Solutions Manual for A Student's Introduction to English Grammar 2nd Edition by Rodney Huddleston, G

Solutions Manual for A Student's Introduction to English Grammar 2nd Edition by Rodney Huddleston, Geoffrey K.

Pullum, Brett Reynolds

Solutions Manual for A Student's Introduction to English Grammar 2nd Edition by Rodney Huddleston, Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

Solutions Manual for A Student's Introduction to English Grammar 2nd Edition by Rodney Huddleston,

Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

Instructor’s Answer Guide For authorized instructors using the second edition of A Student’s Introduction to English Grammar

by Rodney Huddleston, Geoffrey K. Pullum, and Brett Reynolds (Cambridge University Press, 2022, v1.0, Oct 31, 2021)

Table of Contents Chapter 1

2

Chapter 9

70

Chapter 2

5

Chapter 10

75

Chapter 3

10

Chapter 11

81

Chapter 4

22

Chapter 12

92

Chapter 5

33

Chapter 13

100

Chapter 6

42

Chapter 14

106

Chapter 7

52

Chapter 15

113

Chapter 8

61

Chapter 16

118

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Solutions Manual for A Student's Introduction to English Grammar 2nd Edition by Rodney Huddleston,

Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

Chapter 1 1.

Consider the words the, dog, ran, and away. Which are the three grammatical orders of those words? Discuss any possible grounds for doubt or disagreement that you see.

We actually don't see any grounds for doubting that just three possible orders of {the, dog, ran, away} are grammatical, but perhaps some students might query this, and come up with ideas that are worth discussing. The exercise is not very important, but it provides a reminder that nearly all strings of words you could write down are ungrammatical. For any list of n words, there are n! different orders they could be arranged in (we can allow some of the words in a list to be duplications of others in the list). The notation n! denotes the factorial of n; that is, n times n – 1 times n – 2 times n – 3... and so on down to 1. So 10! = 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 3,628,800 orders. Our point is that out of the n! arrangements of n words, almost all are complete gibberish. The strings of English words that comply with all the requirements of English grammar are very few in number relative to all the possible strings that could be constructed.

The bottom-line lesson about language learning is that someone who wants to learn a language has only just begun the task when they have learned all the words!

2.

Consider what features of the following sentences mark them as belonging to formal style in Standard English. Rewrite them in a more informal style, keeping the meaning as close as possible to the original. Add notes on what you changed and why.

(The following are sample answers and should not be taken to be the only correct responses.) i

To whom am I speaking? → Who am I speaking to?

Changed whom to who and put to at the end because these both feel like less formal choices, and they seem to go together.

ii

It would be a pity if he were to give up now. → It would be sad if he gave up now.

Nobody says a pity these days, and he were sounds formal. Also, if he gave up is shorter than if he were to give up.

iii

We hid the documents, lest they be confiscated. → We hid the documents, to stop them from being confiscated.

Again, nobody uses lest these days. But without lest the sentence needs to be longer to say the same thing. I guess longer isn’t more formal.

iv

That which but twenty years ago was a mystery now seems routine. → What was a mystery just twenty years ago now seems routine.

It seems too formal to say that which instead of just what. And usually but isn’t formal, yet this use of but seems very formal, even archaic. One more lesson in how little of the learning task has been accomplished once you know the words!

v

One should always try to do one’s best. → You should always do your best.

You and one have the same meaning here, but you (pronounced ya) is more informal. It doesn’t mean “you, the person I’m talking to”. It just means somebody, any person.

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Solutions Manual for A Student's Introduction to English Grammar 2nd Edition by Rodney Huddleston,

Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

3.

For each of the following statements, say whether it is a morphological, syntactic, or semantic fact about English (see §1.2.1).

Keep in mind that if it's about the internal makeup of words, the answer is that it is morphological; if it's about the way words (regardless of their meanings) combine into sentences, it's syntactic; and if it's about meaning — what the sentence would be literally saying if it were uttered in some context — then it's semantic. i

A completed grammatical sentence of Standard English that begins ‘I believe that we… ’ must continue in a way that includes at least one verb. syntactic

ii

A witness who used to be a smoker would be wrong to answer No to the question Did you ever smoke? semantic

iii

Of can occur as the last word in a Standard English sentence. syntactic

iv

The string of words *He it saw can be made grammatical by positioning the word it after the word saw. syntactic

v

The verb enable is formed from able by adding the en⋅ prefix. morphological

vi

We find fell rather than *falled, because fall doesn’t take the ⋅ed suffix. morphological

vii When someone says I was going to walk but I decided not to, the sense is exactly the same as if they had said I was going to walk but I decided not to walk.

This shows that syntax and semantics are very often tightly related, but the focus here is semantic. viii Wherever we can truthfully say Montmorency bought a red Porsche, we can also say Montmorency bought a Porsche, but not conversely. semantic ix

You can’t insert every at random points in the sentence A man’s got to do what a man’s got to do and get a grammatical result every time. syntactic

x

You can’t sincerely say I believe Sally slapped the boss if you think that The boss was slapped by Sally is a lie.

Again, this is mainly semantic, but it relies on a syntactic fact.

4.

You may have heard people talk about a noun functioning as an adjective or a verb functioning as a noun. Under the framework we’ve described here, what’s wrong with such a description? (See §§1.3.2 and 1.3.3.)

Nouns, adjectives, and verbs are lexical categories. There are other concepts, such as subject, modifier, and head, which are functions. Categories perform

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Solutions Manual for A Student's Introduction to English Grammar 2nd Edition by Rodney Huddleston,

Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

functions. In this framework, it doesn’t make sense to say that a category functions as another category. It’s a little like saying that a snake (category) that you name and keep in your home is functioning as a dog (category) instead of as a pet (function).

5.

Consider the sentence Jupiter and Saturn are planets. Here, the subject is Jupiter and Saturn. Based on this, we form the following hypothesis: When the subject has two constituents joined by and, if the choice is between are and is, are is always correct.

To check that this is true, should you search for examples with the form ‘NP and NP are’, or for examples with the form ‘NP and NP is’? Explain why.

We should search for is examples. We already have an example with are, so further examples will not help us understand whether the hypothesis is always correct or not. If we can find a valid example with is, though, then we can reject the hypothesis.

6.

List three or four grammar ‘rules’ you recall hearing about (e.g., Don’t start a sentence with and). For each rule, say whether you believe that violating that rule would (a) result in an ungrammatical sentence, (b) produce a grammatical sentence in a non-standard dialect but not in Standard English, (c) produce a markedly informal Standard English sentence, or (d) produce Standard English that some people don’t like for no obvious reason.

(No key provided; this is an open discussion exercise.)

7.

[Supplementary exercise] Choose one or two language references (of any language; grammars, style books, usage guides, or dictionaries) from those accessible to you.

Say whether you think they are focused on describing the language or advising the language user, and explain why.

Consider the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, in particular, its entry for suggest. This seems to be focused on describing the language, including the usual meaning of words (with the most common listed first), typical patterns (e.g. suggest something to somebody), and data about word frequency (suggest appears in the top 1,000 word families in both written and spoken English, viz S1 & W1). It also gives typical examples from a corpus. It also provides advice, though (e.g., ✗Don’t say: He suggested us a solution).

8.

[Supplementary exercise] We have explained that Standard English is ‘just a name’, but it still offends some people (because of the confusion between ‘not standard’ and ‘substandard’). You will see throughout this book that we believe finding the right term for a concept is important. Can you think of an alternative name for Standard English that would be better? Explain the pros and cons of one or two candidate terms.

If you’re having trouble finding examples, consider one of the following: 1. Colonial English 2. Dominant English 3. English (just the language name, without any qualifier) 4. Proper English 5. Standardized English

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Solutions Manual for A Student's Introduction to English Grammar 2nd Edition by Rodney Huddleston,

Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

Chapter 2 1.

Divide the MAIN CLAUSES of the following examples into subject and predicate.

Underline the subject and double-underline the predicate. For example: This is the house that Jack built. i

I think it’s a disgrace.

ii

The guy in that house over there works for the city.

iii

Most of the mistakes he made were very minor.

iv

The thing that puzzles me is why no one called the police.

v

One of her daughters is training to be a pilot.

vi

Paul’s aunts had driven up in a U-haul.

vii Unfortunately, there was nothing he could do about it. viii Even when she suspected the house was empty, she would knock.

2.

ix

It’s a genre of hip-hop.

x

Malcolm, you should spend the day in Saint-Denis.

The underlined expressions in the following examples are all NPs. State the function of each one (either subject or direct object or predicative complement). i

I’ve just seen your father.

direct object

ii

The old lady lived alone.

subject

iii

Sue wrote that editorial.

direct object

iv

She’s the editor of the local paper.

predicative complement

v

%It sounds a promising idea to me.

predicative complement

vi Yuri didn’t feel any pressure from the president.

direct object

vii Isn’t someone championing this more?

subject

In the sense of “have a tactile experience”, feel takes a direct object, but in the sense of “have a subjective experience” (e.g., I feel happy), it takes a predicative complement.

The subject follows a verb in many questions.

viii With two years of experience, Pounds had multiple offers from which to choose.

subject

ix Mr. Barakat’s work supplying dental care to needy people in the Middle East has become one powerful antidote.

predicative complement

x ‘Wall-to-wall clutter becomes you,’ Yumi said to Jacobus.

direct object

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Even though become usually takes predicative complements, here, it has

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Solutions Manual for A Student's Introduction to English Grammar 2nd Edition by Rodney Huddleston,

Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

a special meaning of “suit”, which takes a direct object.

3.

Assign each word in the following examples to one of the lexical categories: noun (N), verb (V), adjective (Adj), determinative (D), adverb (Adv), preposition (Prep), subordinator (Sub), coordinator (Co), or interjection (Int).

Keep in mind that under the analysis presented in this book, pronouns are just nouns of a special sort, so you treat them as nouns, and that auxiliaries (including the copula, be) are just verbs of a special sort, so you treat them as verbs. Any dictionary will work for many of these words, but, unfortunately, most dictionaries will miscategorize D, along with some Adv, Prep, and Sub. As of this writing, all of these words are correctly categorized in the Simple English Wiktionary, and we suggest you use it as your primary source for lexical categorization. i

Oh Int, she N often Adv goes V to P Moscow N.

ii

The D dog N was V barking V.

iii

Sue N and Co Ed N walked V to P the D park N.

iv

I N met V some D friends N of P the D new Adj boss N.

V

We N know V that Sub these D things N are V extremely Adv expensive Adj.

vi

It N doesn’t V matter V that Sub you N did V it N.

vii If P you N would V like V to Sub leave V us N a voicemail N, too Adv bad Adj. viii Having V an D Etsy N shop N makes V me N feel V like P that D again Adv.

4.

ix

I N agree V with P that D.

x

They N provide V some D analytics N, but Co only Adv to P account N holders N.

[Supplementary exercise] Construct a plausible-sounding, grammatical sentence that uses at least one word from each of the nine categories listed in the previous exercise (see [2] in §2.1.1 of this chapter).

With this one you don't really need any hints. We've decided not to give any suggested solution. The exercise is easy provided there is no limit to the total number of words in the sentence, and there is no upper limit on how many right answers there are. In fact, it should be expected that everyone will construct a different answer, even if millions of people do this exercise.

This is not an exaggeration. It is an interesting fact that in English text generally, if you look at how many different words could come next at a given point, it generally averages out to about 10 — very few at some points, but large numbers at some other points. So, this means that if you write a 10-word sentence and someone else constructs the same 10-word sentence, the chances that it happened by accident (rather than because of you shared sentences) are somewhere in the region of 1 in 10,000,000,000. And as sentences get longer, the probability of two people hitting on the same sentence by accident gets dramatically lower.

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Solutions Manual for A Student's Introduction to English Grammar 2nd Edition by Rodney Huddleston,

Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

5.

Identify the head in each phrase. (the head is underlined) i

by using one of the premium scripts that are easily available online (PP)

ii

either way (NP)

iii

with so much at stake (PP)

iv

hear about the project again (VP)

v

just (AdvP) (a single-word phrase still has a head)

vi

may have already stopped rising (VP)

vii very many (DP) viii seems highly unlikely that this is working as intended (VP)

6.

7.

ix

so glad that you wrote this (AdjP)

x

the Toronto waterfront trail (NP)

Identify the underlined verbs as auxiliary or lexical. i

Repeating it was going to be a waste of time.

lexical

ii

He asked Ezra to dim the lights.

lexical

iii

!

It ain’t all about YouTube videos.

auxiliary

iv

The crew tries to fight the monster.

lexical

v

They must not be too baggy.

auxiliary

vi

When my kids were little I got hampers and removed the lids.

lexical

vii Why can’t I get to the Settings app that everybody keeps talking about?

auxiliary

viii We’ve been having difficulty in controlling the ever-growing wolf population.

lexical

ix

Your bread probably did rise faster there.

auxiliary

x

Your repetition of the assertion does not make it true.

lexical

Classify the main clauses below as canonical or non-canonical clauses. For the noncanonical ones, say which non-canonical clause category or categories they belong to (see §2.4). i

Most of us enjoyed it very much.

canonical

ii

Have you seen Tom recently?

closed interrogative

iii

He tends to exaggerate.

canonical

iv

Who said she was unhappy?

open interrogative

v

I’ve never seen anything like it.

canonical

vi

They invited me but I couldn’t go.

coordinate

vii This house was built by my grandfather.

passive

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

viii It’s a pity you live so far away.

8.

ix

I’m sure she likes you.

canonical

x

Tell me what you want.

imperative

Identify the functions of the following AdjPs as predicative complement or modifier (see §2.6.1). i Clerks get specific training in responsible liquor sales.

modifier

ii Dizziness is the most common symptom noted.

modifier

iii

9.

unusual order1

For me, it’s my top choice.

modifier

iv I won’t get specific, but she likes some intense things.

predicative complement

v Icelanders respected indigenous narrative traditions.

modifier

vi My hunting licence is good everywhere in this state.

predicative complement

vii So what causes ice to look blue?

predicative complement

viii The only place to find a significant supply of oil is at Sleepy Bay.

modifier

ix The simple things probably sound a bit silly.

predicative complement

x They could have gotten that same cheap thrill from any other box.

modifier

Identify the underlined words as adjectives, determinatives, or pronouns. i

a specific set of cards

adjective

ii

some paradigm-smashing

determinative

iii

the exact same predicament

adjective

iv

the results of these pair-wise contests

determinative

v

their own clothing line

pronoun

vi

this need of ours

pronoun

vii this sense of the country losing its norms

determinative

viii unless anyone has one of those

determinative

This is a bit unfair since you don’t have enough information to do it until §16.8. The canonical (though less common) form would be That you live so far away is a pity.

1

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Solutions Manual for A Student's Introduction to English Grammar 2nd Edition by Rodney Huddleston,

Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

10.

ix

for every 500 posts

determinative

x

certain times

determinative2

Given what you know of our view of categories and functions, which of the following sentences are true in our view of the grammar? i

A noun can function as an adjective in an NP.

false

ii

A predicate always needs a subject.

false

iii

A clause is a kind of phrase.

true

iv

An AdjP can be headed by a verb.

false

vi

Coordinators never function as the head of a phrase.

true

v

Every phrase has a head.

true

vii NPs can function as subjects, objects, and predicative complements.

true

viii Only an AdjP can function as a predicative complement.

false

ix

The head of an AdjP is an adjective.

true

x

The subject always has the form of an NP.

false

There is also an adjective certain as in I’m certain that you’re right. Again, as of this writing, all of these words are correctly categorized in the Simple English Wiktionary, and we suggest you use it as your primary source for lexical categorization.

2

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Solutions Manual for A Student's Introduction to English Grammar 2nd Edition by Rodney Huddleston,

Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

Chapter 3 1.

For some but not all of the following verb lexemes, the preterite and past participle forms have distinct shapes. Say for each whether the shapes are the same or different and make up examples to show that you are right.

Example:

teach same: I taught them. They’ve been taught.

i

Same

bring

She brought the baby to one of them. (preterite) It was brought to the surface. (past participle) ii

buy

Same I bought a ‘proper telescope’. (preterite) The Ali family has bought a Louisville house. (past participle)

iii

draw

Different We drew a random name from a hat. (preterite) You'd be drawn to it. (past participle)

iv

drink

Different I think I drank too much. (preterite) I had drunk too much, and almost gotten sick. (past participle)

v

fall

Different I fell in love with the original plot line. (preterite) He had fallen in love with her. (past participle)

vi

forget

Different I forgot to tell you something. (preterite) He had forgotten all about this. (past participle)

vii hold

Same The court held that the bylaw was invalid. (preterite) You will be held accountable for the technical accuracy of your work. (past participle)

viii ride

Different I rode my bike around all day. (preterite) She had never ridden a horse. (past participle)

ix

run

Different I ran out of hot water. (preterite) We’ve run out of time. (past participle)

x

sing

Different I listened as she sang in the kitchen. (preterite) It was sung by the whole congregation. (past participle)

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

2.

3.

The underlined verbs below are forms of lexemes whose preterite and past participle have the same shape. Use the substitution test to determine which form occurs in these instances, citing the evidence you use (see §3.1.2). i

I don’t think they found anything suspicious.

I don’t think they ate anything suspicious. (preterite)

ii

That’s the edition I recommended.

That’s the edition I saw. (preterite)

iii

She wasn’t one of those arrested.

She wasn’t one of those eaten. (past participle)

iv

Do you think they’ll get tested?

Do you think they’ll get eaten? (past participle)

v

Haven’t you seen the snowman they made?

Haven’t you seen the snowman they ate? (preterite)

vi

Get it checked right away.

Get it seen right away. (past participle)

vii Who said it was mine?

Who forgot it was mine? (preterite)

viii I don’t want anyone hurt.

I don’t want anyone forgotten. (past participle)

ix

I met him on a Monday.

I saw him on a Monday. (preterite)

x

I don’t believe we’ve met.

I don’t believe we’ve forgotten. (past participle)`

Determine whether the underlined verbs below are plain forms or plain present tense forms. Again, present the evidence on which you base your decision. i

The twins, he says, seem quite lovely.

The team, he says, seems quite lovely. (present tense; agreement)

ii

It would be best to say something about it.

It would be best to say something about it. (plain form; to-infinitival)

iii

He thinks they didn’t notice him.

He thinks she didn’t notice him. (plain form; no agreement)

iv

I could help you change that.

I could help her change that. (plain form; no agreement)

v

Let’s go to the movies.

Let him go to the movies. (plain form; no agreement)

vi

We have written to the editor.

He has written to the editor. (present tense; agreement)

vii They appreciate what you’re doing for them.

She appreciates what you’re doing for them. (present tense; agreement)

viii Tell me what you want.

Tell me what you want. (plain form; imperative, no subject)

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

4.

ix

I think that you really know her.

I think that she really knows her. (present tense; agreement)

x

Do you know what time it is?

Does he know what time it is? (plain form; no agreement)

The verb beware (as in Beware of the dog) is highly exceptional in its inflection.

Construct example sentences containing the following kinds of clause with a form of beware, marking the ones that turn out to be ungrammatical with *. i

a clause with 3rd person singular subject and present tense verb

*He usually bewares of the dog.

ii

a clause with plural subject and present tense verb

*We beware of the dog every day.

iii

an imperative clause

Beware of the dog.

iv

a subjunctive clause

It’s important that you beware of the dog.

v

an infinitival clause

It’s important to beware of the dog.

vi

a gerund-participial clause

*Bewaring of the dog is tiresome. *I’ve never bewared of the dog.

vii a past-participial clause

On the basis of your data give a paradigm (see §3.1.1) for beware, leaving blank any position where the inflectional form is missing for this verb.

PRIMARY FORMS

SECONDARY FORMS

5.

PRETERITE 3RD SINGULAR PRESENT PLAIN PRESENT PLAIN FORM GERUND-PARTICIPLE PAST PARTICIPLE

beware

Change the following declarative clauses into interrogatives, write out the result, and say on this basis whether the underlined verbs are auxiliaries or lexical verbs. i

They were informed of the change.

Auxiliary Were they informed of the change?

ii

She would rather we met later.

Auxiliary When would she rather we met?

iii

They ought to accept the offer.

Auxiliary What ought they to accept?

iv

They used to live together.

Lexical Did they used to live together?

v

We have to keep them informed.

Lexical Who do we have to keep informed?

vi

They need to replace the cartridge.

Lexical Do they need to replace it?

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

6.

vii I should inform the police.

Auxiliary How should I inform the police?

viii They had it repaired.

Lexical Which one did they have repaired?

ix

You usually help clear up.

Lexical Do you usually help clear up?

x

They keep telling her that.

Lexical Why did they keep telling her that?

Use the two negation tests from §3.2.1 to determine the status of the underlined verbs as auxiliaries or lexical verbs. If the tests disagree, explain your determination.

Example:

I like pizza.

*I like not pizza. *I liken’t pizza. (not an auxiliary)

i

You must get involved.

Auxiliary You mustn’t get involved.

You must not get involved.

ii

It is going to rain.

Auxiliary It isn’t going to rain.

It is not going to rain.

iii

They tend to disagree.

Lexical; no interrogative inversion *They tendn’t to disagree.

They tend not to disagree.

iv

She would like to see them.

Auxiliary She wouldn’t like to see them.

She would not like to see them.

v

I saw them leave.

Lexical *I sawn’t them leave. *I saw not them leave.

vi

He wants to tell her.

Lexical; no interrogative inversion *He wantsn’t to tell her.

He wants not to tell her.

vii He may have told her already.

Auxiliary; interrogative inversion *He mayn’t have told her already.

He may not have told her already.

viii I’m going to solve it.

Lexical *I’m goingn’t to solve it. *I’m not going to solve it.

ix

They can sardines to preserve them.

Lexical *They ca(n)n’t sardines. *They can not sardines.

x

They can preserve sardines.

Auxiliary They can’t preserve sardines.

They cannot persevere sardines.

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Solutions Manual for A Student's Introduction to English Grammar 2nd Edition by Rodney Huddleston,

Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

7.

In the uses illustrated in the following examples, the three underlined verbs bear some semantic and/or syntactic similarity to the modal auxiliaries, though syntactically they’re not similar enough to modals to be included in the class. i

You are to report for duty at 8 a.m.

Like modal auxiliary verbs, this has only primary forms: *You might be to report for duty. *You’re being to report for duty. *You’ve been to report for duty for three hours.

Unlike modals, it agrees with the subject (She’s to report for duty.) And it doesn’t allow a bare infinitival complement: *You are report for duty.

ii

We have to ask what’s best for the child.

Unlike modals, it has secondary forms (We have had to ask), agrees with the subject (It has to work), and doesn’t allow a bare infinitival complement (*We have ask).

iii

They don’t like it.

Like modal auxiliary verbs, this has only primary forms: *I want you to don’t like it. *I’m doing not like it. *I’ve been done not like it. It also allows bare infinitival complements.

Unlike modals, it agrees with the subject (She doesn’t like it.).

Take the three verbs in turn and determine which, if any, of the three modal auxiliary properties described in this chapter apply to them. Construct examples where necessary and explain your reasoning.

Here is a crucial hint: When you are doing this, make sure that the meaning or use of the verb under consideration remains constant. So don't construct examples like You have been careless, We've had our house burgled, They'd done their best: the meanings of the underlined words here do not match those in [i–iii] above.

8.

Determine whether the underlined verb forms in the following examples are instances of the auxiliary lexemes have, need, and dare or instances of the corresponding lexical verbs. i

They had better hurry or they’ll miss it.

Lexical; no inversion, no negatives

ii

They had their house burgled.

Lexical; no inversion, no negatives

iii

They had to call the police.

Lexical; no inversion, no negatives

iv

I had the staff do a thorough search.

Lexical; no inversion, no negatives

v

I have an idea about that.

Lexical; no inversion, no negatives

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

vi

9.

I doubt whether we needed to see it.

Auxiliary for some speakers; inversion & negation possible (Need we see it?

You needn’t see it.)

vii We need more time to finish the work.

Lexical; no inversion, no negatives

viii I don’t think you need have any worries.

Auxiliary for some speakers; inversion & negation possible (Need we see it?

You needn’t see it.)

ix

Did anyone dare remind him of his promise?

Lexical; this interrogative uses dummy do and is not inverted.

x

Not one of them dare voice any criticism.

Auxiliary for some speakers; inversion & negation possible (Dare we voice them? I daren’t voice them.)

Which of the following allow a perfective interpretation (see §3.3.1)? Consider just the main clauses, ignoring any subordinate ones embedded within them. i

I think it’s a disgrace.

