. the certainty and reliability of punishment b. the severity and swiftness of punishment c. the severity and certainty of punishment

d. the certainty and swiftness of punishment

53. What can we learn from studying the science conducted by the Nazi regime in Germany? a. It was based on highly questionable research methods and should be completely disregarded. b. There was a similarity between Nazi science and modern science to the extent that large subject pools

were used. c. It did nothing to advance our understanding of criminal behaviour given their backward perspectives on behaviour. d. It was not significantly different from modern science and we must remain critical of scientific methods and results.

54. Which of the following best represents the perspective of the Statistical School of crime? a. People are not always rational beings; their behaviour is influenced by a number of social structural

factors. b. People are highly rational beings; their decisions are influenced solely by their weighing costs and benefits. c. People are highly impulsive; they can not be deterred even through tough laws. d. People’s behaviour is highly influenced by biological factors, which can not be altered by social factors.

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Chap 08_9e 55. Prior to the 18th century, theories about crime causation included which of the following beliefs? a. Crime could be reduced if punishments fit the crimes and were well documented because criminals

would calculate that they could not profit from their actions. b. People exercise their free will and choose to act in particular ways, even ways they know to be wrong, because the Devil is tempting them. c. Crime, like other human behaviour, is the result of natural causes and hence can be altered by applying scientifically derived knowledge. d. Criminals are throwbacks to an earlier stage of evolution.

56. Cesare Lombroso, Raffaelo Garofolo, and Enrico Ferri were all associated with which of the following

criminological schools? a. the Classical School b. the Enlightenment School c. the Statistical School d. the Positive School 57. Lombroso used the term “atavism” to characterize what type of criminals? a. “morons” or people with very low intellectual functioning b. overly greedy individuals who only seek personal gain c. throwbacks to an earlier stage of human evolution d. individuals with little or no self-control 58. According to Sheldon and the Gluecks, which body type is most closely associated with delinquency? a. the psychomorph b. the ectomorph c. the endomorph

d. the mesomorph

59. In which of the following periods of European history did the classical school emerge and hence was most

influenced by? a. Medieval times c. the Enlightenment

b. the Resistance d. the Middle Ages

60. Which of the following traits is associated with Sheldon’s mesomorph body type? a. easygoing personality b. sensitivity to pain c. introversion

d. aggression

61. Which of the following aspects of the modern criminal justice system was influenced by Lombroso and the

Positive School of criminology? a. sentencing circles b. psychiatric treatment c. indeterminate sentences d. the adversarial court system 62. Which of the following categories of people were most likely to be executed for witchcraft in Europe? a. unwanted wives of powerful men b. the elderly, the infirm, and children c. economically independent men Copyright Cengage Learning. Powered by Cognero.

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Chap 08_9e 63. Which of the following statements characterizes the work of the Statistical school of crime? a. They employed statistical methods to determine the relationship between certain factors and crime. b. They felt that crime was the result of common individual motivations. c. They noted the chaotic distribution of criminal behaviour over time and across areas. d. They argued that criminals were the product of genetic defects 64. In pre-18th-century Europe, which of the following steps was often taken against individuals perceived as

threatening the existing political authority? a. They were charged with vandalism. b. They were charged with sedition. c. They were charged with treason.

d. They were charged with witchcraft.

65. Which of the following best represents the contribution of the Neoclassical school of criminology? a. It used classical Greek philosophy to inform theories of criminality and criminal justice. b. It helped usher in greater flexibility in the justice system, especially in sentencing offenders. c. It introduced the use of statistical data gathering and analysis into criminology. d. It demonstrated how biological factors can interact with social factors to produce criminals.

66. The Statistical School of criminology is said to have great influence on a future discipline that itself would

greatly influence the study of crime. Which of the following disciplinary approaches to the study of crime was influenced by the Statistical School? a. medical b. biological c. psychological d. sociological 67. Which of the following was the focus of Beccaria’s “An Essay on Crime and Punishments” published in 1764? a. the rationales for the death penalty b. the use of imprisonment as punishment for crime c. the theoretical and practical underpinnings of rehabilitation d. the cruelty and inhumanity of the criminal justice system of his time 68. Which of the following elements do biological theories of criminality ignore or disregard? a. variations in heart rate and criminality b. hormonal variations as precursors to crime c. chromosomal links to criminality d. crime is defined differently across societies

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Chap 08_9e 69. Which of the following statements best describes the nature of the relationship between low IQ and

criminality? a. there is a strong positive relationship that has resulted in long-standing sterilization policies b. it is controversial and any relationship points more to testing bias than criminality c. the negative relationship between IQ and criminality has resulted in severe penalties for those who abuse people with low IQs d. the nature of the relationship is unclear but those with low IQs are now provided with optional sterilization 70. Discuss how the Classical theories of crime influenced the modern criminal justice system. What specific

reforms were proposed that are still influential in Canada’s criminal justice system today?

71. Goring proposed a high correlation between criminality and inherited low intelligence. How did his focus on

heredity differ from Lombroso’s?

72. What types of people were most likely to be executed for witchcraft in Western Europe during the 15th

century? Why?

73. Lombroso initially identified two types of criminals and later expanded his list to include several other types.

Identify his categories and describe each.

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Chap 08_9e 74. The textbook outlines elements of the current criminal justice system that have been influenced by Lombroso’s

work. Identify several of these elements and Lombroso’s influence on them.

75. Describe the basic theories of Lombroso and the Positive School of criminology. Discuss the evolutionary

focus of the Positive School and its implications.

76. Describe the theories of the Statistical School of crime. How did it differ from the Classical and Neoclassical

Schools of thought? What contributions to the study of crime emanated from the Statistical School?

77. How did Classical criminology and the social contract theory view the nature of the relationship between

people and the state? What was the corresponding view about crime?

78. Explain how elites used religious ideas to combat challenges to their power.

79. Describe William Sheldon’s research into linkages between body type and criminality. How did the Gluecks

fare in their own follow-up research into the concepts introduced by Sheldon?

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Chap 08_9e 80. Lombroso described criminals as “atavistic.” What did he mean?

81. The proposed linkages between criminality and low IQ have continued through the years since Lombroso and

Goring’s work. What has more recent research revealed about the validity of IQ tests?

82. Outline two limitations of the Classical School theory described in the text.

83. What inspired theories of crime before the 18th century? Discuss the two primary explanations for sinful

behaviour and how wrongdoers were treated.

84. Describe how the eugenics movement, inspired by biological theories of crime, gained prominence. What

lessons can criminologists learn from this case study?

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Chap 08_9e Answer Key 1. False 2. False 3. True 4. True 5. True 6. True 7. True 8. True 9. True 10. False 11. False 12. False 13. True 14. True 15. False 16. False 17. False 18. False 19. False 20. True 21. True 22. True 23. False 24. True 25. False 26. False

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Chap 08_9e 27. True 28. a 29. d 30. b 31. a 32. a 33. a 34. c 35. a 36. b 37. b 38. c 39. a 40. a 41. a 42. d 43. c 44. c 45. b 46. a 47. c 48. c 49. b 50. c 51. b 52. d 53. d 54. a Copyright Cengage Learning. Powered by Cognero.

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Chap 08_9e 55. b 56. d 57. c 58. d 59. c 60. d 61. c 62. d 63. a 64. d 65. b 66. d 67. d 68. d 69. a 70. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Due process and equality before the law.

- Beccaria’s work directly influenced the legal code of France, portions of the US Bill of Rights, and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms section guaranteeing the right to equal treatment before and under the law.

- Protection from cruel and unusual punishment and other safeguards related to due process.

71. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Goring used more precise statistical methods and measurements than Lombroso.

- Unlike Lombroso, Goring felt that hereditary predispositions toward crime could be modified by social factors (i.e. education).

72. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The vast majority of those executed for witchcraft were women, especially those not dependent on men, those who were not part of the power or elite groups at the time.

- Women were targeted as they were seen as a threat to male domination, and by accusing them of witchcraft and punishing them accordingly men bolstered their status in the community.

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Chap 08_9e 73. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The initial categories were born criminals and occasional criminals.

- Later additions were epileptics, who were seen to be medically inferior; criminal insane, who were deemed mentally inferior; criminals of passion, who were motivated by love or politics; and criminaloids, who included all who did not meet any of the previous definitions.

74. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Probation and Parole—take into consideration individual characteristics of offenders and allow supervision to be tailored to risk level.

- Indeterminate Sentences—address the more serious offenders who require extensive rehabilitation.

- Consideration of mitigating circumstances by the courts—allows high-risk offenders to be incarcerated for lengthy timeframes in order to protect the public.

75. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Lombroso used the scientific method to conduct research comparing criminals to non criminals.

- Lombroso was influenced by the evolutionary theories of Charles Darwin as well as sociologists Comte and Spencer.

- The major focus was on showing that criminals were genetically different from non-criminals. Specifically, criminals were deemed to be genetically less advanced.

- The most significant consequence of this perspective was the implementation of eugenics practices that promoted the sterilization or elimination of those deemed to be inferior.

76. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Guerry, Quetlet, and Mayhew were the primary researchers behind this perspective, who believed that crime was the result of natural causes. They relied on objective empirical data for their research rather than speculation like the Classical theorists before them.

- Members of the Statistical School saw behaviour as a result of a variety of factors and they used statistical analysis of population density, education, and poverty as well as geography in order to examine crime rates and trends.

- Many of their theories were sociological in nature as they addressed criminal careers, delinquent subcultures, and social learning theory.

- While the Statistical School itself did not create significant and long-lasting influence, its theorists are credited for highlighting the importance of examining crime and factors that may be related to it through empirical observations and theoretical formulations.

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Chap 08_9e 77. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- In order to avoid poverty and disadvantage people voluntarily entered into a social contract with the state. This involved giving up some of their freedom to the state in return for protection from the state.

- Under this view crime was committed by those who thought they could benefit from the proceeds and were likely to get away with the criminal actions.

- This was a shift from the earlier notion that crime was a result of supernatural possession.

- In line with this theory, a system of punishments was established that were proportionate with different types of crime. If individuals knew of the potential punishment and calculated risk and benefit, they would be less likely to engage in criminal activity.

- The accountability of the social contract kept punishments fair.

- The focus was now shifted from the act to the actor and judicial discretion was limited to avoid arbitrary punishment practices.

78. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Those in power were being held accountable for social problems so they used the idea that the Devil and other evil spirits were responsible in order to deflect blame from themselves.

- They presented the idea that they were the only ones who could ward off the Devil through their power and knowledge in order to make themselves indispensible.

79. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Sheldon’s somatotype theory outlined three body types: endomorphs, ectomorphs, and mesomorphs.

- His conclusion was that the muscular mesomorphs were most likely to become involved in crime.

- His findings were vague and deemed scientifically meaningless.

- The Gluecks applied Sheldon’s somatotypes theory to juvenile delinquents and also concluded that mesomorphs were more likely to be criminals.

- Their conclusions differed from Sheldon’s in that they noted that mesomorphs look like stereotypical offenders more than the endomorphs and ectomorphs. This finding led them to theorize that mesomorphs may be more likely to be labelled and treated as delinquent based on their appearance and they may also be more suited to delinquent behaviour based on their fitness or muscularity.

80. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Lombroso believed that criminals were throwbacks to earlier stages of evolution.

- Gould described Lombroso’s perspective on criminals by saying that criminals are driven to engage in bad behaviour in an ape-like or savage manner.

- The atavistic qualities were physical (stigmata) and mental.

- Physically, criminals possessed specific stigmata that differentiated them from non-criminals including robbers having small, shifty eyes and murderers having cold, motionless eyes.

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Chap 08_9e 81. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- More recent research has suggested that IQ scores may say more about test taking than about intelligence.

- Findings indicate that those from the same cultural background as IQ test creators do better than those from different cultural backgrounds.

- In an experiment, a black sociologist created an IQ test based on black cultural references and black ghettobased language. He found that black respondents familiar with this culture did better than middle-class white respondents.

82. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The notion that punishment should be proportional to the degree of harm done is too prescribed and does not allow for consideration of the unique characteristics of the offender and the situation.

- The notion that punishment needs to be swift and certain is not practical given how slow moving the justice system is.

- Crime reduction strategies that follow the Classical principle of certainty of punishment are generally more successful than those that focus on severity and yet the latter remains more of a focus in current crime reduction strategies than the former.

- The concept of the free and rational human being endorsed by Classical theorists does not take into account the objective reality of individuals as they make choices and face variables that impact their decision making.

83. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Evil spirits were blamed for tempting and possessing individuals deemed to be engaged in sinful behaviour.

- Temptation was rooted in the idea that people choose their actions including those they know to be wrong. While the Devil was blamed for tempting people, it was expected that the righteous were capable of resisting the Devil’s power if they chose to do so.

- Possession by evil spirits was also an explanation provided for wrong behaviour and those who were thought to be possessed were treated very harshly through torture. While tortures were used to drive the evil spirits away, they most often resulted in the death of the individual because they were so horrific. This served to bolster the case that the individuals were indeed possessed because if the evil spirit were to be successfully driven out by the torture the individual would survive.

84. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Following Darwin’s work on evolution, which corroborated the ideas of the Positive School, criminological– biological research was “used to justify forced sterilizations, executions of habitual criminals, and even genocide as was the case in Nazi Germany.”

- Hitler aimed to eliminate criminals from procreating and his method of curtailing this was to implement eugenic practices.

- From 1935 onwards, prostitutes, vagrants, homosexuals, and others were also incarcerated and treated as racially undesirable.

- Using science to justify actions that impact the lives of others can lead to great harms, and any studies that suggest genetic causes for crime have the potential to lead to dangerous policies and practices.

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Chap 09_9e Indicate whether the statement is true or false.

1. According to Bandura, watching television is a form of subcultural influence. a. True b. False 2. Research suggests that the likelihood a psychopath will engage in violent behaviour is impacted by the

individual’s intelligence. a. True b. False 3. Social learning theory argues that criminal behaviour is acquired through environmental experiences rather than

through psychological factors. a. True b. False 4. In psychoanalytic theory, the part of the personality that mediates between the other two parts, or forces, is the

superego. a. True b. False 5. The “institutional” level of analysis in community psychology suggests that social problems that contribute to

criminality were created by the deinstitutionalization of the mentally ill. a. True b. False 6. Research has established clear linkages between childhood abuse and criminal behaviour. a. True b. False 7. The most effective deterrent to antisocial behaviour, according to Bandura, is the provision of more attractive

prosocial alternatives. a. True b. False 8. Surprisingly, no instruments have been developed to reliably measure psychopathy in people. a. True b. False 9. Eysenck’s theory of crime and personality shows how psychological and social variables can be interrelated. a. True b. False

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Chap 09_9e 10. One of the two main assumptions of psychological theories of criminal behaviour is that offenders really do not

differ that much from non-offenders. a. True b. False 11. Evolutionary theories look for adaptive explanations for differences in offending behaviour between men and

women. a. True b. False 12. The prevalence of mental disorder among those in the criminal justice system is around the same as that of the

general population. a. True b. False 13. In general, people who are mentally ill are arrested more frequently than others without a mental illness. a. True b. False 14. A main focus of psychoanalytic theory and its explanations for criminal behaviour is on ineffective parenting. a. True b. False 15. Anyone who has a diagnosed mental disorder and commits a crime is eligible to be deemed not criminally

responsible on account of a mental disorder by a criminal court. a. True b. False 16. Eysenck’s theory of crime and personality argues that individuals who may have a psychological propensity to

commit crime may be socialized effectively if they grow up in an environment that provides effective conditioning. a. True b. False 17. According to Babiak and Hare (2006), those individuals characterized by psychopathy fit well in the corporate

world. a. True b. False 18. A token economy set up in a youth detention centre to reward positive behaviour by inmates can be

considered a form of operant conditioning. a. True b. False

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Chap 09_9e 19. As measured by the DSM-V, more individuals in the community meet the criteria for Antisocial Personality

Disorder than those in correctional facilities. a. True b. False 20. Eysenck’s theory of crime and personality is based on operant conditioning. a. True b. False 21. Substance use disorder is one of the most common mental health disorders to inmates in Canadian prisons. a. True b. False 22. Research indicates that, compared to matched non-delinquents, juvenile delinquents’ moral judgment is less

advanced. a. True b. False 23. Individuals with an antisocial personality fail to learn from negative experiences because they do not become

anxious in circumstances that should elicit anxiety. a. True b. False 24. One dominant critique of psychological theories is that they place too much focus on factors within the social

environment that can contribute to the onset of criminal behaviour. a. True b. False 25. Once arrested, mentally ill persons as a group are more likely to recidivate than offenders who do not have a

history of mental illness. a. True b. False 26. One major focus of psychological theories of criminality is the personality of the offender. a. True b. False Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

27. In Eysenck’s typology, on which of the following does a cold, antisocial, unemotional person score high? a. introversion b. neuroticism c. psychoticism

d. extraversion

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Chap 09_9e 28. Which of the following assumptions is being made by a psychological theory that emphasizes offenders’ high

rate of aggression relative to that of non-offenders? a. environmental influence b. offender strength c. offender deficit d. discriminating traits 29. Which psychological theory has survived more “crucial tests” than any other? a. social learning theory b. moral development theory c. operant conditioning theory

d. psychoanalytic theory

30. According to Warren and Hindelang, which of the following is an interpretation of criminal behaviour derived

from psychoanalytic theory? a. Criminal behaviour is an expression of displaced hostility. b. Criminal behaviour results from an overwhelming need for affection. c. Criminal behaviour is a calculated response to sibling rivalry. d. Criminal behaviour is a form of self-gratification.

31. What is one of the main reasons it is difficult to determine the prevalence of mental health disorders in prisons? a. Offender files do not make note of mental health diagnoses. b. Most offenders know how to fake wellness when being examined. c. Research is difficult to conduct in secure settings. d. There is a lack of consistency in defining what constitutes a mental disorder.

32. Why was Vincent Li not diagnosed as a psychopath? a. There was no appropriate assessment done on him at the time. b. He did not have the mental capacity to intentionally commit crime. c. He was found to have an antisocial personality disorder instead. d. He was remorseful for his actions.

33. “There is something psychologically wrong with offenders.” Which of the following assumptions best describes

explanations premised on that notion? a. assumption of precipitating event

b. assumption of discriminating traits

c. assumption of unconscious determinants

d. assumption of offender deficit

34. Which of the following perspectives Bloom’s Analyzes social problems, including crime, as largely a product of

society’s organizational and institutional characteristics? a. community psychology b. antisocial personality c. psychoanalytic theory d. moral development 35. According to Bandura, what are the most effective deterrents to criminal behaviour? a. legal sanctions b. self-sanctions c. moral sanctions

d. social sanctions

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Chap 09_9e 36. Which of the following is a critique of psychological theories of criminality? a. Little emphasis is placed on the positive characteristics (strengths) of offenders. b. Insufficient emphasis is placed on personality traits of criminal offenders. c. Psychological theories overstate the importance of situational and environmental factors on individual

behaviour. d. Psychological theories fail to look at individual differences when examining criminal behaviour.

37. Which of the following statements best represents the institutional level of analysis within community

psychology? a. Young offenders suffer from mental disorders. b. Young offenders are often influenced by delinquent peers. c. Young offenders are negatively socialized by neglectful families, poor schools, and the absence of jobs in

the local labour market. d. Young offenders are the product of biological factors experienced during adolescence.

38. According to Farrington, from which of the following factors does the motivation to commit delinquent acts

arise? a. the need for material goods or excitement. b. frustration due to deep-seated resentment toward a middle-class measuring rod c. poverty and the inability to achieve society’s goals through legitimate means d. identity problems stemming from childhood issues 39. Which of the following statements is the basis of psychoanalytic theory? a. People progress through five overlapping stages of development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital. b. Individuals are born with a blank slate only to be written on with life experiences. c. Intermittent gratification is the foundation for learning across the lifespan. d. Behaviour is governed by interaction, observation, and imitation.

40. What is the basis of social learning theory? a. deviant behaviour is a function of temperament and is present from birth b. deviant behaviour can be impacted by modelling the behaviour of others c. deviant behaviour is impacted by levels of empathy and guilt. d. deviant behaviour is hereditary 41. Which of the following statements about antisocial personality is true? a. it is more prevalent in men than in women b. it is lower in the prison population than in the general public c. most who are diagnosed develop more severe symptoms with age d. very few who are diagnosed live past the age of 30 years of age

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Chap 09_9e 42. Which of the following is the essential feature of the American Psychiatric Association’s definition of the

antisocial personality disorder? a. the inability to maintain close friendships with age-appropriate peers b. a facade of charm masking emotional coolness c. violence perpetrated against others d. pervasive disregard for the rights of others 43. In describing his stages of moral development, which of the following did Kohlberg argue? a. Individuals go through all of the stages and always in the same sequence though the pace may vary. b. Individuals go through the same sequence, but the pace may vary, and some individuals may never

progress beyond the first few stages. c. Individuals go through some of the stages, but not necessarily in the same order, and the pace may vary. d. Individuals go through all the stages, but not necessarily in the same order, and the pace may vary.

44. According to research by Bandura, which of the following best represents the source of vicarious learning of

aggression at the community level? a. family influences b. symbolic modelling c. operant conditioning influences d. subcultural influences 45. Which of the following best represents the psychoanalytic theory of criminal behaviour? a. Crime results when ego, superego, and id are completely missing from an individual. b. Crime results when the superego is deficient. c. Crime results when the ego can no longer control the superego. d. Crime results when the id can no longer control the ego and superego.

46. Research by Widom indicates that, compared to institutionalized individuals with Antisocial Personality

Disorder, antisocial people who are not institutionalized are characterized by which of the following? a. They are better educated but worse at avoiding conviction. b. They are better educated and better at avoiding conviction. c. They are less educated but better at avoiding conviction. d. They are less educated and worse at avoiding conviction.

47. According to research, what term describes the number of inmates in Canadian jails that have a substantial

mental health needs, including a substance abuse problem? a. few b. most c. a little less than half d. unknown 48. Which occupations are psychopaths particularly suited for according to the book by Babiak and Hare called

Snakes in Suits: When Psychopaths Go to Work? a. brain surgeon b. university professor c. small business owner d. investment banker Copyright Cengage Learning. Powered by Cognero.

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Chap 09_9e 49. Which of the following factors is a principal focus of psychological theories of criminality? a. the offender’s social environment b. the offender’s personality c. the offender’s biological and genetic make-up d. the offender’s physical health 50. According to Eysenck, which of the following qualities is associated with extraversion? a. impulsivity b. neurosis c. hostility

d. anxiety

51. What stage of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development centres on punishment and egocentrism? a. conventional b. preoperational c. postconventional

d. preconventional

52. Which of the following is the most prevalent metal health problem affecting inmates in Canadian jails and

prisons? a. major depression c. substance abuse disorders

b. psychopathy d. schizophrenia

53. What is meant by the statement that antisocial personality disorder is used as a “wastebasket” category? a. as a diagnosis it receives little respect in courts b. it is used to describe all sorts of antisocial individuals c. it is highly prevalent among the homeless d. it belongs in the trash can with other outdated diagnoses 54. What term is used to describe a system to prevent or treat antisocial behaviour by providing individuals

rewards for appropriate behaviour and punishing them for inappropriate behaviour? a. social learning b. psycho-therapy c. operant conditioning

d. cognitive behavioural conditioning

55. Who is associated with research on operant conditioning? a. Freud

b. Skinner

c. Piaget

d. Eysenck

56. On which of the following does Eysenck base his theory of crime and personality? a. operant conditioning b. social modelling c. classical conditioning

d. psychoanalysis

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Chap 09_9e 57. “No system of criminology has any meaning that disregards this central feature of all criminology…” What

“central feature of criminology” are Eysenck and Gudjonsson referring to? a. a socially constructed definition of criminal behaviour b. the individual offender c. the environment in which crime takes place d. the accountability toward victims of crime 58. A chronic offender confesses to a counsellor that he committed crimes because the crimes helped provide the

type of gratification for desires that were not met by his family while he was growing up. Which of the following theories best aligns with the offender’s understanding of why he committed crimes? a. moral development b. social learning c. psychoanalytic

d. personality

59. What is the current understanding of the link between mental illness and crime? a. if mental illness is diagnosed in adolescence, crime will be reduced b. all crime is a symptom of mental illness c. not all offenders have symptoms of mental illness d. as mental health concerns increase, so does crime 60. According to the textbook, Charles Manson showed evidence of which of the following? a. charm b. NCRMD c. feelings of guilt

d. psychopathy

61. Which statement best expresses the relationship between moral development and delinquency? a. Advanced levels of moral development cause delinquency. b. Advanced levels of moral development insulate against delinquency. c. Low levels of moral development are not associated with delinquency. d. Low levels of moral development insulate against delinquency.

62. Malamuth and Check studied the impact of viewing violent sexuality on university students’ attitudes toward

violence. Which of the following best summarizes the results of viewing violent sexuality? a. Female viewers were more accepting of violence against women, but male viewers were not. b. Male viewers were more accepting of violence against women, but female viewers were not. c. Neither male nor female viewers were accepting of violence against women. d. Both Male and female viewers were accepting of violence against women.

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Chap 09_9e 63. Which of the following best describes the effect of the teaching family group home model (e.g., Achievement

Place) on delinquents’ behaviour? a. There are substantial short-term and long-term benefits. b. There are no substantial short-term or long-term benefits. c. There are positive short-term benefits, but the long-term benefits are in question. d. There are substantial short-term benefits but not long-term benefits.

64. Which of the following statements about crime and criminality has evolutionary psychology been used to

explain? a. Criminals respond to swift and reasonable punishment. b. Crime is not always reported by victims. c. Men commit more crimes than women. d. Some communities have more crime than others.

65. Most psychological theories of criminality entail one of two assumptions. Which of the following are those two

assumptions? a. Something is psychologically wrong with the offender and offenders differ from non-offenders. b. All criminal offenders have some form of mental health disorder that differentiates them from nonoffenders. c. Offenders are the same as non-offenders except their psychological disorders were not detected when they were young. d. Freud’s psycho-analytical theories form the basis of most psychological analysis of criminal behaviour.

66. Which of the following is most accurate when describing research findings on the relationship between

watching TV by children and their levels of aggression? a. Watching television has no impact on increasing children’s aggressive behaviour. b. Watching television has a significant impact on children’s aggressive behaviour. c. Watching violence on TV can desensitize children to violence in real life. d. There is no relationship between watching violence on TV and children’s aggressive behaviour.

67. Eysenck suggests that parenting practices can have an impact on criminal behaviour. Which of the following

explains this? a. crime is more likely to occur in single-parent families b. crime increases with family size c. crime is impacted by teaching and conditioning d. crime is reduced when children are severely punished

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Chap 09_9e 68. Which of the following is one of the most important criticisms of the psychoanalytic theory? a. it assumes that most families include more than four children b. it is largely based on unobservable constructs c. it assumes that most children come from two-parent homes d. it is based on personality characteristics that are no longer commonly found 69. Which of the following is true of Hare’s Revised Psychopathy Checklist? a. It provides very basic information about psychopathy but nothing conclusive. b. It is no longer used for making decisions in the mental health and criminal justice systems. c. It is able to reliably predict violence and recidivism in offenders and psychiatric patients. d. It has been frequently used in Canada to determine if a defendant should be declared not criminally

responsible due to a mental disorder in a criminal trial.

70. Describe how Eysenck’s theory of crime and personality addresses antisocial behaviour from social learning as

well as personality perspectives.

71. Outline the main assumption of social learning theory in relation to aggressive and violent behaviour. Describe

the sources of behavioural modelling (vicarious learning) identified by Bandura.

72. List and describe the three stages in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development and how it is relevant to

understanding juvenile delinquency.

73. Describe the explanation provided by evolutionary theorists about crime and sex differences in criminal

behaviour.

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Chap 09_9e 74. Describe and critically Bloom’s Analyze how psychoanalytic theory views the causes of criminal behaviour.

75. Describe how theorists using the community psychology perspective would view the problem of prostitution

using each of the four levels of analysis.

76. Describe the levels of analysis outlined in the community psychology perspectives. How do they expand the

typical individual approach of psychological theories of crime?

77. Explain how a token economy system employing principles of operant conditioning can be used to prevent

delinquent behaviour among at-risk children and youth.