Imperfective; the clause describes a state which obtains at the present time, but we’re not concerned with the whole time of my thinking it’s a disgrace.

ii

I suggest you give up the idea.

Perfective; the suggestion is accomplished in the moment of speaking and this describes that in its totality.

iii

I now add a sprinkling of pepper.

Perfective; this describes the addition in its totality.

iv

I want to get out of here.

Imperfective; the clause describes a state which obtains at the present time, but we’re not concerned with the whole time of my wanting to get out.

v

I do my own shopping.

Imperfective; the clause describes a state which obtains at the present time, but we’re not concerned with the whole time of my doing my own shopping.

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

10.

We have seen in this chapter that subordinate clauses functioning as complements of before, if, and hope can have a future time interpretation. For example, if it rains in We’ll postpone the match if it rains doesn’t mean “if it is raining now”, it means “if rain falls at some future time”. For each of the following five preposition + clause combinations, construct an example to show whether or not the clause permits a future time interpretation.

PREPOSITION

CLAUSE

i

after +

I bet you $5

Future time interpretation possible I might be richer after I bet you $5.

ii

although + I expect you’re right

Future time interpretation possible I can’t imagine a future in which, although I expect you are right, I refuse to listen.

iii

because +

she realizes her mistake

Future time interpretation possible She might change her mind because she realizes her mistake.

iv

unless +

they regret the decision

Future time interpretation possible They might try unless they regret the decision.

v

until +

I wish it would stop

Future time interpretation possible She might change her mind because she realizes her mistake.

(You should avoid examples with a futurate interpretation like I know that we leave for Berlin next Tuesday. For these, subordination is irrelevant: the interpretation is the same as for the main clause We leave for Berlin next Tuesday. Futurate examples don’t provide relevant evidence.)

11.

Classify the following conditional constructions as open or remote (see §3.4.2). For the open ones, give their remote counterparts, and conversely for the remote ones give their open counterparts. i

It won’t matter if I’m a little late.

It wouldn’t matter if I were a little late.

ii

He could easily get a job if he wanted one.

Remote

iii

It would be disastrous if they saw the files.

Remote

iv

If you don’t pay up they’ll call the police.

If you didn’t pay up, they’d call the police.

v

You can stay here if you’re stuck.

You could stay here if you were stuck.

(Note that some open conditionals lack remote counterparts, and some remote conditionals lack open counterparts. Here we are considering only cases where the two constructions are in contrast.)

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

12.

For each of the following statements, imagine that someone called Bo made that statement yesterday. Write reports of the speech events in question, in the form Bo said that … For each one give a backshifted report, and in those cases where backshift is optional give a non-backshifted report too.

Example: It’s too late. Bo said that it was too late and Bo said that it’s too late.

13.

i

My father has a weak heart.

Bo said that my father had / has a weak heart.

ii

Ed is arriving this evening.

Bo said that Ed was arriving yesterday evening.

iii

I have a terrible headache.

Bo said that he had a terrible headache.

iv

I’ve moved to Florida.

Bo said that he’d / ’s moved to Florida.

v

Everyone thinks I’m overreacting.

Bo said that everyone thought he was / thinks he’s overreacting.

For the following examples, give counterparts in which the clause with the underlined verb has been put in the perfect tense.

Example: I did it.

14.

I had done it.

i

I hope to finish soon.

I hope to have finished soon.

ii

You should tell her the truth.

You should have told her the truth.

iii

They mislaid the file.

They’ve mislaid the file.

iv

He admitted being an alcoholic.

He admitted having been an alcoholic.

v

She is very helpful.

She has been very helpful.

Describe, as carefully as you can, any difference in meaning or use between the [a] and [b] members of the following pairs.

Example:

a. I have lived in Edinburgh. b. I lived in Edinburgh.

They both mean that, in the past, I was a resident of Edinburgh, and both strongly imply a perfective interpretation, though [a] allows an imperfective one (“and I still do”). On top of that, [a] implies some kind of relevance to the current topic or situation. i

a. I’ve been in the army for two years. b. I was in the army for two years.

They both mean that, in the past, I was a soldier; [a] implies a perfective interpretation (“and I still am”), but [b] doesn’t. On top of that, [a] implies some kind of relevance to the current topic or situation.

ii

a. Have you seen Jill? b. Did you see Jill?

They both ask about your seeing Jill in the past, and both strongly imply a perfective interpretation. On top of that, [a] implies some kind of

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

relevance to the current topic or situation.

15.

iii

a. It was the best meal I’ve had all week. b. It was the best meal I had all that week.

[a] is about the current week and [b] about a past week. [a] and implies an imperfective interpretation (“I’m not finished eating this week”), while [b] strongly implies a perfective one. On top of that, [a] implies some kind of relevance to the current topic or situation.

iv

a. She has gone to Moscow. b. She went to Moscow.

They both mean that, in the past, she began a trip to Moscow, and both strongly imply a perfective interpretation, though [a] allows an imperfective one (“she’s on her way”), and a similar interpretation could be forced for [b]. On top of that, [a] implies some kind of relevance to the current topic or situation.

v

a. I’ve got the milk. b. I got the milk.

[a] implies, imperfectively, that I still have the milk in hand, while [b] suggests, perfectively, that I purchased it. On top of that, [a] implies some kind of relevance to the current topic or situation.

As in Exercise 11, classify the following conditionals as open or remote, and give the counterpart of the opposite category. These examples differ from the earlier ones in that they all involve the perfect tense. i

ii

iii

iv

v

If she hadn’t sold her shares she would be very rich.

Remote

If the secretary hadn’t called the police someone else would have.

Remote

If Ed has gone on holiday you can stay in his room.

Open

If Jill didn’t report the fault, Max may have.

Open

If you had finished your work yesterday, you could come with us tomorrow.

Remote

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If she hasn’t sold her shares she’ll be very rich.

If the secretary hasn’t called the police someone else will have.

If Ed had gone on holiday you could stay in his room.

If Jill hadn’t reported the fault, Max might have.

If you finished your work yesterday, you can come with us tomorrow.

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Solutions Manual for A Student's Introduction to English Grammar 2nd Edition by Rodney Huddleston,

Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

16.

17.

Give progressive aspect counterparts to the following examples. Keep the tense the same. i

She lived in Berlin.

She was living in Berlin.

ii

He may regret his impulsiveness.

He may be regretting his impulsiveness.

iii

They neglect their children.

They are neglecting their children.

iv

I have read the newspaper.

I have been reading the newspaper.

v

He didn’t pay any attention.

He wasn’t paying any attention.

Explain any difference in meaning or use between the [a] and [b] members of the following pairs.

Example:

a. I live in Toronto. b. I’m living in Toronto.

They are both true in the same circumstances, that I am a current resident of Toronto.

But [b] implies that I view my stay as temporary, like maybe an international student there. i

a. I cycle to work. b. I’m cycling to work.

They are both mean that I currently travel to work by bike. But [b] implies that I view this as temporary.

It could be that I’m on my way to work right now or that I’m giving cycling a try.

ii

a. When Tom called she phoned me. b. When Tom called she was phoning me.

[a] means that her call to me was subsequent Tom’s call. [b] means that Tom’s call interrupted her call to me.

iii

a. The train arrived. b. The train was arriving.

[a] is complete (perfective), while [b] had begun but was incomplete (imperfective).

iv

a. You annoy me. b. You’re annoying me.

[a] suggests a general state of affairs, while [b] suggests a temporary situation.

v

a. He wrote an editorial. b. He was writing an editorial.

[a] is complete (perfective), while [b] had begun but was incomplete (imperfective).

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Solutions Manual for A Student's Introduction to English Grammar 2nd Edition by Rodney Huddleston,

Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

18.

Discuss the interpretation of the following examples with respect to the distinction between epistemic, deontic, and dynamic modality, bearing in mind that some of them are ambiguous (see §3.7.1).

Example: I ought to let you go.

The verb ought expresses deontic modality, meaning that letting you go is the right thing to do. It’s not epistemic: the question of whether it will probably turn out that I’ll let you go is not at issue. Nor is it dynamic, because my ability or willingness to let you go also doesn’t come into it. i

Bill is one of those people who must always have the last word.

Must most likely expresses deontic modality; he feels compelled to have the last word.

ii

Could I have another beer, please?

Could may express deontic modality, asking if it’s acceptable. But in this case, it may have been bleached of any modal meaning. It seems to be just a politeness marker.

iii

It may easily be shown that this is false.

May most likely expresses epistemic modality; it suggests the possibility of the falseness being demonstrated.

iv

It must surely rain soon.

Must most likely expresses epistemic modality, suggesting the likelihood of rain.

v

It needn’t have been Jill that wrote the note.

Needn’t most likely expresses epistemic modality; there is a possibility that she didn’t do it.

vi

She can’t live with her parents.

Can’t most likely expresses deontic modality; she doesn’t have permission. But it could express dynamic modality; she isn’t able to abide them. It could even be epistemic, suggesting a very low possibility that she lives with her parents (incredulity).

vii There could be some other reason.

Could most likely expresses epistemic modality; such a reason may exist.

viii These animals can be dangerous.

Can most likely expresses deontic modality; there is a possibility of danger.

ix

They should be in Paris by now.

Should most likely expresses epistemic modality; it is very likely that they are in Paris.

x

You needn’t bother to answer.

Could most likely expresses deontic modality; there is no obligation for you to answer.

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

19.

[Supplementary exercise] Some irregular verbs may be regularizing (show, showed, *shewn), while some regular verbs are becoming irregular (sneak, snuck). Find a number of such verbs and poll your classmates about their usage.

If you’re stuck for examples, try: dive, dream, fit, kneel, light, mow, prove, sew, & show.

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Solutions Manual for A Student's Introduction to English Grammar 2nd Edition by Rodney Huddleston,

Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

Chapter 4 1.

Use the licensing criterion (see §4.1.4) to determine whether the ten underlined expressions in the examples below are complements or adjuncts. In the case of complements, cite three verbs that license such a complement, and three that do not.

Example: Mike called me last night. Me is a complement, more specifically a direct object. The verbs phone, see, and visit take such complements; the verbs die, resign, and disappear don’t. Last night is an adjunct.

There are ten expressions in all; for reference, they’re labelled with small roman numeral subscripts. (i) The AdvP suddenly is an adjunct.

Dependents indicating time, like this one, do not require the presence of any particular type of verb. Here it is a modifier in a VP with the head verb ran, but it could modify a VP with knew just as well (They suddenly knew the answer).

They suddenly[i] ran to the gate[ii].

(ii) The PP to the gate is a complement, licensed by run. Verbs that license a complement of this kind include head, come, and go. They exclude verbs such as know, help, and advise.

I wonder if he’ll be safe[iii] all the time.

(iii) The PP if he’ll be safe is a complement licensed by wonder.

Verbs that license a complement of this kind include doubt, question, and ask. They exclude verbs such as believe, live, and eat.

I’m keeping the dog[iv], whatever you say[v].

(iv) The NP the dog is a complement licensed by keep. Specifically, it’s an object and it’s licensed by transitive verbs and excluded by intransitive verbs. (v) The NP whatever you say is an adjunct. Specifically, it’s a supplement, and it could be added to almost any clause.

You’d better put the cat[vi] out[vii] now.

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Both (iv & vii) are complements licensed by put. Specifically, the NP the cat is a direct object. You can hardly imagine *please put the cat or please put out (at least not without a very different meaning).

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Solutions Manual for A Student's Introduction to English Grammar 2nd Edition by Rodney Huddleston,

Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

2.

It’s always been easy for you[viii], hasn’t it?

The PP for you (viii) is an adjunct in the VP headed by be. Consider This worked well for you, For you, I can stay late, etc.

They swam in the sea[ix] even though it was raining[x].

Both the PPs in the sea (ix) and even though it was raining (x) are adjuncts. Dependents indicating the location of the situation, like (ix), do not require the presence of any particular type of verb. And supplements like (x) can attach to almost any clause.

Determine whether the underlined expressions below are objects or predicative complements. Give syntactic evidence in support of your answers. i

They arrested a member of the party.

Object This can be passive (a member was arrested) and no AdjP could appear here (they arrested big).

ii

She remained a member of the party.

Predicative complement This can’t be passive, but an AdjP would work here (she remained impassive).

iii

It looks a bargain to me.

Predicative complement This rather British construction can’t be passive, but an AdjP would work here (it looks cheap to me).

iv

He proposed a bargain to me.

Object This can be passive (a bargain was proposed) and no AdjP would work.

v

They continued the investigation.

Obj Although the investigation continued is more likely, the passive is also possible. And an AdjP like long would not work.

3.

In each of the following pairs, pick out the one in which the underlined expression is an object. Give syntactic reasons for your answer. i

a. We all enjoyed that summer. b. We all worked that summer.

(a) has the object (passive is possible, AdjP isn’t), while in (b) that summer is an adjunct indicating when we worked

ii

a. She fasted a very long time. b. She wasted a very long time.

(b) has the object (passive is possible, AdjP isn’t), while in (b) a very long time

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

is an adjunct indicating how long she fasted.

4.

iii

a. It created a positive change. b. It seemed a positive change.

(a) has the object (passive is possible, AdjP isn’t), while in (b) a positive change is a predicative complement (can be replaced by an AdjP).

iv

a. They made her their leader. b. They showed her their leader.

(b) has the object. In it, their leader is what they showed her (passive is possible, AdjP isn’t), while in (a) their leader is a predicative complement (can be replaced by an AdjP).

v

a. I lifted 67 kilograms. b. I weigh 67 kilograms.

(a) has the object (passive is possible, AdjP isn’t). (b) can’t be passive, but neither can it take an AdjP complement.

We can’t substitute in just any NP here, at least not keeping the same meaning. In I weigh it / them, the pronouns it and them can’t mean “67 kilograms”.

In the following examples, use either case or agreement to provide evidence that the underlined expression is the subject. i

This letter embarrassed the government.

He / *him embarrassed the government. *These letters embarrasses the government

ii

Sue will lend you her car.

She / *her will lend you her car.

iii

Everything will be OK.

He / *him will be OK.

iv

It must be the twins he’s referring to.

It must be the twins he’s referring to.

v

One of the twins took the car.

She / *her took the car. *The twins takes the car.

5.

Identify the subject in each of the examples below (ignoring the subordinate clause in [iv]). Present the reasoning that tells you it is the subject. Use the syntactic tests that are appropriate, and explain why the other tests are not appropriate. i

Tomorrow Pat will be back from skiing.

Pat is the subject. We can change it to a nominative pronoun, but not accusative. The head verb is a modal, so agreement tests won’t work. Also, tomorrow can be removed, but Pat can’t. In a closed interrogative, Pat comes after the auxiliary verb.

ii

Is today some kind of holiday?

Today is the subject. We can change it to a nominative pronoun, but not

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

accusative. If we make it plural, then is changes to are (e.g., Not enough days are some kind of holiday.). Changing it to a declarative, today comes before the auxiliary verb.

6.

7.

iii

Down the road ran the wild dog.

The subject is the wild dog. With present tense, changing it from singular to plural changes runs to run. In a question, it appears immediately after an auxiliary verb (where did the wild dog run?).

iv

It isn’t the programme that’s at fault.

This resists some manipulations, but subject-auxiliary inversion identifies it as the subject.

v

Dan got bitten on the neck by a bat.

The subject is Dan, which can be confirmed, for example, by replacing it with a nominative pronoun (accusative won’t work).

For which of the following clauses would it be implausible to say that the subject identifies ‘the doer of an action’? Give reasons for your answer. i

She’s very like her mother.

There’s no action going on here. This describes a state.

ii

The decision was made by my aunt.

It’s far-fetched to suggest that the cognitive process of arriving at a decision is an action.

iii

My father closed the door.

Here, my father does seem to be ‘the doer of an action’.

iv

I’ve just received a letter from the mayor.

Here, there may be some action (inserting the letter into the mailbox), but the subject I simply denotes a passive recipient, and not the deliverer.

v

She underwent surgery.

Similarly, there is action here, but it is the surgeon performing it, not the person undergoing surgery, who is most likely unconscious.

For which of the following is it implausible to say that the subject identifies the topic?

Give reasons for your answer. i

At this time of year you’re likely to get violent thunderstorms.

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The subject here is you, but the topic is most likely this time of year; that’s what the sentence is about. It’s certainly not about any person or even people in general.

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Solutions Manual for A Student's Introduction to English Grammar 2nd Edition by Rodney Huddleston,

Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

8.

ii

Anyone could make a better job of it than that.

The subject is anyone, but the topic of the sentence seems to be the quality of the job.

iii

My sister has just won the marathon.

The subject is my sister, and this does seem to be the topic.

iv

Close tabs were kept on all the directors.

This seems to be about all the directors, a good candidate for the topic. Even though the subject is close tabs, that’s not what it’s about.

v

Their house is worth a million and a half.

Perhaps the subject and topic correspond here. It does seem to be about their house, though arguably it’s about the value of their house.

For each of the underlined strings, decide whether it contains (a) just a direct object, (b) just a predicative complement, (c) both a direct object and a predicative complement, (d) both a direct and an indirect object, or (e) none of the above. i

I just found him a fascinating character.

(c)

ii

Can you overcook chili?

(a)

iii

Doesn’t this make you glad?

(c)

iv

Has a wardrobe-related disaster happened to you?

(e) (though you is an object in the to PP)

v

He left me a security company and a financial business in the capital city of Accra.

(d)

vi

I want that life.

(a)

vii I eat like that.

(e) (though that is an object in the like PP)

viii He’s very ostentatious.

(b)

ix

She sleeps with it on or she can’t sleep.

(e) (though it is an object in the with PP)

x

I was afraid to run into you.

(b) (though you is an object in the into PP)

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Solutions Manual for A Student's Introduction to English Grammar 2nd Edition by Rodney Huddleston,

Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

9.

For each of the verbs below, decide which of the following three structures they can occur in: (a) a structure with two NPs, as in [15]; (b) a structure with one NP and a PP headed by to; (c) a structure with one NP and a PP headed by for. For each, construct a relevant example to show that you’re right. (Don’t confuse the preposition to with the infinitival marker of the same shape. It’s not entirely clear what the infinitival marker is, but it certainly isn’t a preposition; see §3.2.2). i

award

(a) award you a certificate (b) award a certificate to you

ii

borrow

(c) borrow money for a friend

iii

envy

(a) envy you your success (c) envy you for your success

iv

explain

(b) explain the answer to me

v

fine

(a) fine you fifty Euros (c) fine you for speeding

vi

obtain

vii owe

(c) obtain a grant for research (a) owe you a debt (c) owe you for your assistance

viii return

(a) return you the favour (b) return the money to you

ix

send

(a) send you a text (b) send a text to you (c) send a gift for you

x

transfer

(a) transfer you the money (b) the money to your account

10.

For each of the following verbs, make up a canonical clause containing it as the head verb, and say whether the clause you’ve written down is (a) intransitive, (b) intransitive with a predicative complement, (c) transitive, (d) transitive with a predicative complement, or (e) ditransitive. i

appear

The problems appear likely to continue. (b)

ii

consider

I considered what you said. (c)

iii

judge

He judged the floor event. (c)

vi

keep

That just keeps on giving. (a)

v

promise

I promise you that. (e)

iv

save

It saves a lot of time. (c)

vii send

He sent me a list. (e)

viii show

He showed up at the house. (a)

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

11.

ix

turn

She turned it purple. (d)

x

wish

I wish I could say more. (a)

Use the corresponding-passive-subject test to decide if the underlined phrase is an object or not (see §4.4.1). i

ii

iii

iv

v

It serves as a reminder of how the studio made great hand-drawn animation.

Object

They would have to see you as the better player.

Not object

Oceanographers find sea urchins in waters that span a wide range of pH.

Object

You should consider the difference temporary.

Object

They call this art.

Not object

It serves as a reminder of how great hand-drawn animation was made by the studio. *The better play would have to be seen you by them.

Sea urchins are found in waters that span a wide range of pH. The difference should be considered temporary. *Art is called this by them.

vi

Darcy gave me your number.

Object Your number was given to me by Darcy.

vii He considers it a sacred duty.

Not object *A sacred duty is considered it (by him).

viii She took it a long way.

Not object *A long way was taken it (by her).

ix

x

The president of France declared it a global crisis.

Not object

The change lent it an air of majesty.

Object

*A global crisis was declared it by the president of France.

An air of majesty was lent (to) it by the change.

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Solutions Manual for A Student's Introduction to English Grammar 2nd Edition by Rodney Huddleston,

Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

12.

13.

14.

Explain the ambiguities of the following two sentences. They can each be understood either as having a direct and indirect object or as having an object and a predicative complement: i

He called me a nurse.

If a nurse is an object, then he summoned a nurse for me. If not, then they referred to me as a nurse.

ii

I found her a good lawyer.

If a lawyer is an object, then I discovered a good lawyer for her. If not, then judged her to be a good lawyer.

Identify the category and function of the underlined phrases. Be as specific as possible. i

In recent years, that disruption has been accelerating all on its own.

Subject NP

ii

Could you do me a favour?

Direct object NP

iii

They were strong and successful kings.

Predicative complement NP

iv

It was his favourite time in the kitchen, before Javier and everyone else awoke.

Predicative complement NP

v

Jane moved forward, smiling, to give him a moment.

Head (predicate) VP

vi

Many times they are not.

Subject NP

vii He was reaching the end of more than fifty years of teaching there.

Object NP

viii One guy finally decided it was worth an investment.

Head (predicate) VP

ix

Their work supplying dental care to needy people in the Middle East has become one powerful antidote.

Predicative complement NP

x

The least Aunt Olive could do is heat this mausoleum.

Object NP

In each case, is the be +PredComp construction specifying, ascriptive, or ambiguous? (See §4.4.3.) i

Her enthusiasm is unwavering.

ascriptive

ii

His story is part of our Breakthroughs series.

ambiguous

iii

A major daily newspaper like ours is still the best way to get serious attention for whatever cause or issue matters.

ambiguous

iv

The target this time is the Sun.

specifying

v

This woman is a pro.

ambiguous

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

vi

15.

16.

At the time I was a best-selling author and speaker in America.

specifying

vii Even when she suspected the house was empty she would first knock.

ascriptive

viii I was a good ten years older than them.

ascriptive

ix

Ryan worked every day but his father was the face of the operation.

ambiguous

x

Sandra was the ex-girlfriend of my college buddy, Jake.

specifying

In each case, is the underlined preposition licensed by the verb? If not, is the PP a complement? i

They are amusing to look at.

licensed by the verb

ii

Why did we go towards the carousel?

a complement

iii

Everybody’s talking about it.

licensed by the verb

iv

I was in San Francisco for a legal conference.

no

v

His hands drift like they are looking for something to pet.

licensed by the verb

vi

I asked her what she likes to do with her friends.

no

vii He used to be in the army, an Airborne Ranger.

a (predicative) complement

viii It makes you think about being a sheep vs being a wolf.

licensed by the verb

ix

Arthur would come to my house every week and check on my parents.

licensed by the verb

x

Get the water and I’ll deal with them.

licensed by the verb

The underlined phrase functions either as a subject or an object. Replace it with a (different) pronoun and use the case form to decide which. i

Are your colleagues right?

Subject: Are they right?

ii

But would you really trust Caz with your puppy?

Object: But would you really trust him with your puppy?

iii

Did Jai come to the park for home games?

Subject: Did he come to the park for home games?

iv

Do you believe joy can triumph over evil?

Subject: Do you believe I can triumph over evil?

v

Had Lexy designed them?

Subject: Had she designed them?

vi

How do you choose a caterer?

Object: How do you choose them?

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

17.

vii What are the two of them doing with my stuff?

Subject: What are they doing with my stuff?

viii What do you call your dog?

Object: What do you call her?

ix

Who’s going to stop that team?

Object: Who’s going to stop them?

x

Who’s there?

Subject: She’s there.

Explain how the following non-standard clauses differ from Standard English. i

*The guys remained facing to the front of the room.

Standard English would not include to. Face licenses a direct object, not a to PP complement.

ii

*You look like happy together.

Standard English would not include like. Look licenses a predicative complement as well as a like PP complement. But like doesn’t license a predicative complement. Remove like.

iii

*There have two kinds of verbs.

Standard English would not have are in place of have. Have doesn’t license there as an external complement (subject).

iv

*My question concerns about the semantics.

Standard English would not include about. Concern licenses a direct object, not an about PP complement.

v

*My teacher makes the lessons are more interesting.

Standard English would not include are. Make licenses a direct object + a predicative complement, not a clausal complement. (Compare My teacher thinks the lessons are more interesting.)

vi

*How to say this in English?

Standard English would have do you instead of to. A interrogative clause like this includes an auxiliary verb (e.g., do) preceding a subject (e.g., you).

vii *It depends of what you mean.

Standard English would have on instead of of. Depend licenses an an on PP complement, not an of PP complement.

viii *I’m agree with you.

Standard English would omit ’m or possibly use the gerund participle form of agree. Be licenses gerund participial complements, but not bare infinitival complements.

ix

Standard English would include made a or add two complements such

*I almost mistake.

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

as NP + for PP. The verb mistake is never intransitive. x 18.

*That seems like nice.

See (ii).

[Supplementary exercise] We have claimed that direct object is a type of object, which is a type of complement, which is a type of dependent. In a paragraph or two, justify this classification – or provide an argument against it.

We have said that a phrase is a head plus any dependents and that a clause is headed by a VP. If we take that as a starting point, and if we agree that I ate is a clause consisting of a subject and a head VP, then the head of the VP must be the verb ate.

Now we add another phrase: I ate it. Here, it must be a dependent in the VP. It can’t head the VP on its own (e.g., *I it). Here, it is optional, so it isn’t obviously a complement, but in a clause like I brought it, it’s needed to complete the VP, making it a complement. So, it is both a dependent and a complement. But there are dependents, such as yesterday in I brought it yesterday, which are not complements.

So, we can conclude that a complement is a type of dependent, but not the other way around.

Next, based on various tests (e.g., passive test), we can show that it is an object. But not all complements are objects. We have predicative complements, for example. So, an object must be a type of complement, and not the other way around. Finally, not all objects are direct objects. We have direct objects and indirect objects, and while indirect objects often alternate with a to PP (e.g., I gave her a book. I gave it to her), direct objects can’t (e.g., *I gave her to a book). So a direct object must be a kind of object and not the other way around.

19.

[Supplementary exercise] Compared to a linguistic framework that used only categories, what advantages do you see for a framework like ours that uses both categories and functions? What disadvantages to do you see?

To take one small example, a framework that relies on categories only would not be able to explain why the NP this morning is obligatory in I enjoyed this morning but optional in I ate this morning. At least, it would not be able to do this without other apparatus that help it distinguish between an object and an adjunct.

20.

[Supplementary exercise] What meaningful connections can you draw between the content of this chapter and that of Chapter 3?

(No sample answer provided)

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Chapter 5 1.

The following passage is the opening paragraph of the preface to Steven Pinker’s book The Language Instinct. Make separate lists of all of the nouns and the NPs. Don’t forget that one NP can occur within another: in a phrase like I met the father of the bride, for example, the bride is an NP within the larger NP the father of the bride, so you would list both the father of the bride and the bride as NPs. I have never met a person who is not interested in language. I wrote this book to try to satisfy that curiosity. Language is beginning to submit to that uniquely satisfying kind of understanding that we call science, but the news has been kept a secret.

2.

There are a number of nouns that are plural-only in some of their senses, but not in all. For example: PLURAL-ONLY: You should eat more greens.

ORDINARY: Those greens don’t match the upholstery.

For each of the first nine of the following, give two examples containing the word in an appropriate context, one where it has its plural-only sense, and one where it is an ordinary plural with a contrasting singular form. For the last item, people, give one example where it is a plural-only noun, and one where it is a singular: WORD

PLURAL ONLY

ORDINARY

i arts

courses in the arts and sciences

Sadow combines two arts: painting and sculpture

ii beginnings

Her drafts proved to be the beginnings of a novel.

a story with multiple beginnings and endings

iii brains

He doesn’t have the brains to get a law degree.

They dissected 3 brains.

iv compliments

My compliments to the chef!

She received many compliments.

v customs

We’re arriving at customs. Get your passport.

There are many Scandinavian customs found in Minnesota.

vi holidays

What are you doing for the holidays?

We don’t have enough holidays in the school year.

vii letters

She studied arts and letters.

The word has five letters.

viii spectacles

My spectacles broke so I cannot read.

They have staged various spectacles.

ix spirits

Keep your spirits high.

The spirits come out at night.

x people

What is our identity as a people?

How many people are here?

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3.

4.

Say whether the underlined nouns in the following examples have a count or a noncount interpretation. In each case construct another example in which the noun has the opposite interpretation. i You needn’t have gone into so much detail.

non-count

Which detail did you notice?

ii I’ve run out of paper.

non-count

I wrote a paper on Kant.

iii Can I have another sausage?

count

Sausage is made in a factory.

iv He has jet-black hair.

non-count

I had 2 hairs in my soup.

v They treat their new help appallingly.

non-count

That would be a big help.

Replace the non-count NPs with count NPs with very similar meanings.

Example:

5.

6.

I still have some fruit. I still have some apples.

i Sleep would be a good idea.

a nap

ii Sit down and have some food.

a meal

iii It’s time for your medicine.

your pills

iv We picked up the wood at the hardware store.

the planks

v They doubled the bandwidth.

the megabits per second

Replace the count NPs with non-count NPs with similar meanings. i Everything he says is lies.

bullshit

ii I don’t have any coins.

any money

iii We threw out the old couch.

the old furniture

iv The children’s stories are in this section of the library.

the children’s fiction

v We ordered a bunch of drinks.

refreshments

Are the underlined NPs below definite or indefinite? Give reasons for your answer. i Those shoes are filthy.

Definite: The shoes seem to be specific, familiar, and identifiable the context. A which question would suggest that the assumption of identifiability was mistaken.

ii Both copies of the report are missing.

Definite: The report seems to be unique, specific, familiar, and identifiable the context. Both copies may not be unique, specific, or even familiar, but they do seem identifiable the context. A which question would be inappropriate, since both selects all existing copies.

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

iii I need two copies of your report.

Indefinite: The report seems to be unique, specific, familiar, and identifiable the context. But two copies are neither unique nor specific, and given that they may not even have been printed yet, unlikely to be familiar or identifiable the context. A which question could be appropriate.

iv Either time would be OK for me.

Definite: Either time does not pick out a unique, specific time, but it picks out a unique, specific set of times that seem familiar and identifiable the context. A which question seems inappropriate.

v We found several big mushrooms.

Indefinite: The mushrooms are not unique, specific, familiar, or identifiable the context. A which question would be appropriate.

7.

Assign the following determinatives their appropriate number depending on which kind of NPs they appear in. Some should receive more than one number. The words a and that are already done for you as examples.

a

5

both

3

little

6

that

1

a few

7

each

1

many

7&8

the

1–4

a little

6

either

1

much

6

this

1

all

2–4

enough

6–8

no

1–4*

what

5–8*

every

1

one

5

which

5–8*

few

7&8

some

5–8†

another 5 any

5–8

* It’s not clear to us that the category of definiteness should even be considered here. † Some can be used for count singular in cases like some guy took my seat.

DEFINITE

8.

INDEFINITE

COUNT NP

NON-COUNT NP

COUNT NP

NON-COUNT NP

SINGULAR

1

2

5

6

PLURAL

3

4

7

8

In the following examples give (a) the function within the NP, and (b) the category, of the underlined expressions (there are twenty five in all; for reference they’re labelled with small roman numeral subscripts). our[i] friend[ii]

Det NP, Head Nom/N

her[iii] interest in language[iv]

Det NP, Comp PP

the[v] best[vi] way

Det DP, Mod AdjP

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

9.

another[vii] brick[viii] wall

Det DP, Mod Nom

some[ix] people who need help[x]

Det DP, Mod Clauserel

three[xi] Canadian[xii] soldiers

Det DP, Mod AdjP

its[xiii] many[xiv] virtues

Det NP, Mod DP

a very useful[xv] discussion of the problem[xvi]

Mod AdjP, Comp PP

a person of impeccable taste[xvii]

Mod PP

even[xviii] the director herself[xix]

External Mod AdvP, Adjunct/Mod NP

several[xx] things you forgot to say[xxi]

Mod AdjP, Mod Clauserel

a Gulf war[xxii] veteran

Mod Nom

that large[xxiii] a deficit[xxiv]

Predeterminer modifier AdjP, Head Nom/N

a very useful discussion of the problem[xxv]

Head Nom

Give the category of each underlined word. Be as specific as possible. Make a note of any that are ambiguous. Explain your reasoning. i I’ll see you later.

NP/Nom/N-pronoun

ii I’ll see you kids later.

DP/D This construction wouldn’t be possible with other pronouns, such as him.

iii What exactly should one do to fill in the time?

NP/Nom/N-pronoun It denotes a person, as the pronoun one would. It can’t be plural, so it’s not a noun. As a determiner, it would have a head noun, which it doesn’t.

iv What exactly should one piece cost?

DP/D This functions as a determiner in the NP one piece, which is typical of determiners.

v Which one do you want?

NP/Nom/N This is the head of the NP which one and it could be plural.

vi What kind of results are they likely to get?

DP/D This functions as a determiner in the NP what kind of results, which is typical of determiners.

vii What works?

NP/Nom/N-pronoun The determinative what only functions as determiner with a head Nom.

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10.

11.

viii I have to take the dog for a walk.

Nom/N It’s the head of the NP a walk and could be plural. It couldn’t inflect like a verb would.

ix It was a lot of fun.

NP/Nom/N The preposition of doesn’t take AdjP complements, so it must be an NP.

x It was fun.

NP/Nom/N or AdjP/Adj This is ambiguous. Both AdjPs and NPs function as predicative complements.

Classify the fused heads in the following examples as (a) simple; (b) partitive; or (c) special: i Jill has two children and her sister three.

simple

ii Which of her arguments did you find the most convincing?

partitive

iii Thousands of people saw it, and most thought it was first-class.

partitive (implicit)

iv You’ve made progress, but much still remains to be done.

special

v There were several slices, and as usual Tom took the largest.

partitive (implicit)

vi The show verges on the obscene.

special

vii There are wolves out there; I saw several.

simple (I saw several wolves, and so I conclude that there are wolves out there) OR partitive (implicit; there are wolves out there and I saw several of them)

viii The first letter is P and the second is Q.

simple

ix The good die young.

special

x Many are called but few are chosen.

special

Select an appropriate case-form of the pronoun I for the blank positions in the following examples. If more than one case-form is admissible in Standard English, list them all and comment on the difference between them. i Your father and have been considering this matter.

I

ii In the other photo, the guy in the middle of the front row is .

me

iii They’ve arranged for you and meet with Dr Jackson this evening.

Me is always possible. I is possible only in a coordination like this. (see [62iib])

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iv They went to the same school as

.

v They’re seeing Kim before you and

12.

Me is neutral. I is very formal. (see [61]) .

Me is always possible. I is possible only in a coordination like this. (see [62iib])

[Supplementary exercise] There are many similarities between NP structure and clause structure. List five, and provide examples. i Most lexical categories are typically headed by lexemes. NPs and Clauses have an intermediate level, Nom and VP respectively. ii The subject is an external dependent of the VP, just as the determiner is an external dependent of the Nom. iii Both allow various kinds of complements, including content clauses (e.g., an understanding that it’s best & I understand that it’s best). iv Singular count NPs and perfective clauses are both bounded, while singular noncount NPs and imperfective VPs on the other are unbounded. v Both can be modified by AdvPs (e.g., even a grammarian & even that he came.)

(Many other similarities exist.)

13.

Identify ten transitive verbs that have a corresponding noun (e.g., run–run, operate– operation). Write the verb + object and the corresponding noun + complement if possible (e.g., change the rules, a change in the rules). waste time

a waste of time

list things

a list of things

drink water

a drink of water

lose words

a loss for words

declare war

a declaration of war

change clothes

a change of clothes

combine factors

a combination of factors

collect essays

a collection of essays

lack understanding

a lack of understanding

show your hand

a show of hands

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14.

15.

Underline the NP that is the antecedent of one in each example. Replace one with a full NP based on – but not necessarily identical to – the antecedent.

(Sometimes, there is more than one interpretation.) i Is this another long email from the auditors? – Yeah. Hartford got one too.

Is this another long fax from the auditors? - Yeah. Hartford got a(nother) long fax from the auditors too.

ii One of the doctors replaced a now-empty bag of blood with a fresh one.

One of the doctors replaced a nowempty bag of blood with a fresh bag of blood.

iii At every moment the fabric is being undone and a new one is woven to replace it.

At every moment the fabric is being undone and a new fabric is woven to replace it.

iv I would recommend two children instead of one.

I would recommend two children instead of one child / puppy / etc.

v A great day with my friends was followed by a more ordinary one.

A great day with my friends was followed a more ordinary day.

vi Is it going to be a long, painful season? I can’t take another one like last year.

Is it going to be a long, painful season? I can’t take another (long painful) season like last year.

vii My Kindle screen broke and I had to get another one.

My Kindle screen broke and I had to get another screen / Kindle.

viii I used Strawberry Creme pudding mix instead of the other one.

I used Strawberry Creme pudding mix instead of the other (pudding) mix.

ix He had a small folded piece of paper from the book, and I had a big one.

He had a small folded piece of paper from the book, and I had a big piece of paper.

x My favorite Helzberg piece is my dainty diamond bracelet. Unfortunately, I lost the first one I owned.

My favorite Helzberg piece is my dainty diamond bracelet.

Unfortunately, I lost the first Helzberg piece / diamond bracelet I owned.

[Supplementary exercise] Which of the following nouns do not take genitive ’s? i abyss ii cusp iii dole iv extent v fluke vi means vii omen

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viii sake (not the Japanese alcoholic drink, the one in for my sake) ix what x worth We have been unable to find or create examples of a genitive NP headed by any of those words. If you find one, please, let us know.

16.

The following examples contain multiple nominals. Use brackets to show how the nominals are nested. i a [[radio [[talk] show]] host] ii [[[[breast] cancer] awareness] month] iii the [[[[[employee] [[retirement] income]]] security] act] iv the [[[[space] telescope] science] institute] v the [[[[[health] care] reform] plan] analysis] vi the [[[iron] dome] [[missile] defense] system] vii the [[[[Wall Street Journal] editorial] page] staff] viii a [[[VHS] format] [analogue [[[video] cassette] recorder]]] ix the [[[[[European] cup] [[championship] series]] title] game] x the [[youth [[risk] behaviour]] [[surveillance] system]]

17.

18.

Explain the difference in meaning between the following PPs where one NP has a determiner and the other is bare. (Note that these are not bare ROLE NPs because they don’t denote roles.) i

at school “attending”

at the school “located there”

ii

in hospital “being treated”

in the hospital “located there”

iii

by bicycle “a means of transport”

by the bicycle “nearby”

iv

on call “responsible to respond”

on the call “talking to someone”

v

at dinner “as you eat”

at the dinner “at the event”

In each example, underline the first subject and identify its head, along with the noun controlling verb agreement when one is available.

Note: The noun controlling agreement is in bold. The head is red. i A group of us gets together every Thursday night. ii A number of studies have shown similar results. iii The ham sandwich at table 5 wants his check. iv A person with two sets of chromosomes is possible but unusual. v Jeans were worn very tight from the late fifties through the late sixties. vi Many believe that the passive voice is used to shade the truth. vii The committee are voting on the plan. viii The majority, however, remain resolute.

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ix There are a lot of things to consider. x There is a lot to do.

19.

[Supplementary exercise] Describe the similarities between count nouns and perfective interpretations of situations on the one hand and non-count nouns and imperfective interpretations of situations on the other.

Non-count nouns and imperfective interpretations of situations may be bounded in space and time respectively, but they need not be. For example, in a photo zoomed in to a rock wall so that all you can see is rock (non-count), there is no clearly delineated edge. You can zoom out and see more, and still, all you can see is rock. If you can see a rock (count), though, then it has clearly delineated edges. Similarly, a perfective interpretation of a situation is clearly bounded in time. For example, I worked out presents the act of exercising as having a specific start and finish point (perfectively).

An imperfective, such as I’ve been working out or I work out, isn’t presented that way.

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Chapter 6 1.

For each of the following adjectives, decide whether it can be used in attributive function, whether it can be used in predicative function, and whether it can be used in postpositive function. Give your evidence in detail. i alone

Attributive: *the alone person Predicative: She is alone.

Postpositive: that person alone

ii available

Attributive: the available information Predicative: The information is available.

Postpositive: the information available

iii ersatz

Attributive: ersatz coffee Predicative: ?Her brave stance had proved to be ersatz.

Postpositive: *coffee ersatz

iv galore

Attributive: *galore cookies Predicative:*The cookies were galore.

Postpositive: cookies galore

v immune

Attributive: *an immune person, but the immune system Predicative: They’re immune to the disease.

Postpositive: a person immune to the disease

vi latter

Attributive: the latter part Predicative: *that part was latter Postpositive: *the part latter

vii marine

Attributive: a marine biologist Predicative: *That biologist is marine.

Postpositive: *a biologist marine

viii previous

Attributive: the previous year Predicative: *The year was previous. this was previous to 2011 Postpositive: a year previous

ix prime

Attributive: a prime example Predicative: ?This industry is prime.

This industry is prime for disruption.

Postpositive: *an industry prime an industry prime for disruption

x sleepy

Attributive: a sleepy town Predicative: I’m sleepy.

Postpositive: *a baby sleepy a baby sleepy enough to drift off

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2.

3.

Classify the underlined words below as adjectives or nouns, justifying your answer by reference to the criteria given in Chapters 5 and 6. i

She is secretary of the Film Society.

Noun: it can be plural (films) but not comparative (*filmer), and it takes an AdjP modifier (silent film society) not an AdvP (*very film society).

ii

I’ve always admired the Irish.

AdjP in fused modifier-head function: it can’t be plural (*two Irishes), it functions as predicative complement in a sound VP, and it takes an AdvP modifier (the strongly Irish).

iii

That’s not a government responsibility.

Noun: it can be plural (governments) but not comparative (*a more government responsibility), and it takes an AdjP modifier (silent film society) not an AdvP (*very film society).

iv

I want the original, not a copy.

Noun: original exists as both a noun and an adjective, but here it can be plural and not comparative (*the more original, not a copy).

Most determiners will work with it.

v

What they say is nonsense.

Noun: nonsense can be a subject, an object, and an object in a PP (with nonsense). It takes a determiner (his nonsense). It doesn’t take an AdvP modifier (*very nonsense).

vi

That sounds great.

Adjective: it’s functioning as a predicative complement in a sound VP, and it has a comparative form. There’s also a noun as in she’s one of the greats, but this isn’t that.

vii It verges on the obscene.

AdjP in fused modifier-head function: it can’t be plural, it functions as predicative complement in a sound VP, and it takes an AdvP modifier (very obscene).

viii She’s quite a comic.

Noun: plural is possible, and modification with very isn’t. There is an adjective comic, but this isn’t it.

ix

Do it the French way.

Adjective:

x

He’s learning French.

Noun: this is an object in the learning VP. It can take an AdjP modifier.

Which of the underlined words below are adjectives, which are verbs, and which are ambiguous between the two categories in the examples given? Give evidence for your answers. i The trains aren’t running today.

Verb: fails the very test.

ii What we said was simply ignored.

Verb: fails the very test.

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4.

5.

iii She sounded quite impressed.

Adjective: predicative complement in sound VP and very impressed.

iv It was a rewarding experience.

Adjective: a very rewarding experience

v His act is not very amusing.

Adjective: very amusing

vi His act is not amusing the crowd.

Verb: has an object and fails the very test.

vii We were surrounded.

Verb:

viii The bill was paid.

Verb:

ix He was shot in the leg.

Verb:

x Let sleeping dogs lie.

Verb:

Classify each of the following adjectives as (a) gradable; (b) non-gradable; or (c) ambiguous (usable in two senses of which one is gradable and the other is not). In case (c), give examples of the two uses, commenting on the difference in meaning. i certain

(c) I’m more certain than I was.

A certain amount of that that is to be expected.

ii Christian

(c) a Christian denomination Law faculties have become slightly more Christian today.

iii feminine

(c) a feminine hygiene product Law faculties have become slightly more Christian today.

iv latter

(b)

v main

(b)

vi philosophical

(c) the philosophical society I’m feeling more philosophical about it.

vii true

(a)

viii worthy

(a)

ix primary

(b)

x childlike

(a)

For each of these examples, identify the predicand of the underlined predicative AdjP. i We found your suggestion very helpful.

your suggestion

ii The problem was thought insoluble by many.

the problem

iii Unable to contain his anger, Max stormed out of the room.

Max

iv We find the accused guilty, your honour.

the accused

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

6.

7.

v Eventually, too tired to cry, the two children fell asleep.

the two children

vi Full of determination, I went to the Civil Palace to see La Señora Luminosa.

the speaker

Which of the following adjectives license PP complements with a particular preposition as head? Give examples for those that do. If you cannot find any examples in which the adjective has a PP complement, just write ‘none’. i able

none (the to in a to infinitival, e.g., able to go is not a preposition)

ii capable

capable of doing it

iii careful

careful with that, careful about the water

iv clever

clever of you

v concise

none

vi easy

easy on you

vii free

free from harm

viii intent

intent on the hunt

ix long

none (in long before / after / into, etc., the preposition is the head and long is a modifier)

x responsible

responsible for the confusion

Classify the underlined words below as adjectives or adverbs, giving your reasons in each case. i Fortunately, he had plenty of time.

Adverb: ends in ⋅ly, has no predicand, won’t head predicative complements

ii He was going far too fast.

Adverb: modifier in VP, can replace with adverb like quickly

iii She seemed a very kindly old soul.

Adjective: modifier in nominal, can’t replace with adverb like happily

iv We were annoyed at their late arrival.

Adjective: modifier in nominal, can’t replace with adverb like recently

v They’re becoming increasingly unruly.

Adverb: ends in ⋅ly, won’t head predicative complements

vi I was feeling quite poorly.

Adjective: head of predicative complement, can’t replace with adverb like easily

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

8.

9.

vii She works extremely hard.

Adverb: modifier in VP, can replace with adverb like quickly

viii We made too many concessions.

Adverb: modifier in DP, can replace with adverb like very, won’t head modifier in nominals

ix Kindly refrain from smoking.

Adverb: ends in ⋅ly, has no predicand, modifier in VP

x That was very ungentlemanly.

Adjective: head of predicative complement, can’t replace with adverb like easily

Which of the following adjectives has no corresponding adverb? i available

none

ii big

none (a US president’s use of big league was misheard as bigly, leading to an increase in its humorous use)

iii Canadian

none

iv great

greatly

v hot

the topic is hotly debated

vi likely

none

vii long

They’ve long known the truth.

viii only

There is only one answer.

ix red

none

x simple

simply

Construct convincing examples in which an AdvP headed by quite functions as a modifier in: [i] a VP; [ii] an AdjP; [iii] an AdvP; [iv] a PP with a head PP; and [v] an NP with a head NP. i It doesn’t quite work. ii I’m quite happy. iii It happened quite quickly. iv It didn’t happen quite in the way they thought. v quite a long time

10.

Classify the underlined modifiers below as AdjPs, AdvPs, or DPs, giving your reasons in each case. i She’s among the many talented innovators at UVa.

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DP in modifier function in the Nom: Like adjectives and adverbs, many is gradable, but it can function as determiner (many innovators) and fused determiner head (many of them).

Unlike adverbs, it’s a modifier in a Nom, and

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

unlike adjectives, it agrees with the head in number (many people, not *many person). ii They no longer defend even the most basic rights of the working class.

AdvP in external modifier function in the NP: it can’t be a fused determiner-head, so it’s not likely a DP. There is an adjective even, but the meaning is quite different (an even surface), and that would go inside the nominal.

iii They no longer defend even the most basic rights of the working class.

AdvP in modifier function in the AdjP: For the most part, AdjPs don’t function as modifiers in AdjPs. AdvPs are common here, and a good argument can be made that most is an adverb in this situation. Nevertheless, we do have a range of determinatives (the faster you do it, not that tall, etc.) that head modifiers in AdjPs and AdvPs.

iv This is one of the few places in the city where feral appliances can run loose.

DP in determiner function in NP: AdjPs and AdvPs don’t function as determiners. Also, characteristic of determinatives but unlike adjectives, few is restricted to NPs the right number and countability.

v It’s really not that bad.

DP: This is like most in (iii).

vi The faster you go, the less fuel efficient your engine is.

DP: This is like most in (iii) and that in (v).

vii It can be traced back to the very beginning of time.

AdjP in modifier function in Nom: Although very is usually an adverb, there is this adjective, which has a the meaning of “precise” or “exact” rather than the adverbial meaning of “exceedingly”.

viii From the little I know, I can see that she was a great leader.