78. List and describe the strengths and weaknesses of psychological theories of crime.

79. In their book entitled Snakes in Suits: When Psychopaths Go to Work, Babiuk and Hare argue that

psychopaths fit well into the corporate world. What rationale do they have for saying this?

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Chap 09_9e 80. The prevalence of mental illness in the criminal justice system in Canada is higher than in the general

population. Describe and discuss this statement.

81. The criminal justice system is serving as an alternative to mental hospitals. Discuss the validity of this statement.

82. Hare (1998c) writes that “the single most important clinical construct in the criminal justice system” is

psychopathy. What is the rationale for this statement?

83. Identify the two main assumptions underlying most psychological research on offenders and outline the

criticisms of these assumptions identified in the text.

84. Using information provided in the chapter, indicate why the Criminal Code penalties for violent crimes might

not have the desired effect on those with antisocial personality disorder.

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Chap 09_9e Answer Key 1. False 2. False 3. False 4. False 5. False 6. True 7. True 8. False 9. True 10. False 11. True 12. False 13. True 14. True 15. False 16. True 17. True 18. True 19. False 20. False 21. True 22. True 23. True 24. False 25. False 26. True

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Chap 09_9e 27. c 28. d 29. a 30. a 31. d 32. b 33. d 34. a 35. b 36. a 37. d 38. a 39. a 40. b 41. a 42. d 43. b 44. d 45. b 46. b 47. b 48. d 49. b 50. a 51. d 52. c 53. b 54. c Copyright Cengage Learning. Powered by Cognero.

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Chap 09_9e 55. b 56. c 57. b 58. c 59. c 60. c 61. b 62. b 63. d 64. b 65. a 66. c 67. c 68. b 69. c 70. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Children will naturally commit crimes unless they are conditioned not to through punishment that creates pain and fear.

- A child who is later contemplating an act will experience fear and this will inhibit the response.

- Eysenck suggests that criminals do not develop this conditioned response. This is because of a lack of exposure to proper conditioning from parents or other influential adults and/or the individuals are less susceptible to conditioning.

- The conditioning need not be strict but it must be certain and consistently paired with the act.

- Three dimensions to personality that impact antisocial behaviour are extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism.

These are on continuums and offenders typically score higher on extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism than non-criminals.

71. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Individuals learn through direct experience or by observing the behaviour of others. This is applied to prosocial as well as antisocial behaviours.

- Aggressive behaviour can be learned from family, subcultural influences (social models and peers), and symbolic modelling of television and other forms of media.

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Chap 09_9e 72. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Preconventional stage is focused on punishment and instrumental hedonism. It is ego focused and the individual at this stage is concerned primarily with what happens to him/herself.

- Children under the age of 11 years, adolescent offenders, and many adult offenders fit into this category - Conventional stage is focused on the approval of others and authority maintaining morality. It is socially focused and the individual asks what others expect of him/her - The average adolescent and adult fits into this category.

- Postconventional stage is focused on democratically accepted law and principles of conscience. It is universally focused and the individual asks what is best for all.

- Some adults over the age of 20 reach this stage.

- Research has suggested that the moral judgment of many youth in conflict with the law is less morally advanced than non-delinquent control subjects, however they cautioned that being at a lower stage of moral development does not mean that an individual will necessarily become delinquent.

- Education programs that focus on moral development have been found to reduce recidivism rates.

73. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Evolutionary theorists look for evidence of adaptive responses to problems faced by humans.

- They have explained crime and antisocial behaviour and differences between male and female criminality using the reproductive fitness variance. This states that the number of children a woman produces is limited by pregnancy, lactation, and menopause, while men are far less limited—only the number of fertile women they can mate with determines their reproductive capacity.

- Women are historically more focused on raising children so have been less likely to engage in crime or other risky behaviours.

- Men strive to be attractive to women so will do what they can to appear ambitious and wealthy, which may involve taking risks.

- This theory explains why men commit more crimes than women and why this peaks in adolescence.

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Chap 09_9e 74. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Psychoanalytic theory proposes that criminal behaviour occurs when the ego and superego are unable to control the id.

- If an individual does not progress successfully through the early stages of development with the assistance of prosocial, affectionate parents, the superego is left underdeveloped.

- This weak or deviant superego is unable to control oral, anal, and phallic impulses that should have been addressed earlier in life but which now take control in puberty.

- The individual is left without inhibitions and will identify with deviant role models such as parents with criminal backgrounds themselves.

- Other explanations based on psychoanalytic theory have included neurosis, compulsive need for punishment to address guilt, using crime to satisfy needs and desires not met by the family, repressed trauma, and displaced hostility.

75. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- At the individual level, an individual engaged in prostitution would be examined to determine the nature of the psychological problems the individual has.

- At the small-group level, the influence of peers on the individual’s behaviour would be examined.

- At the organizational level, police services and community agencies would be examined and the conclusion might be that they have insufficient resources to address and prevent individuals from engaging in prostitution.

- At the institutional level, it might be determined that the behaviour is a reaction or result of laws created in the society that negatively impact the individual.

76. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Community psychology perspectives view social problems from four levels of analysis: ▪ Individual level—social problems are defined according to individual deficit ▪ Small-group level—social problems are created by problems related to interpersonal communication and understanding ▪ Organizational level—the organizations of society have failed to accomplish what they were designed to accomplish ▪ Institutional or community level—social problems are created by institutions rather than by people, groups, or organizations and the emphasis is on policies - These perspectives expand the inquiry about causes of crime and how to address crime by looking beyond the individual to include other elements that may be impacting the individual.

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Chap 09_9e 77. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Operant conditioning can impact behaviour through reinforcement and punishment. Reinforcement strengthens behaviour and punishment weakens or extinguishes it.

- This practice is applied in group homes and custody facilities with youth to address past behaviour–environment interactions or patterns that are antisocial.

- A token economy provides the opportunity for youths to earn points for engaging in prosocial behaviours such as attending school, cleaning their rooms, etc. and to lose points for breaking rules or engaging in aggressive behaviours.

- The accumulated points can be used to purchase privileges or goods.

- Ideally the reward system motivates youths to engage in positive behaviours that will then become normalized.

- The biggest challenge to this system is that once a youth is back in the community, old patterns may return in the absence of the token economy.

78. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

Strengths: - Psychological theories help identify individual differences relating to personality that are important for determining why people commit crimes and how we can prevent or deter individuals from committing crimes.

Weaknesses: - Psychological theories do not account for any offender strengths, they ignore situational and environmental factors that can impact one’s likelihood of committing crime, and such simple classification is very difficult given the pervasiveness of criminal behaviour as identified in self-report surveys.

79. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Psychopaths are able to charm others through charismatic interactions with others.

- Their need to be dominant may come across as strong leadership and effective management skills.

- They may be attractive employees in large companies that want to effect change or create new and exciting ideas by bringing in someone who appears calm, confident, and strong.

- Psychopaths are drawn to challenges and thrills and their drive to find action and obtain power provide motivation to create the impression that corporate executives are looking for.

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Chap 09_9e 80. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- While it is understood that the proportion of those with mental illness is higher in custody than in the general population, it is not clear to what extent this is so. One of the reasons it is difficult to determine exact proportions is that different definitions of mental illness are used in literature. Some studies only include serious mental illness while others use a broader definition.

- The prevalence of mental illness in custody facilities varies by region and this may be impacted by different program availability and the different practices used by police, courts, and health care workers to address mental health and crime.

- The most common mental health issue in correctional facilities is alcohol use or dependence disorders.

- Additionally problematic is the fact that many inmates are dealing with co-occurring disorders usually combining a mental disorder with a substance use disorder making treatment and dealing with daily issues even more complicated.

81. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The fact that mental health disorders are so prevalent in jails and prisons has led to a recommendation that all individuals be screened on admission and this has led to the development of specialized tools for screening mental health in jails.

- The disruptive behaviour of mentally disordered offenders is taxing on the inmates themselves, the staff, and other offenders. This is also the challenge in dealing with individuals who are too violent or disruptive to be placed in a hospital and yet too sick to receive the treatment they need in a correctional setting with the appropriate supports and programs.

82. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Identifying psychopaths after crimes have been committed has become a part of investigations, and while research continues on how to address this disorder current and future research is turning to addressing behaviour rather than trying to change underlying personality.

- Identifying psychopathy also provides a clear picture of future behaviour involving violence and callous disregard for the feelings and rights of others.

83. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Assumption of offender deficit: there is something psychologically wrong with offenders.

- Assumption of discriminating traits: criminals differ from non-criminals.

- Criticisms include the fact that the assumptions do not account for any offender strengths, they ignore situational and environmental factors that can impact one’s likelihood of committing crime, and such simple classification is very difficult given the pervasiveness of criminal behaviour as identified in self-report surveys.

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Chap 09_9e 84. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Individuals with antisocial personality disorder do not learn from negative experiences and it is suggested that they do not become anxious in situations that are anxiety provoking for the majority of individuals.

- They do not fear consequences so do not adjust their behaviour to avoid negative outcomes.

- It is further suggested that they cannot be conditioned through behaviour modification techniques of reward and punishment.

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Chap 10_9e Indicate whether the statement is true or false.

1. According to Durkheim, crime is an abnormal feature of society since it takes away from the maintenance of

stability. a. True b. False 2. According to Durkheim, when social cohesion breaks down and social isolation is great, society loses its

traditional social control mechanisms and eventually suffers from a high rate of crime. a. True b. False 3. Strain theory explains crime as a result of individuals reacting in the heat of the moment to events that they feel

go against mainstream cultural goals. a. True b. False 4. Durkheim argued that anomie exists when societies are functioning in accordance with shared norms. a. True b. False 5. Anderson’s “code of the street” highlights how the opportunity structure on Wall Street contributes to

corporate crime. a. True b. False 6. According to Braithwaite, crime is unlikely either when legitimate opportunities are high or when illegitimate

opportunities are low. a. True b. False 7. Values impact likelihood of engaging in criminal behaviour more significantly than race and social class. a. True b. False 8. According to Chapter 10, strain is more likely to lead to delinquency if the strain is perceived as unjust by the

individual. a. True b. False 9. Based upon Hackler’s depiction of a morality curve, the textbook suggests that we must overlook frequent

acts of unethical behaviour in commercial activities and instead focus on serious crimes. a. True b. False Copyright Cengage Learning. Powered by Cognero.

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Chap 10_9e 10. Cloward’s contribution to strain theory was to recognize that the leap from strain to deviance was contingent

upon the opportunities available to the individual. a. True b. False 11. The gap between goals and the means to achieve these goals is constant across all portions of North American

society. a. True b. False 12. The values most predominant in a country with regard to material wealth appear to impact crime rates. a. True b. False 13. According to Braithwaite, belonging to the lower class has more effect on delinquency for youth in lower-class

areas than for youth in middle-class areas. a. True b. False 14. Merton argues that crime is a symptom of the gap between culturally prescribed aspirations and the socially

structured means for realizing those aspirations. a. True b. False 15. Strain theory explains street crime and upper-class crime in the same way in that both involve a gap between

goals and means. a. True b. False 16. According to the consensus perspective, the vast majority of a society’s population shares similar values

regarding right and wrong. a. True b. False 17. Merton’s strain theory is helpful for explaining the lower crime rates of women. a. True b. False 18. Since there are already weak restraints on the means to achieve monetary success, the inability of watchdog

agencies and our justice system to respond effectively increases the likelihood of white-collar crime. a. True b. False

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Chap 10_9e 19. Agnew argues that strain is more a feature of individuals than societies or social groups. a. True b. False 20. Formal punishment is the ideal answer for addressing all types of crime, particularly crimes of the powerful. a. True b. False 21. Messner and Rosenfeld’s theory of institutional anomie argues that the “American Dream” encourages crime as

a method of achieving culturally approved goals. a. True b. False Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

22. Which of the following statements about Durkheim’s theory of deviance is true? a. it focuses on crime rates in business communities rather than on crime in general b. it focuses on youth rather than adults c. it fits white-collar crime as easily as it fits crimes of the working class d. it is a theoretically empty concept that is no longer valid 23. According to Messner and Rosenfeld, which of the following defines the American Dream? a. individual achievement b. material success c. devoutness

d. wisdom

24. According to Durkheim, why is it necessary for crime to exist in every society? a. Crime is needed to define the boundaries of acceptable behaviour. b. There are always more evil persons than good persons in every society. c. Rules are made to be broken. d. The criminal justice industrial complex relies on criminals for its livelihood.

25. Which of the following is an assumption underlying the consensus perspective? a. few people share similar values b. morality is universal c. the law represents a diffusion of societal values d. criminal law reflects the interests of powerful groups that create and enforce laws 26. The concept of anomie is central to the theories of which of these social scientists? a. Durkheim

b. Kobrin

c. Cloward

d. Weber

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Chap 10_9e 27. Which term is used in Chapter 10 to refer to a condition in which an individual places more value on self-

interest than on collective values? a. relative deprivation b. individualism c. micro-anomie d. anomie 28. Which of the following is a significant critique of Merton’s strain theory? a. It can only be applied to crimes committed by the socially marginalized. b. It can only be applied to North American societies. c. It helps account for social class differences in crime, but not gender differences. d. It helps account for gender differences in crime, but not social class differences.

29. For Merton, crime in America is the result of which of the following? a. the socially structured means for reaching aspirations b. the gap between culturally prescribed goals and socially structured means for reaching them c. the overlap between socially prescribed goals and culturally structured means for reaching aspirations d. the culturally prescribed goals of American society 30. Strain is more likely to lead to delinquency if certain conditions are present. Which of the following is one of

these conditions? a. The strains are low in magnitude. b. The strains are unjust. c. The strains are linked to high perceived social control. d. The strains lead to unprofitable crimes.

31. Which of the following best characterizes Durkheim’s concept of “anomie”? a. Anomie is solely a characteristic associated with individuals. b. Anomie is solely a characteristic of 19th-century societies. c. Anomie exists when a society is characterized by normlessness. d. Anomie is an established medical condition.

32. According to Chapter 10, strain theory complements which of the following other theories of crime? a. social learning theory and group conflict theory b. group conflict theory and control theory c. differential association theory and social learning theory d. control theory and differential association theory 33. According to Cloward and Ohlin, what did Merton’s theory fail to take into account? a. cultural perceptions of goals b. cultural perceptions of means c. differential legitimate goals

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d. differential opportunities

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Chap 10_9e 34. Which of the following theorists originally adapted Durkheim’s theory of anomie to America to explain the

emergence of crime? a. Merton b. Merlin c. Cloward d. Sutherland 35. How does strain theory explain different crime rates between men and women? a. it says that women commit fewer crimes because they do not strive for the same goals as men b. it states that men commit more crimes because their lives are much more difficult c. it fails to explain the differences between the crime rates of men and women d. it suggests that women commit fewer crimes because they reach their goals more easily 36. According to Durkheim, which of the following is most essential to the well-functioning societies? a. social solidarity b. culturally prescribed aspirations c. diffusion of responsibility

d. capitalism

37. For Messner and Rosenfeld, which of the following is not only intrinsic to the American Dream, but also a

principal reason behind crime in that country? a. easily accessible fame and notoriety b. individual achievement c. equal opportunity for all, regardless of status d. weak restraints on the means to achieve material success 38. What is the result when the structural features of a society create an uneven distribution of legitimate

opportunities? a. There will be a high rate of crime. b. There will be pockets of instrumental crime. c. Crime will be concentrated in the lower classes. d. Crime will be concentrated in the upper classes.

39. According to Durkheim, which of the following is essential to stable societies? a. heterogeneity b. increased division of labour c. social cohesion

d. strong political leadership

40. Braithwaite argues that crime is most likely when exposure to illegitimate opportunities is high and exposure to

legitimate opportunities is low. Based on this argument, which of the following initiatives would help to reduce crime in a low-income neighbourhood? a. job creation for young people b. an increase in community beautification projects c. an increase in the number of police officers d. amalgamating schools Copyright Cengage Learning. Powered by Cognero.

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Chap 10_9e 41. According to Chapter 10, how do crimes of today’s corporate elite compare to those of business owners from

the past? a. unethical behaviour by corporate executives is less common because it is easier to track b. there were fewer corporate crimes in the past because profits were not worth stealing c. there are ways to engage in corporate crime today that are more difficult to detect d. business owners from the past were far more ruthless and successful in their criminal behaviour 42. Which of the following best represents the main argument behind the opportunity structures perspective on

strain and criminal behaviour? a. People can participate in a given adaptation only if they have access to the means to do so. b. The opportunity to commit crimes is there for most people. c. The opportunity to commit crimes is there only for those experiencing strain. d. Strain and opportunity structures are synonymous.

43. Crime is a symptom of the gap between culturally prescribed aspirations and the socially structured means for

realizing them. Which of the following theories is associated with this statement? a. social disorganization b. strain c. moral reasoning d. social learning 44. According to Merton, crime results when there is a gap between culturally prescribed aspirations and which of

the following? a. the geographic infrastructure to support them b. the socially structured means of achieving them c. the ability of individuals to maintain interest in the aspirations d. the knowledge that the aspirations exist 45. According to Chapter 10, what is one of the reasons that Japan has a lower rate of corporate crime compared

to North America? a. The Japanese do not use the free market system. b. The family appears to rank higher on the hierarchy of institutions compared to economics. c. Corporate crime is an executable offence. d. There is little strain or anomie in Japanese culture.

46. According to theories about the nature of the morality curve, what is the best way to reduce crime rates

overall? a. test for psychopathy in universities b. provide baseline wages to the average workers c. reduce crime among the privileged d. reduce income levels of the highest earners

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Chap 10_9e 47. Which of the following is another term for anomie? a. normalcy b. normlessness c. normfulness

d. normalness

48. Which of the following traits, if enhanced in individuals, could lead to a reduced likelihood of these individuals

committing crimes? a. dominance c. protection of others

b. social status d. personal success

49. According to Merton, which of the following best describes the accumulation of money and the status that

results from it in America? a. an illegitimate means c. a culturally approved means

b. a culturally prescribed aspiration d. a conventional means

50. Which of the following terms refer to the patterned and relatively stable arrangement of roles and statuses

found within societies and social institutions? a. middle-class measuring rod b. diffusion of responsibility c. social structure d. culturally prescribed aspirations 51. Which of the following characteristics of students did Konty find positively correlated with self-reports of

criminal and deviant behaviour? a. self-transcending values but not self-enhancing values b. self-enhancing values and self-transcending values c. self-enhancing values but not self-transcending values d. neither self-enhancing values nor self-transcending values 52. Which of the following contradicts the “code of the street”? a. You must let others know you are willing to negotiate. b. You must show nerve. c. You must respond to aggression with aggression. d. You must let others know how tough you are.

53. Which of the following is a key characteristic of Messner and Rosenfeld’s institutional-anomie theory? a. The American Dream emphasizes monetary success, and the poor are disproportionately susceptible to

the draw of wealth they cannot easily achieve. b. Only those who grow up wealthy are exposed to the ideal of the American Dream and this leads to higher amounts of white-collar crime. c. The economy is largely misunderstood by those who hold the most power. d. The splitting of production from finance in large corporations distances shareholders from the daily operation of the company.

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Chap 10_9e 54. According to Cloward and Ohlin, which of the following adaptations has the fewest barriers to entry for

working-class youths? a. the passivist subculture c. the retreatist subculture

b. the criminal subculture d. the conflict subculture

55. Which of the following is an example of strain theory? a. A young adult joins a gang because his brother pressures him to do so. b. A child steals a package of gum to give to his friend who is sick. c. A store owner closes her business because sales are slow. d. A youth sells street drugs to make money to buy the car he wants.

56. Which of the following best summarizes the findings of Braithwaite with regard to social class and crime? a. Crime is more prevalent in upper-class neighbourhoods. b. Cities with segregated class neighbourhoods had lower crime rates. c. Greater class mix in neighbourhoods results in less crime. d. Type of neighbourhood class mix had no impact on crime rates.

57. According to Chapter 10, how is corporate crime in North America addressed? a. people in positions of power are not punished in the same way as others b. most offenders receive lengthy prison sentences in Canada c. there are no cases available to study as of yet d. enforcement is sporadic given the lack of clear laws to follow 58. According to Cloward and Ohlin, young people who experience barriers are at risk of becoming involved in

different types of gangs or subcultures. Which of the following is one of these gangs or subcultures? a. working b. consensus c. passivist d. retreatist 59. Which of the following do Andrews and Bonta recommend to reduce the strains caused by our coercive

criminal justice system? a. mutual conversion

b. reintegrative shaming

c. disintegrative shaming

d. early parole

60. According to Messner and Rosenfeld’s institutional-anomie theory, which institution dominates all others in

America? a. the family c. religion

b. the economy d. education

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Chap 10_9e 61. Cloward and Ohlin’s theory of illegitimate opportunity structures combined strain theory with which of the

following theories? a. differential association theory c. social control theory

b. social learning theory d. labelling theory

62. Summarize Agnew’s perspective on strain. How does it differ from the theory of Massner and Rosenfeld?

63. Summarize Cloward’s contribution to theories about the relationship between individual strain and criminal

behaviour.

64. Based on the writings of Braithwaite, would an increase in class heterogeneity in neighbourhoods lead to an

increase or decrease in crime? Explain your answer.

65. What is meant by the term “subculture of power abuse,” and what is suggested in the text to be the best

method of addressing crime that results from this abuse of power?

66. Define Durkheim’s concept of anomie and explain the relevance of this concept for understanding crime in

advanced societies.

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Chap 10_9e 67. What is the difference between human capital and criminal capital, and how is each achieved?

68. Explain Bernard’s thesis that strain or anomie are properties of social structures.

69. Outline the basic assumptions of Merton’s strain theory. Describe how Merton’s original theory was applied to

America to explain crime in that country.

70. Explain how strain theory addresses the differences in men’s and women’s crime.

71. Describe the nature of the criminal subculture, the conflict subculture, and the retreatist subculture described by

Cloward and Ohlin and how it may be determined where a youth would fit.

72. Describe what Hackler means by “moving the morality curve to the left” as a means of reducing crime in our

society. Provide illustrations.

73. According to Braithwaite, what causes crime among the upper classes and what can be done to reduce it?

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Chap 10_9e 74. Describe how Anderson’s “code of the street” is relevant to strain theories presented in Chapter 10.

75. Explain the role of individualism or “self-enhancing” values as contributors to crime and deviance.

76. The policy implications of strain theory have been tested in the real world. Describe programs and projects

that have employed a strain theory rationale, at least in part. What have been the implications of the results of these programs for strain theory?

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Chap 10_9e Answer Key 1. False 2. True 3. False 4. False 5. False 6. True 7. True 8. True 9. False 10. True 11. False 12. True 13. False 14. True 15. True 16. True 17. False 18. True 19. True 20. False 21. True 22. c 23. b 24. a 25. b 26. a

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Chap 10_9e 27. c 28. c 29. b 30. b 31. c 32. d 33. d 34. a 35. c 36. a 37. d 38. a 39. c 40. a 41. c 42. a 43. b 44. b 45. b 46. c 47. b 48. c 49. b 50. c 51. c 52. a 53. d 54. c Copyright Cengage Learning. Powered by Cognero.

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Chap 10_9e 55. d 56. c 57. a 58. d 59. b 60. b 61. a 62. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Agnew’s theory focuses on strain on individuals and he takes the approach that strain can take several forms and may not always lead to delinquency.

- Strain must be accompanied by other characteristics in order for delinquency to result: a) is the strain high in magnitude? b) is the strain unjust? c) is low social control involved? d) is there a payoff to committing the crime? e) are others who are likely to engage in delinquency involved?

- Agnew’s theory about strain suggests that it is less direct than that presented by Messner and Rosenfeld, who state that there is a direct connection between strain and the use of illegal means to achieve culturally approved goals.

63. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Cloward and Ohlin stated that strain alone is not enough to allow people to successfully engage in deviance and crime.

- They stated that one’s social position and access to the means to engage in the deviant act will determine the likelihood that one will do so and the success that the individual will have in doing so.

- Examples used include someone of lower socioeconomic status being unable to engage in white-collar crime because they lack the means to do so.

64. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- According to Braithwaite, neighbourhoods that are heterogeneous for class have less crime than those that are homogeneous for class.

- While the middle class may experience lower crime rates if they segregated themselves, the overall quality of life in a society would be improved if neighbourhoods were more heterogeneous.

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Chap 10_9e 65. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The subculture of power abuse refers to the fact that the powerful allow or condone corporate crime.

- It is suggested that if courts and watchdog agencies were to be clear and punitive, it could act to deter corporate crime as well as government misconduct.

66. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Anomie refers to an absence of norms and values in a society.

- This occurs when changes happen within a society that impact social cohesion and leads individuals to feel isolated or disconnected.

- In advanced societies where individualism is valued over collectivism and members subscribe to the notion of the “American Dream,” they may be motivated to achieve material wealth. If the social control mechanisms are not consistent or punitive enough they will not be sufficient to deter this behaviour.

67. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Human capital refers to the talents and skills that one brings to production and prosocial living. This is achieved through connection to positive role models as well as jobs and can reduce crime.

- Criminal capital refers to the information and skills necessary to engage in a successful criminal career. This is achieved by finding and engaging in relationships with delinquent others and it reduces the connection to human capital.

68. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Bernard predicted that when monetary success is overemphasized and the use of legitimate methods of getting there is undervalued there would be high rates of crime.

- If the legitimate opportunities to achieve success are unevenly distributed, crime would be unevenly distributed.

- The key to the distribution of crime in a society is the nature of the structural factors linked to even or uneven distribution of legitimate means of achieving success.

69. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Merton linked social structure with anomie.

- Crime, for Merton, results when there is a gap between the culturally prescribed aspirations (goals) and the social structured means for achieving them.

- Social structures that are in place to help members of a society achieve aspirations, such as schools and family, are sometimes enough—but for others they are not and so they resort to crime and deviance in order to achieve the goals that others may achieve legitimately.

- The gap between the culturally prescribed goals and the inability to achieve them through legitimate means is what creates strain.

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Chap 10_9e 70. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Strain theory does not adequately address the differences between men and women with regard to crime.

- Given the social status challenges faced by women it might be expected that they would experience more strain than men and would have higher crime rates, but the opposite is true.

- Given that it is highly unlikely women have lower goals than men, it is unlikely they experience less strain than men. In fact, many believe they experience as much or more strain than men and yet their crime rates continue to be lower than those of men.

71. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- A youth experiencing strain will ideally address the strain using legitimate means such as getting a job or going to school to gain the skills needed to address long-term monetary goals.

- If these legitimate pathways are blocked, the youth may turn to illegal means of achieving the goals such as theft or dealing drugs.

- If the youth does not have the skills or contacts to help in this subculture, the youth may turn to the conflict subculture where fighting is the means of demonstrating heart or reputation in order to be part of a gang and achieve a different type of goal.

- Finally, if the youth does not have the skills to engage in the conflict subculture, the last stop is the retreatist subculture, which involves using drugs and giving up on striving for goals.

72. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Hackler draws morality on a graph as a single bump which lumps all immoral acts together including the lessharmful and the abhorrent.

- However, Hackler suggests that most people see the morality curve as having two bumps that depict the lessharmful acts such as shoplifting in one bump and the more heinous acts such as murder under a separate bump.

- He argues that corporate criminals are often conceived as less harmful than street criminals and are thus placed in the less-harmful bump on the graph.

- The argument he makes is that in order to truly address crime effectively, we must target the frequent and seemingly less-harmful deviant acts along with the more harmful acts and treat them all together rather than as different and somehow worthy of more or less attention.

73. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- According to Braithwaite, the powerful abusing their occupational power causes crime among the upper classes.

- Establishing economic equality and a greater distribution of status and influence would modify high crime rates to some extent.

- Those in professional careers who are overcommitted to success goals and who value the business or success side of their occupations more than the professional side will be more likely to engage in crime as a means of exercising control and achieving success.

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Chap 10_9e 74. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The “code of the street” is the requirement that individuals who are not connected to the mainstream and legitimate pathways to success must gain respect by showing others how tough they are. They can do this through physical conflict or criminal behaviour.

- Lack of trust in the mainstream institutions and fear of victimization creates strain, and the response that is most readily available is one of deviance; this is worthy of respect of others who live in this subculture guided by street reputation.

75. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- In his research, Konty found that students who demonstrated “self-enhancing” values more often than “selftranscending” values were more likely to report having engaged in criminal or deviant acts. The impact of these values was more significant than the impact of race and social class.

- Durkheim argued that those who focus on community-oriented ways of thinking will be less likely to engage in deviant or criminal acts because they are thinking about the well-being of more than just themselves. However, those who think more individualistically are more likely to make choices that involve deviance or crime if it will advance their own interests.

76. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- One example given in the text is that of Opportunities for Youth in Seattle.

- Work opportunities were used to reduce delinquency but this met with little success in terms of reduced crime.

- However, overall opportunities were increased for lower-class families and this had some positive long-term impact.

- The suggestion is made that if the government offered programming to connect youth with jobs and higher education it would work to change their opportunities and to decrease the strain and resulting delinquency over the longer term.

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Chap 11_9e Indicate whether the statement is true or false.

1. Structural Marxists take a more general approach to the role of institutions in controlling capitalism than

instrumental Marxists. a. True b. False 2. According to Sellin, how a crime is defined is very much influenced by the character and interests of those

groups in society that have the most power. a. True b. False 3. According to Vold’s group conflict theory, violence that erupts during a strike by a trade union is an example of

crimes that occur when there is a conflict between the behaviour of a minority group and the laws of the dominant majority. a. True b. False 4. One of the critiques of Instrumental Marxist perspectives on crime is that it ignores laws that are contradictory

to the position of the powerful capitalist class. a. True b. False 5. Conduct norms represent the agreed upon behaviours within cultural groups. a. True b. False 6. Vold’s group conflict theory pays particular attention to violence that occurs between competing criminal

groups and gangs. a. True b. False 7. Quinney’s group conflict theory argues that all social groups have the power to influence policy. a. True b. False 8. Marxist theories tend to focus on better understanding the individual pathologies of criminal offenders. a. True b. False 9. According to Quinney’s group conflict theory the powerful dominate the formulation of law but not the

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Chap 11_9e 10. Marx himself did not develop a theory of crime. a. True b. False 11. Left realists use the victimization survey to capture a more realistic picture of crime. a. True b. False 12. Left realists emphasize alternatives to the criminal justice system in controlling crime. a. True b. False 13. Left idealism views Marxist views of crime as holistic and all-encompassing. a. True b. False 14. According to Greenberg, juveniles move toward delinquency because they are excluded from lawful sources

of income. a. True b. False 15. Spitzer argued that the criminalization of much behaviour is directed toward those problem populations who

are surplus to the labour market. a. True b. False 16. For left realists, “square of crime” refers to the intersection of offenders, the capitalist class, the state, and

criminal law. a. True b. False 17. Marxist criminologists view conflict as rooted in the structure of capitalist society (capitalist economic

relations). a. True b. False 18. Instrumental Marxists contend that the state has relative independence from the capitalist class and is therefore

able to enact laws that are not in the immediate interests of the capitalist class. a. True b. False 19. Vold’s group conflict theory is interested in the process of law creation as it relates to the activities of

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Chap 11_9e 20. According to Sellin’s cultural conflict theory, criminal norms refer to the norms that predominate among

criminal offenders a. True b. False 21. Marxist research on corporate crime focuses on those who are outside the sphere of production. a. True b. False 22. Left realists have been criticized for failing to take into account the political, economic, and cultural history of

the society in which crime occurs. a. True b. False Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

23. Which of the following concepts best explains honour killings and their condemnation in Canada? a. cultural conflict b. relative autonomy c. social groupings

d. interest group norms

24. Which of the following is one of the key criticisms of instrumental Marxism? a. American society is as unique as is portrayed. b. The state is more powerful than is accounted for. c. Criminal law is not considered in its most modern form. d. The capitalist class is presented as a unified group.

25. Left realism was developed because Marxist theories were deficient at which of the following? a. taking a global perspective b. addressing the harm caused by street crime c. providing testable hypotheses d. bringing about revolutionary change 26. According to Marxist criminologists, which of the following best represents the roots of conflict and hence

crime? a. the structure of capitalist society b. pathologies of individual offender c. the biological and genetic make-up of offenders d. intragroup conflict among those within the working classes

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Chap 11_9e 27. In Vold’s group conflict theory, which of the following best illustrates a crime that results from conflict between

competing interest groups vying for power? a. a revolution to overthrow the government b. serial killing c. a conscientious objector of war d. a so-called honour killing 28. According to Vold, delinquent gangs that break the law are representative of what type of group-based

conflicts resulting in criminal behaviour? a. conflict between competing minority groups b. conflict between the state and minority groups c. conflict between a minority group and the laws of the dominant majority d. conflict between competing interest groups vying for power 29. Which of the following best reflects the structural Marxists conclusions on corporate crime? a. Corporate crime costs more than conventional crime but work and occupation-related deaths are less

than deaths from homicide and manslaughter. b. Corporate crime costs less than conventional crime but work and occupation-related deaths outnumber deaths from homicide and manslaughter. c. Corporate crime costs less than conventional crime and work and occupation-related deaths are less than deaths from homicide and manslaughter. d. Corporate crime costs more than conventional crime and work and occupation-related deaths outnumber deaths from homicide and manslaughter.

30. Who wrote Culture Conflict and Crime (1938), which focused on how cultural conflict between the conduct

norms of different cultural groups can contribute to crime? a. Marx b. Vold c. Quinney d. Sellin 31. Which of the following major propositions is the basis of Quinney’s conflict theory of crime? a. Conceptions of crime are universal. b. Criminal definitions are determined by the powerful. c. Criminality is an inherent human behaviour. d. Crime is a function of agreed upon norms.

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Chap 11_9e 32. Aruna Papp argues that there is a distinction between Western domestic violence and the abuse of some

women in immigrant communities. What is the distinction she refers to? a. The victims of domestic violence in Western cultures are less likely to report the crime than those in immigrant communities. b. The immigrant community is usually unaware that abuse is taking place in the home while Western kin generally are fully aware. c. Western kin of abuse victims are horrified by the crime and immigrant kin view it as an approved practice upholding a cultural code. d. Immigrant families are generally unaware of Western laws regarding abuse and Western abusers are more skilled at avoiding detection.

33. Which of the following is an example of a crime control program that would fit with the perspective of left

realists? a. scared straight c. three strikes rule

b. solitary confinement d. neighbourhood watch

34. Which of the following concepts is most closely associated with Marxist theories of crime? a. the social reality of crime b. culture conflict c. the mode of production

d. conduct norms

35. Which of the following is one of the arguments that Greenberg puts forth to explain the causes of juvenile

delinquency? a. Juveniles are excluded from access to income and become surplus population. b. Delinquency is created because they become radicalized in urban neighbourhoods. c. Adolescent theft occurs because of a lack of appreciation for the long-term impact of a criminal record. d. Youth are deliberately targeted by the state for arrest and punishment.

36. Group conflict theory begins with which of the following assumptions? a. The more complex a society becomes, the greater the probability that there will be culture conflict. b. The law is a codification of mutually agreed upon societal norms and values. c. The state acts in the long-term interests of capitalism regardless of the nature of the groups within it. d. There will always be conflict between groups in society.

37. Canada’s anticombines legislation is an example of which of the following? a. relative autonomy b. pure capitalist interest c. surplus population

d. collective bargaining

38. Structural Marxists argue that the state is relatively independent of the ruling class. What is their term for this

condition? a. laissez-faire c. superstructural diversity

b. political independence d. relative autonomy

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Chap 11_9e 39. According to Sellin, what is the expression of culture conflict when individuals who act based on the conduct

norms of their own cultural group find themselves in violation of the conduct norms that the dominant group has enacted into law? a. a crime b. an act of the cultural resistance c. an indiscretion d. an institutionalized conduct norm 40. According to Quinney, conceptions of crime are constructed and diffused in the segments of society by various

means of communication. Which of the following is the most dominant means of communication? a. the state b. the police c. the media d. word-of-mouth 41. Which of the following does the structural Marxist perspective contend? a. The law exclusively represents the interests of the dominant capitalist class. b. The notion of “equality before the law” reflects the substantive equalities of class, race, and gender in the

economic sphere. c. Laws that benefit the less powerful reflect an ideological need to develop a widespread consent for the existing social order. d. The formal equality of each individual in the legal sphere extends to the economic sphere.

42. For which of the following reasons has the instrumental Marxist position been criticized? a. the base/superstructure metaphor is interpreted too loosely b. not all laws implemented by the state are in the immediate interest of the ruling class c. the impact of structural reasons for the ruling class’s actions may be overemphasized d. the ruling class is portrayed as a complex, shifting group 43. What term does Sellin use to describe the “conduct norms” embodied in the criminal law that represent the

values of the dominant group? a. dominant conduct norms b. institutionalized conduct norms c. cultural conflict d. criminal norms 44. According to Vold, strikes or lockouts that may result in violence or property damage is representative of what

type of group-based conflict resulting in criminal behaviour? a. conflict between competing minority groups b. conflict between the state and minority groups c. conflict between a minority group and the laws of the dominant majority d. conflict between competing interest groups vying for power

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Chap 11_9e 45. Based on the work of Sellin, which of the following describes a situation where culture conflict is likely to be

minimized? a. when the laws of one cultural group are extended to cover the territory of another b. when conduct norms clash on border areas between distinct cultures c. as a result of colonization, migration, or immigration d. when a society is culturally homogeneous 46. Which of the following definitions of crime is held by left realists? a. criminals “were born with inherent evil as a predestined path” b. crime is “antisocial behaviour involving people who lack values” c. crime can be seen as the “sum total of poor parenting, poor decision-making and weak values” d. criminals are only “citizens without means to access goals” 47. Which perspective is most likely to focus on street crime because it is concentrated within the working class

and other marginalized groups? a. instrumental Marxism b. group conflict c. left realism d. structural Marxism 48. In Vold’s group conflict theory, which of the following would constitute a “minority group”? a. the government b. a youth gang c. management in a corporation

d. the bourgeoisie

49. Which elements make up the “square of crime” mentioned by left realists? a. victim, offender, police, public b. offender, witness, judge, lawyer c. members of the public, media, legislation, judicial system d. victims, bystanders, first responders, offenders 50. According to Greenberg, which of the following is an example of a surplus population within the context of a

Marxian theory of deviance? a. incarcerated offenders

b. juveniles

c. females in their reproductive years

d. new immigrants

51. According to structural Marxists, which of the following is the state’s main role? a. to preserve the political power of current elites b. to ensure that contracts are upheld in the courts c. to preserve the long-term interests of the capitalist class d. to ensure that lawbreakers are found and punished

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Chap 11_9e 52. What is the basis of Vold’s group conflict theory? a. competing goals can be a binding force for groups in homogeneous societies b. those not connected to groups are more likely to be delinquent c. crime takes place more frequently in societies with more cohesive groups d. crime results from conflict between the interests of diverse groups 53. Which of the following schools of thought are Marxist theories of criminality most closely associated with? a. the consensus perspective b. the conflict perspective c. psychological theories of crime

d. feminist theories of crime

54. Which of these perspectives uses victimization surveys to examine the problem of crime for the working class? a. instrumental Marxism b. radical feminism c. structural Marxism

d. left realism

55. Which of the following theories assumes that crime reflects a clash between the conduct norms of immigrant

cultures and the conduct norms of the dominant culture? a. instrumental Marxism b. cultural conflict theory c. group conflict theory d. structural Marxism 56. According to Sellin, social values that receive the protection of the criminal law are those valued by which of

the following groups? a. immigrant groups c. the dominant interest groups

b. the capitalist class d. the state

57. Which of the following terms would Sellin apply to describe the practice of female genital mutilation in

Canada? a. cultural conflict c. conduct norms

b. cultural incompatibility d. criminal norms

58. According to Spitzer, which of the following groups is an example of how capitalism indirectly creates a

problematic surplus population? a. student radicals b. laid-off workers c. the unemployed d. those who use drugs to be able to cope with work

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Chap 11_9e 59. Based on Vold’s group conflict theory, which of the following best illustrates a crime that results from conflict

between the behaviour of a minority group and the laws and regulations of the dominant society? a. revolutions against the state b. serial killing c. civil disobedience resulting in arrests d. striking by unionized employees that turn violent 60. According to Sellin, what is the result in complex societies when diverse cultural groups maintain distinct

conduct norms or cultural rules governing appropriate conduct? a. civil war b. state mediation of conflicts c. conflict between the conduct norms d. an increase in social cohesion 61. Which of the following is Vold’s group conflict theory unable to explain? a. intragroup crime b. ideologically motivated crimes c. politically motivated crimes

d. intergroup crime

62. “The state is the direct instrument of the ruling or capitalist class.” Which of the following perspectives is most

closely associated with that statement? a. structural Marxism b. left realism c. group conflict theory d. instrumental Marxism 63. Describe and critically examine Vold’s group conflict theory. Identify some examples of the two general classes

of group conflict that can result in criminal behaviour.

64. Outline the main assumptions of Quinney’s conflict theory of crime.

65. Explain what left realists mean when they emphasize the need to examine the “square of crime.”

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Chap 11_9e 66. Distinguish between instrumental Marxism and structural Marxism.

67. Describe how Quinney’s (1970) group conflict theory differs from both Vold’s and Sellin’s conflict theories.

68. How might Quinney’s theory of crime address white-collar crime?

69. In what way are youth considered to be a “class” according to Greenberg?

70. Explain how Spitzer makes use of the Marxian notion of “surplus population” to formulate his theory of

deviance.

71. Describe the basic elements of Marx’s conception of the mode of production and what is meant by the

economic base and superstructure.

72. What is an honour killing? How do honour killings fit into Sellin’s culture conflict theory?

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Chap 11_9e 73. What did Sellin mean by the term “criminal norms”? How do criminal norms develop?

74. Describe how left realism is distinguished from Marxist theories of crime.

75. Distinguish between Sellin’s culture conflict theory and Vold’s group conflict theory. Be sure to state the main

assumption of each theory as well as their views of society.

76. What is the formula for corporate crime and why is it a challenge to address it according to Marxist theorists?

77. Describe the alternative approaches to crime control that are emphasized by left realists.

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Chap 11_9e Answer Key 1. True 2. True 3. False 4. True 5. True 6. False 7. False 8. False 9. False 10. True 11. True 12. True 13. False 14. True 15. True 16. False 17. True 18. False 19. True 20. False 21. False 22. True 23. a 24. d 25. b 26. a

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Chap 11_9e 27. a 28. c 29. d 30. d 31. c 32. c 33. d 34. c 35. a 36. a 37. a 38. d 39. a 40. c 41. c 42. b 43. d 44. d 45. d 46. b 47. c 48. b 49. a 50. b 51. c 52. d 53. b 54. d Copyright Cengage Learning. Powered by Cognero.

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Chap 11_9e 55. b 56. c 57. a 58. a 59. c 60. c 61. a 62. d 63. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Vold’s theory is focused on crime that occurs as a result of conflict between diverse “interest” groups.

- Vold examined the process of interest groups lobbying to have their interests reflected in law and the conflict that ensues when a competing interest group tries to resist any change. Political and criminal justice systems are impacted by conflicts and struggles between interest groups to achieve and maintain control over the processes that shape a society.

- One class of group conflict comes from a conflict between minority groups and laws of the majority (e.g. a gang vs the police).

- A second class of group conflict arises between competing interest groups aiming to achieve power (protest movements trying to achieve political reform).

64. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Quinney focused on segments or “social groupings” in society that protect their interests, through the use of their power, by influencing the formulation, enforcement, and administration of criminal law.

65. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The “square of crime” refers to the relationship among the offender, the victim, the police, and the public.

- Left realists perceive that Marxist theories do not take into account the significance of the fact that the working class, women, and racial minorities are the most frequent victims of crime.

- They also note that when it comes to working-class crime, the offender and victim are usually of the same class (intra-class).

66. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Instrumental Marxism assumes that the state serves the interests of the ruling class.

- The economic structure of a society determines the nature of the legal and political institutions in a society.

- Structural Marxism assumes that the state is a direct servant to the ruling class in a more general way and they ensure the ongoing capitalism of a society.

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Chap 11_9e 67. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Quinney’s focus was on an unequal distribution of power with regard to the creation and enforcement of public policy.

- Crime is not behaviour but a definition imposed on some persons by others.

- Those in power can determine what is criminal.

- The powerful not only define crime but they regulate its control.

- It is not the quality of a behaviour that makes it criminal but the decisions about how to respond to the behaviour.

- Definitions of criminal behaviour are pushed out through and perpetuated by the mass media, which are in turn controlled by the powerful.

68. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Quinney asserts that power is unequally distributed within the political state, and that the powerful define the behaviours that may be considered criminal. They also control the responses to these crimes as well as the media messages related to them.

- It is likely that he would say that these are the reasons why white-collar crime is perceived and treated as less harmful in our criminal justice system and in our media as well as in public opinion.

69. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Young people share a common relationship to the means of production in that they are excluded from economically productive activity in a capitalist society.

- This creates a situation where young people may be motivated to finance their leisure or social activities through theft or other crimes.

70. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- According to Spitzer, some behaviour is criminalized to address problem populations that are surplus to the labour market.

- Problem populations in the form of surplus workers are created directly when machines replace workers or when work is outsourced to other countries.

- Problem populations are created indirectly when the education system promotes critical thinking in young people who then become dropouts and student radicals who protest against the social conditions of the workplace as created by the capitalist society.

71. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The mode of production refers to the economic system through which goods are produced, exchanged, and distributed in society. This is further broken down into the forces of production (the means) and the social relations of production (relationship between those who control the mode of production and those who must do the work and are propertyless).

- The economic base is the foundation of a capitalist structure and it influences the institutions in a society, known as the superstructure. Those with economic power can control the social institutions (superstructure) of a society.

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Chap 11_9e 72. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Definitions vary but generally honour killings are premeditated and involve the murder of females by male family members who act together with the encouragement and approval of other family members because they have heard suspicion or rumour of alleged impropriety on the part of the females.

- These crimes fit Sellin’s culture conflict theory because they represent a cultural norm that clashes with the cultural norms held by other groups and go against conduct norms in many societies.

73. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Criminal norms are “conduct norms” based in the criminal law that represents the interests and values of the dominant group.

- Usually the criminal law reflects the values and conduct norms of the dominant cultural group and these are developed through the interest groups having their views acknowledged so that they influence legislation.

74. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Left idealism is used to refer to the instrumental and structural Marxist theories of crime.

- Left realism criticizes the superficiality of Marxist theories.

- Left realists advocate for a more global perspective on crime that includes street crimes and working-class crimes.

- They argue that Marxists do not pay sufficient attention to victims of crime who tend to be from vulnerable segments of society and that crime is disproportionately distributed among the working class, women, and racial minorities.

75. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Sellin focused on conduct norms held by diverse cultural groups.

- Crime results when there is conflict between cultural groups based on these conduct norms.

- The more complex society becomes, the greater the likelihood that there will be conflict.

- Vold focused on conflict between diverse “interest” groups that are created out of common interests within a society.

- For Vold, crime can result as a consequence of conflict between a minority group and established laws (e.g. juvenile gangs).

- Crimes can also result if interest groups come into conflict over achieving power (e.g. management vs union).

76. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The structure of capitalist economies and the need to create and maximize profits creates a strong motivation for corporations to engage in crime.

- The state must enact laws to address corporate crime but it must also balance the need to support the capitalist economy.

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Chap 11_9e 77. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Left realists suggest that crime control programs would be most effective if they offered alternatives to oppressive and overly harsh punitive responses.

- Some suggestions include alternatives to custody, prevention programs, and creating a police service that is accountable to the public.

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Chap 12_9e Indicate whether the statement is true or false.

1. Cultural criminology produces “dangerous knowledge” because it puts the lives of its researchers in danger

from delving into the real stories behind crime. a. True b. False 2. According to Bourdieu, an actor's ability to display competence within a particular field depends, in part, upon

his or her “habitus.” a. True b. False 3. The term governmentality is used to refer to examples of how the state wields power over civil society. a. True b. False 4. For Agamben, naked life refers to a state of total protection akin to a fetus developing in its mother’s womb. a. True b. False 5. Much of Agamben's work is grounded in a concern for and about the modern conditions of sovereignty. a. True b. False 6. Restorative justice is a mode of governmentality because it fashions a way of understanding the world that

makes the pursuit of “restorative” justice appear rational. a. True b. False 7. The Foucauldian notion of power is exclusively negative and repressive. a. True b. False 8. The influence of Beck’s concept of the risk society on critical criminology is that social problems become risks

to be managed, not solved. a. True b. False 9. Critical criminologists Taylor, Walton, and Young advocate that the focus be placed on the individuals involved

in crime rather than diffusing the issue by looking with a wider lens at social systems. a. True b. False

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Chap 12_9e 10. For Foucault, power is only evident when it is exercised. a. True b. False 11. Critical criminology attempts to highlight inequalities, discrimination, and suffering as related to the discipline of

criminology. a. True b. False 12. Critical criminology has produced a unified group of scholars who promote the discipline under a single label. a. True b. False 13. Deconstruction attempts to reveal what is really going on in and through language. a. True b. False 14. Street signs are an example of micro-powers. a. True b. False 15. Cultural criminologists emphasize the importance of rational choice in the cost–benefit analysis of whether or

not to break the law. a. True b. False 16. According to Agamben, human rights are subject to sovereign power and can be returned to naked life in

exceptional times. a. True b. False 17. Critical criminology seeks ways to better manage the day-to-day operations of the criminal justice system. a. True b. False 18. The primary focus of critical criminology is judging existing criminal justice policies, programs, and institutions. a. True b. False 19. Critical criminology seeks ways to better manage the poor and dangerous classes that make up most of the

criminal offenders. a. True b. False

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Chap 12_9e 20. Wacquant’s adaptation of Bourdieu’s work on field theory defines a “double regulation” that justifies the need

to hold both offenders and police accountable for crime. a. True b. False 21. Canada remains a hub for critical criminological research and policy changes. a. True b. False 22. For critical criminologists, vengeance is by far the most commonplace understanding of justice. a. True b. False 23. Today’s critical criminology uses critique largely as a means of confronting inequalities and social suffering with

promises of more just outcomes a. True b. False Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

24. Cultural criminologists propose an intensive ethnographic approach to studying crime. What is the term they

use to describe this methodology? a. dangerous knowledge b. attentive gaze c. acts of transgression

d. structural equation modelling

25. According to Derrida, which is the most commonplace understanding of justice? a. vengeance b. cooperation c. respect for civil rights

d. respect for due process

26. In what way does the state control the poor in ghettos that resemble prisons according to Wacquant? a. low income housing is often situated in industrialized areas that resemble institutions b. the rules and regulations attached to welfare support are onerous and choice-limiting c. meal allowances and child care supports are restricted for those with criminal records d. welfare workers take on authoritarian attitudes when dealing with clients 27. How is risk defined in critical criminological research? a. the degree of harm caused by various types of crimes b. the safety of individuals from victimization c. the level of harm an offender may cause d. the likelihood of an event happening

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Chap 12_9e 28. Which of the following best characterizes critical criminology? a. takes the system to task b. tinkers with parts c. denies transformation through promises of justice d. avoids judgment and critiques in an attempt to destabilize taken-for-granted assumptions 29. According to cultural criminologists, which of the following does “dangerous knowledge” refer to? a. the urban “underlife” that hides beneath structured and rationally planned urban space b. a set of acquired dispositions that allow one to achieve a “feel” for a specific activity c. information gathered by police informants about marginalized offender populations d. a form of knowledge that leaves no concept, notion, or idea unquestioned 30. How is the concept of risk assessment used in the youth justice system in Canada? a. The use of a tool to assess risk, needs, responsivity, and professional discretion guides youth justice

decision making. b. The treatment of youth offenders is laid out in specific terms to allow for custody classification. c. Increased surveillance of certain groups of young people allows police to address youth crimes more

effectively in the community. d. Providing parents with clear disciplinary guidelines helps to reduce youth crime.

31. What group of scholars was criticized by critical criminologists for compromising the goals and momentum of

critical criminology? a. right realists c. criminal justice apologists

b. left realists d. administrative criminologists

32. According to cultural criminologists, what hides beneath structured and rationally planned urban space? a. the risk society b. actuarial risk c. the soft city

d. fields

33. Which of the following refers to statistical calculations of risk across time and groups? a. risk calculus b. risk expectancies c. universal risk assessment

d. actuarial risks

34. Through his field theory of criminology, what sociologist provides insight into the cultural and economic

conditions in which crime and our understanding of crime are produced? a. Foucault b. Bourdieu c. Agamben d. Derrida

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Chap 12_9e 35. Which of the following best represents Foucault’s conception of power? a. held by governments or individuals b. only evident when it is exercised c. always negative or repressive d. obvious and therefore seldom influences behaviour 36. Which of the following scenarios best represents what cultural criminologists mean by the notion of the “soft

city”? a. signs guiding motorists to the most efficient paths through rush hour traffic b. a supermarket placing commonly purchased goods at the back of the store c. an illegal occupation of a park by advocates of the homeless d. the use of more flexible construction materials on streets to lessen injuries resulting from traffic accidents 37. What did Taylor, Walton, and Young advocate a new critical criminology to accomplish? a. to examine the structural and political-economic dimensions that produce criminal behaviour b. to question how the criminal justice system can prevent crime for everyone c. to understand individual instances of crime in their entirety d. to ensure that a representative number of criminal justice professionals come from working class and

marginal backgrounds 38. Why might you advise a 20-year-old who wants to be a police officer to do extensive volunteer work while

completing her post-secondary education? a. it will increase her capital b. it will decrease her risk factor c. it is necessary in order to fit into her field d. it will contribute to a better understanding of her studies 39. What term is used by Agamben to describe the power of the sovereign to suspend civil liberties in the name of

the greater good? a. attentive gaze b. state of exception c. risk state

d. actuarial risk

40. According to your textbook, which of the following is one of the goals of critical criminology? a. draws attention to hidden and overlooked injustices and demands possible dismantling of practices b. highlights what is currently working in the justice system and relates this to the discipline of criminology c. attends to the processes through which the criminal justice system supports offenders as well as victims d. undertakes empirical research into the causes of crime as a means to help criminal justice policy making

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Chap 12_9e 41. The 1973 book The New Criminology by Taylor, Walton, and Young levelled a number of criticisms at the

mainstream and sparked a brief time of radical criminology. Which of the following discussion was part of this brief shift? a. a recognition that there were some positive aspects of the system b. there were pleas to abolish prisons c. claims that opportunities create criminals d. a desire to focus more on biological and psychological causes of crime 42. Which of the following is a criticism of contemporary critical criminology? a. It is obscure and abstract. b. It has been used too frequently to rationalize tough-on-crime agendas. c. It resembles existing practices of crime control and social justice. d. Some find its language simplistic and outdated.

43. Which of the following claims is most likely to be made by a critical criminologist? a. We need to emphasize justice in the punishment of offenders. b. We need a “get tough” approach to crime. c. We need better ways to manage the poor and dangerous classes. d. We need to provide justice to those who are marginalized.

44. Which of the following best describes Wacquant’s critical criminological interpretation of Bourdieu? a. He articulated how criminal justice is increasingly based on principles of actuarial risk. b. He identified the empowerment of dominant groups to further disempower subordinate groups who lack

capital to make positive changes. c. He articulated how the criminal justice system represents governmentality. d. He examined how a sovereign power can return a society to a state of naked life (life unprotected by

law and rights).

45. Which of the following concepts best illustrates the case of the modern police officer, who in investigating a

traffic accident must gather information pertinent to the courts and police records as well as insurance companies, the public health system, and the automobile industry? a. governmentality b. soft city c. risk society d. surveillance 46. Which of the following is a critique that stems from a deconstruction of the word “community” in the context of

community crime prevention? a. It is exclusionary. b. It can too quickly encourage inclusive patterns of harmony. c. When used to address youth justice it can provide too wide a scope to be helpful. d. It can help build connections within the criminal justice system.