DP in fused modifier-head function in the Nom: there is an adjective little, but it has a different meaning (it can typically be replaced by small).

Again, characteristic of determinatives but unlike adjectives, little is restricted NPs the right number and countability. You couldn’t say *I like Canadians, at least the little I’ve met.

ix You have to take some joy from the little things

AdjP in modifier function in the Nom: little is a very typical adjective. Unlike a DP, this can function as a predicative complement (The things were little.)

x Why are all children’s novels about orphans and only children?

AdjP in modifier function in the Nom: like very (see vii), only is usually an adverb, but it as an adjective, it means “sole”.

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

11.

12.

Use the licensing criterion to determine whether the ten underlined expressions in the examples below are complements or adjuncts. In the case of complements, cite three adjectives that license such a complement and three that do not. i Bourdieu got very interested in the idea of “cultural capital”.

Complement: involved, alone, and inherent all take in pp complements. Available, other, and important don’t.

ii It is a tale told by an idiot, full of sound and fury.

Complement: aware, capable, and proud all take of pp complements. Wrong, consistent, and familiar don’t.

iii I’m unsure whether she thinks so or not.

Complement: unclear, uncertain, and questionable all take closed interrogative content clause complements. Responsible, good, and ready don’t.

iv It’s unconstitutional, whether you think so or not.

Adjunct

v What’s wrong with this picture?

Complement: involved, concerned, and happy all take with PP complements. High, possible, and bad don’t.

vi I am aware that this thread is old.

Complement: unclear, uncertain, and questionable all take declarative content clause complements.

Responsible, good, and ready don’t.

vii I’m sorry I’m late.

Complement: sure, glad, and afraid all take declarative content clause complements. Possible, dead, and close don’t. (In It’s possible that I’m late, the content clause is an extraposed subject; see viii.)

viii It is clear that there is a sufficiently small positive real number.

This is a complement, but not one licensed by clear.

Rather, it’s a complement in clause structure in the it-cleft construction. Specifically, it’s an extraposed subject (see §2.1.6).

ix She was surprised when she heard Xi’s address.

Adjunct

x This finding is similar to that of the previous study.

Complement: close, available, and open all take to PP complements. High, possible, and bad don’t.

(The to in it’s possible / bad to do that is not a preposition, and the to infinitival clause is another extraposed subject; see viii.)

Identify the function of each underlined phrase. i The gas tank was on the other side of the vehicle.

Modifier AdjP

ii Our customers are very good at expressing their surface-level desires.

Head Adj

iii Other cast members relatively new to the industry include Barbie Ferreira.

Postpositive modifier AdjP

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

13.

iv It’s not that big a deal.

External modifier AdjP

v This was no different than any other climb.

Predicative complement AdjP

vi Are you sure you don’t want me to portal you guys out?

Predicative complement AdjP

vii I met the foreign minister of the Kingdom of the Hawaiian Islands.

Modifier AdjP

vii Students should engage in sustained moderate to vigorous physical activity.

Modifier AdjP

ix I’d find a farrier, a couple of weavers, and most important of all, a tavern.

Fused modifier-head AdjP

[Supplementary exercise] Books on how to write by authors like E. B. White and William Zinsser insist that you should try to get rid of adjectives and adverbs. As an exercise in seeing what implausible advice this is, attempt to rewrite the following paragraph from Sarah Zhang’s 2016 Wired article ‘How to fit the world’s biggest indoor waterfall in an airport’ without using any adjectives or adverbs.

So if you’re Changi Airport and you want to top yourself, you have to go big all out.

Bold Step forward. Ostentatious Engage in ostentation. You bring in WET, the water design firm that designs fountains for famously over-the-top places like the Bellagio, Burj Khalifa, and the Sochi Olympics that everyone knows overdo it. When the airport’s newest structure that is being added to the airport right now, designed by architect Moshe Safdie opens in 2018, it will boast the Rain Vortex, the world’s tallest indoor a waterfall whose height exceeds that of all others waterfalls that are indoors.

(We did our best with this, but our paraphrases –often relying on prepositions such as now or indoors – seem awkward, much worse than the original.)

14.

[Supplementary exercise] Consider the word certain meaning “particular” (It works in certain conditions). Is it more like a determinative or more like an adjective? Provide your evidence.

Though it isn’t typical of either category, we think certain in this meaning is more like a determinative. A strong piece of evidence is that we find examples of it in fused determiner-head function in partitive constructions such as certain of the Pharisees from the King James Bible or certain of the nostril shriekers from this recent New York Times piece. It seems to have indefinite semantics, which is common among determinatives but not among adjectives: it is incompatible with a definite determiner *in the certain conditions but possible in modifier function in the nominal with an indefinite determiner to a certain person. It won’t function as a predicative complement and is not gradable.

15.

[Supplementary exercise] Using your imagination to fill in extra detail where necessary (since in some cases, you may need to change or add things), rewrite each sentence so that the AdjP has a meaningful predicand (i.e., so that it doesn’t fall within the definition of the ‘dangling modifier’ phenomenon). i ?The road rolled by, happy with life.

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I watched the road roll by, happy with life.

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

16.

ii ?Complete with a kosher menu, we organize a tour of India’s Jewish communities.

We organize a tour of India’s Jewish communities, complete with a kosher menu.

iii ?She ran her tongue, free of braces at last, over her newly straightened teeth.

She ran her tongue over her newly straightened teeth, which were free of braces at last

iv ?There were those wry comments, aware that he’ll soon be an old fart himself.

He made those wry comments, aware that he’ll soon be an old fart himself.

v ?Convinced that a great fraud had taken place, a riot broke out.

Convinced that a great fraud had taken place, the people rioted.

vi ?There were wild looks, unsure what to do.

There were wild looks on the faces of those unsure what to do.

Some adjectives and adverbs are interpreted deictically, just as some pronouns are.

Decide which of the underlined words has a deictic interpretation. i She said, “I’m not used to speaking to foreign people,” and I refrained from pointing out who was the foreigner.

Foreign is interpreted deictically. It picks out a different group of people depending on who uses it or where it is used.

ii Many students may use dialects not local to their place of residence.

Local can be interpreted deictically, but in this case, it would have the same meaning, no matter who utters this or where it is said.

iii We cruised Pacific Avenue, known locally as ‘the track’.

Locally is interpreted deictically. If it were said in a different location, the truth of the claim would likely change.

iv “I don’t think it’s grass tetany, though,” the old man said.

Old doesn’t have a deictic interpretation here.

v What were you learning at your old school?

In contrast, it does here. The referent of your old school depends on who is being spoken to, but this is because of old. The deixis here is temporal. It has a different meaning now than it does when you were attending the school.

vi Master Endo said the clan would rehire me at my former salary.

Similarly former is interpreted deictically because it has a different meaning depending on when it is uttered.

vii She went to the movies once or twice a month, always with a different girl.

Different is interpreted deictically.

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

17.

viii Britain’s war experience was very different from America’s.

The meaning here doesn’t involve deixis.

ix Apparently an earlier version of the page had even more inaccuracies.

Earlier is interpreted deictically because it has a different meaning depending on when it is uttered.

x Low oxygen levels appeared much earlier than they had in the 1800s.

The meaning here doesn’t involve deixis.

Bracket the constituent that the underlined adjective is modifying. If it is ambiguous, use multiple sets of brackets.

Example:

You’ve been selling illegal [Canadian maple syrup].

i Add a pinch of kosher salt and two tablespoons of [extra virgin] olive oil. ii Beta carotene can be found in [dark green] leafy vegetables. iii Faye, wearing a [[pink polka dot] outfit] like her daughter’s, greets everyone. iv Globally, more than 200 million people suffer from [chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]. v He had slightly ruffled [light brown] hair. vi He was editor and publisher of the [Far Eastern] Economic Review. vii It was expelled from the International [[Amateur Athletic] Federation] in 1976. viii The style developed in Argentina and [other Latin American countries]. ix The three remaining adult plants grow in the National Tropical [Botanical Garden]. x They could have been good [old-fashioned] pagans.

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

Chapter 7 1.

For each of the following sentences (all from the opening pages of Mary Shelley’s novel Frankenstein), underline the complement of the doubly underlined preposition – all the words that make up the complement, but no other words. In each case give the category of the complement. i What may not be expected in a country of eternal light? NP

2.

ii Six years have passed since I resolved on my present undertaking.

(Declarative content) clause

iii I commenced by inuring my body to hardship.

(Participial) clause

iv I preferred glory to every enticement that wealth placed in my path.

NP

v They fly quickly over the snow in their sledges.

NP

Determine which of the verbs below belong to the category of prepositional verbs.

For those that do, identify the preposition(s) they select and provide relevant examples. (Do this exercise with the help of a good dictionary.) For each verb + preposition sequence say whether or not it is fossilized, and provide evidence that your claim about fossilization is correct. i bank

Don’t bank on it. (also bank the snow up) Fossilized: *the outcome on which I banked.

ii believe

Do you believe in nation state?

Not fossilized: the kind of film in which I believe

iii convince

They couldn’t convince me of it.

Not fossilized: a fact of which they were convinced

iv fall

I fell for her. (also fall into disrepair, fall within a jurisdiction, fall under a spell, fall short of something, fall victim to something, etc) Fossilized: ?the woman for whom I fell

v feel

I feel for those whose houses were destroyed. (also feel like it, feel as if it works, feel about, feel somebody out, feel somebody up, etc.)

Fossilized: ?those for whom I feel

vi hope

They hoped for a better life.

Not fossilized: the life for which I hoped

vii see

I can see it as fair. (also see somebody about something, see to something, see it for what it is, etc.)

Not fossilized: ?As what do you see it? (in see if something is true, the if is a subordinator, not a preposition)

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

viii stand

N stands for the number of participants. (also stand up to someone, stand around) Not fossilized: the meaning for which it stands

ix treat

Let’s treat it as a mistake. (also treat her with respect, treat him like a king, treat them to an ice cream) Not fossilized: ?As what should we treat it?

x wait

Wait for it. (also wait until morning) Not fossilized: the job for which he waited

3.

4.

The word up is functioning as a particle complement in We folded up the map but not in We climbed up the mountain. What syntactic differences can you find between the two constructions? Use these differences to say, for each of the following, which of the two kinds of construction it belongs to. i I looked over my shoulder.

Over can be a particle in he looked it over, but here it is not. Over my shoulder is a PP and I looked my shoulder over is not a possible alternate formulation.

ii We must bring in the washing.

It’s a particle. In the washing is not a PP, and in can follow the washing.

iii We’d better run off some more copies.

It’s a particle. off some more copies is not a PP, and off can follow some more copies.

iv I knocked over the vase.

It’s a particle. over the vase is not a PP, and over can follow the vase.

v He never got over his disappointment.

It’s not a particle. over his disappointment is a PP, and over can’t follow his disappointment.

[Supplementary exercise] List ten word sequences other than the ones discussed in this chapter that are standardly described (or could plausibly be taken) as ‘complex prepositions’. Provide evidence for their degree of fossilization, classifying them as LESS FOSSILIZED (like the cases in [41i] of this chapter, e.g., by means of) or MORE FOSSILIZED (like those in [41ii]). according to is fossilized: no intervening word is possible (e.g., *according right to Huddleston), and fronting is also impossible (e.g., *To whom is it according?) apart from is fossilized: no intervening word is possible (e.g., *apart even from that), and fronting is also impossible (e.g., *From what is the idea apart?) as well as is fossilized: no intervening word is possible (e.g., *milk as well even as water), and fronting is also impossible (e.g., *As what do we have milk as well?) because of is fossilized: no intervening word is possible (e.g., *because even of milk), and fronting is also impossible (e.g., *Of what is it because?) by means of is fossilized: no intervening word is possible (e.g., *by any means of introduction), and fronting is also impossible (e.g., *Of what are we out?) in accordance with is fossilized: no intervening word is possible (e.g., *we’re out even of milk), and fronting is also impossible (e.g., *Of what did you contact her by means?)

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

out of is fossilized: no intervening word is possible (e.g., *we’re out even of milk), and fronting is also impossible (e.g., *Of what are we out?) owing to is less fossilized: an intervening word is possible (e.g., *owing especially to the milk), and fronting may be possible (e.g., ?To what are the good effects owing?) together with is less fossilized: an intervening word is possible (e.g., *together again with milk), but fronting is impossible (e.g., *With what is it together?) with respect to is less fossilized: an intervening word is possible (e.g., *with all due respect to the milk), but fronting is impossible (e.g., *To what is this with respect?)

5.

For each of the following words, decide whether it is a preposition or an adjective, and give arguments to support your view: i about

Preposition: it licenses an object, modification with right is possible (e.g., right about here), it heads a complement in a go VP (e.g., they went about town), and it can be a non-predicative adjunct (e.g., Right about here, there was an accident.). It can also be fronted (e.g., the change about which no one knew).

Unlike adjectives, it resists modification by very, won’t function as a predicative complement in a become VP, and isn’t gradable.

6.

ii ahead

Preposition: it doesn’t license an object, but modification with right is possible, it heads a complement in a go VP, and it can be a non-predicative adjunct. It can also be fronted (e.g., the events ahead of which…). Unlike adjectives, it resists modification by very, won’t function as a predicative complement in a become VP, and isn’t gradable.

iii aloof

Adjective: it accepts modification by very, functions as a predicative complement in a become VP, and is gradable. Unlike prepositions, it resists modification with right, and it can’t be a non-predicative adjunct (e.g., *Aloof, there was a person in a room.). It can’t be fronted.

iv aloft

Preposition: it doesn’t license an object, but modification with right is possible, it heads a complement in a go VP, and it can be a non-predicative adjunct. Unlike adjectives, it resists modification by very, won’t function as a predicative complement in a become VP, and isn’t gradable.

v around

Preposition: it licenses an object, modification with right is possible, it heads a complement in a go VP, and it can be a nonpredicative adjunct. It can also be fronted. Unlike adjectives, it resists modification by very, won’t function as a predicative complement in a become VP, and isn’t gradable.

[Supplementary exercise] How does ago differ from a more typical preposition such as in? Would it be better to regard it not as we do in this chapter but instead as a preposition with the special property of always following its complement?

Ago is atypical of a preposition in that it requires a modifier and rejects modification by right. There are prepositions, such as notwithstanding, that can follow their complements, so this is certainly worth considering. But notwithstanding can appear

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

on either side of its object, while ago can only follow the measure expression. In this way, it’s like on in the sense of “later” (e.g., Two years on, that sentiment still lingers) or back in the sense of “previously”. These also reject modification by right, but they both allow modification by just. There are also some nouns such as dweller that require either some kind of modifier (e.g., a forest dweller or a dweller of the forest, but not *a dweller).

7.

[Supplementary exercise] We analyse both after and onward as prepositions. What prepositional properties do they share?

Both can head non-predicative adjuncts, and both can head complements in head VPs. They can also be fronted (e.g., after which time it expires; ?the goal onwards towards which we’re moving). Neither can head predicative complements in become VPs, nor are they gradable.

8.

[Supplementary exercise] We take near to be both a preposition and an adjective.

Assuming we’re wrong, which category would you say it should really belong to?

Present evidence to support your position.

If compelled to choose, we might jettison the adjective analysis. A number of other prepositions do show up in attributive modifier function in nominals (a down side, the in group, the under secretary, an about page, etc.), It’s much more unusual for an adjective to license objects in the way we find with examples like near the door. And adjectives can’t be fronted the way near can. Also, the basic meaning is a spatial one typical of prepositions.

9.

Which of the following prepositions can occur in declarative main clauses both with and without an NP complement? Give examples to illustrate both uses, noting those which occur without an NP complement only in a restricted subset of their uses / meanings: i against

Only with an NP complement, though ellipsis is possible in examples like I’m for the changes. She’s against.

ii between

Similarly, only with an NP complement or with ellipsis

iii despite

Only with an NP complement. Ellipsis doesn’t seem possible here.

iv inside

Both are possible: We stayed inside. We were inside the house.

v opposite

Both are possible: Our friends were in the house opposite. It was the house opposite the bank.

vi throughout

Both are possible: The house has wood floors throughout.

We installed wood floors throughout the house.

vii to

Both are possible: We gave it to them. I pulled the door to.

viii underneath

Both are possible: It’s underneath the rock. The character is essentially unchanged underneath.

ix until

Only with an NP complement. Ellipsis doesn’t seem possible here.

x within

Both are possible: It’s within our grasp. Look within for the solution.

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

10.

11.

12.

The following examples have stranded prepositions. Construct corresponding examples with a fronted preposition. If you find any of your examples ungrammatical, mark them with * in the usual way. i They couldn’t agree on who it referred to.

*They couldn’t agree on to whom it referred.

ii What am I supposed to cut this thing with?

With what am I supposed to cut this thing?

iii They’re the person I showed the photo to.

They’re the person to whom I showed the photo.

iv The place we’re going to is so informal they don’t have table cloths.

The place where / to which we’re going to is so informal they don’t have table cloths.

v It was the only proposal which every department member agreed with.

It was the only proposal with which every department member agreed.

The following examples have fronted prepositions. Construct corresponding examples with a stranded preposition. If the example turns out to be ungrammatical, mark it with *. i Under what circumstances would you agree?

What circumstances would you agree under?

ii In what year was she born?

What year was she born in?

iii He came to the bed in which Goldilocks had been sleeping.

He came to the bed (that / which) Goldilocks had been sleeping in.

iv It appealed to everyone with whom he discussed it.

It appealed to everyone who(m) he discussed it with.

v It was a situation in which it would have been hard for anyone to form a judgement concerning what to do.

It was a situation (that / which) it would have been hard for anyone to form a judgement concerning what to do in.

Classify the following words as adverbs or prepositions, basing your answers on the criteria discussed in Chapter 7 and citing the relevant evidence: i ahead

P: fronting is possible (the events ahead of which…), allows modification by right, can function as a predicative complement (we are ahead of schedule). Resists modification by very.

ii always

Adv: fronting is impossible, resists modification by right, can’t function as a predicative complement (*problems are always).

iii indoors

P: allows modification by right, can function as a predicative complement. Resists modification by very.

iv often

Adv: fronting is impossible, resists modification by right, can’t function as a predicative complement. Allows modification by very.

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

13.

v overseas

P: allows modification by right, can function as a predicative complement. Resists modification by very.

vi downtown

P: allows modification by right, can function as a predicative complement. Resists modification by very.

vii home

P: allows modification by right, can function as a predicative complement. Resists modification by very.

viii early

Adv: fronting is impossible, resists modification by right. Allows modification by very.

ix where

P: allows modification by right, can function as a predicative complement. Resists modification by very.

x sometimes

Adv: fronting is impossible, resists modification by right, can’t function as a predicative complement.

Explain how Standard English would differ from these non-standard constructions. i *Place your right foot to the mat.

The verb place would take a goal complement such as on the mat rather than a direction-denoting complement, such as to the mat.

ii *Even you don’t have to go to the bathroom, be sure to take breaks.

In this construction, perhaps even has been reanalysed as a preposition, but in SE, it’s an adverb in external modifier function in the NP even you. In SE, the clause even you don’t have to go to the bathroom cannot function as an adjunct. The addition of if, would change it to a PP even if you don’t have to go to the bathroom, which can function as an adjunct.

iii *What for should we do this?

In SE, the idiom what for meaning “why” doesn’t allow fronting the preposition for.

iv *Get some rest, Vincent. You look like tired.

In SE, preposition like doesn’t allow predicative complements, but it does allow clausal complements. So SE would allow you look like you’re tired.

Alternatively, the verb look does allow predicative complements, so you look tired is possible.

v *This concerns about the role of the editor in light of the project’s final chapter.

In SE, the verb concern only takes about PP complements in the passive voice. In the active voice, this would omit about, and the role NP would be a direct object.

vi *I guess it depends of how you look at it.

In SE, depend takes on PP complements, not if PP complements.

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

vii *I’m not going out now, but I’m coming pub later.

Perhaps here, pub has been reanalyzed as a preposition, along the lines of home (or bush in Australia). But in SE, pub isn’t a preposition, and come typically takes PP complements, such as to the pub.

viii *I need you to get out my house.

The SE preposition out mainly licenses an of PP complement, but especially in AmE varieties, out licenses a direct object for the portal through which an exit happens (e.g., he climbed out the window, “he left by climbing through the window”). In this example, that has been extended to the source (“you need to leave my house”).

ix *I went to school for be a teacher.

In SE, for doesn’t take bare infinitival clause complements, though it does take gerund participial clause complements such as for teaching.

x *We walk to the station and then we go train.

Perhaps here, train has been reanalyzed as a preposition, along the lines of home. But in SE, train isn’t a preposition, and go typically takes PP complements, such as by train.

On the other hand, if train means something like “work out” or “practice”, then the sentence is fine.

14.

3

Are the underlined phrases predicative OF THE SUBJECT of the clause? i Brea had never thought of immuno-sharing as human.

yes

ii As a young man, Gogy had been exiled from his Dharawal homelands.

yes

iii She’s feeling under the weather and isn’t receiving guests, per se.

yes

iv It shocked me to learn that my grandmother had to pass as white to work in a laundromat in the 1930s.

no3

v The reason I bring up this new comic is because it’s very important to me.

yes

vi The relationship between the MS and these root apices is of clinical importance.

no?

vii With the agenda still up in the air, major players like Saudi Arabia noncommittal about attendance.

yes

viii The gluten-free, no sugar-added, vegan varieties range from mild to wild.

yes

white is predicative of my grandmother, but as white is non-predicative.

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

15.

16.

ix I could see why some of the boys took him for snobby.

yes4

x They were over the moon with the success of the vaccine.

yes

Determine if the underlined preposition is functioning as a particle. Provide evidence. i Here’s another place you can go to get off the treadmill.

No: off the treadmill is a PP, and get the treadmill off means something quite different.

ii I looked up to see an aggressively healthy young person beaming down at me.

No: up is an adjunct. It can be removed. No object is possible.

iii I noticed it this morning, when I brought the laundry in.

Yes: brought the laundry in is possible.

iv I spent a lot of time looking up conversions and hunting for recipes I could understand.

Yes: looking them up, with the preposition between the verb and the object, has the same meaning.

v It has never chewed up my shoes or drunk out of the toilet.

Yes: chewed them up

vi It will make you blush as if you’re an eight-year-old getting chewed out by a grouchy old man.

Yes: this is a get passive, but in the corresponding active, both chewed out the kid and chewed them out are possible.

vii The carp eat up to three times their weight in aquatic grass daily.

No: up is the head of a PP in predeterminer modifier function.

viii The data can help you figure out fictional countries in your favorite dystopian novels.

Yes: figure them out

ix You’re gonna need to set up the locations and pay off the right people.

Yes: pay them off

x You took my hand and said let’s go get you fixed up.

Yes: this is a get passive, but in the corresponding active, both fixed it up and fixed up the wounds are possible.

[Supplementary exercise] Construct an example, complete with as much context as necessary, to show that when the context is right a pronoun can FOLLOW the particle in a verb + particle construction like rip you off or call him out or turn them down, if it is stressed.

One way would be to add contrastive stress: I didn’t want to call out Hayden. I wanted to call out you.

4

We were imprecise in specifying which clause we meant here. This is predicative of the subject of the interrogative content clause, but not of that of the main clause.

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

17.

Which of the underlined sequences is a PP? As usual, https://simple.wiktionary.org is useful for identifying lexical categories of individual words. i According to the Gizmodo report, some Google employees are not taking the news well.

Yes

ii Aural culture takes the form of teenagers uninhibitedly singing along with records.

No: with records is a dependent in the singing VP, not in the along PP.

iii But for the time he became the extra-large lady lover by the nickname of Sexual Chocolate, Mark Henry has usually been cast as a powerful monster.

Yes: but is usually a coordinator, but there is also a preposition but meaning “except”.

iv During the day, Radio 3 strode about in a corduroy jacket.

No: the in PP is a dependent in the strode VP, not in the about PP.

v He was in many bullish magazine covers just prior to the bear attack.

Yes: the to PP is a complement in the prior PP.

vi I’d chop a section out of that stump to show to the folks at the game department.

Yes: the of PP is a complement in the out PP.

vii It is an opportunity to get nerdy about the astronomical facts alluded to in the lyrics.

No: the in PP is a dependent in the alluded VP, not in the to PP.

viii Just when you thought you were fed up with surfing movies, along comes one that makes it worth taking another plunge.

No: the in PP is a dependent in the fed VP, not in the up PP.

ix Nearly all the waves we deal with in this course are nondispersive.