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Chap 12_9e 47. What was the basis of the work conducted by Derrida on language and sovereignty? a. deconstruction of the criminal justice system has resulted in restorative practices b. deconstruction of the methods used to hold people accountable is needed to achieve lower recidivism

rates c. deconstruction is the only way to create a new and better prison system d. deconstruction provides insight into what is really going on behind the words 48. Which of the following best represents what cultural criminologists mean by the notion of the “soft city”? a. rationally planned urban space b. ideas about space not captured in intended city plans c. constant changes made by planners to address increasing urban shift d. the design of defensive urban space made to guide movement 49. Which of the following best illustrates a state of exception as described by Agamben? a. the Harper era in federal politics b. Canada during the 1950s c. the war of 1812

d. the FLQ Crisis in Quebec

50. Which of the following thinkers advanced groundbreaking theories on power and governmentality that inspired

new theorizing in the field of contemporary critical criminology? a. Hogeveen b. Foucault c. Agamben

d. Derrida

51. Which of the following best characterizes a key goal of critical criminology in recent years? a. conceiving programs that will work well within the existing criminal justice system b. systematically critiquing government intrusion into the lives of the powerful c. helping to better manage the poor and dangerous classes d. providing justice through opening minds to more just ways of being in the world 52. What concept did Foucault say extends beyond the state and is not a quantity to hold or possess, but rather is

relational and only evident when exercised? a. surveillance b. discipline c. governmentality

d. power

53. What social theorist complained that criminology’s “garrulous discourse” and “endless repetitions” relieved

judges and police officers of their guilt for delivering pain and suffering on the guilty? a. Bourdieu b. Foucault c. Derrida d. Agamben

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Chap 12_9e 54. Which of the following schools of thought expressly attempts to draw attention to the hidden and overlooked

injustices in society? a. left realism c. structural Marxism

b. environmental criminology d. critical criminology

55. What term is used by Derrida to denote the silent or absent element of language that provides words with an

essential part of their meaning? a. a state of exception b. a habit c. a field d. a trace 56. Which of the following best illustrates the Foucauldian concept of a micro-power? a. a police officer b. the Criminal Code c. a traffic light

d. a shopping mall security guard

57. How are cultural criminologists most likely to describe a rally where pro-cannabis protesters smoke pot on

Parliament Hill? a. a form of anti-governmentality c. a form of attentive gaze

b. an act of transgression d. a form of dangerous knowledge

58. A woman was raised by parents who are lawyers. She models her parents’ ways of speaking, and thinks of

the world in terms of adversarial justice. Which of the following terms is used by Bourdieu to indicate that this woman is already well armed with capital that will help her more easily navigate the legal profession? a. an attentive gaze b. negative social capital c. habitus d. dangerous knowledge 59. Maher Arar was falsely accused of collaborating with the terrorist group al-Qaeda. His case was cited in the

textbook to substantiate a number of issues raised by Agamben. Which of the following is one of these issues? a. whether the suspension of individual rights is necessary for the protection and defence of society b. whether we are witnessing a critical period in which religious rights of minority groups like Muslims are being eliminated c. whether the war on terrorism could provide us with critical information about how to protect our interests d. whether Canadians can now ask that others be detained if they fear that they may be a threat to

Canadian values 60. What is the name applied by Chapter 12 to the group of scholars who, during the reign of Thatcher, Reagan,

and Mulroney governments, advocated for more punitive sanctions for crime? a. right realists b. left realists c. administrative criminologists d. criminal justice apologists

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Chap 12_9e 61. Which of the following concepts best represents the following statement: “Opening up language to the silent,

background suppositions that give words and phrases their meaning with the intention of encountering the hidden and excluded elements of language, meaning, and experience”? a. attentive gaze b. a state of exception c. dangerous knowledge d. deconstruction 62. For Foucault, which of the following is the direct or indirect observation of conduct toward producing a

desired outcome? a. attentive gaze b. discipline c. surveillance d. risk 63. What is the term Bourdieu uses when someone has a real “feel for the game”? a. capital b. habitus c. endowment

d. capabilities

64. Cultural criminologists Hayward and Young alert us to the importance of which of the following in the context

of a criminal act? a. adrenaline b. cost-benefit analysis c. heredity d. rational choice 65. Define Agamben’s concept of the state of exception and explain its relationship to sovereignty.

66. Describe how risk and actuarialism are prevalent in contemporary criminal justice practices using the example

of youth justice.

67. List and describe two of Hayward and Young’s five “motifs” of cultural criminology that demonstrate the

relevance of cultural criminology for critical criminologists.

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Chap 12_9e 68. Explain the basic tenets of contemporary critical criminology.

69. Briefly describe what happened to suspected terrorist and Canadian citizen Maher Arar, and indicate the

implications of his treatment for the relationship between Canada and its citizens.

70. Summarize the critiques that have been levelled against critical criminology.

71. Is restorative justice a form of governmentality? Defend your answer.

72. Explain the “deadly symbiosis” observed by Loïc Wacquant and how it builds upon Bourdieu’s “field theory.”

73. What did Taylor, Walton, and Young mean when they recommended that criminology take on a “fully social”

examination of crime and the criminal justice system?

74. Explain what it means to be “critical” in critical criminology.

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Chap 12_9e 75. What is Michel Foucault’s approach to the concept of power? Detail why it is important to critical criminology.

76. Explain how Pierre Bourdieu’s “field theory” can be used to understand the criminal justice system.

77. Describe Derrida’s notion of deconstruction and how he applies it to the term “community.”

78. How are offenders’ and potential victims’ lives organized around questions of risk? Be sure to describe the

notion of a “risk society.”

79. Discuss cultural criminology and its contribution to critical criminology.

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Chap 12_9e Answer Key 1. False 2. True 3. False 4. False 5. True 6. True 7. False 8. True 9. False 10. True 11. True 12. False 13. True 14. True 15. False 16. True 17. False 18. False 19. False 20. False 21. False 22. True 23. True 24. b 25. a 26. b

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Chap 12_9e 27. d 28. a 29. d 30. a 31. b 32. c 33. d 34. b 35. b 36. c 37. a 38. a 39. b 40. d 41. c 42. a 43. d 44. b 45. c 46. a 47. d 48. b 49. d 50. b 51. d 52. d 53. b 54. d

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Chap 12_9e 55. d 56. c 57. b 58. c 59. b 60. a 61. d 62. c 63. b 64. a 65. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The state of exception refers to a time when the sovereign can declare the suspension of civil liberties.

- This might happen in a time of national crisis such as a natural disaster, war, or civil unrest.

- The invoking of this is done in order to restore social order.

66. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Risk, in actuarial terms, refers to the likelihood of an event happening.

- In the case of youth justice in Canada, the tool used by correctional officials is the Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory to measure risk, needs, responsivity, and professional discretion.

- Risk refers to the idea that crime happens in predictable patterns.

- Needs seeks to assess the methods of reducing crime through prescribing the correct treatment programs to address criminogenic needs.

- Responsivity directs professionals to find the correct type and duration of treatment to address the needs of a particular youth.

- Professional discretion is an acknowledgment that youth criminal justice professionals must be able to provide their judgment to matters.

- The ideal would be that with all of these factors considered, youth crime would be reduced.

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Chap 12_9e 67. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

1. The importance of “adrenaline” in committing crime, which takes the view beyond a cost–benefit analysis to the feelings involved in crime commission.

2. The “soft city” refers to the parts and uses of the city that are not always considered and planned for and that go beyond the prescribed plans of urban planners.

3. The acts of “transgression” that challenge the justness of laws.

4. Attentive gaze requires researchers to move out of their offices and immerse themselves in the lifestyle of crime.

5. The knowledge produced by cultural criminology is considered dangerous knowledge because it is intended to bring into question all aspects of current knowledge.

68. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Critical criminology involves the intensive examination of the criminal justice system.

- It confronts and deconstructs the system to examine inequalities and social suffering.

- By moving beyond the language and the practices of this system to examine meaning and interpretation it asks that we not accept what we see at face value and it demands that we not continue to filter ideas through simple judgment of what is working or not working. Instead it requires that we move toward new patterns that do not rely on reactive judgment.

69. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Arar was born in Syria and immigrated to Canada in 1987. He was arrested in the US as a suspected terrorist in 2002.

- He was detained and interrogated before being deported to Syria where he was tortured.

- Throughout this, the Canadian government made few efforts to help him and in fact the RCMP was later found to have provided inaccurate evidence to link him to terrorism.

- This state of exception regarding Arar was deemed necessary in order to address a matter of national security despite the fact that there was no truth to the allegations.

- For Canadians, this represents a situation of significance given the apparent lack of due diligence where Arar was concerned.

70. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Critical criminology is rather abstract and difficult to apply.

- It is sometimes difficult to interpret what is meant by vague terminology used by critical criminologists.

- What are the practical implications of critical criminology? How can it be applied to the world of crime and criminal justice?

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Chap 12_9e 71. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Pavlich makes the case that restorative justice is a form of governmentality for two reasons: ▪ Reason one is that participants in restorative practices are asked to examine and reshape their conduct and better govern themselves in accordance with state expectations.

▪ Reason two is that restorative justice serves to govern our behaviour just in a different way than the conventional justice system—e.g. through restorative justice, harm is governed rather than crime, all participants are governed rather than just the offender, rather than judges and lawyers doing the governing this task is left to the participants, and appropriate governing is future focused rather than past focused.

72. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Wacquant notes that there is a “deadly symbiosis” between the prison and the ghetto.

- On one hand the state places criminals in prisons where rehabilitation is of little concern, and on the other hand the state leaves the poor in ghettos where they are contained through the nearly impossible work needed to survive.

This work makes it extremely difficult to ever leave.

- This builds on Bourdieu’s “field theory” because it speaks to the power inherent in the facets of the government that control the justice and social welfare fields and the lack of capital that the poor and criminal have to allow them to fight and potentially get out.

73. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- They criticized conventional criminology for supporting the political and economic status quo and for ignoring structural causes of crime.

- Crime takes place in social conditions and not just between individuals.

- Crime is not the result of bad people but the result of structural inequalities.

- Crime is defined according to what is happening with the mode of production.

- Crime is defined by the interests of the powerful.

- Law is a reflection of dominant material interests.

- Humans can influence dominant social structures.

74. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- For critical criminologists, being “critical” means being open to new ways of thinking about and being in the world.

- The example of American Idol is used to demonstrate judgment against a yardstick of success - The critical criminologist asks that we not simply judge but that we consider the yardstick we are using and that we avoid only relying on it as it is simply a static source of what is right.

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Chap 12_9e 75. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Power is only evident when it is exercised.

- Power is also not always negative and he referred to a positive or creative definition of power.

- Humans are subjected to power through the guidance imposed by micro-powers and surveillance.

- By looking at the margins of the state, critical criminologists can reveal and examine forms of injustice and domination.

76. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The field in “field theory” is a reference to a space of conflict and competition in which competitors each possess varying levels of social and economic power. The field is not a fair space given that it is tilted in favour of those with power.

- Those who develop experiences related to a particular field can develop habitus or a feel for the game that allows them to react effectively to new situations.

- Habitus is developed through the accumulation of capital that could be economic, symbolic, cultural, or linguistic.

- The bureaucratic field is an application of this theory that looks at how the criminal justice system is influenced by those with power and capital while those without capital are disadvantaged.

77. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Derrida defined deconstruction as the opening up of language in a way that allows us to consider all elements of a concept and elements of what the concept is not.

- He refers to the trace as the silent element of language that we interpret without it having to be overtly expressed.

- As an example, Derrida states that community is thought to be a noble and inclusive term but he sees it as exclusionary in a number of ways.

- By its very definition, a community means that not everyone is part of that community.

- The community brought together to address youth crime in community forums is created by virtue of the offence committed and the young person is also the antithesis of the group itself.

78. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Present-day society is considered a risk society as we recognize that many of the issues or risks that we are concerned with are human-made.

- The focus is in organizing our society around the management of those risks.

- We attempt to understand crime and the nature of offending based on the statistical likelihood that an offender will recidivate and we try to understand victimization by determining which variables place individuals at greatest risk of being victimized.

- Social problems are now risks to be managed rather than problems to be solved.

- Individuals are expected to take every possible action to protect themselves from criminal victimization.

- Legislation such as the three-strikes rule presents as a risk management tool to control crime.

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Chap 12_9e 79. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Cultural criminology moves away from the traditional study of crime that includes statistics on the amount of crime and the nature of the sentencing practices of the judicial system and focuses instead on crime as a culturally negotiated phenomenon through which people create social meaning.

- The emphasis is on looking beyond the surface to immerse oneself into culture to view the dimensions of crime.

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Chap 13_9e Indicate whether the statement is true or false.

1. The strengthening of deviant ties and the weakening of non-deviant ties solidifies the impact of differential

association. a. True b. False 2. A central concept in interactionist theories of crime is the deviant career. a. True b. False 3. Secondary deviation occurs with little change in the individual’s everyday routine or lifestyle. a. True b. False 4. Primary deviation becomes secondary when deviants see that their behaviour substantially modifies their ways

of living. a. True b. False 5. Those experiencing self-enhancing commitment to crime are compelled to leave the non-conformist lifestyle

and to seek conventional work to support themselves. a. True b. False 6. Conceptually, the stages of personal involvement in criminal activity are nothing like the like stages in a

legitimate occupational career. a. True b. False 7. Deviance may provide some youth an opportunity to enjoy good standing and reputation with both the

legitimate and deviant groups in their lives. a. True b. False 8. Criminal careers, once established, rarely change trajectory. a. True b. False 9. American studies on the drift toward deviance among youth are generally not applicable to Canada. a. True b. False

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Chap 13_9e 10. The term moral rhetorics is used to refer to claims and assertions used to justify one’s deviant behaviour. a. True b. False 11. One of the basic premises of symbolic interactionism is that people act according to objects in their lives and

to the meanings those objects have for them. a. True b. False 12. Career contingency refers to a criminal offender’s awareness of the impossibility of choosing a noncriminal

identity because of penalties in making the switch. a. True b. False 13. Interactionist theories group the root causes of criminal behaviour into a category called “primary deviation.” a. True b. False 14. According to Sutherland, learning criminal behaviour through differential association is much different

compared to learning other forms of prosocial behaviour. a. True b. False 15. Interactionist approaches to understanding crime centre chiefly on what happens to criminals once their deviant

activities commence. a. True b. False 16. A major factor leading to secondary deviation is the tendency of society to treat someone’s criminality as a

master status. a. True b. False 17. Someone who advocates for the criminalization of marijuana can be called a moral entrepreneur. a. True b. False 18. Maintaining a deviant master status leads to moving away from like-minded others and creating individualized

values, attitudes, and behaviours. a. True b. False

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Chap 13_9e 19. One contribution that interactionist theories have made to criminology is to influence legislation such as the

Youth Criminal Justice Act in Canada. a. True b. False 20. Young people have little commitment to deviance; therefore, they drift between conventional and deviant

behaviour. a. True b. False 21. Interactionist theories of deviance focus overwhelmingly on how the techniques of how crimes are committed

in a particular time and place. a. True b. False Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

22. A sense of continuity, a perception of increasing opportunities, and an increased sophistication and possibly

recognition by peers are all characteristics of which of the following? a. deviant career b. symbolic interactionism c. secondary deviation d. drift 23. Who developed the original theory of differential association? a. Sutherland b. Cohen c. Lemert

d. Cressey

24. Which of the following is a critique of interactionist theory? a. It fails to connect crime and other forms of deviance to temperament. b. It fails to indicate how people make sense of deviant inclinations. c. It fails to account for trends in place and time. d. It examines only labelled deviants (those officially identified as having deviated).

25. Which of the following is a key principle of differential association theory? a. Criminal behaviour is learned in isolation from one’s family. b. Criminal behaviour is learned in interaction with others. c. Learning includes the techniques but not the motives for committing crime. d. Learning criminal behaviour stems from unique individual needs and values.

26. “A characteristic of an individual that is negatively evaluated by others, thereby distorting and discrediting that

person’s public identity.” Which of the following terms does this definition apply to? a. stigma b. primary deviance c. drift d. moral rhetoric

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Chap 13_9e 27. Why, during the primary deviation stage, do young people drift between deviance and conventional norms? a. They engage in moral rhetoric to determine their path of choice. b. They lack value commitment to either set of values. c. Crime has become their master status. d. They are stigmatized by the thought of getting into trouble with their parents.

28. In which category of deviant behaviour does Lemert place alcoholism and drug addiction? a. self-defeating and self-perpetuating deviance b. self-enhancing and self-perpetuating deviance c. adjusted pathological deviance d. unadjusted pathological deviance 29. Which of the following best describes Sutherland’s differential association theory? a. It helped bring a psychological perspective to the forefront of criminology. b. It points to the importance of learning criminal behaviour. c. It has received no convincing empirical support. d. It no longer is relevant to contemporary theories or research into causes of crime.

30. Which of the following is the most influential factor behind moving from primary to secondary deviance? a. finding deviant friends to spend time with b. learning the skills to commit crime c. being labelled a deviant

d. extreme feelings of guilt

31. Which of the following is the best example of what Goffman meant by the term “stigma”? a. being an ex-inmate b. being a straight C student c. being a member of the mafia

d. being a member of a church choir

32. Which of the following best represents the role of police, judges, prison personnel, and probation and parole

officers? a. agents of social control c. agents of social work

b. first line public defenders d. legal administrators

33. Within the context of primary deviation, which of the following statements best describes young offenders,

according to Schwendinger and Schwendinger? a. Early offenders tend not to employ any moral rhetoric; older offenders tend to use the rhetoric of egoism and/or the rhetoric of instrumentalism. b. Early offenders tend to employ the moral rhetoric of instrumentalism; later offenders tend to use the moral rhetoric of egoism. c. Early offenders tend to employ the moral rhetoric of egoism; later offenders tend to use the moral

rhetoric of instrumentalism. d. Early offenders tend to use the rhetoric of egoism and/or the rhetoric of instrumentalism; older offenders tend not to employ any moral rhetoric.

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Chap 13_9e 34. What term denotes a social category into which deviants are placed by others and which they may place

themselves? a. criminal identity c. continuance commitment

b. career contingency d. unadjusted pathological deviance

35. What is Lemert’s term for someone whose life and identity revolve around deviance? a. tertiary deviant b. secondary deviant c. full deviant

d. primary deviant

36. What is the term used to denote a rationalization whereby offenders stress the cunning and power they bring to

bear against people who are otherwise more powerful and uncontrollable? a. moral rhetoric b. instrumental rhetoric c. symbolic power relations rhetoric d. secondary deviance rhetoric 37. Which of the following best represents a main foundation of symbolic interactionist approach to understanding

criminality? a. introspection c. interactions

b. independence d. intelligence

38. What term has been applied to refer to a psychological state of weak normative attachment to either deviant or

conventional ways? a. tertiary deviance b. moral purgatory c. drift d. moral rhetoric 39. According to symbolic interactionist Becker, which of the following best characterizes deviance? a. a quality of an action b. behaviour that people label as such c. juvenile delinquency d. variation from a recognized norm in a given society 40. Which of the following is among the most important concepts for interactionist theories of crime? a. power relationships b. the level of inequity c. cultural goals

d. the deviant career

41. Which of the following statements contradicts symbolic interactionist theory? a. Meanings emerge from interactions among people. b. Meanings are applied and occasionally modified. c. Meanings are derived from empirical research into social situations, patterns, and statuses. d. People act toward objects on the basis of meanings that objects have for them.

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Chap 13_9e 42. What is the term used for an unintended event, process, or situation that that can affect the movement of an

individual along a deviant career? a. primary deviation b. career contingency c. continuance commitment d. master contingency 43. What generally leads criminals to end their deviant careers? a. maturation b. jail sentences c. counselling

d. advice from friends

44. Which of the following is one of the reasons that labelling is not fair? a. Everyone engaged in criminal activity, no matter how serious the crime, has the deviant label applied to

them. b. Some have not involved in deviant behaviour, but are labelled as such. c. The label lasts forever. d. It is only applied to those engaged in “street-level” crime.

45. According to the Schwendingers, justifying theft as a response to store owners’ greed is an example of which

of the following? a. instrumental rhetoric c. lower-class rhetoric

b. the rhetoric of denial d. the rhetoric of egoism

46. What two areas of interactionist theories can be seen in the context of socialization into crime? a. the process of differential association and acquisition of a criminal identity b. the process of differential association and acquisition of a social control identity c. the process of differential association and psycho-analytical theories of crime d. the acquisition of a social control identity and group conflict theory 47. Criminal careers are “composed of adjustments to, and interpretations of, the contingencies and turning points

encountered” at each stage of this career. Which of the following schools of thought on criminality does this statement best represent? a. critical criminology b. consensus theories c. psychological theories

d. interactionist

48. Which of these criminological theories centres on the interchanges people have with one another and on the

meanings of these interchanges in the past, present, and future? a. strain b. interactionist c. conflict d. critical theory

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Chap 13_9e 49. Which of the following is a focus of the interactionist approach to criminality? a. the establishment of a power structure b. the application of moral rules through labelling c. how the mode of production in a society produces moral entrepreneurs d. the impact of socioeconomic status on crime rates 50. According to Matza, which of the following best describes young American male offenders who smoke, drink,

and are tough and who pursue the hedonistic pleasures of “real” men? a. They are attracted to subterranean traditions. b. They are reacting against middle-class values. c. They are following secondary deviance values. d. They are a product of father-absent families.

51. Which of the following examples best represent the main difference between primary and secondary deviance,

as conceptualized by Lemert? a. the head of an outlaw motorcycle gang versus a lower-ranking member b. the single mother who occasionally shoplifts versus a drug addict who once robbed a bank with a gun c. the youth who stole a chocolate bar one time on a dare vs the young adult who breaks into garages and steals tools on weekends d. the serial killer who suffers from schizophrenia versus the serial killer who suffers from psychopathy 52. Interactionists have observed that some groups or individuals have enough power to force criminal identities on

less powerful groups or individuals. What term has been applied to describe this phenomenon? a. identification b. labelling c. deviant career d. primary deviation 53. Which of the following is the best example of a primary deviant? a. a member of an outlaw motorcycle gang b. a person who lives off the avails of others (e.g., a pimp) c. a young person who shoplifted when dared to do so by friends d. an adult who has been working as a prostitute since the age of 12 54. What is the term used to describe an offender’s awareness of the impossibility of choosing a noncriminal

identity because of penalties (societal reactions) in making the switch? a. career contingency b. continuance commitment c. self-enhancing commitment d. self-degrading commitment

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Chap 13_9e 55. What are the “two sides” of the criminal identity that solidify it in place? a. The view of the police and the view of the courts. b. The view of self by the individual and the perception of the community. c. The perception of the defence and that of the prosecution. d. The perception of the individual and that of the victim(s).

56. What is the term used when society considers someone’s criminality as their defining characteristic? a. primary deviation b. secondary deviation c. master status

d. career contingency

57. Which of the following is an implication stemming from interactionist theories of crime? a. It highlights the therapeutic effects of the deviant label. b. It exposes the elements of the judicial system that stigmatize the poor. c. It highlights how the capitalist mode of production eventually leads to the application of deviance only to

those involved in street-level crime. d. It outlines the impact that labels have on an offender’s re-entry into a community.

58. Which of the following best characterizes the use of moral rhetoric by young offenders, according to

Schwendinger and Schwendinger? a. It is used to justify one’s deviant behaviour. b. It is used to place pressure on peers to also become involved in deviance. c. It is a technique to defraud senior citizens. d. It is used as a cognitive behavioural technique to reduce recidivism.

59. Which of the following is an agent of social control? a. police b. parents c. offenders

d. victims

60. Which of the following statements best describes the drift towards delinquency? a. All individuals and groups experience a deviant drift at some point. b. It always involves an entire subculture. c. It is always a highly individualized process. d. An individual or an entire peer group of youths may drift toward deviance.

61. For many years, groups such as the Canadian Cannabis Corporation have lobbied to have cannabis legalized.

Which of the following terms can best be applied to such groups? a. agents of social control b. moral entrepreneurs c. moral capitalists d. agents of moral dissemination

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Chap 13_9e 62. An individual commits delinquent acts but does not adopt a self-identity as a deviant. Which of the following is

this an example of? a. secondary deviation c. drift

b. primary deviation d. adolescent-limited deviance

63. Short notes that careers in youth crime are likely to be prolonged after certain turning points have been

reached. Which of the following is one of the turning points discussed by Short in the textbook? a. late language development b. the type of crime carried out by the offender c. an early interest in drugs d. early employment 64. What is meant by the term “socialization into crime”? Summarize one theory that relates to this term. Apply this

term and theory to a hypothetical example of a young man who becomes involved in a violent gang.

65. Using the concept of the criminal identity, discuss how diversion programs that provide alternatives to the

traditional court process and the avoidance of a criminal record might impact the potential criminal career of a young person.

66. Define “master status” and provide a hypothetical example of the application of master status.

67. Define primary and secondary deviation and explain how primary deviation transforms into secondary

deviation.

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Chap 13_9e 68. Cite and discuss the three major critiques of interactionist theory in explaining crime.

69. Describe the implications of a master status for secondary deviation.

70. What is the nature of continuance commitment and what are its implications for young adult offenders?

71. Discuss the concept of “criminal identities” and how it relates to interactionist theories and labelling in

particular.

72. Define the concept of a criminal career and describe some of the typical characteristics of a deviant career.

73. List and explain at least four of the nine propositions that comprise Sutherland’s differential association theory.

74. Define career contingency and continuance commitment. Explain how these concepts relate to secondary

deviation.

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Chap 13_9e 75. Outline the two types of moral entrepreneur and explain how each shapes the nature of crime and deviance.

76. What are some of the implications for the rehabilitation and reintegration of offenders into the community

following custody sentences according to interactionist theories?

77. Explain the concept of moral rhetoric and how it impacts youth deviance.

78. these meanings emerge from interactions

3) these meanings are applied and modified as required in order to interpret how they fit particular circumstances or individuals - This theoretical perspective has been used to examine crime and deviance and social learning related to crime including how to do it and to be successful at it.

- This perspective also speaks to the creation of labels and lifestyles that use learned and shared meanings about deviance and conventional life.

PTS: 1 REF: Interactionist Theories KEY: Bloom’s Higher Order 2) Define and describe the concept of labelling within the context of interactionist theories. What are the

consequences of labelling for the lives of young people who may be involved in delinquent activities?

79. Summarize the main tenets of the sociological theory of symbolic interactionism and how it has influenced

criminology.

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Chap 13_9e Answer Key 1. True 2. True 3. False 4. True 5. True 6. False 7. False 8. False 9. False 10. True 11. True 12. False 13. False 14. False 15. True 16. True 17. True 18. False 19. True 20. True 21. False 22. a 23. a 24. d 25. b 26. a

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Chap 13_9e 27. b 28. a 29. b 30. c 31. a 32. a 33. c 34. a 35. b 36. b 37. c 38. c 39. b 40. d 41. c 42. b 43. a 44. b 45. d 46. a 47. d 48. b 49. b 50. a 51. c 52. b 53. c 54. b

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Chap 13_9e 55. b 56. c 57. d 58. a 59. a 60. d 61. b 62. b 63. c 64. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Differential association is one theory that outlines how individuals learn about and become entrenched in a life of crime.

- This theory explains that people learn how to engage in crime like anyone would learn how be a prosocial member of society. This is done through face-to-face interactions with others who are already involved in crime and who demonstrate the techniques, motives, and rationalizations of crime.

- An example would be of a young person who is not doing well in school and who does not have strong, supportive family members engaged in conventional activities who support conventional values. The young person drifts away from conventional supports through school, family, and other peers and finds connections with deviant others after going through the stage of primary deviance.

- Finding others who can share crime techniques, attitudes, and values can lead the young person to experience belonging and connection. An example would be a youth gang.

65. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The criminal identity is a social category into which deviants are placed by community members and into which they may eventually place themselves.

- A community labels an individual as deviant based on appearance, actions, associates, and location.

- The individual must then live according to this label and the reactions others have toward him or her.

- The community reputation influences self-evaluation and pushes the individual away from conventional groups and organizations thus weakening the bonds to mainstream society.

- If young people are diverted from the traditional criminal justice system after early and minor offences they may have the opportunity to avoid the label of criminal and to maintain bonds with family, school, and other positive community influences. This may also keep the youth out of the justice system, where other offenders are housed who could contribute to differential association with a criminal lifestyle and values.