No: the in PP is a dependent in the deal VP, not in the with PP.

x The horrendous details are just ahead on American Morning.

No: the on PP is a dependent in the are VP, not in the ahead PP.

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

Chapter 8 1.

Classify the underlined adjuncts in the following based on one of the types in [1].

Despite our ever-present nostalgia for the foods of childhood (concessive, supplement), tastes and recipes are always (temporal) evolving.

We have no definitive version of macaroni and cheese, or any dish for that matter (concessive? conditional? domain?). The word “macaroni,” first coined in Italy (supplement), describes any short tubular pasta; there (locational, supplement), the cheese of choice was often Parmesan. Although I have yet to uncover a primary source to prove the point (concessive, supplement), I would wager that macaroni, which first (temporal) became fashionable in England in the eighteenth century (locational), most likely (modal) reached Britain in the trunks of travellers (manner, means, and instrument; locational). The dish soon (temporal) grew so (degree, intensity, and extent) popular among anglophones that “macaroni” became slang for a dandy who favoured outlandish wigs, which is why Yankee Doodle “stuck a feather in his cap and called it macaroni (purpose, reason, and result; supplement).”

The Italian recipe typically (domain? temporal?) featured the noodle, rather than a cheesy sauce (concessive? supplement), in the starring role, but English cooks inverted this relationship, adding English cheeses, such as cheddar, and egg yolks, to create a creamier, more pudding-like dish (purpose, reason, and result). An early domestic iteration, published in Modern Practical Cookery in 1845 (temporal), calls for puff pastry to line the baking dish. Its author, Mrs. Nourse, gives instructions to stew the noodles in a cream thickened with egg yolks (manner, means, and instrument; locational), with a little “beaten mace” and “made mustard” to sharpen the flavours (purpose, reason, and result) before grating Parmesan or Cheshire cheese over top (temporal). [“Kraft Dinner is Canada’s True National Dish” by Sacha Chapman]

2.

Underline the adjuncts in clause structure in the following examples.

Peeper was 4 when the Mayo Clinic confirmed a diagnosis: she had a disorder known as fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP).

The name meant nothing to Peeper’s parents – unsurprising, given that it is one of the rarest diseases in the world. One in two million people have it.

Peeper’s diagnosis meant that, over her lifetime, she would essentially develop a second skeleton. Within a few years, she would begin to grow new bones that would stretch across her body, some fusing to her original skeleton.

Bone by bone, the disease would lock her into stillness. The Mayo doctors didn’t tell Peeper’s parents that. All they did say was that Peeper would not live long.

“Basically, my parents were told there was nothing that could be done,” Peeper told me in October. “They should just take me home and enjoy their time with me, because I would probably not live to be a teenager.” [“The Girl Who Turned to Bone” by Carl Zimmer]

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

3.

[Supplementary exercise] Try to replace each underlined adjunct in [2] with one from a different category (e.g., replace a PP with an AdvP), without too significantly changing the meaning.

Example:

tastes and recipes are always evolving. tastes and recipes are evolving all the time.

Peeper was 4, contemporaneously with the Mayo Clinic’s confirmation of her diagnosis: she had a disorder known as fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP).

One of the rarest diseases in the world, the name meant nothing parentally speaking – unsurprisingly. One in two million people have it.

Peeper’s diagnosis meant that, gradually, she would more or less develop a second skeleton. Soon, she would begin to grow new bones that would stretch across her body, an additional skeleton, some of which would fuse to her original. Progressively, the disease would lock her into stillness. The Mayo doctors didn’t tell Peeper’s parents that. All they did say was that Peeper would in all likelihood live to be not much older than she was now.

“In essence, my parents were told there was nothing that could be done,” Peeper told me recently. “They should at most take me home and enjoy their time with me, the reason being that I would, ten to one, certainly die soon.” (some of these are decidedly odd, and some may be entirely ungrammatical) 4.

Classify the underlined constituents as adjuncts or complements. Provide your evidence. i But some constituents that can serve as adjuncts can also function as complements, while making a very similar semantic contribution.

Adjunct (supplement): separated by a comma in writing and a slight break in the intonational phrasing in speech.

ii Conditional adjuncts and reason adjuncts can be speech-act adjuncts at the same time.

Adjunct: temporal phrases are almost always adjuncts. This could be appended to almost any VP (e.g., I ate two hot dogs at the same time).

iii A constituent functioning as modifier is an adjunct that is thoroughly integrated into clause structure.

Complement: this is a goal complement, similar to that of go.

Although a range of prepositions are possible, into is preferred (more than twice as common as the next two prepositions (with & in), and the meaning may be incomplete without it.

iv Semantically it modifies the meaning of some item in the containing clause.

Adjunct (postpositive modifier in NP): nouns like item don’t typically select a complement, and locational phrases are usually adjuncts.

v A constituent functioning as a supplement is not fully integrated.

Adjunct: there may an argument to be made that, since clausal negation

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is only possible in the presence of an auxiliary verb, this is a complement, but it’s very rare for an adverb to function as a complement. Semantically, it modifies the meaning of the clause.

5.

vi This constituent is functioning as supplement.

Complement: be requires a gerund participial complement to compose the progressive aspect.

vii Manner adjuncts generally take the form of AdvPs or PPs.

Adjunct (domain adjunct): complements are typically after the head verb.

viii These very common adjuncts are modifiers, tightly integrated with the VP and associated very clearly with the meaning of the verb.

Adjunct (supplement): separated by a comma in writing and a slight break in the intonational phrasing in speech.

ix Some adjuncts modify the whole act described by a clause, not the action or state identified by the verb.

Adjunct (supplement): separated by a comma in writing and a slight break in the intonational phrasing in speech.

x What the adjuncts modify is not the action or state identified by the verb.

Complement (predicative complement: be requires a complement of some kind. NPs can function as predicative complements in be VPs.

Rephrase each of the following sentences, removing the modal auxiliary and adding a modal adjunct, keeping the meaning roughly equivalent. i

They will have arrived by now.

They have likely arrived by now.

ii

You may not have noticed.

You have possibly not noticed.

iii This may be worth trying as part of your testing.

Maybe, this is worth trying as part of your testing.

iv

This might well be her last shot.

This is probably her last shot.

v If you need more information, you might try Googling it.

If you need more information, perhaps, try Googling it.

vi

Importantly, the door is to be unlocked.

The door must be unlocked.

vii We should be able to get in.

6.

If all goes well, we are able to get in.

Identify all the locations where the underlined adjunct may appear without significant change to the meaning. In some cases, no other position is possible.

Example: i

^ The situation ^ could ^ change, clearly.

He played his hand foolishly.

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

ii

Foolishly, I ^ opened the door.

iii

^ It stood quite near the window.

iv

^ Get it sorted out right now.

v

They’ve totally solved the problem ^.

vi

The saucepans are there to be used.

vii ^ It’s outside, although it isn’t in the sun. viii ^ It’ll do better if it gets some sun.

7.

ix

Artistically, it was ^ a real success ^.

x

In all probability, you don’t ^ want to see this ^.

Add a conditional adjunct to each clause including a present-tense verb with future time reference. Rewrite the resulting sentence, first using a present tense verb with non-future time reference, second using a past tense verb with past time reference, and finally using a modal preterite. Mark the ungrammatical results with an asterisk.

Example:

I can go if you drive.

I can go if it’s your place.

I can go if I passed the test.

I can go if you would like me to.

i She may also enjoy support in a number of other towns or cities.

… if she goes. … if she has support here. … if she got support here. … if she can get support here.

ii

I would try reinstalling the OS.

*… if I have a situation like that. *… if I have a situation like that. … if I had situations like that. … if I could log in.

iii Farmers are getting only 20 per cent of the water they request.

… if they contact the city. (not future time reference) … if they contact the city. … after they contacted the city. *… if they could get any at all.

iv

I will stop.

… if she goes. … if you insist. … if she stopped. … if you would let me.

v

I hadn’t seen her in years.

… if I see her tomorrow. (this may not be ungrammatical, but it’s nonsensical) … if she’s who I think she is. … if she’s moved to Boston. … if I could avoid it.

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

vi She no longer competes in marathons.

… if won’t win them. (recall that will is a present tense verb; but this likely has present-time reference) … if you can believe it. … if she was who I think she was. … if she might lose.

vii He should be updating the city on the special weather plans.

… if things change. … if that’s his job. … if things have changed. … if things could get dicey.

viii I can hear Ivan coughing in the next room.

… if we leave the door open. … if we leave the door open. … if the crib monitor came. … should you be curious.

ix

… if I win. (this may not be ungrammatical, but it’s nonsensical) … if the truth must be known. … only if they were my lawyers. … only if they could help.

I enjoyed being with good lawyers.

x I could recall similar times in my own life.

8.

*… if somebody asks me to. … if I’m being honest. … if I had experienced them. … if you’d give me some time.

Identify the anchor for the underlined supplement. i

Today, there are more than 24,000.

The whole clause

ii Jason Isbell took home three awards, including Album of the Year.

NP three awards

iii It’s fascinating to view, with the benefit of hindsight, the later ramifications.

The clause to view the later ramifications

iv I told her that, like the rest of us, he looked a lot better before.

NP he

v Two days ago, this picture was all over the Internet.

The whole clause

vi It was a dull room, very quiet and plain.

NP it

vii Completely attentive, I’d see the bird in the air.

NP I (or possibly NP the bird)

viii This example is not about supplements, though.

The whole clause

ix It’s not the show, which is great, but what you do afterwards.

NP the show

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

x I want to thank my old professor, Michael.

9.

NP my old professor

Replace the underlined supplements in [8] with supplements of a different category. i

At present, there are more than 24,000.

ii

Jason Isbell took home three awards, Album of the Year being one.

iii

It’s fascinating to view, looking back, the later ramifications.

iv

I told her that, being like the rest of us, he looked a lot better before.

v

Wednesday, this picture was all over the Internet.

vi

It was a dull room, being very quiet and plain.

vii Sitting completely attentively, I’d see the bird in the air. viii This example is not about supplements, for all that.

10.

ix

It’s not the show, great as it is, but what you do afterwards.

x

I want to thank my old professor, who’s sitting here.

Rewrite each sentence, removing the coordinator and adding a connective adjunct with similar meaning. Add punctuation if it is required. i They’re spending the night at a friend’s or sleeping off a big weekend.

They’re spending the night at a friend’s. Alternatively, they’re sleeping off a big weekend.

ii I don’t get terrible stage fright, but I thought I’d try it and see how it worked.

I don’t get terrible stage fright, though I thought I’d try it and see how it worked.

iii

Should I go for it, or would you like to?

Should I go for it? Instead, would you like to?

iv

I get a lot of push back, but that’s OK.

I get a lot of push back, although that’s OK.

v The leopard seals eat the penguins and the whales eat the seals.

The leopard seals eat the penguins.

Similarly, the whales eat the seals.

vi She’d already endured wrist injuries, slumps, feuds, putting woes, and the weight of great expectations.

She’d already endured wrist injuries, slumps, feuds, putting woes – the weight of great expectations, too.

vii The photon ends up going one way and the nucleus the other.

The photon ends up going one way.

Conversely, the nucleus goes the other.

viii They’re smart enough to watch and enjoy the movie, but not believe EVERYTHING they see.

They’re smart enough to watch and enjoy the movie, without believing EVERYTHING they see.

ix It’s early afternoon, and the party is just getting started.

It’s early afternoon. Besides, the party is just getting started.

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

x Canada has had legal gay marriage for years and the sky has not fallen.

Canada has had legal gay marriage for years. Nevertheless, the sky has not fallen.

12. [Supplementary exercise] Rewrite the paragraph, adding the connective adjuncts from below to improve cohesion.

Sischo is 35, lean, and, despite his work, relentlessly chipper. When he talks about the snails, he is usually stifling laughter that is four parts gallows humor and one part panic. But the panicked portion has been growing. For some reason, already declining snail populations have recently gone into a terminal nosedive. In 2014, for example, Sischo’s team observed a species that hadn’t been seen since the 1980s—seven individuals, in a single tree. It was a hopeful event, but with the trailer still under construction, the team had nowhere to put these survivors. When the conservationists finally returned to rescue the group two years later, they were all gone. “We clipped every freaking leaf on that tree, and nothing,” Sischo said. “That will probably haunt me for the rest of my life.” [“The Last of Its Kind” by Ed Yong] 14.

What kinds of adjuncts can the infinitival to be honest express? speech act; act related; purpose, reason, and result; evaluative; supplement

15.

[Supplementary exercise] Pay attention to what people say around you, what you see on the Internet, what you hear on the radio, etc. Collect one example of each type of adjunct from the list in [1]. (no sample response provided)

16.

[Supplementary exercise] Using the following data, say whether you think the idiomatic pair of phrases their heads and off act more like complements or more like adjuncts.

The evidence shows that chatting doesn’t take an object (either their team or their heads). Cheering does (cheering their team), and it also takes a for PP complement with very similar meaning (cheering for their team). In the expression cheering their heads off, presumably, they are not cheering for their heads, so this suggests that their heads isn’t an object like their team. Also, the pair of phrases their heads and off clearly need to occur together, which isn’t typical for complements. Overall, based only on this evidence, it seems that their heads off is more like an adjunct.

My friends were chatting. *My friends were chatting their team.

My friends were chatting their heads off.

My friends were cheering their team.

My friends were cheering their heads off. *My friends were cheering / chatting their heads. *My friends were cheering / chatting off. *My friends were cheering their team off. *My friends were cheering their team their heads off.

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

17.

In each case below, is the PP a dependent in a gerund-participial VP or in the preterite VP? Is the gerund-participial VP more like a complement or an adjunct or a complement? Present your evidence. i The ball went screaming over the wall. ii

18.

She lay chortling on the bed.

The gerund-participle may be omitted, suggesting that it’s an adjunct, and that the PP is not part of that phrase. Go typically takes a direction of travel PP complement, so this looks like it’s a dependent in the preterite VP. The order of the two can also be reversed in both (i) and (ii), though it’s far less idiomatic in (i). On the other hand, intonationally, gerund participle + PP forms one group in a way that PP + gerund participle doesn’t.

In each case, what adjuncts, if any, are included in the meaning of do so? Of those included, which need to be reinterpreted? i A good idea to test it out yourself and ask other people to do so too.

yourself

ii I personally love this series so hopefully you will do so too!

Arguably personally is included.

iii I walk the dog in the morning, while she does so in the evening.

none

iv I will take action to prevent sexual harassment, and support others to do so too.

to prevent sexual harassment

v If we can find the details in a few days, then others could do so too.

Likely in a few days

vi If they push rates up next year in the US then we could do so in the UK.

next year

vii Seventy-nine per cent of retirees start their benefits before age sixty-five. Whether you should do so depends on how much income you need.

Likely before age sixty five

viii She did not begin until he had won assurances that the EC would do so too.

none

ix Since you insisted on putting it in economic terms the other day, I’ll do so too.

none

x The opposition bowed out when the LDC won. Now the LDC need to do so.

none

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19.

[Supplementary exercise] We structured this chapter mostly along semantic lines. We could have organized it, instead, around syntactic categories: NP adjuncts, PP adjuncts, etc. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of each option.

One of the problems with organizing the chapter semantically is that the categories are quite loose, overlap, and omit other possible semantic types. One of the disadvantages of doing it syntactically is that there would be a lot of repetition as concepts that apply to PP adjuncts will also apply to AdvP adjuncts, and even some other adjuncts.

20.

[Supplementary exercise] Imagine that, for a few weeks, you’ve been noticing adjuncts of concession regularly coming either as the initial or final element, even when there are a number of adjuncts. What kind of data would help you to find out if this is a rule or a coincidence?

If you were able to find data showing adjuncts in other positions, that would provide evidence that your observations have been coincidental. On the other hand, if you had a large random sample of language in which examples were significantly more likely to come either as the initial or final element, then this would provide evidence for a rule or rule-like property.

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

Chapter 9 1.

Are the following clauses grammatically positive or negative? Give evidence for your answers. i You’re so negative I want to strangle you.

Positive: *You’re so negative I want to strangle you, not even a little.

ii

Positive: I disagree with all of you, and so does Geoff.

I disagree with all of you.

iii They’re always complaining about things of no importance at all.

Positive: They’re always complaining about things of no importance at all, aren’t they?

iv

I can do nothing to help you.

Negative: I can do nothing to help you, not even a little.

v Never before had they offered such good terms.

Negative: Never before had they offered such good terms, and neither have we.

vi That’s absolute nonsense, you brainless ninny.

Positive: That’s absolute nonsense, isn’t it, you brainless ninny.

vii We finished the job in no time.

Negative: *We finished the job in no time, and neither did you.

viii Everybody hates lying, mealy-mouthed, pontificating little weasels like you.

Positive: Everybody hates lying, mealy-mouthed, pontificating little weasels like you, don’t they?

We can’t just not answer their letter.

Negative: *We can’t just not answer their letter, can’t we?

ix

x There’s hardly any chance of them changing their mind.

2.

Negative: There’s hardly any chance of them changing their mind, is there?

The following examples have non-verbal clausal negation; construct equivalent examples with verbal negation. i He had told neither the boss nor her secretary.

He hadn’t told either the boss or her secretary.

ii They were impressed by none of the candidates.

They weren’t impressed by any of the candidates.

iii

We have nowhere to hide.

We don’t have anywhere to hide.

iv

I saw no one on the road.

I never saw anyone one on the road.

v

We’re taking neither of them with us.

We’re not taking either of them with us.

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3.

Discuss the difference in meaning between the following: i

He had read a few books on the subject.

ii

He had read few books on the subject.

The example with the determinative a few is positive, and the speaker seems to be evaluating his reading of those book positively, while that with the determinative few, an approximate negator, is negative, and his reading is being presented as insufficient.

4.

5.

For each of the following words or expressions, construct one example where it behaves as a non-affirmative item and one where it is not polarity-sensitive: i

anything

I didn’t see anything.

Anything you can see is worth noting.

ii

much

There’s not much we can do.

Much work has already been done.

iii

need (verb)

Need I remind you?

We need to get together more often.

iv

whatever

There was no doubt whatever.

I’ll do whatever I have to.

v

yet

Have you done it yet?

And yet, it’s the same word.

Compose an original example sentence, not in the book, for each of the following. i

absolute negator

Nobody could accept this.

ii

approximate negator

Little is left to do.

iii

affixal negative

The difference is insignificant.

iv

verbal negative

Isn’t it great?

v

non-verbal negative

No linguist would doubt it.

vi inflectional verb form negative

I won’t stand for it.

vii negative clause with dummy do

I don’t want to give up.

viii reverse polarity tag

We didn’t give up, did we?

ix

We gave up, did we?

constant polarity tag

x a polarity-sensitive item with a positive orientation 6.

I can see some improvement.

[Supplementary exercise] If some is a polarity-sensitive item that demands an affirmative context, how could examples like this be accounted for?

You wouldn’t believe some of the stuff I’ve gotten out of fabric with this spray.

The use of any would mean that it’s all unbelievable, while some allows for a subset to be unbelievable.

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

7.

8.

9.

Which lexical category do each of the following words belong to? If a word belongs to more than one category, construct an example for each category.

(As usual, https://simple.wiktionary.org is useful for exercises like this.) i

not

Adverb

ii

no

Interjection: No, I don’t.

Determinative: There’s no way to know.

iii

none

Determinative

iv

neither

Determinative

v

nothing

Determinative

vi

nowhere

Determinative

vii never

Adverb

viii nor

Coordinator

ix

unhappy

Adjective

x

can’t

(Auxiliary) verb

What syntactic function is performed by each of the underlined words? i No sober economist would have predicted the success of the Wikipedia model.

Determiner in NP Head in DP

ii

Homo Sapiens are no better than bacteria.

(Attributive) modifier in AdjP Head in DP

iii

No, I can’t.

Supplement

iv You never know what you’re going to find when you go to Monaco.

Adjunct (modifier) in VP Head in AdvP

v They only rarely got the interpreters they were legally entitled to.

Head in AdvP

vi My stomach can’t handle it anymore, and neither can my conscience.

Modifier in VP Head in AdvP

vii Neither team led by more than one until a Holly Mertens kill and two attack errors.

Determiner in NP Head in DP

viii There’s nothing wrong with that.

Fused determiner head in NP Head in DP

ix None of us can remember what the outrage of two weeks ago was.

Fused determiner head in NP Head in DP

x I haven’t been able to stop thinking about that kiss.

Head in VP

Construct an original example sentence with negation of the following constituents. i

NP

No one’s every done that.

ii

AdjP

I was unable to find a copy of the book.

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10.

iii

Nom

Her dissatisfaction was palpable.

iv

PP

I’m not sure when I can do it, but not now.

v

AdvP

It could be incredibly lethal if used improperly.

vi

negative AdjP

We need someone not unwilling to do it.

vii

negative NP

They had a lot of stones with few imperfections.

[Supplementary exercise] The following are examples of “misnegation”, in which the speaker meant one thing, but got confused by wrestling with more than one negation.

Explain what was probably intended in each case and what the sentences actually mean if you parse the negatives carefully. i The Judge Institute is a building that no-one in Cambridge can fail to ignore.

Likely intended “that no-one can ignore”, but means “everyone has to ignore”.

ii It’s impossible to underestimate Lucille Ball’s importance to the new communications medium.

Likely intended “impossible to overestimate (because it’s so big)”, but means “it’s so small, no matter how small your estimate, it won’t be small enough”.

iii None of this means that some of the most talented journalists in the world don’t still labour for this newspaper.

Likely intended “some of the most talented journalists in the world still work there”, where negation has scope over some, which is a valid reading. But some could have scope over don’t. Under this interpretation, if you take away none of this means, then you get “some talented journalists don’t still work there” (some have left). If you add back none of this means, then the meaning is “no talented journalist has left”.

iv I’m surprised at the lack of unpreparedness.

Likely intended “lack of preparedness”, but means “fullness of preparedness”.

v I don’t want to discourage people from not voting today.

Likely intended “It would be bad for me to block voting”, but means “It’s good for people to not vote”.

vi That is not to say that I don’t think that corpus work can’t be useful, even in theoretical syntax.

Likely intended “I think corpus work can be useful”, but means “I think it can’t”.

vii This is a tournament in which McIlroy has not failed to finish outside the top five since 2013.

Likely intended “has not finished outside the top 5”, but means “has failed to finish in the top 5”.

viii South Korea’s obsession with speedskating isn’t hard to miss.

Likely intended “isn’t easy to miss (because it’s clear)”, but means “is obscure”.

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

11.

ix A new study suggests that mosquitoes might learn not to avoid people who swat at them.

Likely intended “learn to avoid”, but means “learn to stand still”.

x You can’t help but not be worried.

Likely intended “it’s natural to worry”, but means “it’s natural to no worry”.

[Supplementary exercise] We analyse both not and never as adverbs. How are they similar, and how do they differ?

Both can create clausal negation. Neither can function as modifier in a Nom. And they share the Proto-Indo-European root ne⋅ meaning “not”.

In clausal negation, not appears only with auxiliary verbs, while never doesn’t have that limitation. Not can function as a modifier in an AdjPs (e.g., a not inconsiderable amount), where we don’t find never. In contrast, never modifiers VPs in the same environment (e.g., a never married person), where we don’t find not.

12.

[Supplementary exercise] How does never differ from a more typical adverb such as quickly?

The most common position for adverbs such as quickly is at the end of the VP, but this is an usual position for never. Many adverb, quickly included are formed from an adjective + ⋅ly, but never doesn’t share that morphology. Many adverbs like quickly are gradable and can be modified by very or too, but this is not possible with never.

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

Chapter 10 1.

2.

Classify the following according to clause type, and say what kind of speech act they would most likely be used to perform. i Please turn the light on.

Imperative, directive

ii I advise you to accept their offer.

Declarative, directive

iii I advised her to accept their offer.

Declarative

iv Can you close that door please.

Closed interrogative, directive

v You’re leaving already?

Declarative, closed question

vi Where shall I put my coat?

Open interrogative, open question

vii What a senseless waste of human life it was.

Exclamative, exclamation

viii Have a nice day.

Imperative, conversation regulation (phatic)

ix Aren’t we lucky!

Closed interrogative, exclamation

x Allow me to congratulate you.

Imperative, congratulation

Form open interrogatives from the following declaratives, replacing the underlined phrase with a corresponding interrogative phrase such as who, what, when, etc. i She said something to them.

What did she say to them?

ii Someone has taken my umbrella.

Who has taken my umbrella?

iii He sold his car to someone.

Who did he sell his car to?

To whom did he sell his car?

iv He thinks they’ll appoint someone.

Who does he think they’ll appoint?

v They left early for some reason.

Why did they leave early?

vi You told her I was going somewhere.

Where did you tell her I was going?

vii You first suspected he was the murderer at some time.

When did you first suspect he was the murderer?

viii Things have changed for you in some way since last year.

How have things changed for you since last year?

ix You think someone has the most influence with these people.

Who do you think has the most influence with these people?

x We can get somebody to clear up this mess.

Who can we get to clear up this mess?

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

3.

4.

Attach the most natural-sounding reversed polarity tags to the following declaratives. i You don’t know where to put it.

You don’t know where to put it, do you?

ii She believes everything you say.

She believes everything you say, doesn’t she?

iii Everyone thought it was impossible.

Everyone thought it was impossible, didn’t they?

iv They used to live in Baltimore.

They used to live in Baltimore, didn’t they?

v There is no future for us.

There is no future for us, is there?

vi I guess all’s well that ends well.

I guess all’s well that ends well, isn’t it?

vii You’ve got kids yourself.

You’ve got kids yourself, don’t you?

You’ve got kids yourself, haven’t you?

viii Nobody really cares about the environment.

Nobody really cares about the environment, do they?

ix On the table stood a bone china fruit bowl.

On the table stood a bone china fruit bowl, didn’t it?

x I don’t suppose you’d like to go to a movie.

I don’t suppose you’d like to go to a movie, would you?

Interrogative tags can also be attached to imperative clauses, as in Don’t tell anyone, will you? What tags could naturally be added to the following? (Where both reversed and constant polarity tags can be used, give them both, and comment on any difference between them.)

Give this letter to Angela, will / would / won’t you?

i Give this letter to Angela.

The constant polarity tags allow both present and preterite tenses, but the reverse polarity allows only present tense. ii Don’t show the letter to Angela.

Don’t show the letter to Angela, will you?

iii Take your feet off the sofa.

Take your feet off the sofa, will / would / won’t you?

The constant polarity tags allow both present and preterite tenses, but the reverse polarity allows only present tense.

iv Let’s take a break.

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Let’s take a break, shall we?

Let’s take a break, can we?

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v Let’s not waste any more time.

5.

6.

Let’s not waste any more time, shall we?

The following clauses are given without any final punctuation mark to avoid prejudicing things, so they don’t conform to normal written English. For each one, say whether it is (a) an open interrogative; (b) an exclamative; or (c) ambiguous between open interrogative and exclamative. If your answer is (a) or (b), explain what grammatical factors make the clause unambiguous. If your answer is (c), comment on the difference in meaning. i Who thinks it was awesome

Open interrogative: starts with who

ii How much remains to be done

Ambiguous: the interrogative asks about the amount of the task that remains. The exclamative remarks that there is a lot remaining.

iii How did you convince them

Open interrogative: subject– auxiliary inversion

iv What a success it was

Exclamative: no subject–auxiliary inversion

v How often you have forgotten to lock up

Exclamative: no subject–auxiliary inversion

vi What idiot devised this plan

Open interrogative: This is determinative what in determiner function, not adjective what in external modifier function.

vii Who cares about your stupid project

Open interrogative: starts with who

viii What kind of establishment do you think this is

Open interrogative: This is determinative what in determiner function, not adjective what in external modifier function.

ix How wonderful you look tonight

Exclamative: no subject–auxiliary inversion

x Why don’t you give them a chance

Open interrogative: subject– auxiliary inversion

[Supplementary exercise] Explain how the following non-standard constructions differ from Standard English. All those with question marks are intended as questions. i *Do not to drink or eat until your host does.

In SE, do takes bare infinitival complements, not to infinitivals.

ii *Excuse me, Janet is here?

In SE, there would be subject– auxiliary inversion. This would be OK in an echo question, but excuse me suggests that this is not an echo question.

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

7.

iii *When she will be back?

In SE, there would be subject– auxiliary inversion. This would be OK as a subordinate clause, but this appears to be a main clause.

iv *How to say this?

In SE, the open interrogative main clause would be formed with do followed by a subject, likely you. This would be OK as a subordinate clause.

v *Stop! Not to come in.

In SE, negative imperatives require do.

vi *What for should we do this?

In SE, for has to be stranded in the idiomatic what for construction.

vii !What you look at me like that for?

In SE, this would require an auxiliary before the subject: what did you look at me like that for or what are you looking at me like that for, for example.

viii !Why did he want to make all that trouble for?

In SE, for would be omitted or why would be changed to what.

ix !Why we have to write this?

In SE, this would require an auxiliary before the subject: why do we have to write this, for example.

x !Who that is?

In SE, the auxiliary verb would follow the subject but precede the predicative complement.

[Supplementary exercise] Which of the interrogative words can be used to form open interrogatives that do not involve subject–auxiliary inversion? What properties do they share?

The pronouns who and what, the determinatives which and what, and the adverb how can do this. In each case, the word is an element in the subject. The pronouns function as the head of the subject. The determinatives function as determiners or fused determiner-heads in the subject. How can function as a modifier in a DP in the subject (e.g., 5ii).

The prepositions when and where can do this in rare circumstances, such as when’s good for you? Only why is entirely excluded.

8.

Compose an original example to illustrate each of the following. i a closed question and a typical and natural response that is NOT an answer

Would you get that?

Sure!

ii a declarative that functions as a request

Your help would be appreciated here.

iii a closed interrogative that functions as a suggestion

Do you want to give it another try?

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9.

10.

iv an open interrogative that functions as a closed question

Which of these shirts do you prefer?

v a grammatical open interrogative using whom

To whom was it written?

vi a clause with multiple interrogative phrases

Who said what to whom?

vii a direction question

Could you lend me a hand?

viii an echo question (give the preceding context as well)

The test is cancelled tomorrow.

There’s no test?

ix an exclamative with an exclamative phrase in subject function.

What a bunch of linguists these people are!

x a clause that is ambiguous between exclamative and interrogative

how many came

What is the category of the underlined constituents? i What a worm I am for drinking too much!

NP

ii What a nice surprise!

NP

iii How strange a day this was!

NP

iv How perceptive!

AdjP

v How artfully you did that!

AdvP

vi How kind of you!

AdjP

[Supplementary exercise] Can non-affirmative items, discussed in the previous chapter, appear in all of the clause types discussed in this chapter? If so, give examples of each. If not, provide evidence.

Let’s consider yet.

Declarative: It’s not dry yet.

Closed interrogative: Is it dry yet?

Open interrogative: What isn’t dry yet?

Exclamative: this might be impossible in a single clause (e.g., *How wet it isn’t yet!), but you might be able to construct an example. If subordinate clauses are allowed, though, then it is easy: How sad it is that it isn’t dry yet!

Imperative: Don’t dry it yet.

11.

[Supplementary exercise] Construct three original examples of closed interrogatives that are ambiguous (in written form) between a polar question and an alternative question.

Was it your mother or your father?

Are peanuts or cashews good?

Can you drive me or Mia tomorrow?

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12.

[Supplementary exercise] In which of the following examples could who be replaced with whom in a formal style? i Who did they hire?

yes

ii Who did you expect to be knocking on your door at this time of night?

yes

iii Who does he have in mind here?

yes

iv Who does it belong to?

yes

v Who else would have dared to bring this innocent and ignorant creature?

no

vi Who exactly are we encouraging when they should not be encouraged?

yes

vii Who knows how we might positively impact even one young person?

no

viii Who was he?

yes?

ix Who was the prophet for that tribe?

yes?

x Who would you like to influence that you’re not already influencing?

yes

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Chapter 11 1.

In each of the following pairs, embed a subordinate counterpart of the main clause [a] in the position marked ‘[…]’ in [b], and identify the clause type and function of the subordinate clause.

Example: a.

How does it work?

b.

I don’t know [how it works]. (open interrogative content clause)

i a. Why did she resign? b. It’s not clear to me […].

It’s not clear to me why she resigned.

ii a. It was a hoax. b. Few people believe the rumour […].

Few people believe the rumour (that) it was a hoax.

iii a. Is it a serious threat? b. […] remains to be seen.

Whether it is a serious threat remains to be seen.

iv a. Who originated the idea? b. No one knows […].

No one knows who originated the idea.

v a. They moved to Boston. b. I met them several times before […].

I met them several times before they moved to Boston.

vi a. What a bargain it was! b. She told me […].

She told me what a bargain it was.

vii a.You will get your money back. b. I’m determined […].

I’m determined (that) you will get your money back.

viii a. Can we rely on them? b. I’m not certain […].

I’m not certain whether / if we can rely on them.

ix a. It was a serious mistake. b. […] is now indisputable.

That it was a serious mistake is now indisputable.

x a. Do you have any idea how much it cost? b. I’m not sure […].

I’m not sure whether / if you have any idea how much it cost.

xi a. Can we finish before the year is out? b. […], we don’t know yet.

Whether we can finish before the year is out, we don’t know yet.

xii a.Is it going to be carried out or not? b. […] is not yet known.

Whether it is going to be carried out or not is not yet known.

xiii a. You need to calm someone down. b. Keep herbal remedies handy in the event […].

Keep herbal remedies handy in the event (that) you need to calm someone down.

xiv a. Both men died, and Lazarus was carried away to heaven. b. It came about […].

It came about that both men died, and Lazarus was carried away to heaven.

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2.

xv a.People think it’s all just a matter of opinion and preference. b. The problem becomes […].

The problem becomes (that) people think it’s all just a matter of opinion and preference.

xvi a. The vast majority of programmers have been boneheads for forty years. b. ‘Lisp is an excellent choice’ is a more believable statement than […].

‘Lisp is an excellent choice’ is a more believable statement than that the vast majority of programmers have been boneheads for forty years.

xvii a. It wasn’t just manufacturing. b. Then the reality sank in […].

Then the reality sank in (that) It wasn’t just manufacturing

xviii a. They must not be displaced by rising rents and a bad economy. b. He was particularly concerned […].

He was particularly concerned (that) they not be displaced by rising rents and a bad economy.

xix a. For Dante, the entrance into hell marks the beginning of hope. b. It is also true […].

It is also true that, for Dante, the entrance into hell marks the beginning of hope.

xx a.She summarized a 400-page report in 48 hours. b. Some people have been concerned […].

Some people have been concerned (that) she summarized a 400-page report in 48 hours.

For each of the lexemes below, say whether or not it can license the following types of content clause complement: (a) mandative; (b) other declarative; (c) closed interrogative; (d) open interrogative; (e) exclamative. (Note that closed interrogatives sometimes occur more readily in non-affirmative than in affirmative contexts: before giving a ‘no’ answer for (c), therefore, test with a negative matrix clause as well as a positive one.) Give an example to support each ‘yes’ answer. i advise

a) I advise that the charges be dismissed. b) I advised them that there had been an error. c) Please advise whether you are willing to pursue this option. d) At no time was the patient advised what drugs were being used. e) They were not told what a big change had happened.

ii ask

a) I asked that they cut it short. b) no c) Sessions was asked whether he would step aside. d) May I ask who 's calling? e) no

iii convince

a) no b) I convinced them that a big change had happened.

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c) They couldn’t convince themselves whether it's right or wrong. (ok?) d) I will not try to convince you what Islam is. (ok?) e) I couldn’t convince them what a big change had happened. iv doubt [verb]

a) no b) I doubt that any of us really believed them. c) I doubt whether any of us really believed them. d) I don’t doubt what he can do. e) Nobody would doubt what a great mother she was.

v forget

a) no b) Let's not forget that there are tardigrades in space. c) I forget whether it was on Slate or, you know, one of these other Internet magazines. d) At no time was the patient advised what drugs were being used. e) I had forgotten how much I missed her.

vi idea

a) It’s a good idea that it be fed a low cholesterol diet. b) I advised them that there had been an error. c) Please advise whether you are willing to pursue this option. d) You have no idea how much I wanted to call. e) You have no idea how much I wanted to call.

vii inquire

a) no b) no c) I am here to inquire whether I might be of some assistance. d) She inquired where we might find a decent beer. e) no

viii learn

a) no b) I learned that there had been an error. c) Where can I learn whether it will work. d) We never ended up learning what had become of the flashlight. e) It was great to learn what a radical idea she’d had.

ix realize

a) no b) I realized that there had been an error.

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c) It's hard to realize whether the Touch Bar is going to be useful in actual use. d) Suddenly, we realized why he stays so close. e) Now, you realize how special that was. x sense [verb]

a) no b) I could sense that she didn’t like my extra nose. c) The dogs couldn’t sense whether the owners were in need. d) We could sense what was about to go down. e) They couldn’t sense how friendly he was.

3.

Here is another selection of complement-taking lexemes; the instructions are the same as for the previous exercise, except that, for the two adjectives, the issue is whether they license the various kinds of content clause as a subject (or as an extraposed subject). i amazing

a) no b) It’s amazing that it works. c) no d) no e) no

ii belief

a) no b) a belief that it works c) no d) no e) no

iii decision

a) the decision that she begin immediately b) a decision that she’s the right person c) no decision whether she should go d) no decision what to do e) no

iv feel

a) no b) I feel that it could work. c) I can’t feel whether it’s in. d) When the phone rings, I can feel who it is. e) I can feel how good it is to be alive.

v grasp [verb]

a) no b) I couldn’t grasp that I’d be the one.

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c) I couldn’t grasp whether it was possible. d) I couldn’t grasp why it should be possible. e) They couldn’t grasp what a legend he was. vi important

a) It’s important that it work. b) It’s important that it works. c) Whether it works or not is important. d) What it could be is important. e) no

vii know

f) no g) I know that it works. h) I don’t know whether it works. i) I don’t know what works. j) I know what a great tool it is.

viii question [noun]

a) no b) There’s no question that it works. c) the question whether it works or not d) no question why it works e) no question how well it works

ix require

a) We require that you be there on time. b) We require that you are pursuing a degree. c) no d) no e) no

x wonder [verb]

a) no b) I wonder that it works at all. c) I wonder whether it works. d) I wonder how well it works. e) I wonder how well it works.

4.

For each of the underlined content clauses below say whether it is (a) an open interrogative; or (b) an exclamative; or (c) ambiguous between open interrogative and exclamative. If your answer is (a) or (b), explain what grammatical factors make the clause unambiguous. If your answer is (c), comment on the difference in meaning. i She didn’t know how valuable it was.

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Ambiguous: “she didn’t know it’s value” or “it’s very valuable, and she didn’t know that”

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

5.

6.

ii I’d forgotten what a difficult route it was.

Exclamative: adjective what in predeterminer modifier function

iii He asked how old I was.

Open interrogative: *He asked what an old person I was.

iv That depends on how much we have to pay.

Ambiguous: “she didn’t know it’s value” or “it’s very valuable, and she didn’t know that”

v You won’t believe who they’re planning to appoint.

Open interrogative: exclamatives start with what or how.

Which of the following prepositions license a declarative content clause as complement? For each one that does, give an example and say whether or not the subordinator that is permitted in the content clause. i above

no

ii as

as it was here before (that isn’t permitted)

iii because

because it was here before (that isn’t permitted)

iv despite

despite that it seems clear (that is required)

v for

for it was here before (that isn’t permitted)

vi in

in that it was here before (that required)

vii on

no

viii though

though it was here before (that isn’t permitted)

ix unless

unless it were here before (that isn’t permitted)

x with

no

Here’s another selection of prepositions; some license a declarative content clause complement and some don’t. The instructions are the same as for the previous exercise. i after

after it was here (that isn’t permitted)

ii at

no

iii by

no

iv during

no

v given

given that it was here before (that is required)

vi notwithstanding

notwithstanding it was here before (that is permitted)

vii since

since it was here before (that isn’t permitted)

viii through

no

ix until

until it arrived (that isn’t permitted)

x without

no

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7.

8.

Which of the constituents beginning with if is a PP, and which is a content clause?

Say what the answer is for each one, and briefly explain your evidence. i How about if I give you a few days and then I call you?

PP: if can’t be replaced with whether

ii If you don’t mind, can I ask what you’re looking at?

PP: if can’t be replaced with whether

iii I’ll check the onboard logs. They’ll show if the cannon was fired.

Content clause: if can be replaced with whether

iv I’m not so sure if it’s a better plan to fight him on our turf or his.

Content clause: if can be replaced with whether

v I’m not sure, if you’re on board, why you’re not more helpful.

PP: if can’t be replaced with whether

vi It’s beginning to show if you know what I mean.

PP: if can’t be replaced with whether

vii The term doesn’t signify if the route cause is inflammatory or genetic.

Content clause: if can be replaced with whether

viii They carry it delicately, as if it were a fine piece of furniture.

PP: if can’t be replaced with whether

ix They simply believed in the idea that even if you don’t start out with much, then you should be able to build a decent life.

PP: if can’t be replaced with whether

x What’s the point of having a TV show if you can’t meet your heroes?

PP: if can’t be replaced with whether

Identify the matrix clause for each underlined clause in the following excerpt (from a news article headlined “In the UK, White Immigration Is an Asset – While Everyone Else Is Undesirable” by Afua Hirsch).

(Relevant matrix clauses are marked in red.)

I’m not an immigrant but I have always been seen as one. The response to any perceived transgression I make towards a public person or policy is frequently: “If you don’t like it here, then leave.” White immigrants, and especially those from western Europe, had on the whole never before felt as if this prejudice applied to them, because “immigration” – as a contentious political issue – has never been about people coming from other countries, and it’s never been about the movement required to get here. “Immigration” has always been a byword for the problem of people who are racialised as undesirable, whether they were born here or not.5 The hypocrisy is embedded in the history. I often wonder how it was that the arrival of the SS Windrush in 1948, carrying fewer than 500 West Indians specifically invited to come and work in the UK, was and remains such a symbol of profound soul searching for the national identity. That event stands in stark contrast to the more than 200,000 eastern Europeans and 100,000 Irish immigrants who came to Britain during the same period. The former is regarded

5

As a supplement, this isn’t integrated into clause structure, but its anchor would be the has clause.

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as a turning point in the fabric of the nation’s identity, the latter is barely remembered at all.

But this illogicality in our narratives around immigration is not confined to the past. I have spent most of my life living in leafy southwest London, an area often described as “quintessentially English”, helped by the presence of rowing on the Thames at Putney and Hammersmith, lawn tennis at Wimbledon, botanical gardens at Kew and Henry VIII’s old hunting grounds in the deerpopulated Richmond Park. These areas are still perceived as unchanged by mass immigration.

9.

[Supplementary exercise] When it comes to subordinate clauses, does it make sense to talk about what kind of speech act they are used to perform? Explain your reasoning.

In general, we feel that it makes no more sense to talk about the speech act performed by a subordinate clause than it does to talk about the speech act performed by a noun phrase or a preposition. These elements typically combine in a clause to do something. But in some cases, a subordinate clause may stand on its own, and in such cases, it may be meaningful to consider whether or not it is performing a speech act.

For example, why you don’t need get your ducts cleaned as a title could possibly be said to perform the speech acts of introduction or warning.

10.

11.

[Supplementary exercise] Many grammars use the term ‘noun clause’ for what we call ‘content clauses’. The idea is supposed to be that they have the same function as NPs. Answer the following questions about that idea: i What functions are performed by both content clauses and NPs, either in general or as complements of specific words?

Subject; complement in VP, AdjP (very rarely, e.g., worth the price), and PP; supplement; coordinate

ii What functions are performed by content clauses but not NPs?

Complement in NP; head in a content clause

iii What functions are performed by NPs but not content clauses?

Head in an NP; maybe object in a VP; vocative

iv In what ways apart from functions do NPs and content clauses differ?

NPs have determiners, while content clauses typically have subjects. NPs are headed by Noms, while clauses are headed by VPs. NPs participate in the systems of definiteness, number, and gender, while content clauses don’t. etc.

[Supplementary exercise] Many grammars talk about interrogative content clauses as ‘embedded questions’. Why might this term be misleading? Present examples as necessary to support what you say.

Firstly, as we said in (9), we feel that it makes little sense to talk about the speech act of clause-internal elements.

On a purely terminological basis, we might reject the term ‘embedded questions’ because it can be confusing if the same term is used for both a syntactic constituent and for a speech act when these do not have a one-to-one relationship. This is shown in the following two examples:

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

In cases such as Craig asked whether it would be there, the content clause whether it would be there does represent the content of an ‘unembedded’ question. Craig asked the question “will it be there?” and I’m reporting this question to you. But in other cases, such as Alana knew who would be at the dinner, there is no way to conceive of the content clause who would be there as asking anything at all. It merely reports the contents of Alana’s knowledge. The sentence could be paraphrased as, “Alana was familiar with the dinner guest list”.

12.

[Supplementary exercise] Which type of the five major types of content clause is most complex? Justify your position.

We think that a good way to think about complexity here is in comparison to a canonical clause and also in comparison to main-clause counterparts. So, any addition of constituents could be thought to increase complexity, as could any difference in the location of constituents. Finally, any variation in the realization of content clauses could be thought to add complexity. You can, of course, define complexity in other ways.

Under this conception, we would say that open interrogative content clause are good candidates for being the most complex.

13.

•

Declarative content clauses seem very simple. They are often identical to their canonical counterparts, and the only added complexity is the optional or obligatory addition of that in certain cases.

•

Closed interrogative content clauses seem slightly more complex.

Again, they are identical to their canonical counterparts except for the addition of a marker. Here, a marker is obligatory, but sometimes if may be used instead of whether. The added complexity is that they differ from main-clause counterparts in lacking subject-auxiliary inversion.

•

Mandatives are similarly complex. The main complexity being marking with that and lack of subject-verb agreement.

•

Exclamatives are slightly more complex in that they require the addition of what or how along with fronting of an element and a gap in clause structure.

•

Open interrogatives have the additional complexity that there are more options for the interrogative word. They often have fronting with gapping, but there is variation in that not every open interrogative has a fronted constituent and a gap (e.g., who works there?). Subject-auxiliary inversion never applies, which seems simple except that this is a difference from the main-clause counterparts where it sometimes applies. Finally, there is the possibility of multiple interrogative words (e.g., who did what when?).

Replace the underlined clause with a constituent from a different category where possible. Change the meaning as little as possible.

Example:

I expect that it will change.

about it being cheating…

i I agree that it is cheating to use applications to do birding.

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I expect a change/something different.

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14.

ii They made a serious mistake in trying to enter South Ossetia with force.

their attempt to enter…

iii I’ve used lard a lot and I think that it depends on the type of crust you want.

about how the type of crust you want makes a difference

iv Tracy says that many children who grow up in expatriate families get the travel bug.

stuff about many children growing up in expatriate families getting the travel bug

v I also wonder whether I’m more into high proof whiskey than you are.

about which of us is more into high proof whiskey

vi We tucked him into bed and told him what a winner he is.

about our pride in him

vii George met the elf again and told him what had happened.

about the event

viii That it’s in this condition suggests something about Mitchell’s perfectionist nature.

Its condition

ix I wrote the article before we started dating.

our first date

x It didn’t surprise me that it was 5:56.

not possible

[Supplementary exercise] Is it possible to construct a content clause subject that triggers plural agreement?

No

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Chapter 12 1.

2.

Underline the (a) relative clauses and (b) declarative content clauses in the following examples and say whether they are (a), (b), or (c) ambiguous between the two. Give evidence in support of your answers. i She ridiculed the idea that he had proposed. (Hint: try the good idea and the very idea.)

Ambiguous: proposed can be intransitive, meaning proposed marriage, which would lead to a content-clause interpretation. It can also be transitive as in he proposed an idea, which would lead to a relative-clause interpretation.

ii The fact that it’s illegal didn’t seem to bother them.

Content clause: it’s illegal is a complete clause, and there’s no place a gap could go.

iii I’ve lost the map that you lent me.

Relative: lend takes a direct and indirect object. Only the indirect object is realized, so the direct object must be a gap.

iv He was motivated by the conviction that he had been seriously wronged.

Content clause: he had been seriously wronged is a complete clause, and there’s no place a gap could go.

v They are spreading a rumour that is causing her great distress.

Relative clause: there’s a gap in subject function.

Each of the following examples contains either a relative clause or content clause: underline those that are relative, and for each of them identify the antecedent and the function of the (overt or covert) relativized element (see §12.1.2). i I wonder who they have in mind for the job. ii I made a mistake I’ll never forget.

Antecedent is mistake and the relativized item is a gap in object function.

iii Go back the way you came.

Antecedent is way and the relativized item is a gap in adjunct function.

iv The prize was awarded to the girl who spoke first.

Antecedent is girl and the relativized item is who in subject function.

v He’s not the man he used to be.