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Chap 13_9e 66. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Master status refers to an identity status that overrides all other statuses in perceived importance.

- For a criminal, this means that being a criminal is judged primarily in terms of his or her criminal identity despite all other statuses he or she holds including being married, being a parent, and despite any conventional employment the individual holds.

- An example from pop culture is Walter White in the series Breaking Bad. Walter is a successful chemistry teacher at a high school, a husband, and the father of two children, but the most important status, the one that impacts his life and the life of his family, is his status as a drug producer.

67. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Primary deviation does not result in much change to an individual’s lifestyle or routine and the deviant acts one commits are infrequent and do not produce significant guilt or practical implications.

- Secondary deviation occurs when there is a shift such that deviance becomes a way of life and one’s master status. Most significantly, one is labelled as deviant and values and behaviours that support deviance are internalized.

68. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Neo-Marxist Critique: states that interactionist theory fails to relate crime and other forms of deviance to the larger society. It states that interactionist theory fails to account for historical and contemporary political and economic interests. The concept of power is not addressed and the differences between the powerful and powerless are overlooked.

- Empiricist Critique: note three weaknesses of the interactionist perspectives—1) they only examine labelled deviants, 2) labelling as a cause of deviance is inadequate, 3) labelling theory lacks testable propositions.

- Ethno-Methodological Critique: labelling theory overlooks the question of how people make sense of their social world.

69. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The label responsible for solidifying one’s master status as a deviant leads to challenges with the labelled individual fitting into conventional society.

- The individual may then seek deviant others and this group then helps the deviant with methods of coping with the problems associated with deviance.

- The deviant acquires rationalizations to help justify deviant actions and this then solidifies the movement to secondary deviation or the entrenchment in the criminal lifestyle.

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Chap 13_9e 70. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Continuance commitment helps to explain a person’s long-term deviant identity because of the penalties inherent in switching to a conventional lifestyle.

- There are structural and personal penalties in leaving a deviant lifestyle for a more conventional one and these include finding a conventional job that will be pleasant, getting reasonable pay, and garnering positive status even thought one has a criminal record.

- Also penalizing are the questions from others about the criminal lifestyle and the less than flattering views that are expressed about criminals.

- As a result of these penalties, an offender will seek out like-others and ways of life that will be entertaining and lucrative. Most often this involves crime.

- For young people, a poor self-image as a result of breaking conventional roles, combined with the penalties they experience, can lead them to entrenchment in a criminal lifestyle.

71. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Symbolic interactionists focus on meaningful interactions between individuals and how these shape our perceptions of the world. They also focus on symbols and how they are interpreted.

- Perceptions of others including how they dress, how they behave, the people they spend time with, and the activities they engage in are key to how they are perceived.

- The text gives an example of a woman dressed provocatively, standing in a particular neighbourhood, at night and the fact that others will interpret all of these elements to be consistent with prostitution. Once the label is affixed to her, she finds that she has to accommodate her life according to the reactions of others and the label they have affixed.

72. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- A career is the passage of an individual through recognized stages in one or more related identities. Careers also involve adjustments to and interpretations of the turning points that are available at various stages.

- A deviant career involves turning points such as early interest in deviance, interest in drugs, the inability to find legitimate work, and the perception that there are increasing opportunities and a recognition by others of one’s skills.

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Chap 13_9e 73. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- People learn how to engage in crime; it does not come naturally but must be learned, like other behaviours in society.

- The learning comes about through interaction with others who have already learned criminal ways: we must learn about behaviours and the values that go along with them from others who have more experience than we do.

- The learning occurs in small, face-to-face groups: direct contact and mentoring by experienced others must take place in person rather than abstractly.

- Technique, motives, attitudes, and rationalizations are learned, not unlike how we learn conventional ways of being and doing.

- A common attitude is disregard for the community’s legal code: in order to entrench oneself in the deviant subculture one must agree that laws are not to be followed.

- Differential associations with criminals and non-criminals vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity: the types of interactions deviants have with criminals and those not involved in crime will be different in nature.

- Learning criminal behaviour through differential association rests on the same principals as learning any other kind of behaviour: generally we learn things the same way—by observing, practising, and internalizing.

- Criminal behaviour is a response to the same cultural needs and values as non-criminal behaviour: both criminals and non-criminals value status, power, and prestige.

74. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Career contingency refers to an unintended event, process, or situation that occurs by chance that lies beyond the control of the individual pursuing the career.

- These career contingencies come about from changes in the individual’s environment or personal circumstances or both.

- Movement through the career is impacted by the contingencies and this can take one either deeper into the deviant career or in the opposite direction.

- Continuance commitment is the awareness that the deviant career path is difficult to move out of because of penalties for doing so.

- Penalties may be inherent in the community and the labels and reactions that deviants receive or they may be personal in that they come from the individual’s sense of self and identity that comes from status or reputation in deviant circles.

75. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The rule creators are the crusaders who are dissatisfied with existing rules and who campaign for legal changes and changes in attitude. They make claims and use quasi-theories to support their claims but rarely provide strong empirical evidence as support.

- The rule enforcers apply rules to people who misbehave and this provides jobs and justification for the work of the enforcers. In order to keep their jobs, they need to justify their jobs and this may lead to the labelling of disproportionate numbers of marginalized individuals who have little power to resist.

- Deviance is not about the quality of the act but about successful application of a label.

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Chap 13_9e 76. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Interactionists stress the damaging effects of labels; once an offender is in custody the label of guilty, offender, or convict is firmly applied by the community and the criminal justice system.

- Re-entry into the community to find housing and work is difficult given that non-offenders generally want to avoid offenders to avoid damage to their own reputations and because they are less than pleased by the offender’s lifestyle.

- Stereotypes created around the labels given to the guilty make it increasingly difficult for those released from custody to reintegrate and show that their master status might be anything other than that of criminal.

77. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Moral rhetoric is used by youth to justify their deviant behaviours.

- The rhetoric may not be logical or consistently applied.

- The rhetoric of egoism is applied by those who feel guilt and who are looking for ways to justify their behaviour.

They blame their actions on the immorality of others and justify the deviance as a means of fighting back against high prices in stores, etc.

- Those who have been engaging in deviant behaviour longer and who wish to outline their own skill and cunning in outsmarting those who are more powerful use the instrumental rhetoric.

- Youth, like other offenders, work to justify their actions and to defend them as morally right.

78. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Deviance is not the quality of an act but the label that others attach to it.

- Labels are given by those who have the power to do so and are not always accurate.

- An individual who engages in occasional deviance may or may not be labelled as deviant.

- Individuals with a weak commitment to conventional values and behaviours may be drawn to deviant acts and friends. Justification for deviance and drift between deviance and conventional rules and roles typically happens for a time. If the youth does not mature out of crime, he or she may become committed to crime creating the master status of a deviant. Secondary deviance is reached.

- For those who are committed to deviant values, they justify their actions using instrumental rhetoric and achieve recognition and good standing among deviant peers.

79. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- These theories focus on interactions people have with each other and the meanings they give to these interactions.

- There are three premises behind symbolic interactionism: 1) people act toward other people and objects according to the meanings they have for them

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Chap 14_9e Indicate whether the statement is true or false.

1. According to control theory, conformity, not deviance, needs to be explained. a. True b. False 2. Ties to primary groups such as the family are considered essential to fostering social control, according to

Reiss. a. True b. False 3. Several researchers have argued that social control theory is one of the few purist perspectives that cannot be

combined with other theories. a. True b. False 4. According to control theory, people are inherently honest, and as such, criminal behaviour is motivated by

strong incentives, such as financial rewards or excitement. a. True b. False 5. According to Thrasher, all adolescent gangs engage in delinquency. a. True b. False 6. Control theory advocates for stronger punishments for upper-world crime. a. True b. False 7. Control theory helps explain the deviance of people who have a strong stake in conformity. a. True b. False 8. Deviant youth are more likely to care what their parents think of them than are non-deviant youth. a. True b. False 9. Hirschi’s early work focused on external sources of social control. a. True b. False 10. The term “ecological fallacy” is used to emphasize how the social environment really has no influence over

factors that contribute to the onset of criminal behaviour. a. True b. False

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Chap 14_9e 11. One of the policy implications of control theory is the need for psychoanalytic therapy to be provided to

delinquent youth. a. True b. False 12. Deviance is so strongly internalized if it begins in youth that it is likely to be a lifelong pattern of behaviour. a. True b. False 13. According to Shaw and McKay, the origins of deviance could be traced to the pathology of individuals. a. True b. False 14. Research indicates that very strict discipline is associated with lower rates of delinquency. a. True b. False 15. According to Gottfredson and Hirschi, the most important factor in determining criminality is a lack of self-

control. a. True b. False 16. The school provides a stake in conformity for all children, regardless of whether they succeed or fail in school. a. True b. False 17. To the control theorist, we would all be criminals but for the restraints provided by social controls. a. True b. False 18. Conflict criminologists argue the political and economic structure is ignored by social control theorists. a. True b. False 19. Religion has a greater impact on delinquency if it is part of the community’s moral and institutional order. a. True b. False 20. Schools can help at-risk students academically and behaviourally, which can then promote social bonds, self-

control, and prosocial behaviour. a. True b. False

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Chap 14_9e 21. Nye considered the school to be the most significant institution in the development of social controls within

society. a. True b. False 22. Links between religion and delinquency are some of the strongest in social control research. a. True b. False 23. Strong family ties are important in the development of social bonds. a. True b. False 24. According to Gottfredson and Hirschi, children with low self-control are frequently raised in families with poor

parenting skills. a. True b. False Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

25. From a control perspective, the Watergate scandal can be largely explained as the result of which of the

following? a. a lack of commitment to the American people b. a lack of belief that such acts were wrong c. a lack of attachment to conventional, non-political groups d. an over-involvement in political processes 26. Theories and research presented in Chapter 14 suggest that the school is of primary importance in socializing

young people and is an important determinant of delinquency. What are the two impacts that schools have on delinquency? a. Regular attendance in school can increase delinquency if it leads to greater delinquent contacts and lessons learned through this group can increase delinquency. b. Failure in school will undermine future job success and a young person’s experience at school, if negative, can impact daily life and increase delinquency. c. Family members who do not support schooling can undermine attendance and this, combined with low intelligence, can lead to delinquency. d. Delinquent youth are placed in the same classes to segregate them from others and this, along with the neighbourhood the school is in, can impact crime rates.

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Chap 14_9e 27. According to research conducted in Illinois by Shaw and McKay, which of the following geo-spatial areas

have the highest crime rate? a. semi-rural areas and small towns outside of cities b. slum areas near the city centre c. business and industrial areas away from the city centre d. the central business district of a city 28. According to Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory of crime which of the following is most responsible for

low self-control in people? a. socially disorganized neighbourhoods b. poor relationships with parents and/or poor parenting c. inability to adapt to rapid social change d. mental health disorders 29. Which of the following best represents the reason why social controls are largely absent in some

neighbourhoods according to Shaw and McKay’s ecological analysis of crime? a. group conflict b. the mode of production c. weak social institutions and organizations d. rapid social change 30. Which of the following institutions affects delinquency when it binds individuals to a moral code in a community

where involvement is strong? a. school b. community c. the state d. religion 31. According to Schafer and Polk, which of the following best describes the role of schools in delinquency? a. The school offset the initial handicaps of low-income and minority-group children but actively

contributes to educational failure and deterioration of low-income and minority-group children. b. The school offsets the initial handicaps of low-income and minority-group children and passively contributes to educational failure and deterioration of low-income and minority-group children. c. The school fails to offset the initial handicaps of low-income and minority-group children and passively contributes to educational failure and deterioration of low-income and minority-group children. d. The school fails to offset the initial handicaps of low-income and minority-group children and actively

contributes to educational failure and deterioration of low-income and minority-group children.

32. Why was Nye’s research on delinquency considered a methodological advance over previous studies? a. He used self-reports of delinquent behaviour. b. His measures were tested for reliability and validity. c. He used a multivariate model that examined many variables. d. He used a control group.

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Chap 14_9e 33. Which of the following points is made by those who believe that control theories focus on the relationship

between individuals and social institutions? a. individuals are motivated to offend no matter what the nature of their relationship to social institutions b. crime will be lowered when social institutions work together to support conforming behaviour c. most institutions are overly controlling and this increases rather than decreases criminality d. social control theory focuses too much on middle class and corporate crime rather than on street crime 34. Which of the following is one of the characteristics of schools that can help at-risk students academically and

behaviourally? a. have parents assisting in classrooms b. shelter students from decision-making worries c. small school and class size; low staff turnover d. isolate intellectually gifted students from struggling students 35. The “ecological fallacy,” as it relates to crime, involves which of the following? a. overemphasizing the role of socialization for producing and maintaining criminal tendencies b. incorrectly inferring that belonging to the lower class makes one more likely to become involved in crime c. inadequately amalgamating larger geographical areas from smaller ones d. failing to take into account naturally occurring individual differences 36. The concept that a young person’s lack of ties to conventional order will increase the likelihood of association

with delinquent peers involves which two theories? a. social learning theory and social control theory b. differential association theory and social learning theory c. social control theory and feminist theory d. social control theory and differential association theory 37. What does Canadian research show about linkages between crime and neighbourhoods? a. high crime neighbourhoods tend to be toward the outer boundaries of cities b. the picture is too difficult to study given the geographic vastness of Canada c. there is more crime in economically disadvantaged neighbourhoods d. it does not appear that there is a link between crime and type of neighbourhood 38. Which of these did Patterson conclude was the most important factor for reducing problem behaviours among

children? a. a token reward system c. punishment for misdeeds

b. positive social modeling d. prenatal nutrition

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Chap 14_9e 39. According to Hirschi, if a person is so busy in conventional activities that he or she does not have time to

engage in deviant behaviour, what social bond is this an example of? a. commitment b. attachment c. involvement d. belief 40. Neighbourhoods characterized by weak institutions contribute to ineffectual social controls, which then leads

to high rates of crime and other types of deviance. This statement is central to which of the following schools of thought on crime causation? a. social disorganization theories b. critical criminology theories c. interactionist theories d. social psychology theories 41. Which of the following questions about crime is most likely to be posed by a social control theorist? a. What is in that person’s make-up that propels him/her to crime? b. Why did he or she do it? c. Why don’t we all do it? d. We all do it, so why doesn’t everyone get caught?

42. Which of the following did Nye believe to be most significant in preventing delinquency? a. government b. peer group c. school

d. family

43. Which of the following statements best represents why schools are important institutions in the context of

Hirschi’s social bonds? a. Schools promote attachment. c. Schools promote modelling.

b. Schools promote commitment. d. Schools promote social ideology.

44. According to Stark and colleagues, when does religion have an effect on criminal behaviour? a. when it posits a single moral being (a God) b. when religion binds people into a moral community c. when religious penalties are associated with crime d. when the creed expressly forbids crime as a sin 45. What name does Hirschi give to the social bond that represents the degree to which an individual pursues

conventional goals? a. commitment b. attachment c. involvement d. belief

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Chap 14_9e 46. Gas sniffing among young Mushuau Innu children from the Davis Inlet is largely attributed to which of the

following? a. European colonization that brought a shift from a nomadic to sedentary life b. small homes built close together that lack running water or sewage drainage c. relocating the entire community on three occasions d. weak parenting within the Innu community 47. Which of the following describes the correlation between school failure and delinquency? a. negative and strong b. positive and strong c. positive and weak

d. negative and weak

48. Which of the following approaches to parental supervision and discipline of children is likely to be most

successful in preventing delinquency? a. strict supervision and moderate punishment b. low supervision and strict punishment c. low supervision and moderate punishment d. strict supervision and strict punishment 49. Which of these statements coincides with Gottfredson and Hirschi’s notion of self-control? a. Individuals who lack self-control tend to plan for the future. b. A lack of self-control is an inherited trait. c. Those who fail to develop self-control in childhood will be more likely to be involved in crime. d. Individuals with low self-control typically engage in only one or two forms of risky behaviour.

50. The main premise underlying Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory of crime is that delinquents and criminals

lack a personality trait essential to pro-social behaviour. What is the trait? a. commitment to conventional values b. self-control c. self-respect d. the ability to feel empathy towards others 51. Which of the following is the name of the social bond that denotes why we refrain from crime because we

don’t want to hurt or embarrass people we like? a. attachment to others b. socialization within a stable family c. involvement in conventional activities d. commitment to conformity 52. According to Reiss, which of the following does not represent a social control? a. ties to one’s family b. ties to one’s neighbourhood c. ties to one’s job

d. ties to one’s school

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Chap 14_9e 53. The assumption that no special motivation is needed to explain deviance and that it is conformity and not

deviance that needs explaining is at the core of which of the following theories on crime causation? a. critical criminology theories b. interactionist theories c. social control theories d. social psychology theories 54. Which of the following is the critique of social control theories by critical criminologists? a. They focus too much on the family and not enough on the community. b. They do not take into consideration the political and economic structures that produce crime. c. They do not take into consideration the psychological make-up of individual offenders. d. They do not take into account how religion promotes intercultural violence.

55. With which of these approaches can control theory be combined to explain how social forces have created

poverty and inequality among Canada’s Aboriginal people? a. interactionist b. conflict c. postmodern d. feminist 56. According to longitudinal research involving children at the Stanford University nursery, which of the following

characterizes the children who were able to delay eating the marshmallows? a. They had fewer behavioural problems. b. They did worse on college entrance test scores. c. They used drugs more. d. They had fewer coping skills in adolescence.

57. Which of the following did Manitoba’s Aboriginal Justice Inquiry blame for the high crime rates among

aboriginal people? a. conflict within aboriginal societies b. unemployment and underemployment c. cultural and community breakdown d. policies of the Department of Indian Affairs 58. When control theory is combined with differential association theory, the first step in delinquency involvement

entails which of the following? a. no unconventional social bonds c. weak conventional social bonds

b. strong conventional social bonds d. weak unconventional social bonds

59. Shaw and McKay situated the origins of deviance in which of the following? a. a neighbourhood’s social environment b. rapid changes taking place in mass society c. individual pathology d. the family

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Chap 14_9e 60. Which of the following are the social bond elements described by Travis Hirschi? a. belief, attendance, control, values b. involvement, commitment, attachment, belief c. contingency, attention, commitment, attachment d. attachment, intention, structure, control 61. According to Thrasher, why might delinquency take place in slum neighbourhoods? a. the youth are bored and have nothing else to do b. there are few police willing to patrol in the area c. most households do not have anyone home during the day d. there are more opportunities for crime to occur 62. According to social control theory, which of the following assumptions is correct? a. Human beings are born moral. b. Human beings are neither good nor evil. c. Some humans are born good; others are born evil. d. Human beings are born inherently evil.

63. In his research Reiss found that success or failure of young men on probation is most associated with which of

the following? a. absence of both personal controls and social controls b. substance abuse c. association with delinquent peers d. absence of social controls but strong personal controls 64. According to Anderson’s study, “street-oriented” parenting is characterized by which of the following? a. aggression and yelling b. strict supervision c. lack of discipline

d. timely interventions and redirection

65. What is the significance of turning points according to Sampson and Laub? a. adults who are released from jail into a rural environment are not likely to recidivate b. disciplinary practices of delinquent families have a significant impact on offender behaviours c. reaching puberty is a significant marker in the life of an offender and is worthy of further study d. events and experiences encountered throughout life can impact one’s likelihood of engaging in criminal

behaviour 66. According to research, which of these family variables is strongly associated with increased delinquency? a. parental supervision b. parental role modelling c. harsh discipline

d. disapproval of unwanted behaviour

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Chap 14_9e 67. Define ecological fallacy and discuss the implications of this problem.

68. Describe and analyze the relevance of religion to social control theory. Based on the research and theories

presented in the textbook, discuss the complex relationship between religiosity and criminal behaviour.

69. Describe and analyze the relevance of the family to social control theory and how the family can both promote

and prevent delinquent and criminal behaviour.

70. Briefly describe some of the social problems found among the Mushuau Innu of Davis Inlet, and provide an

explanation of how these problems came about. Your explanation should employ concepts associated with social control theory.

71. Describe the attempt by Linden and colleagues to integrate social control theory with differential association

theory. What limitations of social control theory was this integration meant to address?

72. Identify and describe some of the basic assumptions underlying control theories of crime. How do they differ

from other criminological theories?

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Chap 14_9e 73. Explain how control theory states the importance of social institutions working together to support conforming

behaviour in order to reduce deviance. Link this to the problems faced by Canada’s Indigenous peoples.

74. Describe and analyze Hirschi’s social bond theory. List and describe the four aspects of social bonds that,

theoretically, constrain our behaviour.

75. Describe and analyze the relevance of schools to social control theory and how schools can both promote and

prevent delinquent and criminal behaviour.

76. Describe and analyze Ivan Nye’s social control theories. What were his two main contributions to social

control theory?

77. Describe and analyze Shaw and McKay’s social disorganization theories with particular emphasis on their

explanations as to why crime rates were highest in certain types of neighbourhoods.

78. Using a social control theory perspective, make three suggestions for how schools can effectively reduce the

onset of delinquent and criminal behaviour.

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Chap 14_9e 79. What are the implications of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s A General Theory of Crime and how does the work

of Sampson and Laub contradict this work?

80. What lessons can be learned by parents about effective ways of preventing delinquency, from research on

social control theory?

81. Why would a control theorist suggest that your parents had good reasons for telling you not to associate with

that peer in your class who was a “bad influence”?

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Chap 14_9e Answer Key 1. True 2. True 3. False 4. False 5. False 6. True 7. False 8. False 9. True 10. False 11. False 12. False 13. False 14. False 15. True 16. False 17. True 18. True 19. True 20. True 21. False 22. False 23. True 24. True 25. b 26. b

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Chap 14_9e 27. b 28. b 29. c 30. d 31. d 32. a 33. b 34. c 35. b 36. d 37. c 38. c 39. c 40. a 41. c 42. d 43. b 44. b 45. a 46. c 47. b 48. a 49. c 50. b 51. a 52. c 53. c 54. b

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Chap 14_9e 55. b 56. a 57. c 58. c 59. a 60. b 61. a 62. b 63. a 64. a 65. d 66. c 67. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Ecological fallacy is an error made when information is gathered about groups and conclusions are drawn about individuals.

- The finding that crime rates are higher in lower-class neighbourhoods may lead to the conclusion that being poor will lead someone to a life of crime.

- This is not accurate and the implications are that we may create stereotypes and respond accordingly.

Specifically, policing practices in neighbourhoods, decisions about the configuration of neighbourhoods, and the supports that are placed there will all be impacted by the assumption that crime is a function of income level.

68. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Early theorists believed that there was a strong link between religious belief, church attendance, and crime.

- This belief impacted programming for inmates as it was thought that the more involved they were in religion, the less likely they would be to continue to be involved with crime.

- Hirschi and Stark changed this belief in the late 1960s when their research suggested that religiosity was not related to delinquency.

- Studies in the 1980s found a strong negative correlation between church attendance and delinquency and this was further clarified such that the correlation was found in communities that have high religious participation but not in those where participation in religiosity is low.

- Stark and colleagues concluded “religion only serves to bind people to the moral order if religious influences permeate the culture and the social interactions of the individuals in question.”

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Chap 14_9e 69. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Strong family ties are important for the development of social beings. Close relationships between parents and children and a positive atmosphere in the home can reduce delinquency.

- Hostility in the home and mutual rejection between parents and children can increase delinquency.

- Adequate supervision of children by parents can reduce delinquency.

- Strict discipline or lax and inconsistent discipline can lead to increased delinquency.

70. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Housing and roads were inadequate, only professionals had running water, sewage was being eaten by dogs or trampled through the community, families were in distress, sexual abuse, drunkenness, and violence were rampant.

-The Innu were forced by government to give up their traditional practices and ways of living; the community was moved three times but many did not accept the move and chose to stay where they had been.

- Christianity replaced traditional spiritual practices, hydroelectric projects invaded territories inhabited by the Innu, and they found themselves cut off from their land and their means of survival.

- The disconnect contributed to anomie and lack of connection to agencies that support norms such as schools, families, and traditional religion.

- The disconnect led to lack of social control and in turn deviance became a viable option to many community members.

71. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Control theory only conceptualizes an individual’s bonds as having two dimensions—weak to strong.

- Adding differential association’s idea that ties to deviant peers are important, the control theory becomes multidimensional: conventional with strong or weak and unconventional with strong or weak.

- When a person is adrift from ties to conventional norms and agents of social control, he or she becomes open to delinquent peers in a new way and this explains how an individual learns the techniques and rationalizations that facilitate deviance.

72. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Social control theory assumes that everyone has the capacity to do wrong and that we are not born good or bad.

- They argue that it is easier to be deviant than it is to conform because we are all seeking rewards and sometimes deviance is the quickest and easiest way to a reward.

- The focus of control theories is on why we do not all commit crime.

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Chap 14_9e 73. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- When social institutions work together to support conforming behaviour deviance should be reduced, but when these institutions do not work together and if individuals and groups are alienated from social institutions rates of deviance will be high - In Canada, Indigenous people have less power and fewer resources than other Canadians. They must cope with systems of education and religion imposed upon them that are not compatible with their customs.

- Strong bonds are difficult to develop when they are forced to submit to government policies.

74. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Hirschi believed that individuals are more likely to engage in deviant acts if their bonds to society are weakened or broken and he stated that attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief are the most critical aspects of social bonds that constrain our behaviour.

- Attachment: refers to the degree to which an individual has affective ties to other persons, particularly those in his or her primary group.

- Commitment: is the pursuit of conventional goals that the person invests time, energy, and self into, e.g. getting an education.

- Involvement: level of involvement in conventional activities is important such that the more involved someone is in conventional activities, the less likely he or she will have time to engage in deviant activities.

- Belief: our belief in conventional values, morality, and the legitimacy of the law will constrain our behaviour.

75. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Schools are critical in the lives of children and adolescents.

- Students are constantly being judged and those who are successful enjoy the prestige bestowed on them by teachers, classmates, and parents.

- Those who are not successful in school are more likely to engage in delinquency.

- A child’s school experience will have an important impact on his or her future job prospects and success.

- For children who have humiliating or degrading experiences at school, delinquency is often more prevalent.

76. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Nye developed a technique for gathering self-report data related to delinquency.

- He asserted that delinquency is not caused but is, instead, prevented by laws and customs society has in place.

- Nye believed family to be the most important enforcer of controls in an external sense and in its capacity to help children develop internal controls.

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Chap 14_9e 77. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Shaw and McKay found that some neighbourhoods in Chicago had higher crime rates than others.

- Rates were highest in slum areas near the city centre and declined the farther from the centre one moved.

- They felt that the reason for higher crime in some areas was that the institutions and organizations in these neighbourhoods did not provide adequate social controls and that exposure to delinquent subcultures attracted youth to deviant behaviour.

78. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Schools are an active part of delinquency in youth.

- Good schools have standard values that allow students to be part of decision making, they have smaller class sizes, they have low staff turnover, and they do not ignore intellectually and socially disadvantaged pupils.

- Teachers and students who have good relationships are a positive influence that protects against delinquency in youth.

- Teacher training to work with behaviourally challenged youth that includes praise and incentives to encourage desired behaviours helps students to learn problem solving techniques and children thrive.

- Curriculum must also be relevant to the lives and social situations of the students.

79. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Gottfredson and Hirschi focused on lack of self-control as a key factor in determining who will engage in deviance.

- They pointed to poor relationships with parents and poor parenting skills as causes of poor self-control that would last throughout the life course.

- Sampson and Laub found that the life course assertion was not supported.

- Instead, they found that various turning points in an individual’s life can impact the continuance or desistence of deviance.

- Significant life events that strengthen social supports can change behaviours, e.g. jobs, marriages, children, etc.

80. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Patterson’s work suggests that parental discipline can have a significant impact on whether or not delinquency will continue.

- Specifically, parents should monitor their children’s behaviour, recognize deviance when it occurs, and punish the behaviour.

- Also important is the nature of the punishment. It should be predictable and reasonable as well as non-physical.

- Results of one study found that stealing was reduced when parents followed instructions given in a training program; other studies demonstrated successes when home visiting programs to assist parents were used to help with disciplining young children.