Antecedent is man and the relativized item is a gap in predicative complement function.

vi It’s the only movie I’ve seen this year.

Antecedent is movie and the relativized item is a gap in object function.

vii The fact that they are cousins is irrelevant.

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3.

4.

viii Renewing licenses is a hassle for women whose names have changed.

Antecedent is women and the relativized item is whose in determiner function.

ix She goes to the same school that her mother went to.

Antecedent is school and the relativized item is a gap in object function in the PP.

x Which is the one you said you liked best?

Antecedent is one and the relativized item is a gap in object function.

Convert any non-wh relatives in the following examples into their wh relative counterparts. i This is the house that Jack built.

This is the house which Jack built.

ii The reason he resigned was that he wanted to spend more time with his family.

The reason why he resigned was that he wanted to spend more time with his family.

iii The one that impressed me most was your sister.

The one which impressed me most was your sister.

iv Do you remember the time we first went out together?

Do you remember the time when we first went out together?

v The concept that the agency came up with is really insulting.

The concept which the agency came up with is really insulting.

vi The guy she’s talking to is my boss.

The guy who she’s talking to is my boss.

vii They’re someone I wouldn’t want to quarrel with.

They’re someone who I wouldn’t want to quarrel with.

viii Do you have a socket wrench I could borrow?

Do you have a socket wrench which I could borrow?

ix They said that the one that I wanted was sold out.

They said that the one which I wanted was sold out.

x That car made the one that I was driving look pretty mediocre.

That car made the one which I was driving look pretty mediocre.

The following examples are presented without the usual internal punctuation so as to avoid giving any clues as to whether the relative clauses are integrated or supplementary. Identify the relative clauses, and for each say whether it could be interpreted in either way (with corresponding differences in meaning and punctuation) or in only one way. In the latter case, specify which interpretation is required and explain why the other is excluded. i This year we’re going to Majorca which is where we spent our honeymoon.

Supplementary: which is where we spent our honeymoon

ii ‘The necklace’ which her colleague had written will be published next year.

Supplementary: which her colleague had written

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5.

iii Lisa has just gone down with flu which means that the wedding will be postponed.

Supplementary: which means that the wedding will be postponed

iv The only thing I can’t understand is why you appointed him in the first place.

Integrated: I can’t understand

v They’re interviewing the neighbours who saw her leave.

Ambiguous: who saw her leave. If all the neighbours saw her leave and were interviewed, then it’s supplementary. If only some neighbours saw her leave and were interviewed, it’s integrated.

vi She was deeply offended by the letter which accused her of racism.

Ambiguous: which accused her of racism. If there was only one letter, then it’s supplementary. If only one of multiple letters was accusatory, it’s integrated.

vii No one who has studied the evidence could possibly doubt her innocence.

Integrated: who has studied the evidence

viii He’s going to resign which is exactly the right course of action.

Supplementary: which is exactly the right course of action

ix I took with me any files that I was responsible for.

Integrated: that I was responsible for

x This is Pat who I am working with.

Supplementary: who I am working with

Determine whether the underlined expressions below are: (a) fused relatives (see §12.4.2); (b) open interrogative content clauses; or (c) ambiguous between the two.

Give evidence to support your answer. i I don’t know who caused the accident.

Open interrogative:

ii You can do whatever you like.

Fused relative:

iii What she wrote is completely illegible.

Fused relative:

iv They’ve already spent what I gave them yesterday.

Fused relative:

v I won’t be resigning, whatever the report says.

Fused relative:

vi I told them what you told me to tell them.

Ambiguous:

vii I asked what else I could do.

Open interrogative:

viii What Frankenstein has created will one day destroy him.

Fused relative:

ix What Frankenstein has created is so far unknown.

Open interrogative:

x We must find whoever did this.

Fused relative:

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6.

[Supplementary exercise] Popular discussions of relative clauses typically take an approach that distinguishes between that and which relatives. Why is this not the right line to draw?

While many that relatives do have corresponding which relative formulations, many do not. For example, the that time we finished can’t be paraphrased as *the time which we finished, but it can be paraphrased as the time when we finished. Moreover, many bare relatives have corresponding which relative formulations (e.g., the beer we had and the beer which we had). The bare relatives and the that relatives tend to appear in the same constructions, while wh relatives tend to appear in the same general families of constructions (though not in exactly the same places, since they are determined partially by function).

7.

[Supplementary exercise] It is important to distinguish between open interrogative content clauses with interrogative phrase as or in the subject and those without, just as it is important to distinguish between relative clauses with relative phrase as or in the subject and those without. Describe the differences in each case.

There is no gap in open interrogative content clause with an interrogative phrase as or in the subject. In other open interrogative content clause, there will be a gap where the interrogative phrase would usually appear in a canonical clause. Similarly, a relative clause with an interrogative phrase as or in the subject has no gap, while other relative clauses do. The other main differences are that in open interrogative content clause, subject-auxiliary inversion is affected, while in relative clauses, a bare relative is impossible if the relative phrase is in or part of the subject.

8.

[Supplementary exercise] Combine the clauses in each of the following items (from “The Paradox of Choice” by Barry Schwartz) into a single sentence by making them into content or relative clauses. This may require quite significant reworking. You may add prepositions, but no coordinators (you can keep any existing coordinators). i Well we could do A or we could do B. A has these benefits and these risks. B has these benefits and these risks. What do you want to do?

Well, we could do A, with these benefits and risks, or we could do B, with these benefits and these risks, so what do you want to do?

ii We end up less satisfied with the result of the choice than we would be if we had fewer options to choose from. There are several reasons for this. One of them is that, with so many choices, it’s easy to imagine that you could have made a different choice that would’ve been better.

There are several reasons that we end up less satisfied with the result of the choice than we would be if we had fewer options to choose from, one of which is that, with so many choices, it’s easy to imagine that you could have made a different choice that would’ve been better.

iii Here’s another example. Now, this cartoon makes a lot of points. It makes points about living in the moment as well. One point it makes is that whenever you’re choosing one thing, you’re choosing not to do other things. Those other things may have lots of attractive

Here’s another example, now, in this cartoon that makes a lot of points, points about living in the moment as well as points about the fact that, whenever you’re choosing one thing, you’re choosing not to do other things which may have lots of attractive

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9.

features. It’s going to make what you’re doing less attractive.

features, which is going to make what you’re doing less attractive.

iv I wear jeans almost all the time. There was a time when jeans came in one flavor. You bought ’em. They fit like crap. They were incredibly uncomfortable. If you wore them long enough and washed them enough times, they started to fit, feel okay.

I wear jeans almost all the time, having done so since the time when jeans came in one incredibly uncomfortable flavor that fit like crap when you bought ’em, gradually improving until, if you wore them long enough and washed them enough times, they started to fit, feel okay.

Identify the category and function of the antecedent of each relative which. i A big part of a quarterback’s job is to keep all his wide receivers happy, which is not easy.

Complement clause in is VP

ii Allegra also had on a white hoodie with a smiling bumblebee that said BEE HAPPY, which she wore with baggy jeans.

Complement NP in had VP

iii Bird’s Mom left the family because she wasn’t happy, which she’s entitled to do.

Head VP in clause

iv Consider the proposition that Peter is not rich and not happy, which contains two instances of ‘not’.

Modifier clause in NP (that Peter…)

v I feel super kind of happy, which translates to pretty.

Predicative complement AdjP in VP

vi I try to be happy, which is a great way to be.

Predicative complement AdjP in VP (happy)

Head clause in clause (Peter…)

Head VP in VP (be happy) Complement clause in VP (to be happy) vii She’s a quick wit who adores her wife and just wants to make her happy, which she does.

Head VP in VP (make her happy)

viii We seemed to make Mr. LeBlanc’s crowds happy, which made him even happier.

Clause (no function)

ix When they were happy, which wasn’t as infrequent as it might have seemed, they were very happy.

Supplement PP

x The game is constructed so that only a minority of the people can be happy, which is a frustrating outcome.

Head clause in clause

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Complement clause in VP (to make her happy)

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10.

11.

In which cases can you replace that with a relative phrase or the converse? When you can’t, explain what prevents it. i And in the middle of nowhere is a place that, for decades, officially did not exist.

which

ii Guillaume tells us we can go to this place, which has only cheese.

that

iii I read reviews there but that isn’t the way that I select a book.

no relative how

iv It shows the artist letting go of precision in that way that watercolour demands.

which

v Most of the time, when we aren’t looking at a bird, we talk to each other.

supplementary, so no that

vi The company denies this was the reason that a white candidate got the job.

why

vii The offense goes back to an unholy time when Trudeau and Bentley wore horseshoes.

that

viii The only place that we could set the helicopter down was a bog.

where

ix You have many days to find the time that works for you.

which

x You need to become independent of selling your time, which is finite.

supplementary, so no that

In [10i, ii, ix, and x], a relative preposition (where or when) is not possible. Why is that?

Relative prepositions are incompatible with subject function.

12.

Identify the function of the NP immediately containing the underlined relative clause, if applicable, along with that of the (covert) relativized element in the relative clause. i Are we meeting our moral obligation to the people who we send out to fight our battles?

Object in PP, object in send VP

ii Every word that the precisionist poet uses should correspond to a verifiable thing.

Subject in clause, object in uses VP

iii Freeze it five to six hours, which I know sounds like an eternity.

N/A, subject in sound clause

iv He’s an oily impresario trying to fool the well-meaning but slightly innocent circus workers whose lives he’s bought.

Object in VP, determiner in NP

v I just saw the sign that said “dachshund”.

Object in VP, subject in clause

vi Their bohemian style kept me entertained during a time when I was bored with life.

Object in PP, adjunct in clause

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vii There’s that awkward situation when don’t know if you need to tip someone or not.

Predicative complement in ’s VP, adjunct in clause

viii They would tell me who I was funnier than.

13.

ix This is the hotel I work for’s truck.

Determiner in NP, object in PP

x What can you buy the angler who doesn’t want a carry-on boat bag?

Indirect object in buy VP, subject in clause

[Supplementary exercise] Construct a plausible sentence in which there are six or more layers of subordinate clauses.

All members have three identical e-mails that have a broken link followed by a subscript that gives the working link that should not have been that long.

14.

[Supplementary exercise] Unfuse the following fused relatives, if possible. (A supplement with regardless may be useful in some cases.) i He is a reminder of when even archaeologists sold finds to support their work.

of a time when…

ii I’ll give whoever wants it my imaginary soul for however long they desire.

give the person who wants…

iii It means you get whatever care you need.

get the care…

iv More windfall to the top does not increase what tickles down.

increase the amount that trickles…

v That’s what I’m afraid of.

’s the things that I’m…

vi This witness led us to where he says you deposited this trash.

to a place where…

vii Voters are picking temperament as what matters for them right now.

as the thing that matters…

viii What dreams I had were full of dark water and silver herring.

The dreams (that)I…

ix Whatever they gave him that he didn’t need he passed on to me.

The stuff (that) they…

x Whenever I see here, she’s thinking up nefarious plots.

Any time that I…

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15.

[Supplementary exercise] In [4], we provide evidence that there is a covert object for needed by showing that the addition of the director’s permission as an object renders the sentence ungrammatical. It may have occurred to you that this can be fixed simply by adding for. In other words, there’s nothing at all wrong with The video that I needed the director’s permission for was not obtainable. Explain why this does not undermine our general claim that there is a covert phrase and construct an ungrammatical sentence including for to support your point.

The addition of for, which is a transitive preposition, one that requires an object, merely moves the gap one position to the right. Now it is the object of the for PP. We can demonstrate that by add an overt object such as it: *The video that I needed the director’s permission for it was not obtainable.

16.

Explain why the times and locations in each example have to be indicated by the relative pronoun which, not the relative prepositions where or when. i The notation # +hh:mm # indicates that the time is a local time which is hh hours and mm minutes ahead of UTC.

Which is the subject of the relative clause and prepositions where and when can’t function as subjects.

ii I arrived at a place which was about a day’s train journey from Moscow.

Which is the subject of the relative clause and prepositions where and when can’t function as subjects.

iii Public schools are the only institutional place through which virtually all members of this society pass.

Which is the object of the through PP, and prepositions where and when can’t function as objects.

iv Set a time after which you will not check email.

Which is the object of the after PP, and prepositions where and when can’t function as objects.

v The only thing we have to lose is time, which we could spend on more worthy issues.

Which is the object of the spend VP, and prepositions where and when can’t function as objects.

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Chapter 13 1.

2.

What are the lexical categories of the underlined words? i Patients may be better able to control the disease

Adj

ii Closer to election day, the audience is much larger.

Adj

iii The spelling corresponds more closely to an earlier stage of the language.

Adj

iv A little farther from their house, the road deteriorates into a dirt track.

P

v Can’t you go any faster?

Adv

vi He’s making fewer mistakes.

D

vii It makes little sense.

D

viii Our more general intellectual debts will, we hope, be obvious.

Adv

ix It is necessary to indicate more distinctions than usual.

D

x It had not been seen in the area prior to today.

P

Underline each AdjP headed by a comparative adjective. i You have very fine linen closest to the body, then slightly cruder linen on top. ii Lovelock foresees a still grimmer future. iii My efforts yielded nothing but an even thicker coating of putrid slime. iv She felt a lot sorrier for the guy who owned the place. v That’s a bit roomier than the lunar landers were. vi The minimum shear strength ratio allowed is considerably higher than typical values. vii There may be a yet deeper dimension to Trilling’s lack of will. viii They are far slicker and much better liars. ix Whale ancestors probably still returned to land to mate and give birth, schlumping along on ever punier hind legs. x Breathing was something altogether different.

3.

Re-express the content of the following in a more natural way using comparative or superlative constructions. i The extent to which my dad is big exceeds the extent to which yours is.

My dad’s bigger than your dad.

ii They are the swimmer who is ranked top in the world as regards speed.

They are the fastest swimmer in the world.

iii That is a fish that is ugly beyond the ugliness of any fish I have ever seen.

That’s the ugliest fish I’ve ever seen.

iv I wish I had a degree of discomfort that failed to rise to the level that I actually have.

I wish I was less uncomfortable than I am.

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v The degree to which you are a good guitarist would increase if the time you practised were to increase.

4.

You’d be a better guitarist if you’d practise more.

Using variables as appropriate, give the primary and secondary terms in the comparisons expressed in the examples below, following the model used in the commentary on [3–4] in the text.

Example:

The hotel felt more comfortable than my own home did.

The hotel felt X comfortable [primary term]; my own home felt Y comfortable [secondary term].

5.

i Fido can run a lot faster than Rex.

Fido can run X fast; Rex can run Y fast.

ii We’re hoping to finish as early as tomorrow.

We’re hoping to finish X early; tomorrow is Y early.

iii More people came to the meeting than we had seats for.

X people came to the meeting; we had seats for Y people.

iv The meeting lasted longer than expected.

The meeting lasted X long; it was expected to last Y long.

v You can take as many copies as you need.

You can take X copies; you need Y copies.

vi More people believed that it was genuine than that it was a hoax.

X people believed that it was genuine; Y people believed that it was a hoax.

vii He had a more powerful motor-bike than I had had.

He had an X powerful motor-bike; I had a Y powerful one.

viii Jill thinks Ed’s better off than he is.

Jill thinks Ed is X well off; Ed is Y well off.

ix Jill thinks Ed’s better off than he does.

Jill think Ed is X well off; Ed thinks he is Y well off.

x I got up later than usual this morning.

I got up X late this morning; usual is Y late.

In each case, what is the set from which members are compared, if the comparison is taken literally.

Example:

This is the best tea I’ve ever had.

The set of all teas that I’ve ever had.

i Kingston is located in one of the driest parts of the island of Jamaica.

The set of all parts of the island of Jamaica.

ii I wouldn’t have the faintest idea what Richard Marx’s hair looks like.

The set of all ideas about what his hair looks like.

iii This type of loan is the surest way of paying off your home loan.

The set of all ways of paying off your home loan.

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6.

iv They are some of the friendliest people I have ever worked with.

The set of all people I have ever worked with.

v Everybody’s nose blows up and it’s the weirdest thing.

The set of all things.

vi Trees are one of the commonest causes of conflict between neighbours.

The set of causes of conflict between neighbours.

vii The cat gym is the cutest thing ever.

The set of all things ever.

viii It is also one of the cleanest beaches in the whole of southeast Asia.

The set of beaches in the whole of southeast Asia.

ix The harshest criticism of Fitzgerald was that he was autocratic.

The set of all criticism of Fitzgerald.

x You paid for only the tiniest fraction of the goods and services you enjoy every day.

The set of all fractions of the goods and services you enjoy every day.

Underline all the comparative clauses (and no other clauses) in the following examples (all from Lewis Carroll’s Alice books, Alice in Wonderland and Through the Looking Glass). i It was as much as she could do, lying down on one side, to look through into the garden with one eye. ii ‘But then,’ thought Alice, ‘shall I never get any older than I am now?’ iii ‘If everybody minded their own business,’ the Duchess said in a hoarse growl, ‘the world would go round a deal faster than it does.’ iv This piece of rudeness was more than Alice could bear: she got up in great disgust, and walked off. v It was evidently more than he could manage by himself; however, she managed to shake him out of it at last.

7.

What is the full set of words that take comparative clause complements?

Answer: We mention the prepositions as and than in the text. Along with this, the preposition like (e.g., she did it just like we had planned) adjective like also qualifies (e.g., They’re very like their parents were.)

8.

[Supplementary exercise] Compare the following examples: i She knows far more people than I know. ii She’s the kindest person I know.

The underlined expression is a comparative clause in [i] but not in [ii]: what kind of a clause is it in [ii]? What grammatical evidence is there for assigning I know to different subcategories of subordinate clause in the two examples? Show how the difference ties in semantically with the distinction we have drawn between term comparison and set comparison.

Answer: The underlined clause in [i] is a comparative clause, while in [ii], it is a relative clause. The clause in [i] is a complement in the than PP, which is where we expect comparative clauses, while that in [ii] is a modifier in the person nominal. [i] says “she knows X people; I know Y people; and X > Y.” [ii] says, “Comparing the set of people

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

I know on the kindness scale, she occupies a higher position on this scale than any of the others.” In [i] the comparison is how many people we know. In [ii], I know merely circumscribes the set of people that we are comparing for kindness.

9.

[Supplementary exercise] Same occurs in (among others) the constructions illustrated in the following: i She stayed in the same hotel as we stayed in. ii She stayed in the same hotel we stayed in.

Describe the syntactic difference between these constructions and explain why the examples have the same meaning even though they are syntactically different.

Answer: [i] says, “She stayed in hotel X; we stayed in hotel Y; and X = Y”. Here the as PP with the comparative clause complement we stayed in is an indirect complement of same: if same is dropped, the as PP must go too. [ii] says, “she stayed in a hotel and that was the hotel which we stayed in.” Here, we stayed in is an integrated relative clause in modifier function in the hotel nominal that identifies the hotel. Either modifier in that nominal may be dropped without significant change to meaning.

10.

11.

Identify the category and function of the underlined phrases. i If at first you don’t succeed, lower your standards.

Supplement clause

ii Is it just me or is it getting crazier out there?

Predicative complement AdjP

iii Keep your friends close, but keep your enemies closer.

Predicative complement AdjP

iv Maybe he just needs the subtlest of nudges.

Fused modifier-head AdjP

v See our family. And feel better about yours.

Predicative complement AdjP

vi The longer you wait, the harder it gets.

Head Adj

vii The nearer they get to the treasure the farther they get from the law.

Head Adj

viii What’s the most you ever lost on a coin toss?

fused modifier-head D

ix When you realize you want to spend the rest of your life with somebody, you want the rest of your life to start as soon as possible.

Adjunct AdvP

x You’re going to need a bigger boat.

Modifier AdjP

[Supplementary exercise] Use an etymological dictionary to answer this question: Which of these words share the comparative ⋅er suffix? i adviser

No

ii after

Close: ⋅ter

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12.

iii disclaimer

No

iv Dubliner

No

v elevator

No

vi flicker

No

vii hardier

Yes

viii lower

Yes

ix teacher

No

x under

No

Identify any indirect complements (see §5.4.1) in [2], [4], and [6].

[4iii, v, vi–ix], [6i]

13.

[Supplementary exercise] We take less to be a determinative in some cases and an adverb in others. What would be the advantages and disadvantages of analysing it to be a determinative in all cases?

Under Occam's razor, one category is better than two if one can explain all the data. In other words, if all uses of less were typical of determinatives, then it would be an advantage to drop the adverb analysis. On the other hand, if you posit only a determinative less but you have to start adding exceptional properties, then it may be better to have the two categories. Under this criterion, neither analysis is without its drawbacks.

The main reason for positing an adverb less (lessa) is that the most common type of modifier in adverb and adjective phrases is an AdvP; determinatives don’t usually realize this function. But there are a few examples such as much / little / no / any bigger.

Remember that determinative less (lessd) is the comparative form of little, so we would expect them to be in alternation in a given context. There are a few such cases, such as less / little different, but usually they do not alternate, we get less cute but not *little cute and little slower but not *less slower.

14.

Give main clause analogues containing deictic this or that for the comparative phrases in the following examples.

Example:

He’s as tall as I am. He’s this tall.

(Note: In most answers, choosing that or this results in minor pragmatic differences, but no syntactic or semantic difference.) i Being a creator is harder than it looks.

Being a creator is this hard.

ii Clean-up is looking a little better than I expected.

Clean-up isn’t looking that bad. ?Clean-up is looking this good.

iii I love these exercises more than you can imagine.

I love these exercises this much.

iv That’s more than I can say about my brother.

I can’t say that much about my brother.

I can say only this much about my brother.

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15.

v That’s just a little more than I wanted to know about love.

I just wanted to know that much about love.

I didn’t want to know this much about love.

vi This is starting to seem like more trouble than it’s worth.

This is starting to seem like that much trouble.

I didn’t expect this much trouble.

vii You need this more than I do.

You need this this much.

viii You’re helping me out more than you know.

You’re helping me out this much.

ix You’ve always been capable of more than you think.

You’ve always been capable of this much.

x You’ve saved my life more times than I can count.

You’ve saved my life this many times.

[Supplementary exercise] Using a selected corpus of prose text, determine which member of each of the following pairs is more common. Discuss any conclusions or surprises.

The following data is from the GloWbE corpus. No attempt has been made to overcome tagging errors in the corpus. i angrier, more angry ii commoner, more common

1,055 : 686 258 : 11,331 frame your query, as best you can, to exclude the noun commoner and more as a determiner (e.g., more common sense)

iii costlier, more costly iv gentler, more gentle

664 : 1,795 1,755 : 538

v likelier, more likely

397 : 79,232

vi livelier, more lively

544 : 504

vii pleasanter, more pleasant

118 : 1,835

viii subtler, more subtle

1,005 : 3,679

ix surer, more sure

422 : 418

x unlikelier, more unlikely

11 : 471

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Chapter 14 1.

2.

3.

For each of the following examples, (a) say what you would take to be the predicand, and then (b) say whether you think the example would traditionally be regarded as an instance of the so-called dangling modifier construction. i Having said all that, however, there is little doubt in my mind that Mrs. Thatcher is going to win and thoroughly deserves to do so.

likely the speaker

ii Pinned down by gunfire and unreachable by medical evacuation teams, the main cause of death was loss of blood.

the dying people

iii Meandering in at about 11:30 a.m. on a Sunday – somewhere between breakfast and brunch – the place was packed.

like the speaker

iv Even allowing for the strong feelings on both sides, the behaviour of the demonstrators was indefensible.

people in general / the audience and the speaker

v Flying low, a herd of cattle could be seen.

the person who sees the cattle

Classify the underlined clauses below as finite or non-finite. i Everyone arrested at the demonstration has now been released.

non-finite

ii It is essential that he complete the course.

finite (subjunctive)

iii I think they may not have read the instructions.

finite (tensed verb)

iv Having been through a similar experience myself, I sympathize.

non-finite

v I’d advise you not to take it too seriously.

non-finite

vi Hurry up, or we’ll be late.

finite (imperative)

vii Not being an idiot, he didn’t take the bait.

non-finite

viii Go ahead, make my day.

finite (imperative)

ix How can I make you understand?

non-finite

x That’s when I was arrested.

finite (tensed verb)

The verbs in the bracketed clauses below are all plain forms. Which of the clauses are infinitival, and hence non-finite? i All I did was [give them your phone number].

infinitival

ii You can stay at our cabin, but [make sure you bring plenty of warm clothes].

infinitival

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4.