- The danger is that parents are blamed for delinquency and crime. A wider look at the social and economic conditions the families are in provides information to suggest that there are situations in which parents were never taught how to parent properly because of their own upbringing.

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Chap 14_9e 81. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Ties to deviant peers have been found to be strongly correlated to delinquency.

- Specifically, delinquent peers were a better predictor of drug use than many other factors.

- Youth who are part of gangs are more likely to be involved in delinquency than they were before or after their gang membership.

- Deviant peers have a strong influence on those who are persistent offenders.

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Chap 15_9e Indicate whether the statement is true or false.

1. Research has shown that when trying to deter crime the certainty of punishment is more important than the

severity of punishment. a. True b. False 2. The main thesis of rational choice theory is that crime is the result of deliberate choices made by offenders

based on their calculation of the risks and rewards. a. True b. False 3. There is insufficient credible evidence to conclude that mandatory minimum sentences have significant deterrent

effects on criminal offenders. a. True b. False 4. Research on rational choice theory found that offenders’ behaviour was influenced more by long term

repercussions of their actions than short term costs and benefits. a. True b. False 5. Most youth reduce their criminal behaviour when they turn 18 because of the prospect of being tried in an

adult court. a. True b. False 6. The high frequency of repeat victimization supports lifestyle/exposure theory. a. True b. False 7. One of the reasons that mandatory minimum sentences do not work is because the likelihood of offenders

getting caught is low. a. True b. False 8. Cleaning up graffiti quickly is mentioned as a method of deterring crime since it removes the reward to the

offender. a. True b. False 9. An example of effective guardianship is to park away from busy streets. a. True b. False

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Chap 15_9e 10. Routine activities theory takes the motivated offender as a given. a. True b. False 11. The only category of crime that mandatory minimum sentences reliably work for is drug offences. a. True b. False 12. Research has shown that the best way to deter crime is to increase the severity of sentences. a. True b. False 13. According to environmental criminology, criminal offenders are more likely to commit offences along the paths

travelled in their daily routines. a. True b. False 14. Durlauf and Nagin’s 2011 review of the research showed that long prison sentences do not necessarily serve

as a deterrent to crime. a. True b. False 15. It has been easier for governments to increase the certainty of punishment than pass tough sentencing laws. a. True b. False 16. Beccaria’s Classical theory of crime is an important antecedent to modern deterrence theory. a. True b. False 17. Deterrence theory focuses on the backgrounds, character and psychological make-up of offenders. a. True b. False 18. According to routine activities theory, an example of a social facilitator of a crime is a friend of an offender

who provides lessons on techniques of committing a crime. a. True b. False 19. An underlying assumption of rational choice theory is that offenders are irrational decision-makers. a. True b. False

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Chap 15_9e 20. A large body of research supports the deterrent effect of increasing the certainty of offenders being arrested. a. True b. False 21. A fundamental assumption of crime prevention through social development is that opportunities make the

criminal. a. True b. False 22. In weighing costs and benefits, economic factors are generally the most important benefits or rewards for

potential offenders. a. True b. False Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

23. The lifestyle/exposure theory of crime attempts to account for which of the following? a. personal victimization b. all crime c. all types of property crime

d. all forms of violent crime

24. In general, according to research, does harsh sentencing deter crime? a. yes b. no c. only if prison spaces are available d. only when young offenders face the prospect of turning 18 and being sentenced in adult court 25. Which of these theories acknowledges that not everyone has the same way of life and that some people place

themselves at more risk of victimization than others? a. environmental criminology b. lifestyle/exposure c. lifestyle/situational d. rational choice 26. Which of the following is not a category of crime facilitators discussed in the textbook? a. physical facilitator b. social facilitator c. chemical facilitator

d. psychological facilitator

27. Which of the following statements is true with respect to mandatory minimum sentencing laws brought in by the

federal Conservative government in Canada? a. They were the first mandatory minimum laws ever introduced. b. Canadian courts have upheld all aspects of the laws indicating that they do not violate Charter rights. c. The Supreme Court of Canada overturned parts of these “tough on crime” laws on the grounds they violate Charter rights. d. The courts have yet to rule on the mandatory minimum sentencing laws.

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Chap 15_9e 28. Into which of Ronald Clarke’s categories of situational crime prevention techniques does the disabling of stolen

cell phones fit? a. reducing provocations c. increase the risks

b. remove excuses d. reduce the rewards

29. Which of the following statements is true with respect to the deterrence effect of increasing the certainty of

punishment? a. A large body of research does not support the deterrent effect of increasing the certainty of punishment. b. A large body of research supports the deterrent effect of increasing the certainty of punishment. c. Little research has been conducted into techniques that increase the certainty of punishment. d. There are few techniques available to increase the certainty of punishment.

30. Improving the parenting skills of high-risk parents, providing job training and employment for young people

who are cut off from the labour market, and intensive pre-school for children who live in poverty are all examples of what kind of crime prevention strategy? a. situational crime prevention b. crime prevention through social development c. provocation reduction crime prevention d. deterrence-based crime prevention 31. Implementing a neighbourhood watch program, in which local residents are trained to keep an eye out for

suspicious people and activity, satisfies which of the following situational crime prevention strategies? a. increasing the risk b. reducing provocations c. removing excuses d. increasing the rewards 32. Which of the following statements reflects a key assumption of the rational choice theory? a. The likelihood of an offender being caught for a first offence is relatively high. b. Offenders have a clear understanding of the criminal justice system. c. Risks and rewards are analyzed by offenders. d. The police and the offender use similar strategies when committing and tracking crime.

33. What theory outlines the idea that offenders commit crimes based on perceived rewards? a. deterrence theories

b. rational choice theory

c. group conflict theories

d. routine activity theory

34. What is the name applied to the technique of concentrating police resources in high-crime locations? a. geo-spatial police concentration theory b. response time policing c. hot spots policing

d. selective patrolling

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Chap 15_9e 35. What do Durlauf and Nagin conclude about the merit of long prison sentences? a. Long prison sentences are difficult to justify on a deterrence-based, crime prevention basis. b. Long prison sentences tend to moderately decrease crime. c. Long prison sentences are easy to justify on a deterrence-based, crime prevention basis. d. Long prison sentences are easy to justify on a deterrence-based, crime prevention basis, but only for

young offenders.

36. In the routine activities approach, what is the name applied to a person who is susceptible to informal social

control by virtue of his bonds to society? a. a handled offender b. a physical facilitator c. a social facilitator d. a motivated offender 37. Which of the following is NOT a component of Cohen and Felson’s routine activities theory of crime? a. ineffective guardianship b. police inefficiency c. target suitability

d. motivated offenders

38. Which of the following areas is likely most likely to experience higher property crime rates? a. an urban area with high traffic flow and people b. a rural area with sporadic houses c. a suburban region with quiet streets d. an industrial area with a transient population 39. Which of the following is a social facilitator, according to routine activities theory? a. friends who support an offender b. alcohol c. someone with sufficient knowledge to control the offender d. a gun 40. In environmental criminology, what is the name applied to places where would-be offenders live, work, and

socialize and which are close to where they commit crimes? a. edges b. nodes c. street segments

d. paths

41. According to the textbook, the likelihood of being arrested, convicted, and punished is so low that tinkering

with the level of punishment makes no difference. What is the implication of this statement for deterrence theory? a. It supports this theory. b. It is not relevant to this theory. c. It undermines this theory. d. It is relevant to this theory, but only for non-violent offenders.

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Chap 15_9e 42. What is the school of criminology that argues that criminal offenders are more likely to commit their offences

along the paths they travel in the course of their daily activities? a. routine activity criminology b. environmental criminology c. ecological criminology d. interactionist criminology 43. Which of the following theories argues that people break the law because they believe crime will provide a

reward? a. routine activity theory c. rational Choice theory

b. group conflict theory d. interactionist theory

44. Which pre–20th century thinker can best be considered the grandfather of deterrence theory? a. Beccaria b. Lombroso c. Freud

d. Bandura

45. What pre–20th century school of thought on crime can best be considered an important forerunner for

deterrence theory? a. the Classical school c. the positive school

b. the statistical school d. the Chicago school

46. According to routine activities theory, which of the following is likely to affect the attractiveness of consumer

items as objects of theft? a. size and ease of concealing only c. size, value, and colour

b. size and value only d. size, ease of concealing, and value

47. In terms of most effectively deterring crime, which of the following is most accurate? a. Severity of punishment is more important than certainty of punishment. b. Certainty of punishment is more important than severity of punishment. c. Celerity of punishment is more important than certainty of punishment d. Celerity of punishment is more important than severity of punishment.

48. According to lifestyle/exposure theory, who among the following is least likely to become a victim of crime? a. a member of an outlaw motorcycle gang b. a person who spends most of his or her nights at home c. a person who spends time at night in bars with his or her friends d. a person who spends most nights in public places with people who commit crimes 49. Which of the following statements is true concerning California’s 1994 three strikes law? a. California was forced to release 32,000 prisoners because of overcrowding. b. The majority of California’s prison inmates were serving their time under this legislation. c. California’s crime rate increased after it was passed. d. There was a decrease in the homicide rate after it was passed.

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Chap 15_9e 50. In terms of Ronald Clarke’s categories of situational crime prevention techniques, which of the following is an

example of “reducing provocations”? a. breathalyzers in pubs b. neighbourhood watch c. entry phones d. separate enclosures for rival soccer fans at sports stadiums 51. What does the “three strikes and you’re out” law in California mandate? a. three years in prison for every felony one commits b. three extra years in prison for every felony one commits c. a life sentence for a third felony conviction following two earlier convictions for serious felonies d. a mandatory sentence of 25 years in prison for a third felony conviction following two earlier convictions

for serious felonies 52. Which of the following contradicts rational choice theory? a. Most criminal offenders are rational decision makers when selecting targets. b. Most criminal offenders are irrational decision makers when selecting targets. c. Short-term costs and benefits are more important in the minds of offenders compared with the long-

term repercussions of their actions. d. Criminal behaviour is behaviour with a purpose.

53. Which of the following is an assumption underlying deterrence theory? a. The best way to control crime is to set up a system of punishments to prevent crime. b. Most people are deterred by the most serious of punishments. c. Most criminal offenders are irrational people who do not weigh the costs and benefits of committing a

criminal offence. d. Punishment has evolved very little since Beccaria’s time.

54. Which of the following theories argues that crime will not occur unless there is a motivated offender, a suitable

target, and ineffective guardianship of that target? a. routine activity theory b. group conflict theory c. rational choice theory

d. interactionist theory

55. What theory argues that an individual’s decision whether to commit a crime can be influenced by criminal laws

and the criminal justice system? a. routine activity theory b. deterrence theory c. group conflict theory d. interactionist theory

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Chap 15_9e 56. What is meant by the term “fortress society”? a. increasing police officer complements for city police services b. increasing prison sentences to deter crime c. building walls to prevent convicted offenders from entering some communities d. crime prevention strategies that involve constant surveillance of citizens 57. Into which of Ronald Clarke’s categories of situational crime prevention techniques does alcohol-free events

fit? a. increase the risks

b. remove excuses

c. increase the effort

d. reduce the rewards

58. Which of the following strategies involves warning offenders who are heavily involved in criminal activity that

their actions are being monitored and that future violations of the law will be dealt with immediately? a. hot spots policing b. broken windows policing c. individualized deterrence d. mandatory minimum sentencing 59. Which of the following is suggested to be the most comprehensive approach to crime prevention? a. approaches that are tailored to the specific needs of a community b. “big brother” approaches that closely monitor citizens c. social development programs d. crime suppression programs 60. Which of the following is one of the reasons that has been put forth explaining why mandatory minimum

sentences do not deter crime? a. Offenders may not feel they are at risk of getting caught. b. The rate of incarceration for most crimes is unknown. c. Those with drug or alcohol abuse problems are more easily deterred. d. Most offenders are quite aware of the sentence they face if convicted.

61. How effective are mandatory minimum sentences at deterring crime? a. They are not effective. b. They are effective for property offenders. c. There has not been a clear conclusion reached by researchers. d. They are effective and fair.

62. Which of the following is a way to prevent crime by reducing the number of motivated offenders? a. providing good jobs to young men who are hard to employ b. installing burglar alarms c. developing “smart” guns d. having servers in pubs intervene when necessary

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Chap 15_9e 63. What elements make up an effective crime reduction initiative?

64. Discuss the assumptions of environmental criminology and the implications for crime control efforts.

65. Using information from General Social Surveys, indicate how the pattern of who commits what crime against

whom fits with a lifestyle/exposure theory of crime.

66. Describe Project Hope and the main results of its evaluation. What implications does this project have for

individualized deterrence?

67. Describe crime prevention through social development. Compare and contrast this approach to situational

crime prevention.

68. What are mandatory minimum sentences? Cite specific examples of offences that are subject to mandatory

minimum sentences in Canada, including new provisions introduced by the federal Conservative government.

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Chap 15_9e 69. Why don’t harsher penalties reduce crime rates? Provide two explanations outlined in the text.

70. Discuss the Winnipeg Auto Theft Suppression Strategy and how it represents a comprehensive crime

prevention approach.

71. Describe the Perry Preschool Project and how it satisfies the dictates of crime prevention through social

development. What were the results of the project according to the most recent follow-up?

72. Explain the elements of an effective justice system according to Beccaria.

73. Discuss the routine activities approach to crime including the elements necessary for crime to occur.

74. Describe situational crime prevention, the assumptions underlying this approach, and the specific techniques

used to prevent crime.

75. To what extent does imprisonment deter crime?

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Chap 15_9e 76. What is meant by increasing the certainty of punishment? Provide on example of these strategies. To what

extent does this strategy deter crime?

77. Discuss the assumptions of rational choice theory and how this theory conceptualizes the decision-making

process of offenders as to whether or not to commit crimes.

78. Describe the efforts undertaken to reduce gang violence under Boston’s Operation Ceasefire, and document

the effects of the program.

79. Identify and discuss critiques of rational choice theory and routine activities theory.

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Chap 15_9e Answer Key 1. True 2. True 3. True 4. False 5. False 6. True 7. True 8. True 9. False 10. True 11. False 12. False 13. True 14. True 15. False 16. True 17. False 18. True 19. False 20. True 21. False 22. False 23. a 24. b 25. b 26. d

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Chap 15_9e 27. c 28. d 29. b 30. b 31. a 32. c 33. b 34. c 35. a 36. a 37. b 38. a 39. a 40. b 41. c 42. b 43. c 44. a 45. a 46. d 47. b 48. b 49. a 50. d 51. c 52. b 53. a 54. a

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Chap 15_9e 55. b 56. d 57. b 58. c 59. a 60. a 61. a 62. a 63. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Those that advocate for situational approaches to crime prevention and those who believe in a social development approach sometimes sit on either side of the table where creating solutions is concerned.

- Many believe that both approaches are important and that it is most effective to recognize the strengths and weaknesses of both approaches.

- A comprehensive strategy should involve all levels of government and agencies that can contribute to the solutions that are most effective for target areas.

64. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Environmental criminology is an extension of rational choice theory that takes into consideration the fact that offenders have activity patterns and aspects of their environments that impact their decisions to commit particular crimes.

- Criminals are more likely to commit crimes along their usual daily pathways; thus patterns of crime are shaped by road and community design.

- Nodes are places that are important to offenders—where they work, live, and socialize.

- Paths are routes between nodes that are vulnerable to crime.

- Edges are boundaries or barriers between different types of land use—crime might be high here if there is a lack of social control.

- Crime control efforts are impacted by the nature of the environment, how heavily travelled it is, how well lit it is, and how often police patrol the area.

65. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- According to the General Social Survey, those who reported engaging in 30 or more evening activities a month had violent victimization rates four times higher than those who engaged in ten or fewer evening activities.

- Those who spend time around offenders are more likely to be victimized than those who spend most of their time with law-abiding citizens (e.g. gang members have higher rates of violent victimization).

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Chap 15_9e 66. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Project HOPE was launched in Hawaii to reduce high rates of non-compliance with probation conditions requiring abstinence from drugs.

- Probationers were given clear warnings that they would be taken before a judge and would be sentenced to short prison sentences for probation violations.

- The probationers were required to call HOPE staff daily and receive random drug testing.

- Treatment was provided for those who were chronic violators.

- The intensive approach saw a 93 percent decline in drug test failures.

- Intensive community supervision can result in less crime and lower prison costs.

67. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- This perspective is based on the notion that crime prevention strategies must address community and social problem in order to get to the root of the issues.

- Empowerment and overcoming the social problems that face motivated offenders must be addressed.

- Situational crime prevention techniques work to reduce crime, but to truly get to the motivations and causes a holistic approach must be taken that includes addressing social problems.

- Social development programs are intended to reduce the pool of motivated offenders by addressing the conditions that precipitate crime.

68. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Mandatory minimum sentences are specified in the Criminal Code for various offences in order to limit the discretion of judges at sentencing.

- The Safe Streets and Communities Act, put in place by the Conservative Government of Canada between 2006 and 2014, increased various mandatory minimum penalties. - One example was sentencing for marijuana-related offences.

69. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Offenders may not perceive that the risk of being caught is significant. Most crimes are not reported and those that are reported do not result in an arrest. Most arrests do not lead to a conviction and most convictions do not result in incarceration.

- Deterrence is impacted by alcohol, drugs, or mental health issues on the part of offenders that lead them to make the choice to commit crime.

- Some offenders are not aware of the severity of the penalties that they may face if caught and convicted.

- Prosecutors and judges may use strategies to avoid mandatory minimum sentences, e.g. pleading to a lesser charge.

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Chap 15_9e 70. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Winnipeg had extremely high rates of auto theft and this had become an important part of the youth culture there.

- The solution focused on effective guardianship, target suitability, and motivated offenders and presented a comprehensive approach to crime prevention in a way that ensured its success.

1) guardianship—intensive supervision was provided for offenders on probation 2) suitable target—electronic vehicle immobilizers were required for the vehicles most at risk 3) motivated offenders—social causes of vehicle theft were addressed 71. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The students in the program were 123 African-American children from poor families who attended the school five mornings a week and this was complemented by a home visit by teachers once per week.

- This group was compared at age 40 to another group that did not receive the supports.

- The program participants had lower crime rates than the control group, they had higher incomes, were more likely to own a home, and were less likely to be on welfare.

- They had higher educational achievements and lower rates of illiteracy.

- They had stable marriages and there were fewer children born to the program group out of wedlock.

72. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Severity of punishment should be enough to deter others but not be disproportionate to the offence.

- Certainty of punishment is most important but most challenging.

- The easiest thing for governments to do is to increase the severity of punishment, and this leads to increased rates of incarceration and longer sentences.

- Incarceration has been demonstrated to be an ineffective deterrent.

73. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Routine activities theory examines patterns of crime and the relationship between offenders and victims.

- Three factors must be present in order for a crime to occur: 1) A motivated offender—without someone willing to commit the crime, it won’t happen 2) A suitable target—there must be property to steal or a victim to attack 3) A lack of guardianship—if the target is well guarded by people, locks or lighting it is less vulnerable

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Chap 15_9e 74. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- This approach assumes that all crime is opportunistic and related to situations with a particular context.

- They adopt the target suitability, ineffective guardianship, and motivated offender requirements and examine approaches to prevent crime that address these: 1) increase the effort required to commit crime by target hardening or making access to the target difficult 2) increase risks by increasing surveillance or guardianship 3) reduce rewards by denying the offender the benefits of the crime 4) reduce provocations by controlling elements that might push the offender to commit the crime 5) remove excuses by setting clear rules and limits 75. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- According to Durlauf and Nagin, imprisonment increases the likelihood that an individual will commit future crimes.

- Prison may stigmatize individuals and reduce their chances of leading productive lives.

- Offenders may also become used to prison life such that it is no longer a deterrent for future crimes.

- They may learn criminal values and skills in prison.

- Prison increases feelings of resentment toward society.

76. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The more likely it is that an individual will be caught, the greater the deterrent effect becomes.

- Two examples are: 1) Hot spots policing—focuses police resources on high-crime areas to increase the certainty of catching offenders.

2) Individualized deterrence—involves directly informing individuals about the consequences that will result from future deviance and then making sure to keep that promise.

- Evidence suggests that these strategies are effective and less costly than increasing the severity of punishment.

77. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The basic assumption of this theory is that crime is the result of a deliberate choice made by an offender based on the calculation of risks and rewards.

- This perspective does not focus on one explanation but allows for various factors to be involved in the decision to commit crime based on situational dynamics.

78. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Boston’s Operation Ceasefire is an effective example of individualized deterrence.

- Police, probation officers, gang outreach workers, churches, and community groups came together to address high homicide rates among young African-American males in Boston.

- Suppression was a part of the initiative but gang members were also offered training, counselling, mentoring, and education to help get them out of the gangs.

- The result was a 63 percent decline in youth homicide over three years.

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Chap 15_9e 79. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Critics of rational choice and routine activities theories find that they address financially motivated criminals better than those who commit expressive crimes against others.

- They also fail to take into account opportunity.

- They do allow for the fact that motivations to commit crime are varied.

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Chap 16_9e Indicate whether the statement is true or false.

1. Consensual crime involves no victim. a. True b. False 2. Outlaw motorcycle gangs are a good example of ethnic succession theory. a. True b. False 3. Vietnamese groups are the most widespread and powerful Asian criminal genres operating in Canada. a. True b. False 4. Cigarettes and liquor only find their way to underground (black) markets when they are prohibited by the

state. a. True b. False 5. Drug trafficking is the largest money-making activity for organized crime groups. a. True b. False 6. Most organized crime groups are not designed to last longer than their current leadership. a. True b. False 7. The Criminal Code definition of organized crime includes groups that form randomly to commit a single

offence. a. True b. False 8. Most organized crime groups share the same pattern of relationships among its members and hence similar

organizational structures a. True b. False 9. Hells Angels chapters are located only in Ontario and Quebec. a. True b. False 10. In addition to illegal activities, members of organized crime groups may also be involved in legal businesses. a. True b. False

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Chap 16_9e 11. The division of labour in hierarchical criminal organization is based on the member’s position in the power

structure. a. True b. False 12. Historically, crime groups have placed restrictions on membership based on race and ethnicity but this is

shifting to be more inclusive and primarily based on economics. a. True b. False 13. The only area of crime that organized groups have not successfully penetrated so far is cybercrime. a. True b. False 14. Recruitment for organized crime groups is largely numbers-based rather than skills-based. a. True b. False 15. Governments help create underground markets and organized crime through their policies. a. True b. False 16. The bureaucratic/hierarchical model views organized crime as a fluid and loosely knit network of like-minded

criminal entrepreneurs, none of whom has any long-term authority over the others. a. True b. False 17. A “wiseguy” is an Italian gang member who is “too smart for his own good” and he is usually eliminated

through the use of violence. a. True b. False 18. Organized crime is considered one of the more irrational forms of crime. a. True b. False 19. Money laundering, violence, and corruption are all considered tactics used by organized crime to help support

their money-making ventures. a. True b. False 20. Alien conspiracy theory was first applied to Italian-American organized crime. a. True b. False

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Chap 16_9e 21. According to the textbook, the Criminal Code definition of organized crime is quite helpful in understanding the

complexity of organized crime in Canada. a. True b. False Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

22. What was a major impetus behind the growth of organized crime in Russia in recent years? a. prohibition outlawing the sale of alcohol b. destruction of the French Connection as the main supplier of heroin to North America c. the end of the Vietnam War d. the fall of the Soviet Union 23. What is one of the main reasons why organized crime is so hard to eliminate? a. its goods and services are in high demand b. it is difficult to know who is in a crime group and who is not c. there are not enough of these groups in Canada to warrant police attention d. the Criminal Code does not adequately lay out charges that apply 24. Which of the following is a name used by an outlaw motorcycle gang to refer to a specialized unit that carries

out enforcement functions, including murder? a. the Filthy Few b. the Prospects c. the Puppeteers d. the Secretaries 25. Which of the contentions regarding La Cosa Nostra and Alien Conspiracy theory has been supported by

scholarly research? a. The LCN was imported from Sicily or Italy and that it is a nationwide criminal conspiracy with centralized control. b. The LCN was imported from Sicily or Italy but there is no a nationwide criminal conspiracy with centralized control. c. The LCN is a nationwide criminal conspiracy with centralized control but was not imported from Italy. d. The origins of the LCN can be found in America but it is not nationwide criminal conspiracy with

centralized control.

26. Which of the following theories forms the basis for ethnic succession theory? a. deterrence b. differential association c. social control

d. strain

27. One of the ways that a crime group insulates itself from law enforcement is through policies such as the code of

omertà. Which of the following defines this code? a. code of brutality b. code of virtue c. code of brotherhood d. code of silence

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Chap 16_9e 28. Which of the following contradicts what the textbook says is the current state of organized crime in Canada? a. There is a decreasing diversity of criminal groups. b. The number of criminal groups is increasing. c. Modern organized crime is increasingly characterizes as a fluid network of individuals. d. Ethnicity is no longer the main binding force for organized crime groups.

29. According to Vander Beken and Beare, what sets organized crime apart from other types of crime that can be

simply observed, counted, and classified? a. the nature of the harm b. money c. the number of offenders

d. politics

30. Which of the following characteristics distinguishes organized crime from a riotous mob? a. There is a conspiracy to commit serious illegal acts. b. There is specialization/division of labour. c. There is a systematic pattern to the relationship of the offenders. d. There is insulation against enforcement and prosecution.

31. Table 16.1 identifies numerous characteristics of organized crime, all of which are grouped into four categories.

Which category do the characteristics of “continuing enterprise” and “career criminals” fall under? a. structural/organizational b. institutional c. commercial

d. behavioural

32. According to the text, what has recently become the only criterion for membership in most criminal networks? a. strong ties to the gang through family membership b. ethnic commonality with the membership code c. connections to corrupt police who will aid their efforts d. the ability to contribute to the collective profits 33. Which of the following models describes organized crime as involving a loose system of power and “business”

relationships with the mafiosi serving as a middleman or a broker? a. the patron–client model b. the kinship model c. the bureaucratic/hierarchical model

d. the network model

34. What is the most dominant outlaw motorcycle gang in Canada? a. The Outlaws

b. Satan’s Choice

c. Los Bravos

d. Hells Angels

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Chap 16_9e 35. Which of the following can be classified as both a predatory and a consensual crime associated with organized

crime? a. theft of goods from a commercial establishment b. the counterfeiting of consumer products c. extortion d. government fraud 36. Ianni (1974) identified two basic forms of relationships among the individuals involved in criminal groups.

Which of the following terms does he apply to criminal conspiracies that are held together by close personal relationships among members? a. associational b. entrepreneurial c. hierarchical

d. division of labour

37. According to the textbook, which of the following is the network model of organized crime most applicable

to? a. drug smuggling and trafficking conspiracies b. cybercrime conspiracies c. extortion conspiracies d. prostitution conspiracies 38. According to the textbook, which of the following are economic theories most applicable to? a. consensual crimes, but not predatory crimes b. predatory crimes and consensual crimes c. neither predatory nor consensual crimes d. predatory crimes, but not consensual crimes 39. Which of the following theoretical models describes organized crime as highly structured, with well-defined

vertical power relations among members, and a division of labour? a. the bureaucratic/hierarchical model b. the syndicate model c. the kinship model d. the patron-client model 40. Which type of illegal activity dominates Indigenous organized crime in the Prairie provinces? a. smuggling b. drug trafficking c. counterfeiting

d. gambling

41. Which of the following is true of the position of the Capo in the patron–client organizational model? a. He is above the network of family and business relationships. b. He rarely comes in contact with anyone who actually commits a crime. c. He serves as an intermediary, bringing people and resources together. d. He acts as a chief executive officer of the organization.

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Chap 16_9e 42. Which of the following best explains how public policy creates an underground market? a. by prohibiting goods or services or over-taxing them b. by prohibiting goods or services or lowering taxes on them c. by exporting goods to other countries d. by maintaining taxes on goods in the face of dwindling supply and demand 43. What is the term used for someone who is a prospective member of an outlaw motorcycle gang? a. hawg b. puppet c. one percenter

d. striker

44. How many members does a chapter of outlaw motorcycle gang chapter usually have? a. 6–10 b. 6–25 c. 15–30

d. 31-40

45. What is the key difference between organized crime groups and terrorist groups? a. Terrorists organize hierarchically, while organized crime groups organize based on skills. b. Terrorists buy illegal goods, while organized crime groups sell them. c. Organized crime groups sell the illegal goods within international borders, while terrorist groups cross

borders, d. Organized criminals attempt to corrupt officials, while terrorists try to change political ideology.

46. What is the term applied to the technique of legitimizing illegally earned revenue? a. corruption b. loan sharking c. money laundering

d. papering

47. Table 16.1 identifies numerous characteristics of organized crime, all of which are grouped into four categories.

Which category do “multiple enterprises” and “illegal activities committed for financial or other material benefit” fit under? a. hierarchical b. symmetrical c. institutional d. commercial 48. Unlawfully obtaining money, property, or services from an individual or entity through coercion and intimidation

is the definition of which of the following? a. extortion b. fraud c. theft d. robbery 49. During the 1920s the outlawing of liquor in the US helped to modernize organized crime. Which of the

following best reflects this cause-effect relationship? a. ethnic succession theory b. alien conspiracy theory c. group conflict theory d. public policy impetus

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Chap 16_9e 50. Which of the following criminal activities is a key difference between organized and unorganized crime? a. violence as a means to solve problems b. their use of tactical illegal activities such as corruption c. the volume of crimes committed in a year d. drug trafficking as a method of earning income 51. What is the basis of the division of labour in symmetrical criminal networks? a. family history or connections b. power or prestige c. skills or resources

d. time and place

52. What is the term for an Italian-American mafia member who believes that anyone who follows the rules and

laws is a sucker and deserves to be victimized? a. Capo b. wiseguy c. Big Circle Boy d. striker 53. What name was originally applied to a Chinese organized crime network that was made up of former soldiers

from mainland China and now constitutes one of Canada’s most dominant criminal conspiracies? a. the Kung Lok Triad b. Chinese tongs c. the Lords of Chinatown d. the Big Circle Boys 54. Which of the following genres or groups exemplifies ethnic succession theory? a. outlaw motorcycle gangs b. Chinese-Canadian crime groups c. middle-class males who become involved in organized crime d. drug traffickers 55. Which city harbours most of the Canadian cell members of the ’ndrangheta? a. Toronto b. Vancouver c. Montreal

d. Winnipeg

56. Which of the following crimes is a major activity for Russian/Eastern European organized crime groups in

Canada? a. tobacco smuggling c. human trafficking

b. debit card fraud d. gambling

57. What role has the newly refined section 476 of the Criminal Code played in Canada’s work toward

addressing organized crime? a. it legalized marijuana b. it created new police powers around arrest and seizure of evidence c. it defined “criminal organization” and designates three criminal organization offences d. it defined fraud and “scandal” for large-scale operations

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Chap 16_9e 58. Which of the following is a mandatory component of organized crime, as specified by the Criminal Code of

Canada? a. Involves five or more persons inside or outside Canada. b. Includes at least three serious offences. c. Involves an offence or offences that result in a material benefit. d. Involves a group that has persisted over time or has formed randomly to commit a single offence.

59. Which of the following can be considered a consensual crime? a. counterfeiting b. extortion c. corporate fraud

d. loan sharking

60. Which of the following organizational structures best represents Al Capone’s illegal enterprises? a. the bureaucratic/hierarchical model b. the kinship model c. the patron–client model

d. the network model

61. What is the term used in the textbook for organized crime that crosses national boundaries? a. international organized crime b. multinational organized crime c. transnational organized crime

d. global entrepreneurial crime

62. Describe a few of the tactics used by organized crime groups to support their commercial activities.

63. How does ethnic succession theory explain the disproportionate number of members of ethnic minorities who

are involved in organized crime?

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Chap 16_9e 64. Institutional Characteristics

- Continuity/continuing enterprise - Career criminals - Insulation against law enforcement and prosecution - Sophistication - Recruitment 3) Commercial Characteristics - Profit-oriented criminal activities - Consensual and predatory criminal activities - Serious criminal offences - Multiple enterprises - Goods and services - Illegal and legal commercial goods and markets - Monopolistic tendencies - Tactics to support commercial activities 4) Behavioural Characteristics - Rationality - Subcultural values/contempt for civil society - Non-ideological motivation - Rules and regulations - Discipline PTS: 1 REF: Characteristics of Organized Crime Key: Bloom’s Higher Order 2) What are the challenges in defining organized crime?

65. Describe the different patterns of relationships among offenders involved in organized crime.

66. What role does the government play in creating underground markets in marijuana and cigarettes in Canada?

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Chap 16_9e 67. Summarize the trends in organized crime in recent years, with particular emphasis on what is replacing the

traditional ethnic-basis for crime groups.

68. Identify and describe the key behavioural characteristics of organized crime. Use one or more organized crime

genres or groups to illustrate your answer.

69. Identify and describe the four theoretical models of organizational crime structure outlined in the text.

70. Identify and describe the key structural and organizational characteristics of organized crime. Use one or more

organized crime genres or groups to illustrate your answer.

71. Explain why the problem of smuggling contraband cigarettes has been centred in the Akwesasne reserve in

central Canada.

72. Explain how public policies and geopolitical factors have made Canada a haven for smuggling.

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Chap 16_9e 73. Identify and describe the some of the defining commercial characteristics of organized crime. Use one or more

organized crime genres or groups to illustrate your answer.

74. Explain how economic theory addresses the workings of underground markets and organized crime and

describe a criticism of this approach.

75. Outline the primary criticisms of the ethnic succession theory.

76. Identify and describe the key institutional characteristics of organized crime. Use one or more organized crime

genres or groups to illustrate your answer.

77. Explain alien conspiracy theory and why it is not supported.

78. How can organized crime be differentiated from unorganized crimes?

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Chap 16_9e Answer Key 1. True 2. False 3. False 4. False 5. True 6. False 7. False 8. False 9. False 10. True 11. True 12. True 13. False 14. False 15. True 16. False 17. False 18. False 19. True 20. True 21. False 22. d 23. a 24. a 25. d 26. d

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Chap 16_9e 27. d 28. a 29. d 30. c 31. b 32. d 33. a 34. d 35. b 36. a 37. a 38. a 39. a 40. b 41. c 42. a 43. d 44. b 45. d 46. c 47. d 48. a 49. a 50. b 51. c 52. b 53. d 54. b

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Chap 16_9e 55. a 56. b 57. c 58. c 59. d 60. d 61. c 62. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Corruption—organized crime groups will conspire to corrupt police, lawyers, public officials, and those who work in key areas within a community so that they will have an easier time engaging in crimes for profit.

- Gangland violence—serves to protect territory, profits, and to send a message to anyone who dares break their code.

- Money laundering—is used to protect the profits they achieve.

- Intelligence gathering and counter-surveillance—used to access information about police tactics and the plans of rival gangs.

63. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Strain theory is at the root of ethnic succession theory.

- Immigrant ethnic groups are disproportionately involved in organized crime in the US because of the barriers they encounter in their pursuit of the American Dream.

64. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The term is used to refer to both the organization of offenders and the organization of crimes.

- It is differentiated from groups that form randomly to commit a single offence but it does not address the complexities of organized crime.

- “It is not a natural crime phenomenon that can be observed, counted, and classified like other crimes” since it is “more of a social construct that reflects policy choices and beliefs.”

65. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- There is no single pattern of relationships—they may be based on kinship, friendship, shared ethnicity, or nationality or business ties.

- The structure may be hierarchical (based on power) or symmetrical (based on specialized tasks performed by or resources available to the conspirators).

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Chap 16_9e 66. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Governments decide whether particular goods and services will be legal or illegal.

- Decisions about making goods and services illegal are usually based on a measure of morality, and this drives the item or service to the underground market.

- High taxes on items can also drive them into the underground or illegal market.

- This creates a strong market for organized crime groups.

67. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Currently, organized crime is represented by a diverse number of “genres” that cross ethnic backgrounds; no longer do groups define membership solely on the basis of a shared racial or ethnic background.

- Modern organized crime groups encompass thousands of members who are buyers, brokers, financiers, middlemen, and distributers from a variety of racial and ethnic backgrounds.

68. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Rationality—organized crime responds to the supply and demand of goods in the same way as a legitimate business does.

- Subcultural values/contempt for civil society—organized crime groups openly rebel against mainstream values and laws.

- Non-ideological motivation—the goal is to accumulate wealth and to corrupt government officials to aid in their cause, but they are not seeking political or social change.

- Rules and regulations—like with any other organization, there are clear rules and guidelines that members are expected to follow.

- Discipline—there are strict forms of discipline in place to address rule breaking.

- OMGs are highly structured and organize themselves to address the jobs that need to be done in order to achieve profits. They openly disregard the rules of society and yet have strict guidelines that their members must follow or they will experience harsh discipline.

69. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The Bureaucratic/Hierarchical Model—views criminal groups as highly structured and controlled with a well defined vertical power structure and division of labour.

- The Kinship Model—suggests that the organized crime group is primarily structured around culture, tradition, and kin relations.

- Patron–Client Model—this model suggests that the organized crime group is loosely organized around power and business relationships including a middleman who becomes a patron to others by providing contacts, influence, and criminal opportunities. A Capo is usually the centre of the network.

- The Network Model—views the relationship among criminals not as contained in one large organization but as a loose knit network of like-minded criminal entrepreneurs engaged with a pattern of relationships rather than a hierarchy.

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Chap 16_9e 70. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Two or more people involved—the more involved, the more likely it is organized crime.

- A systematic pattern to the relationship of the offenders—no single pattern of relationships but it may be based on kinship, friendship, shared ethnicity or nationality, or business ties.

- Limited or exclusive membership—ethnicity and/or nationality have historically been factors that restrict membership and tie members together.

- Assigned tasks/specialization/division of labour—hierarchical structures divide labour based on power position and symmetrical structures divide labour based on skills and tasks.

- Multi-jurisdictional/transnational in scope—presence in more than one province or country.

- Outlaw motorcycle gangs (OMGs) have large numbers in chapters around the world and they are highly structured with a division of labour based on skills. There is uniformity of dress and motorcycles and membership is determined by connections and sponsorship by other members and the completion of tasks of initiation.

71. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The reserve straddles the US/Canada border and encompasses two provinces and one state.

- An agreement permits the Mohawk people to freely cross the borders that run through the reserve.

- This, combined with a well-honed smuggling infrastructure, means that the reserve is used by organized crime groups on and off the reserve to bring tobacco, cigarettes, firearms, and cocaine into Canada while marijuana, synthetic drugs, and illegal immigrants are smuggled to the US. 72. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Several factors position Canada to be a transit point for the international movement of illegal drugs.

- Canada shares a border with the US, has less stringent penalties than the US, and the Canada/US border is very busy thus creating increased opportunity.

- Canada is also a conduit for undocumented immigrants and has become a centre for telemarketing fraud and counterfeiting.

- The widening gap between the rich and the poor and the increased composition of racial minority groups may have contributed to increased disparity leading to increased engagement in organized crime.

- Public policies have created strong contraband markets that provide goods that are cheaper and readily available.

- Geopolitical factors include an enormous land mass and airspace, three ocean coastlines that are too vast to adequately monitor and protect, and the longest land border in the world, as well as a small tax base that does not allow for adequate monitoring.

- The population concentration near the US border is an added factor.

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Chap 16_9e 73. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Profit-oriented criminal activities—organized crime is solely focused on making money and this distinguishes it from many other types of crime.

- Consensual and predatory criminal activities—consensual crimes occur when no victim exists and predatory crimes involve direct suffering. Organized crime involves both.

- Serious criminal offences—most of the crimes involve significant harm.

- Multiple enterprises—there are generally several profit-oriented (legal and illegal) activities going on at any one time with organized crime groups.

- Goods and services—organized crime groups provide goods and services.

- Illegal and legal commercial goods and markets—while most goods and services provided by organized crime groups are illegal, some are also legal.

- Monopolistic tendencies—organized crime groups seek to have a monopoly over the sale of a particular good or service in a geographic region.

- Tactics to support commercial activities—while some activities generate revenue directly, others are used to support the primary profit-making activities of the group.

- OMGs are involved with a number of activities geared toward making a profit and these include drug trafficking and sales and sex trade activities. In carrying out these activities there is often significant harm done to others who may be encroaching on their territory or who do not fulfill their obligations to the group. They may also run legal businesses in order to launder the money they make or to front the illegal activities.

74. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Criminal organizations make money by supplying goods and services that are in demand but have been declared illegal or are heavily taxed by the state.

- Prices are impacted by the supply, as are the prices of legal goods in the legitimate market.

- One criticism is that underground markets are distorted and the theory only captures consensual crimes but ignores predatory crimes.

75. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Many of the immigrants to Canada remained active in crime long after their ethnic groups assimilated and found legitimate successes.

- The theory does not explain why members of the middle and upper classes become involved in organized crime.

- The theory fails to explain why criminal organizations are made up of primarily white Anglo-Saxon Protestants rather than immigrants.

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Chap 16_9e 76. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Continuity/continuing enterprise—some organized crime groups are designed to last beyond the life of the current membership.

- Career criminals—members are usually career criminals and a criminal record is usually a requirement for membership.

- Insulation against law enforcement and prosecution—the hierarchical nature of the organization protects the upper layers from law enforcement actions.

- Sophistication—groups run diverse and complex organizations that involve primary and secondary operations and include professionals and community members to facilitate parts of the operations.

- Recruitment—recruitment is critical and is now largely based on skills.

- OMGs have memberships that have existed and turned over for more than 50 years and the membership often involves those who have spent time in jail. Their connections in communities and the ability to exploit others for their support has helped with avoiding law enforcement interference. The groups run a multi-layered structure with smaller sub-organizations often completing the “dirty work” so that the more powerful members remain insulated.

77. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The theory is based on the belief that organized crime in America is the result of the importation of secret criminal societies rooted in foreign cultures such that it was not started in North America but was imposed on North America by immigrants.

- The idea that the Cosa Nostra was imported as part of a secret society is partially supported, but in large part the modern organization is overwhelmingly North American–created.

- The suggestion that there was a nationwide mafia criminal conspiracy has never been substantiated.

78. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Four categories and many subcategories of factors are specific to organized crime, but it should be noted that not every characteristic is present in every organized crime conspiracy. The categories are: 1) Structural/Organizational Characteristics - Two or more people involved - A systematic pattern to the relationship of the offenders - Limited or exclusive membership - Assigned tasks/specialization/division of labour - Multi-jurisdictional/transnational in scope

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Chap 17_9e Indicate whether the statement is true or false.

1. Workplace accidents and occupational deaths are often the result of employer carelessness or unsafe

conditions. As such corporate executives are frequently held accountable in Canada through serious penalties, including imprisonment. a. True b. False 2. White-collar crimes committed with the encouragement of a formal organization and intended, at least in part,

to advance the goals of that organization are referred to as organizational crime. a. True b. False 3. Occupational crime is another name for corporate crime. a. True b. False 4. A Ponzi scheme is where investors are promised substantial returns but existing investors are actually paid off

with money from new victims. a. True b. False 5. Canadian medical authorities do not always make it easy for the public to access information about the

previous misconduct of their doctors. a. True b. False 6. A company that understates its revenues while over-stating its expenses as a means to make it appear more

profitable than it really is a classic example of accounting fraud. a. True b. False 7. White-collar crime theorizing and research has not had much influence on the field of criminology. a. True b. False 8. The law treats corporations as a juristic person, thus making them formally liable to the same laws as “natural

persons.” a. True b. False 9. White-collar offenders who are incarcerated often receive parole early because they are perceived to be low-

risk offenders. a. True b. False

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Chap 17_9e 10. The cost to society of white-collar and corporate crime is far greater than the costs of street crimes. a. True b. False 11. The increased regulation that Wall Street has been subject to in recent years is cited as one of the major causes

of the financial crisis of 2008. a. True b. False 12. Rogue traders have cost investors millions but their behaviour has not negatively impacted on the financial

institutions they work for. a. True b. False 13. Canada has one of the most honest political reputations. a. True b. False 14. The crimes committed by Enron and Nortel resulted in convictions and jail time for executives. a. True b. False 15. Employers and managers are the most likely individuals to lose their jobs after conviction for a white-collar

crime. a. True b. False 16. Social class is an irrelevant issue when analyzing white-collar and corporate crime. a. True b. False 17. Sales reps and doctors were found to be innocent despite suggestions that they were complicit in the spread of

opioids. a. True b. False 18. The Catholic Church has aggressively pursued allegations of sexual misconduct by its priests. a. True b. False 19. Corporate involvement in crime is a relatively new phenomenon. a. True b. False

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Chap 17_9e 20. While costly to society, there are few deaths or injuries stemming from corporate crime and irresponsibility. a. True b. False 21. Large compensation packages and attractive stock option packages for executives of large corporations have

helped reduce corporate crime in recent years. a. True b. False 22. An employee stealing cash from the register of the retail store where she works is an example of occupational

crime. a. True b. False 23. Based on an understanding of white-collar crime, we can no longer assume that the poor are necessarily more

criminal than the rich. a. True b. False 24. The term “criminogenic market structure” refers to embezzlement that takes place in the service industry. a. True b. False 25. Consumer safety issues with products from China stem partly from little quality control in Chinese factories,

which in turn is the result of demands for cheap consumer products from that country. a. True b. False 26. Executive disengagement occurs when employees do not inform superiors of certain actions so the superiors

cannot be held responsible. a. True b. False Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

27. What was the decision by the Ford Motor Company when they discovered that drivers of the Ford Pinto

could die in fires ignited by the car being rear-ended? a. They immediately recalled all of the cars to repair the defect. b. They decided it would be cheaper to pay for lawsuits brought by the families of Ford Pinto drivers who had been burned to death than to fix the design flaw that caused the fires. c. They immediately contacted all owners of the cars to ensure they did not drive the car until the defect

was repaired. d. They decided to stop making the Ford Pinto.

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Chap 17_9e 28. Which of the following is the term for a type of fraud where stock promoters take a worthless company, invent

a story about how profitable the company will be, spread that story so that people to buy the stock, and then sell the stock realizing a profit? a. abuse of trust b. pump and dump c. fictitious trust d. insider trading 29. From the list of corporate and white-collar crimes listed in Table 17.1, which category does violation of

workplace health and safety laws fit into? a. offences against employees b. corporate and business crime c. offences against the organization d. crimes by individuals and professional practitioners 30. What is another name the textbook uses for corporate crime? a. professional crime b. organizational crime c. industry crime

d. employee crime

31. According to the textbook, which of these is true of the Westray disaster, according to Justice Richard’s

inquiry? a. Westray managers displayed a certain level of disdain for safety. b. The president of Curragh Corporation was found responsible. c. The company involved, Curragh Corporation, was just about to improve safety practices. d. The government warned Curragh Corporation on numerous occasions to improve safety practices.

32. According to Shover and Hochstetler (2006), which factors can encourage misconduct in a corporate culture? a. level of danger inherent in the job tasks required b. competition and insecurity about job performance and stability c. a mixture of migrant and domestic employees d. ignorance and lack of skill 33. Which of the following best represents the “criminogenic market structure”? a. the underground trade in prohibited goods b. tradespeople who perform work “off the books” so they don’t have to pay taxes on the revenue c. competitive markets which pressure companies, managers & employees to break the law d. companies that become involved in illegal underground markets 34. What is the name of the fraud in which investors are promised substantial returns on an investment, but there is

in fact no investment and existing investors are paid off with money from new victims. a. abuse of trust b. the pump and dump c. Ponzi scheme d. insider trading

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Chap 17_9e 35. From the list of corporate and white-collar crimes listed in Table 17.1, which category does false advertising fit

into? a. offences against the organization b. corporate and business crime c. offences against employees d. crimes by individuals and professional practitioners 36. Which of the following is an example of occupational crime? a. collaboration between convenience store owners to fix their gas prices b. having a robbery happen at a grocery store while you are working c. stealing money from the register while working as a cashier at a convenience store d. failure to protect workers from hazardous work conditions 37. What was the nature of the accounting scandal that Enron executives were engaged in? a. ignoring payment for consumer safety issues b. overpayment for a number of smaller companies purchased c. manipulation of stock options d. selling faulty products 38. Which of the following best represents an example of “executive disengagement”? a. the corporation that refuses to provide benefits to new employees b. the sales clerk who has been told that her employer will lay her off if she admits that she is pregnant c. the corporate executive who disregarded the fact that employees were making unethical financial

decisions d. companies that become involved in illegal underground markets 39. According to Wheeler and Rothman, if the gun or knife is the tool for the common criminal, what is the tool for

white-collar criminals? a. the corporation b. the contract c. the telephone d. the stock market 40. Which of the following refers to white-collar crime committed by an individual or group of individuals

exclusively for personal gain? a. business crime b. organizational crime c. corporate crime d. occupational crime

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Chap 17_9e 41. Which of the following is true about the nature of corporate crimes? a. they almost always involve uneducated workers trying to please by engaging in auditor fraud b. they enable the achievement of larger crimes than what can be accomplished by individuals acting alone c. they are punished more often in North America than anywhere else in the world d. they most often involve insider trading that is difficult to track 42. Table 17.1 of the textbook identifies numerous types of corporate and business crime. Which of the following

is considered a corporate or business crime against the public? a. price-fixing b. tax fraud c. violation of labour laws

d. rouge trading

43. Which of the following is an assumption that was found to be untrue when the concept of white-collar crime

was introduced and applied to crime data? a. police are overworked b. crime happens primarily among the middle-aged c. the poor are more criminal than the rich d. bribery is a harmless act 44. According to the textbook, why are civil suits against corporations often unsuccessful? a. There is little news coverage or political will to prosecute the small fry. b. The liabilities borne by modern corporations in civil suits are limited. c. Judges are especially sympathetic to such individuals because they represent the best examples of

entrepreneurship. d. Damage judgments against corporations affect their salaries so they are extra careful in their actions.

45. Alini reported that over 200,000 people in Canada had their tax returns adjusted by Canada Revenue Agency.

What was the reason their tax returns were adjusted? a. They inflated charitable tax deductions. b. They “accidentally” miscalculated their taxes due. c. They invented dependants. d. They did not report tips and gratuities.

46. About what percentage of the Canadian workforce reported either having committed fraud against their

employer or witnessing someone committing fraud during the previous year, according to a 2001 survey by Ernst & Young? a. 15 b. 25 c. 35 d. 45

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Chap 17_9e 47. What is the name applied to white-collar crimes committed with the support and encouragement of a formal

organization and intended at least in part to advance the goals of that organization? a. occupational crime b. white-collar crime c. organizational crime d. institutional crime 48. What factor is indicated in the text as unique to white-collar crime that likely explains its positive correlation

with class position? a. urgency b. creativity c. complacency d. power 49. What is the name the textbook applies to an individual stock trader who, without authorization, gambles with

his company’s money through unauthorized deals? a. rogue trader b. maverick trader c. insider trader d. stock manipulator 50. The chief marketing officer of a tire-manufacturing corporation meets with his counterpart from a competitor

company and they make a deal to divide up a sales region and fix the prices of the tires they sell to retailers.

What is this an example of? a. executive disengagement b. occupational crime c. organizational crime d. blue-collar crime 51. Which of these social theorists introduced the concept of white-collar crime? a. Goff and Reasons b. Clinard c. Sutherland

d. Hirschi

52. Given the high number of deaths in workplaces that are a result of the violation of health and safety regulations,

some feel that these incidents should be recognized as a form of murder. What is the term sometimes used to describe such deaths? a. criminal negligence b. business murder c. occupational harm d. corporate homicide 53. What strategy is perceived to be the most effective in reducing misconduct among large corporations? a. monitoring the bank accounts of executives b. aggressive regulation and enforcement c. reducing the size of corporations d. infiltration by undercover law enforcement 54. Which of the following best explains why employers fail to implement safe working conditions? a. The penalties for management of guilty companies are often very light. b. Few countries have workplace safety laws to protect employees. c. Administrators cannot agree on how to implement new conditions. d. Too few deaths and injuries result to make this a priority issue.

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Chap 17_9e 55. According to the textbook, what were the most widely publicized cases of unprofessional conduct in recent

years? a. falsification of research findings by academics b. malpractice by doctors c. cars sold with major defects d. sexual abuse by members of the clergy 56. Which type of blue-collar business appears to have significant fraud associated with it? a. hotel cleaning companies

b. plumbing companies

c. technology stores

d. auto repair businesses

57. “Corporations are subject to the same laws as natural persons.” What is the common term for the legal

concept expressed in this statement? a. authoritarian personality b. bureaucratic personality c. juristic person d. rational governance 58. According to Shover and Hochstetler (2006), which of the following is one of the three components of the

middle and upper class lifestyle that contributes to criminal behaviour? a. a free spirit (having fun is the only thing that matters) b. a naïve understanding of harm (not appreciating the consequences) c. a sense of entitlement (thinking they deserve what they stole) d. a good lawyer (to help them escape prosecution) 59. What is the term for crimes committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of his

occupation? a. white-collar crime c. high status crime

b. environmental crime d. fraud

60. The social movement against white-collar crime beginning in the 1970s has resulted in a move toward which of

the following in Canada? a. tougher legal sanctions for white-collar offences and more government regulation of corporations b. tougher legal sanctions for white-collar offences but no move toward more government regulation of

corporations c. more government regulation of corporations, but no move toward tougher legal sanctions for whitecollar offences d. neither tougher legal sanctions for white-collar offences nor more government regulation of corporations

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Chap 17_9e 61. Which of the following best describes a belief held by judges who have sentenced white-collar offenders

relatively leniently? a. The offenders are treated differently because they are just scapegoats and the real offenders are the laws and the corporations. b. The offenders are treated differently because they are apt to be rehabilitated. c. The offenders are treated differently due to the belief that their loss of a job, professional license, or status is sufficient punishment. d. The offenders are treated differently because they did not cause any physical harm to a victim or the community.

62. The textbook argues that the justice system does not deal with white-collar crimes effectively. Which of the

following is one of the reasons given as to why these crimes are not dealt with more effectively by the justice system? a. The public is afraid that convictions will result in higher prices for goods. b. White-collar crime is complex and costly to prosecute. c. White-collar criminals have powerful connections with judges and regulatory agencies. d. White-collar criminals rarely appear in court when summonsed.

63. What has been the impact on Canadian Volkswagen executives as a result of their fraudulent representation of

the “clean diesel”? a. they refused to fix the cars b. a class action lawsuit resulted in a multi-billion dollar settlement but no charges were laid c. they immediately contacted all owners of the cars to offer gasoline models d. they have suffered with a significant decrease in sales 64. What was the focus of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission’s investigation? a. insider trading and its impact on the economy b. selling stocks to unqualified buyers c. abuse of Indigenous children living in residential schools d. fraudulent prescriptions for opioids 65. Which of the following is said to be an incentive for senior managers and directors to remain uninformed about

illegal activities happening in large corporations? a. Lack of contact with management leaves workers feeling happier. b. Courts have not imposed a duty on directors to uncover corporate wrongdoing. c. The modern corporation is far less criminogenic. d. Corporations with more than 50 employees do not require the same regulation as smaller companies.

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Chap 17_9e 66. Which of the following statements is true when comparing the frequency of deaths related to occupational

safety and deaths resulting from murder? a. There are far fewer occupational deaths than deaths resulting from murder. b. Occupational deaths outnumber deaths resulting from murder. c. The number of occupational deaths is around the same as deaths resulting from murder. d. There are no reliable estimates of occupational death or murders.

67. According to the textbook, which of the following statements is true when comparing the costs of white-collar

and corporate crime to street crime? a. White-collar and corporate crimes are much more costly in dollar terms than street crime. b. White-collar and corporate crimes are much less costly in dollar terms than street crime. c. White-collar and corporate crimes incur around the same costs in dollar terms as street crime d. There are no reliable estimates that allow one to compare the two.

68. Explain the distinction between occupational crime and organizational crime. Provide two to three hypothetical

examples for each.

69. Describe the relationship between social class and white-collar crime.

70. Corporations are not the only ones capable of engaging in white-collar crime. The employees of some

companies engage in crimes that make the corporations the victims. Outline the most common ways that employees victimize corporations.

71. Explain what is meant by the term “corporate homicide” and how it is addressed?

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Chap 17_9e 72. Explain the view commonly held by judges that white-collar offenders experience criminal sanctions differently

than other types of offenders.

73. Identify and explain the nature of the two frequently used tax fraud methods identified in the text.

74. Explain what is meant by a criminogenic market structure. Analyze one of the case studies of corporate crime

from the textbook and detail how it was influenced by market-based criminogenic factors.

75. What is the role of “executive disengagement” in corporate crime?

76. “The conscious decisions of a number of individuals and organizations resulted in the Westray tragedy.”

Support this statement by providing some of the details of how the tragedy came about.

77. Why, according to the text, does the justice system not deal with white-collar crimes more effectively?

78. Describe the concept of white-collar crime and explain its impact on the discipline of criminology.

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Chap 17_9e 79. Describe one of the forms of investment and securities fraud outlined in the text and explain the impact of this

type of crime.

80. Define “occupational crime” and provide an example from the text.

81. Despite the acknowledgment that manufacturers must be accountable for the safety of their products, situations

involving defective and even deadly products continue to emerge. Provide an example and outline the thinking that is behind companies addressing the consumer concerns even when they are made aware of them.

82. Explain the impact of the social movement against white-collar crime that brought about a harsher attitude

toward white-collar crime.

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Chap 17_9e Answer Key 1. False 2. True 3. False 4. True 5. True 6. True 7. False 8. True 9. True 10. True 11. False 12. True 13. True 14. False 15. False 16. False 17. False 18. False 19. False 20. False 21. False 22. True 23. True 24. False 25. True 26. True

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Chap 17_9e 27. b 28. b 29. a 30. b 31. a 32. b 33. c 34. c 35. b 36. c 37. c 38. c 39. a 40. d 41. b 42. a 43. c 44. b 45. a 46. b 47. c 48. d 49. a 50. c 51. c 52. d 53. b 54. a

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Chap 17_9e 55. d 56. d 57. c 58. c 59. a 60. d 61. c 62. b 63. b 64. c 65. b 66. c 67. a 68. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Occupational crime is that committed by an individual or group of individuals for personal gain, e.g. thefts of inventory by employees, thefts of money from the cash register by employees - Organizational crimes are white-collar crimes committed with the support and encouragement of a formal organization and intended at least in part to advance the goals of that organization, e.g. price fixing, tax fraud 69. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Workers who are subjected to conditions that are unsafe and harmful are sometimes unable to do anything but continue to work given that they are of lower social status than the owners and they need the job.

- Some common work areas include mining and construction.

- Shover and Hochstetler suggest that there are three cultural components of middle-and upper-class life that may shape the criminality of these classes: competitive spirit, arrogance, and a sense of entitlement.

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Chap 17_9e 70. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Approximately a quarter of Canadians in the workforce commit fraud against their employers or witness someone who does.

- The majority of employers report being the victims of fraud including taking kickbacks, creating phony invoices to collect money, stealing company property, and stealing cash.

- Loss from employee theft is similar to that from shoplifting in the retail industry.

- The text also outlines several cases of traders who gambled with their employer’s funds without authorization and lost. This behaviour has now been identified using the term “rogue trader.”

71. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Deaths that take place in the workplace because of failures to implement workplace health and safety regulations are sometimes called corporate homicides.

- An example is a construction worker who is killed at work as a result of insufficient attention to safety practices by the company.

- Corporate executives are almost never held personally responsible for their negligence in these events and their companies are usually only required to pay a small fine.

72. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Damage judgments against corporations are taken from the revenue of the company and do not often impact the manager directly.

- The financial impact is often less than the profits gained by acting illegally.

- Some judges believe that that public shaming inherent in apprehension, public indictment, and conviction as well as potential or real loss of job, professional licence, community status, etc. are enough to punish the individual so additional consequences are rare.

73. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Many Canadians are thought to be part of the underground economy where they do not pay taxes on all of their income.

- The types of jobs that seem to invite this behaviour are those that involve direct negotiation with consumers who are paying cash for work. Some examples include residential construction, retail, and accommodation and food services.

- Another type of tax fraud thought to involve millions of dollars is false claims for charitable deductions.

- Canada Revenue Agency has begun to audit more closely and over $7 billion in claims have been rejected because the donations could not be substantiated. o

-

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Chap 17_9e 74. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The criminogenic market structure is an economic market that is organized in such a way that it tends to produce criminal behaviour.

- Example: in retail, pressure to compete against other dealers creates a culture where increased sales and minimized service is encouraged.

75. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Corporations are treated in the same way as “natural persons” under the law.

- The first challenge to this is that it is more difficult to punish an entire corporation in the same way as an individual, e.g. jail time.

- Another key difference between a corporation and the individual is that corporations are composed of individuals who become influenced beyond them by the corporate culture.

- Many organizations have multiple layers of bureaucracy in place and it becomes difficult to determine who is or should be held accountable for crimes that happen in the workplace.

- In fact, there is incentive for executives to disengage from the day-to-day operations of the corporation given that there are no penalties that can be imposed by courts on directors to uncover corporate wrongdoing. It is easier to remain “uninformed.”

76. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The explosion in the mine that killed 26 miners was not an accident but there was not an intention to kill the workers.

- The lethal combination of actions, omissions, mistakes, incompetence, apathy, cynicism, stupidity, and neglect was cited as the cause. Management displayed disdain for safety and saw safety conscious workers as wimps.

- Pressure to produce was heightened and safety was neglected.

- Some miners quit but others stayed because they needed the work.

77. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The public is generally more concerned about violent crime and neighbourhood safety so police spend much of their time working on those concerns.

- Municipal police services spend little or no time and resources on corporate crime and federal and provincial governments do not attribute significant resources on this either.

- An example given in the text is the Nortel investigation that took four years and encompassed 20 million documents.

- Despite changes to federal legislation to increase penalties and to protect employees who report corporate crime, convictions do not occur often.

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Chap 17_9e 78. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Sutherland introduced the concept of white-collar crime in 1940 to describe crimes committed during the course of one’s occupation.

- This definition and distinction from other types of crime impacted criminology in several ways: definitions, the assumption that the poor are more criminal than the rich, and the collection and interpretation of crime data.

79. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

1) Ponzi schemes (pyramid schemes) involve promising investors high returns on investments.

- Investors are paid dividends on investments but the funds paid out are from contributions of new investors rather than on the investors’ own money.

- Initially high payouts attract new investors and the scheme builds until the new money runs out and the scheme collapses.

2) Insider trading occurs when someone (usually a company owner) receives information about the company that isn’t available to the public.

- It is illegal to deal stocks with this information.

3) The “pump and dump” involves stock promoters taking worthless companies and telling inflated stories to get investors to buy the company’s stock. If they can get the prices to rise, the promoter sells shares for profit.

80. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Occupational crimes are committed by individuals who violate the law in the course of practising a legitimate occupation.

- At the heart of these offences is the violation of trust.

- Some professions are regulated by professional associations and these have historically been responsible for addressing professional deviance. The public is becoming less tolerant of malpractice among doctors, lawyers, and other professionals and is looking to the criminal justice system to address these offences.

- Examples in the text include malpractice of doctors and clergy.

81. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Faulty ignition switches were found in General Motors vehicles and in 2014 about 15 million cars were recalled because of this defect.

- The recall happened only after there were 124 deaths as a result of this problem.

- In this case, and in others like it, it was seen as more profitable to not warn owners and to pay claims to those who launched complaints.

- There are safety regulations in place but unless the regulations are enforced some businesses will ignore them, and testing is left up to the companies themselves.

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Chap 17_9e 82. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Despite public opinion that white-collar crime needed attention and fears that it was becoming more prevalent, nothing much has changed.

- While there appeared to be a movement toward tougher sanctions, even prosecutions did not increase appreciably.

- Imprisonment for white-collar crime increased somewhat in the US but sentences remained short and parole was granted given the impression that the offenders were at low risk to reoffend.

- There is no evidence that Canadian courts have become more punitive toward corporate criminals.

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Chap 18_9e Indicate whether the statement is true or false.

1. Technological changes drive changes in culture according to the theory of technological determinism. a. True b. False 2. Frequency of digital communications use is a strong predictor of risk of victimization. a. True b. False 3. Skimming is an attempt to remotely circumvent the security or privacy measures of a website for the purposes

of either stealing information or other malicious actions against the owner of the website. a. True b. False 4. Luring is when someone uses an Internet connection to access social media, chat rooms, or other places of

electronic assembly to make contact with a child or person under 16 to meet for sexual purposes. a. True b. False 5. Ripping is the use of specially designed software to download original material from a protected media source

(e.g., online movie) to a hard disk, for the purposes of resale or redistribution. a. True b. False 6. Most Canadians prefer privacy to law enforcement intrusion into their digital lives. a. True b. False 7. Cyberactivities are those that involve a number of activities involving the Internet. a. True b. False 8. “Soft targets” are those that are weak or vulnerable to cybercriminals. a. True b. False 9. Cyberterrorism refers to the use a computer to orchestrate large-scale “attacks on information,” including

government or critical infrastructure servers or any database of interest to national security. a. True b. False 10. Scatologia is an out dated paraphilic disorder that has not continued with the introduction of technology. a. True b. False

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Chap 18_9e 11. As of 2015, all police services in Canada had established clear approaches to cybercrime. a. True b. False 12. Unlike corporations and American government agencies, Canadian government agencies have thus far avoided

cyberattacks. a. True b. False 13. Cyberbullying is one of the most well reported crimes. a. True b. False 14. The application of routine activity theory to cybercrimes and cyberdeviance reveals that the future of

guardianship on the Internet is difficult to predict. a. True b. False 15. Cyberdeviance rarely encompasses one or more of the traditional offline paraphilias. a. True b. False 16. The Lori Drew case clearly outlined the fact that cyberbullying is not a cybercrime. a. True b. False 17. Phishing is when a fraudster sends an email supposedly from a bank requesting information on the target’s

bank account, including the password, with the intention of stealing money from that account. a. True b. False 18. Paraphilias are not easily translated into cybercrimes. a. True b. False 19. Cyberterrorist generally focus on attacking human targets rather than institutional targets. a. True b. False 20. Hacking is the use of software and hardware to steal data (usually related to credit cards) by intercepting e-

transmissions, which then enable the cloning or counterfeiting of specific financial instruments (credit cards, bank cards, etc.) for the purposes of theft and fraud. a. True b. False

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Chap 18_9e Indicate the answer choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

21. Which of the following can best be described as ripping? a. the use of a network-enabled device to repeatedly make unwanted contact with a person using any

number of means (emails, text messages, etc.), and doing so knowing that this behaviour is likely to cause fear or annoyance b. the use of specially designed software to download original material from a protected media source (e.g., online movie) to a hard disk, for the purposes of resale or redistribution c. the attempt to remotely circumvent the security or privacy measures of an Internet website for the purposes of either stealing information or other malicious actions against the owner of the website d. sending unsolicited and unwanted bulk email messages to other users 22. What is the name applied to a parallel Internet that exists beneath the surface of conventional browsers,

features sites not indexed by search engines, is unregulated, and is rife with criminal activity and illegal transactions? a. deep threat b. deep throat c. deep web d. deep sea 23. Online “creeping” of a target’s social media and sending anonymous messages or setting up fake accounts to

track the target is similar to behaviours that are part of which paraphilia in the physical (offline) world? a. erotomania b. sexting c. exhibitionism

d. scatologia

24. According to the text, what is the primary difference between cybercrime and cyberterrorism? a. cybercrime targets individuals and cyberterrorism impacts national security b. cybercrime involves single offenders and cyberterrorism includes multiple offenders c. the penalties for cyberterrorism are much less than those for cybercrime d. the two terms are interchangeable and there is no difference between them 25. Hayward (2012) has noted that the Internet has broken down traditional barriers between life stages bringing

about online collisions between groups of people with different value systems. Which of the following scenarios best reflects this statement? a. an adult pedophile posing as a 10-year-old girl looking to meet new friends in a pop singer’s fan club chat room b. email spam attempting to sell shares in a non-existent company c. the hacking of an online bank to steal the passwords of customers d. the hacking of a website of a nuclear facility

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Chap 18_9e 26. What is the name of the activity that involves a group of Internet users all sending harassing messages to a

single person? a. e-harrassment c. online stalking

b. group think d. cybermobbing

27. What is thought to be the best legal response to cybercrimes? a. create a public task force to investigate incidents b. use existing laws to address the criminal behaviours c. hire more police officers d. infiltrate gangs responsible for most cybercrimes 28. Which of the following crosses the lines of cyberterrorism and cybercrime and could be part of either or both? a. erotomania b. deep web c. cyberbullying

d. ransomware

29. Which of the following would be considered a cyberactivity? a. browsing through a computer store b. telling the time with a smartphone c. emailing someone from a tablet

d. watching television at home

30. What is the relationship between cyberdeviance and paraphilias? a. Cyberdeviance has not been studied enough to know of such relationships. b. Paraphilias are more difficult to prove online than offline. c. Paraphilias are not usually found to be linked to online crimes. d. Cyberdeviance often involves one or more traditional offline paraphilias.

31. Which of the following statements is true with regard to cyberbullying? a. It carries a penalty of up to one year in jail. b. It is punishable by a fine only. c. It is deviant but not criminal. d. It is an indictable offence.

32. Which of the following individuals is the most likely to be a victim of cybercrime? a. a 35-year-old lesbian b. a 20-year-old gay man c. a 10-year-old heterosexual female

d. a 55-year-old heterosexual man

33. Which of the following can best be described as spamming? a. sending unsolicited and unwanted bulk email messages to other users b. using software and hardware to steal data by intercepting e-transmissions c. sending an email supposedly from a bank requesting information on the target’s bank account d. attempting to remotely circumvent the security or privacy measures of an Internet website

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Chap 18_9e 34. Within the context of exhibitionism, exposing one’s body in an explicit or suggestive fashion in the physical

(offline) world is similar to what in the digital (online) world? a. cyberstalking b. sexting c. Internet trolling d. cyberbullying 35. Which of the following can best be described as hacking? a. the use of software and hardware to steal data (usually related to credit cards) by intercepting e-

transmissions, which then enable the cloning or counterfeiting of specific financial instruments (credit cards, bank cards, etc.) for the purposes of theft and fraud b. the use of specially designed software to download original material from a protected media source (e.g., online movie) to a hard disk, for the purposes of resale or redistribution c. using an Internet connection to access social media, chat rooms, or other places of electronic assembly to make contact with a child or person under 16 to meet for sexual purposes d. the attempt to remotely circumvent the security or privacy measures of an Internet website for the purposes of either stealing information or other malicious actions against the owner of the website 36. Which of the following terms refer to the use of an Internet connection to access social media, chat rooms, or

other places of electronic assembly to make contact with a child or person under 16 to meet for sexual purposes? a. stalking b. luring c. spamming

d. trafficking

37. What would be the intent if one were to engage in a distributed denial-of-service attack (DDoS)? a. to destroy a hard disk so that it can no longer be sold b. to infiltrate and sabotage a host server c. to enable the police to read an IP address d. to send a blast of bulk messaging 38. Which of the following does not represent a critical infrastructure site that would be subject to a cyberterrorist

attack? a. water treatment facility

b. nuclear power plant

c. an airport

d. a major sports stadium

39. Which of the following statements best reflects the findings with regard to electronic victimization among

adolescents? a. Text messaging is the technology that is most vulnerable to cybercrimes. b. Adolescents are the demographic group most frequently targeted by cybercriminals. c. The architecture of text messaging through mobile devices makes it inherently criminogenic. d. Access to social media platforms on mobile devices has consolidated primary methods of cyberbullying.

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Chap 18_9e 40. According to the text, how has routine activities theory been applied to risk of victimization by online

predators? a. Online predators and their victims usually know each other well. b. Those who work long hours are at lower risk of victimization because they use social media less. c. Individuals with low self-esteem tend to have fewer privacy settings in place and are easier targets for online predators. d. Online predators tend to target those who use more than four social media sites.

41. What important theoretical school of thought does Chapter 18 state should be applied to determine where the

line between crime and deviance is drawn in online communities? a. the consensus model of crime b. the conflict model of crime c. symbolic interactionism

d. rational choice theory

42. To better understand online victimization, the textbook argues that research on cyberbullying and

cybervictimology must include an assessment of risk. Which of the following best represents the focus of such a risk assessment? a. Computers might be classified according to a continuum of risk tolerance, ranging from infrequent use to frequent use. b. Victims might be classified according to a continuum of risk tolerance, ranging from infrequent users to frequent users whose communications occur in or near real-time. c. Offenders might be classified according to a continuum of risk tolerance, ranging from infrequent use to frequent use of the Internet. d. Websites might be classified according to a continuum of risk tolerance, ranging from those visited infrequently to those visited frequently.

43. Which of the following best represents a goal of applying routine activity theory to cybercrimes? a. to better understand guardianship that protects potential online victims b. to better understand the paths and nodes used by offenders online c. to better understand the rational decision making process of online offenders d. to better understand the social environment of cyberoffenders and how this contributes to their criminal

offending 44. Within the context of cybercrime, which of the following best reflects the term “technological determinism”? a. the need to examine computer technologies as being inherently deterministic b. the need to examine computer technologies as being inherently criminogenic c. the need to examine computer users as inherently technologically deterministic d. the need to examine computer criminals as inherently criminogenic

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Chap 18_9e 45. Which of the following statements is true in the context of how best to ensure the Internet is a safe place for

Canadian users that is not used for criminal purposes? a. There is little debate anymore about how to balance privacy with public safety in a digital world. b. Canadians remain conflicted in their opinions regarding the role of the police and lawmakers in regulating online behaviour. c. Canadians are united in their opinion that the government should give police sweeping powers to regulate online behaviour. d. The future of guardianship on the Internet is easy to predict.

46. Which of the following is the primary focus of police cybercrime units? a. exploitation of children b. trafficking of controlled substances c. spamming of pornography

d. identity theft

47. Which of the following terms refer to the use of software and hardware to steal data (usually related to credit

cards) by intercepting e-transmissions, which then enable the cloning or counterfeiting of specific financial instruments (credit cards, bank cards, etc.) for the purposes of theft and fraud? a. luring b. hacking c. skimming d. phishing 48. What was the identity of the market embedded in Darknet where bitcoin could purchase murder for hire? a. Deep Realm b. Dread Villa c. Rave Ridge

d. Silk Road

49. What question is noted in the text as important in considering approaches to minimizing online victimization? a. Can we go back to simpler times? b. How is this happening? c. What should the police do?

d. Who should be the guardians?

50. Who was pleased when the Bill to increase police powers to conduct online surveillance was scrapped? a. the federal Privacy Commissioner

b. no one

c. the Canadian Police Chiefs

d. the Canadian Ombudsman

51. Cyberbullying Reporter applied critical discourse analysis and corpus linguistics to aggressive or antisocial

online exchanges. What was the purpose of this exercise? a. to identify individuals involved in cybercrime b. to identify the type of techniques used to commit cybercrimes c. to identify the frequency of different cybercrimes d. to identify a common bullying and harassment vocabulary

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Chap 18_9e 52. What is the role of cybercrime units within police services in Canada? a. they are responsible taking the lead on all new crimes b. this has not been clearly defined in most police agencies c. there are no such units established yet d. they are strictly responsible for luring potential offenders 53. Which of the following terms refers to the use of a network-enabled device to repeatedly make unwanted

contact with a person (through emails, text messages, etc.) knowing that this behaviour is likely to cause fear or annoyance? a. stalking b. luring c. spamming

d. trafficking

54. According to the textbook, we need to step outside criminology to better understand cyberbullying and

motives of online offenders. Why do we need to step outside of criminology? a. to draw from terminologies used in other relevant fields, such as digital media and communications b. to draw from legal terminologies concerning cybercriminality c. to draw from more psychologically-based terminologies regarding criminal offending d. to draw from more sociologically-based theories of criminality 55. In what way are online predators like a bully who waits beside the path that a target usually takes to get home? a. They spend a great deal of time watching people and become experts at remembering small details. b. They wait for online users to take risk with privacy protections that make them vulnerable. c. They are older and usually unemployed. d. They are often caught long after their first offence.

56. Which of the following terms refer to the use of misleading email supposedly from a bank requesting sensitive

personal information or password data with the intention of compromising the victim’s banking or credit accounts? a. ripping b. phishing c. hacking d. luring 57. Compare and contrast cyberdeviance with cybercrime. How does technology create opportunities for

deviance that were not available in the past?

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Chap 18_9e 58. Describe some ways that technologies have changed the landscape of criminality. Provide some examples of

new forms of crime that have been created by the advent of the Internet.

59. Describe what is meant by the term “deviant cybercommunities.” Provide at least two examples of a deviant

cybercommunity.

60. Describe the cybercrimes of phishing, ripping, and skimming. Identify at least two characteristics they share

and two characteristics that make each distinct from one another.

61. What can we learn about cybercrime and cyberdeviance, and its control, by applying routine activities theory?

62. Describe how cyberdeviance often encompasses one or more of the traditional offline paraphilias. Identify

three examples of traditional (offline) paraphilias and describe how they have been adapted to the online world.

63. Compare and contrast cybercrime with cyberterrorism.

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Chap 18_9e 64. What is the role of the CyberSCAN Unit in Canada?

65. Identify and discuss two types of sexual offences that are perpetrated over the Internet and other technologies.

Compare these to traditional (offline) sexual offences.

66. Chapter 18 argues that to better understand cybercrime and cyberdeviance one requires a broader

understanding of computer technologies as being inherently criminogenic. What is mean by this statement?

Describe some ways that computer technologies can be inherently criminogenic.

67. When using the lens of routine activities theory, online environments lack suitable guardianship to protect users

from victimization. Why, according to the text, is guardianship so difficult to establish?

68. What is cybercrime and how is it addressed by law enforcement agencies?

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Chap 18_9e Answer Key 1. True 2. True 3. False 4. True 5. True 6. True 7. True 8. True 9. True 10. False 11. False 12. False 13. False 14. True 15. False 16. False 17. True 18. False 19. False 20. False 21. b 22. c 23. a 24. a 25. a 26. d

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Chap 18_9e 27. b 28. d 29. c 30. d 31. c 32. b 33. a 34. b 35. d 36. b 37. b 38. d 39. d 40. c 41. a 42. b 43. a 44. b 45. b 46. a 47. c 48. d 49. d 50. a 51. d 52. b 53. a 54. a

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Chap 18_9e 55. a 56. b 57. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Cyberdeviance involves engaging in behaviours that are outside of the norm, and online this can include using the technology, the application, or the community to explore or engage in behaviours that are not widely socially accepted.

- Cybercrime involves using technology and/or the Internet to engage in behaviours that harm others and that can be linked to Criminal Code offences that also occur offline.

- The blurring occurs when someone uses the technology to engage in an act that is deviant but no specific harm occurred to anyone. For example, the text talks of the individual who belonged to a community that discussed necrophilia. In this community he discussed killing his wife and child. Given that no act was committed, a judge ruled that the “role play” did not constitute a crime.

58. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Technology has provided alternate means of committing crimes that already existed (i.e. luring, embezzling), but also has allowed for the creation of new types of crimes that are unique such as hacking, ripping, and phishing.

- The work that the police must do to stay ahead of and catch those engaged in cybercrime is complicated by privacy laws and the fact that most people value their privacy more than any protections that might be possible if police were permitted to have access to IP information.

59. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Deviant cybercommunities include subcultural networks made up of people who are trying to work around the usual purpose of particular sites or online groups. They work to exploit weakness and vulnerability in “soft targets.”

- The online communities serve a socialization purpose but amplify deviant impulses among users.

- Examples of deviant cybercommunities include those who are engaged in sharing and supporting illegal activities such as pornography, child exploitation, and human trafficking. o

-

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Chap 18_9e 60. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Phishing is the use of misleading or counterfeit electronic transmissions, such as emails from what appear to be legitimate institutions requesting sensitive personal information, in order to compromise the individual’s financial situation.

- Ripping involves downloading or copying original material from a protected source with the use of special software for resale or distribution.

- Skimming involves the use of software and hardware to intercept sensitive financial information that can be used to clone credit and bank cards for the purpose of theft or fraud.

- Similarities include use of Internet and the involvement of deception.

- Distinct characteristics include impersonation vs deceptive taking of information. Also, with phishing an individual victim is more directly involved than in the other two situations. Ripping and skimming both involve specialized software.

61. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Routine activities theory looks for patterns of behaviour that put individuals at risk of victimization.

- This can be applied to online behaviour and links have been made between the nature of the virtual environments people choose to visit, the nature of the sharing they do, the responses they receive from others (e.g. Facebook likes), and the level of privacy they engage in online.

62. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Luring: offline would involve establishing a relationship and then using the connection to counsel the individual into a sexual act; online it involves using the Internet to establish a relationship and convincing a young person to commit a sexual act. Sometimes this involves posing as a younger person and the anonymity of the Internet makes this possible.

- Erotomania: offline this involves stalking a stranger through following or sending gifts and making unwanted contact; online this might involve compulsively viewing online profiles, creating fake accounts to gain trust, or sending unwanted emails.

- Exhibitionism: offline this involves committing an indecent act such as undressing in public; online this would include sexting.

- Scopophilia or voyeurism: offline this is the peeping tom scenario; online this can involve using electronic devices to secretly monitor a target.

- Scatologia: offline this involves harassing phone calls but this has become less frequent given the tracing that can be done of calls; online this now takes the form of trolling or cyberbullying in online forums.

63. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Cybercrime is the term used to refer to online crimes that are similar to offline crimes of violence and sexual offending (human targets).

- Cyberterrorism is used to describe computer crimes against financial institutions or the state.

- Cyberterrorism has the ability to disable the economic systems of entire nations or regions and can include online acts that disrupt that ability of a population to obtain the necessities of life.

Name:

Class:

Date:

Chap 18_9e 64. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- The CyberSCAN Unit was formed after the introduction of the Cyber Safety Act in 2013.

- This unit has no authority but can refer files to the police for investigation.

- It is made up of civilians and they were responsible for introducing a legislative definition of cyberbullying.

- The attention around cyberbullying and the new definition have done little with regard to changing laws or police powers to address cyberbullying. The public’s concerns about protection of privacy are impeding efforts to identify predators.

65. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Luring: offline would involve establishing a relationship and then using the connection to counsel the individual into a sexual act; online it involves using the Internet to establish a relationship and convincing a young person to commit a sexual act. Sometimes this involves posing as a younger person and the anonymity of the Internet makes this possible.

- Erotomania: offline this involves stalking a stranger through following or sending gifts and making unwanted contact; online this might involve compulsively viewing online profiles, creating fake accounts to gain trust, or sending unwanted emails.

- Exhibitionism: offline this involves committing an indecent act such as exposing one’s body in a suggestive way in public; online this would include sexting.

- Scopophilia or voyeurism: offline this is the peeping tom scenario; online this can involve using electronic devices to secretly monitor a target.

- Scatologia: offline this involves harassing phone calls but this has become less frequent given the tracing that can be done of calls; online this now takes the form of trolling or cyberbullying in online forums.

66. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Computer technology is considered criminogenic in that it drives changes in culture, and because of its qualities crime is one of the consequences.

- Computers allow for anonymity that creates the perfect environment for crime.

- The Internet makes it possible to access data in ways that were never possible before and this data can be used to harm individuals and large sectors of society.

- Global access to people and institutions makes crimes possible that were never considered before.

67. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- In 2012, Canadians rejected the idea that the police and other law enforcement agents should act as guardians of the Internet.

- While Canadians expect police to protect them from offline harms, they do not want to give up the privacies necessary to have adequate online protection.

- Bill C-30 proposed that technology providers be required to relinquish the IP addresses and personal information of users, without a warrant, during early stages of criminal investigations. The Bill was scrapped in 2013 in line with the wishes of many Canadians and the Privacy Commissioner.

Name:

Class:

Date:

Chap 18_9e 68. Answers will include some or all of the following elements.

- Cybercrime is defined broadly to include online activities that involve harm to humans. Other types of criminal events that involve the Internet are sometimes referred to as e-crimes, cyberespionage, or cyberterrorism.

- Law enforcement agencies usually have cybercrime units tasked primarily with investigating child exploitation that occurs through the Internet.

- The scope of these units and the expertise varies by police service.