5.

iii I recommend [that the proposal be approved without delay].

(subjunctive)

iv They advised me [to reject your offer].

infinitival

v Should we [give more money to charity than we do]?

infinitival

State the function of the underlined non-finite clauses in the following examples (subject in clause structure, complement in nominal, etc.): i It gave us an opportunity to make a quick profit.

complement in nominal

ii This made obtaining a loan virtually impossible.

complement in VP

iii We’re looking forward to seeing you again.

complement in PP

iv I can’t decide what to do about it.

complement in VP

v They are saving up to buy a washingmachine.

adjunct in clause/VP

vi They arrived home to find that the house had been burgled.

adjunct in clause/VP

vii Anyone knowing his whereabouts should contact the police.

modifier in nominal

viii I’m afraid asking for special consideration won’t do any good.

subject in clause

ix The grid is to prevent cattle wandering off.

complement in VP

x I’m determined to do better next time.

complement in AdjP

For each adjective listed below, give an example of its predicative use licensing a hollow infinitival non-finite clause (see §14.2.4) if that is possible; otherwise write ‘none’. (The ones in bold italics have comparative and superlative forms, and of course your examples can involve those forms if you wish.) i able

none

ii bad

none

iii bright

The sun is too bright to look at.

iv difficult

The editors are difficult to trust.

v eager

none

vi impossible

The climate is impossible to measure directly.

vii likely

none

viii nice

She has been interested and it’s nice to see.

ix ready

The game’s all set up and ready to play.

x suitable

Most of the abayas were suitable to wear in Saudi Arabia.

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6.

7.

Which of the following main clauses have both an object and a non-finite complement? i They invited me to join the board.

yes

ii I forgot to put the oven on.

no

iii She intends at some stage to do a Ph.D.

no

iv I appeal to you to give us a second chance.

no

v I promised them to be back by six.

yes

vi Ed was told by his doctor to do exercises.

no

vii Max was advised to seek medical advice.

no

viii Get someone to help you.

yes

ix Try to keep your eye on the ball.

no

x Not for nothing had I yearned to desist.

no

Identify each of the transparent verbs in the following examples. i Correspondent Kwame Holman begins our coverage.

none ??

ii It began to dawn on her what he had in mind.

began (dummy pronoun)

iii It began to rain.

began (dummy pronoun)

iv It seems like a big problem.

none (referential it) ??

v It seemed like Yoshi had suddenly become drunk.

seem (dummy pronoun) ??

vi It seemed to take hours to get home.

seem (dummy pronoun)

vii It seems to me that Twitter is mostly about the links to longer pieces of writing elsewhere.

seem (dummy pronoun)

viii Michelangelo seems to have spent most of his time on the Saint Matthew.

seem (passive test)

ix Taiwan began to industrialize.

began ??

x Taiwan began to pursue economic success.

began (passive test)

xi The place seems like a less-mature Red Lobster restaurant.

none

xii There began the search for a theology which was as independent as possible from exegesis.

began (dummy pronoun)

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8.

xiii There began to appear golden prickles of light.

began (dummy pronoun)

xiv There soon opened up a new opportunity.

opened (dummy pronoun)

xv There seem to be less radical options than kidnapping.

seem (dummy pronoun)

Think carefully about the syntax of these five verbs: [i] allege; [ii] know; [iii] say; [iv] stand; [v] think. Consider the full range of constructions in which each can appear.

Do any take non-finite clause complements in any of their uses? If so, what kind of non-finite subordinate clause do they take? Do they occur in object + complement constructions? Are they transparent and do they take ordinary or raised objects?

Are there any special syntactic or semantic restrictions on these uses? [i] allege

takes to-infinitival complements, especially in passive voice: Wigley is also alleged to have authored a Climategate 1.0 email. occurs in object + complement constructions: I’m not what they allege me to be. takes raised objects: I’m not what they allege me to be.

[ii] know

takes to-infinitival complements: I know to look for jeans with stretch. occurs in object + complement constructions: Did you ever know her to be late? takes raised objects: Did you ever know her to be late?

[iii] say

takes to-infinitival non-finite complements: The woman on the phone said to come straight through to the back.

[iv] stand

takes to-infinitival complements: We stand to lose a good deal. takes gerund-participial complements in negative clauses: I can’t stand losing. occurs in object + complement constructions in negative clauses: I just can't stand you / your losing it.

[v] think

takes to-infinitival complements: We stand to lose a good deal. takes to-infinitival complements: I thought to ask her the title of the book she placed under his arm. occurs in object + complement constructions in negative clauses: She thought them to be a necessary evil.

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9.

Identify the category and function (where applicable) of the underlined constituents. i Here’s Johnny!

NP, predicative complement in VP

ii I am serious. And don’t call me Shirley.

infinitival clause, complement in VP

iii I mean, funny like I’m a clown? I amuse you?

bare declarative content clause, complement in PP

iv I wish I knew how to quit you.

open interrogative content clause, complement in VP

v I’ll have what she’s having.

NP (fused relative), object in VP

vi I’m also just a girl, standing in front of a boy, asking him to love her.

gerund-participial clause, supplement

vii I’m as mad as hell, and I’m not going to take this anymore!

to-infinitival clause, complement in VP

viii I’m going to make him an offer he can’t refuse.

relative clause, modifier in nominal

ix I’m walking here! I’m walking here!

verb, head in VP VP, head in clause gerund-participial clause, complement in VP

x Just keep swimming.

verb, head in VP VP, head in clause gerund-participial clause, complement in VP

xi Just when I thought I was out, they pull me back in.

PP, head in PP (which is a supplement)

xii Love means never having to say you’re sorry.

gerund-participial clause, complement in VP

xiii My precious!

NP

xiv There’s no crying in baseball!

NP, predicative complement

xv To infinity and beyond!

coordination

xvi Where we’re going we don’t need roads.

PP (the examples of fused relatives we give are all NPs, but that doesn’t mean that all fused relatives are NPs)

xvii Why so serious?

verbless clause

xviii !You ain’t heard nothin’ yet!

past participial clause, complement in VP

xix You make me want to be a better man.

bare infinitival clause, complement in VP

xx Gentlemen, you can’t fight in here.

This is the war room.

bare infinitival clause, complement in VP

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10.

[Supplementary exercise] In which cases is subordinator for optional? What generalization does this suggest? Can you find any counterexamples? i I didn’t intend for it to fizzle out in three years.

optional

ii I don’t wish for anyone to have to live with French red tape.

optional

iii It isn’t possible for me to be active in bilingual blogging.

obligatory

iv It wasn’t easy for her to understand or interpret.

obligatory

v It wasn’t hard for them to develop an instant crush.

obligatory

vi It wasn’t necessary for us to ride in such dismal weather.

obligatory

vii It wouldn’t hurt for you to post some positive things about Liverpool’s performances.

optional

viii The programmer probably didn’t mean for it to execute any random piece of SQL.

optional

From this data, it would seem that for is optional when the infinitival clause is a complement in a VP but obligatory when it is a complement in an AdjP. 11.

Identify the function of the underlined pronouns. If the function is ambiguous, explain the different possibilities. i Buckman wondered whether a commercial welding helmet could have filtered his breathing air.

determiner

ii Could anyone find memories that would point to his being a Sith Lord?

subject

iii My reading these two pieces was disappointing for Meloy.

subject

iv That added to the intensity of my feeling displaced.

subject

v The first thing to go wrong was his running out of gas.

subject

vi The impact her writing had on me was profound.

ambiguous determiner (what she wrote) subject (the fact that she wrote)

vii The only thing she got right in her opening was that she is a member of the “religious wrong”.

ambiguous determiner (the content of the opening; very likely)

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subject (the act of opening; very unlikely) viii The routine helped students shift the responsibility of their learning from teacher to student.

ambiguous

ix These findings advance our understanding of adolescent dating and sexual activity.

ambiguous

x This is how the entire family makes their living.

determiner

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Chapter 15 1.

2.

Give the function of the underlined constituents. If the function is ambiguous, explain both interpretations. Provide evidence to support your analysis. i Both the twins were laughing, and I couldn’t stop.

predeterminer modifier

ii If either of them had laughed, I hadn’t noticed.

fused determiner-head

iii Neither the twins nor I were laughing.

marker

iv Neither twin was laughing, but nor were they smiling.

determiner

v Neither were they laughing nor smiling.

adjunct

vi Was the overall theme optimistic, pessimistic, or neither?

marker?

[Supplementary exercise] Consider the underlined words in the following examples: a realist slash dreamer; opioid versus alcohol versus tobacco dependence. Are they prepositions or coordinators? Give grammatical and ungrammatical examples to support your answer.

These appear to be coordinators. The main reason is that they appear to be boundless.

In other words, they can link multiple constituents: •

Phase III randomized study of cisplatin versus paclitaxel versus cisplatin and paclitaxel in patients with suboptimal stage III or IV ovarian cancer.

•

Dear God slash Allah slash Buddha slash Zeus - I'm a big fan of covering all your bases.

Also, unlike most PPs, phrases starting with slash do not appear as clause initial adjuncts (e.g., *Slash DJ, we hired a bartender.) There are a few sports-related cases where versus works in this construction though: (e.g., Versus NY, they’re two and one), but other uses are very hard to find.

Slash doesn’t function as a complement in be VPs (*He was slash a bartender), and versus is questionable (?Today, we were versus NY.) Finally, these words don’t take the modifiers typical of prepositions, AdvPs like just, right, or any AdvP at all (*totally versus NY).

3.

Along with the coordinator but there is also a preposition but. For each of the following examples, decide whether but is a preposition or coordinator. Give reasons, citing evidence. i He knew almost everything, but not the right answer.

coordinator As a PP adjunct, it should be able to appear clause initially.

ii He knew everything but the right answer.

preposition

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The meaning of but is “except”. When coordinating NPs, but appears only in non-affirmative contexts.

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4.

iii That will do, but try again if you want.

coordinator try again is imperative, but imperatives cannot be a subordinate clause complements

iv There’s nothing to do but try again.

preposition The meaning of but is “except”, and no other coordinator could replace but.

v Don’t share the results with anyone but me.

preposition The meaning of but is “except”. When coordinating NPs, but appears only in non-affirmative contexts.

[Supplementary exercise] We mentioned that some prescriptive manuals and English teachers advise against beginning a sentence with a coordinator. Choose a published work that you think is a good example of written Standard English – one that you enjoy and admire – and, reading from the beginning, look for a sentence that begins with a coordinator (and, or, but). Cite the work and report how many sentences you had to read before you found one.

No answer key provided.

5.

Consider the determinatives both, either, and neither that occur in correlative coordinations. Which, if any, can occur introducing main clause coordinations?

Give grammatical and ungrammatical examples to support your answer.

In the right context it may be possible for all of them, we’ve been unable to find any real examples with both, and it strikes us as questionable. Also, neither works only with subject-auxiliary inversion. ?Both I go, and you go.

Either I go, or you do. *Neither I go, nor you do.

Neither do I go, nor do you.

6.

Explain why the following coordinations are asymmetric. i He studied intensively all night and aced the test.

If the order is changed, the implied cause-and-effect relationship is lost.

ii Talk to me like that again and you’ll be fired.

If the order is changed, the conditional meaning is lost.

iii Don’t tell anyone or we’ll spoil the surprise.

If the order is changed, the conditional meaning is lost.

iv You can’t work eighteen hours a day and not endanger your health.

If the order is changed, the implied cause-and-effect relationship is lost.

v You can eat as much of this as you like and not put on any weight.

If the order is changed, the implied cause-and-effect relationship is lost.

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7.

8.

9.

Explain why the following lower-level coordinations are not equivalent to mainclause coordination. i Who went to the movies and left the house unlocked?

The implication is that one person did both things. As a main-clause coordination, that meaning would be lost.

ii Did she take the car and go to the beach?

The implication is that this was a single situation. As a main-clause coordination, that meaning would be lost.

iii The last and most telling objection concerned the cost.

This denotes a single objection. As a mainclause coordination, it could denote two objections.

iv They could find nothing wrong with the battery or with the thermostat.

There is nothing wrong with either object. As a main-clause coordination, there is something wrong with one object.

v One guy was drunk and abusive.

This denotes a single guy. As a main-clause coordination, it could denote two guys.

For each of the following examples, say which kind of non-basic coordination construction it exemplifies. i I’d expected Jill to back us, but not her father.

end-attached coordinate

ii It was criticized by some for being too long and by others for being too short.

non-constituent coordinates

iii Both the British and the French delegates supported the proposal.

delayed right constituent

iv You can have a banana or else an apple instead.

expanded coordinate

v Max left the country in May and the rest of the family in June.

non-constituent coordinates (plus zeugma)

We noted that most coordinates share a category, but it’s more important that they share a function. Nevertheless, it’s not uncommon to meet examples in real life where neither category nor function is shared. Consider the following examples and decide whether the coordinates share both category and function, just function, or neither. i … whether caused by site users, tampering, hacking, or by any equipment …

either three PP complements coordinated with a final PP, or it’s two PPs coordinated with two PP complements (gerund-participial clauses)

ii Is it better, worse, or about the same?

three predicative complements: two AdjPs and one NP (with a fused modifier head)

iii the electrical, mechanical, or plumbing system

three AdjPs in attributive modifier function

iv They’re fun, intelligent, and somebody I’d really like to hang out with.

three predicative complements: two AdjPs and one NP

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10.

11.

v You can find it in China, in India, and elsewhere.

three adjuncts and three PPs

vi We’ve seen these changes in Africa, in Tanzania, and Kenya.

three adjuncts: two PPs and an NP (which can’t function as an adjunct here)

vii It’s related neither to one nor the other.

This looks like a PP and an NP in complement function, but the NP can’t do that. More likely, it’s that neither has been displaced to the left and what we have is a coordination of two NPs functioning as complement in a PP.

viii She was taken out in a fit of rage and handcuffs.

This is two NPs in complement function in the PP, but here the PP in a fit of rage is a predicative adjunct, while in handcuffs is more likely an adjunct in clause structure.

ix Argon, neon, krypton, xenon, and radon are almost entirely non-reactive.

five NPs, all possible subjects

x He’s a bad boy and gives me lots of trouble.

two VPs, both could be head of the clause

Say which of the following examples exhibit distributive coordination and which illustrate joint coordination. i Cherry red and azure go well together.

joint

ii It’s a mixture of cherry red and azure.

joint

iii Matt and Michael swapped shifts.

joint

iv These colours are appropriate for any occasion, and they go well together.

distributive

v Tomo and Felisa just met Brandon.

distributive

vi Tomo and Felisa just met.

joint

To what extent are verb forms constrained when two VPs are coordinated? Try changing the verb forms of the underlined words to find out. i Can you stop coming and going like that?

Only going works here. Stop doesn’t allow most other clause types, which eliminates most other verb forms.

ii Go and help them.

Only help works here. The clause is imperative, so it has to be the plain form.

iii It’s important that she rest and sleep when needed.

The third-person singular present tense form sleeps might work here.

The constraint is the mandative.

iv That crow comes and goes regularly.

A primary tensed form is needed in this main clause, but it could be preterite.

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

12.

v The paint was peeling and fading.

A participle form is needed here, but it could be the past participle.

vi We don’t know what alien lifeforms existed or remained.

A primary tensed form is needed in this main clause, but it could be present tense.

[Supplementary exercise] In Chapter 7 we illustrated preposition stranding with sentences like What are you looking at? etc. Consider whether coordinators can be stranded. Illustrate your discussion with grammatical and ungrammatical sequences of words as appropriate.

Coordinator cannot be stranded in either of the stranding contexts: interrogatives or relatives. Consider I tried beer and wine.

13.

•

*What did you try wine and?

•

*I don’t remember the wine that I tried beer and.

[Supplementary exercise] Particles are a special kind of complement (recall §7.7.3).

Can they be coordinated with each other? Present a suitable array of evidence for your view.

Particles can’t typically be coordinated, but perhaps they can be coerced into coordination humorously.

14.

•

?I picked some out and up gifts.

•

?I picked some gifts out and up.

[Supplementary exercise] Can all of the nine LEXICAL categories (V, N, D, Adj, Adv, P, Sbr, Crd, Intj) be coordinated? Present your evidence.

Coordinators can’t be coordinated, so the answer is “no”.

•

*I tried and or but I didn’t make it.

•

*I tried and but or I didn’t make it.

•

*I tried and and or I didn’t make it.

But it is possible to coordinate the subordinator whether: •

We haven’t made any decisions on whether or how to proceed.

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

Chapter 16 1.

2.

For each of the main clauses below, say whether it is canonical or non-canonical. If it’s non-canonical, say which aspect of its structure makes it so. i It doesn’t matter anymore.

non-canonical (negative)

ii That’ll be the day.

canonical

iii I’m looking for someone to love.

canonical

iv It’s so lucky that you found me.

non-canonical (it cleft)

v I want money.

canonical

vi Do you love me?

non-canonical (closed interrogative)

vii What a time we had.

non-canonical (exclamative)

viii What’s wrong with me?

non-canonical (open interrogative)

ix I feel so bad.

canonical

x This sort of thing I have no patience with.

non-canonical (preposed element)

Classify the main clauses of the following examples with respect to voice, saying for each whether it’s active or passive. i A new shop opened up in Jerusalem today.

active

ii New shops often get opened up in Jerusalem.

passive

iii Someone opened up a new shop in Jerusalem.

active

iv A new shop was opened up in Jerusalem.

passive

v They opened up a new shop in Jerusalem.

active

vi Was a new shop opened up in Jerusalem today?

passive

vii The opening was planned by an unknown artistic collaborative.

passive

viii An unknown artistic collaborative is responsible.

active

ix An unknown artistic collaborative is thought to be responsible.

passive

x An unknown artistic collaborative is thought by the media to be responsible.

passive

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

3.

For each of the following active clauses, if it has a passive counterpart, supply it; if not, do your best to give a general statement of why this sort of clause doesn’t have a passive. (For example, if given Jim remains chair you might say that chair is a bare role NP functioning as predicative complement, which is why there can be no corresponding passive clause *Chair is remained by Jim.) i The weather made our holiday a delight.

Our holiday was made a delight (by the weather).

ii The secretary gave a copy of the report to all board members.

A copy of the report was given to all board members (by the secretary).

iii Both her children have malaria.

No passive: have is found in passives only in certain dynamic uses (see §16.2.5).

iv One of the guests sat on my glasses.

My glasses were / got sat on (by one of our guests).

v My sister lives just around the corner.

No passive: live has no complement that could be a passive subject.

vi Your letter arrived this morning.

No passive: arrive has no complement that could be a passive subject.

vii Most people believe them to be genuine.

They are believed to be genuine (by most people).

viii Your new proposal looks a real improvement on the last one.

No passive: look has a real improvement as a predicative complement here, and such complements cannot be passive subjects.

ix The college awarded her a prize.

She was awarded a prize (by the college).

x We supported each other in school when things got tough.

?We were supported by each other in

school when things got tough.

There is no possibility of the reciprocal pronoun each other functioning as a subject, but it might be possible to construct a sentence like this, keeping we in subject position. It’s hard to imagine a reason for doing so though.

4.

Express each of these examples with all clauses entirely in the active voice. i I was robbed by bandits on the way to class and my homework was stolen.

Bandits robbed me on the way to class and someone stole my homework.

ii It is clear that your goldfish has been poisoned by one of your enemies.

It is clear that one of your enemies has killed your goldfish.

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

5.

iii ‘You should have that looked at by an expert,’ I was told by all my friends.

‘You should have an expert look at that,’ all my friends told me.

iv Today I was hit by the bad news that we’re being shut down by the police.

Today the bad news that the police are shutting us down hit me.

v She went swimming and was attacked by a crocodile.

She went swimming and a crocodile attacked her.

[Supplementary exercise] Provide counterparts of each of the following clauses (from a TEDGlobal talk by Sheena Iyengar) with the underlined head verbs changed into the passive. i If a choice affects you, then you should be the one to make it. This is the only way to ensure that other people account for your preferences and interests.

If a choice affects you, then you should be the one to make it. This is the only way to ensure that your preferences and interests are accounted for.

ii The first group came in, and Miss Smith, who showed them six big piles of anagram puzzles, greeted them.

The first group came in and (they) were greeted by Miss Smith, who showed them six big piles of anagram puzzles.

iii When the second group of children came in, somebody brought them to the same room and showed them the same anagrams, but this time Miss Smith told them which anagrams to do and which markers to write their answers with.

When the second group of children came in, they were brought to the same room and shown them the same anagrams, but this time Miss Smith told them which anagrams to do and which markers to write their answers with.

iv In reality, somebody gave the kids who Miss Smith or their mothers told what to do the very same activity, which their counterparts in the first group had freely chosen.

In reality, the kids who were told what to do by Miss Smith or their mothers were given the very same activity, which their counterparts in the first group had freely chosen.

v It didn’t matter who did the choosing; if another dictated the task, their performance suffered.

It didn’t matter who did the choosing; if the task was dictated, their performance suffered. (This may be improved by the addition of a by phrase.)

vi In fact, some of the kids were visibly embarrassed when a researcher told them that the researchers had consulted their mothers.

In fact, some of the kids were visibly embarrassed when they were told that their mothers had been consulted.

vii Their immigrant parents’ approach to choice strongly influenced the firstgeneration children.

The first-generation children were strongly influenced by their immigrant parents’ approach to choice.

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

6.

viii The assumption then that we do best when the individual self chooses only holds when we clearly divide that self from others.

The assumption then that we do best when the individual self chooses only holds when that self is clearly divided from others.

ix For modern Americans who expose themselves to more options and more ads that we associate with options than anyone else in the world, choice is just as much about who they are as it is about what the product is.

For modern Americans who were exposed to more options and more ads (that are) associated with options than anyone else in the world…

x The new economy flooded them with choice before they could protest that they didn’t know how to swim.

They were flooded with choice (by the new economy) before they could protest that they didn’t know how to swim.

For each of the following, say whether it is (a) a passive clause, i.e., a be-passive or a get-passive; (b) an active clause with an adjectival passive as complement; or (c) ambiguous between the two. For the ambiguous cases, describe the difference in meaning. i The farm was surrounded by troops.

Ambiguous: If surrouding describes a change of state, then be-passive, otherwise, adjectival passive.

ii The rod was magnetized.

Ambiguous: If magnetizing describes a change of state, then bepassive, otherwise, adjectival passive.

iii The motion was carried unanimously.

be-passive

iv One of the letters wasn’t signed.

Ambiguous: If signing would describe a change of state, then bepassive, otherwise, adjectival passive.

v Several people were injured during the demonstration.

be-passive

vi I got bitten by the neighbours’ dog.

get-passive

vii They got reprimanded for it.

get-passive

viii They were lost.

Ambiguous: If this describes a situation in which somebody lost them, then be-passive, otherwise, adjectival passive.

ix They got dressed.

get-passive

x One of the letters didn’t get signed.

get-passive

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

7.

For each of the following, say whether the counterpart we specify has the same meaning as the cited example. i Two different measures can be used to assess test reliability. (canonical counterpart)

The canonical clause would have a subject that is missing in the passive, but if we use a subject like anyone, then the meanings are very similar, though arguably not the same.

ii Few votes are taken whereby decisions are arrived at by consensus. (canonical counterpart)

Similarly, the canonical clause would require us to add a subject. A subject like people would lead to a very similar meaning, though arguably not the same.

iii These results are presented in Table 3. (canonical counterpart)

Again, the canonical clause would require us to add a subject. A subject like we would lead to a very similar meaning, though arguably not the same.

iv Some people are born to be chefs. (canonical counterpart)

In Mothers bear some children to be chefs, the meaning differs. The passive suggests some essential chef nature in the children, while the active suggests the mothers have the goal of having their children become chefs.

v No position is supported by everyone. (canonical counterpart)

The scope of the negative changes in the active counterpart. The negation is sub-clausal. If it were clausal, the canonical clause wouldn’t share the polarity.

vi If someone isn’t ready, you can’t do anything. (existential counterpart)

…, there’s nothing you can do would have the same meaning. The clause …, *there’s anything you can’t do is ungrammatical.

vii A shortage isn’t a big problem. (existential counterpart)

There isn’t a problem with a shortage. The meaning is the same.

viii A shortage isn’t a big problem. (it-cleft counterpart)

It isn’t a big problem to have a shortage. The meaning is the same.

ix They weigh the same amount. (passive counterpart)

The passive would change the interpretation of the verb weigh from stative to dynamic.

x 500 shares changed hands. (passive counterpart)

The idiomatic meaning of change hands is lost in the passive.

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

8.

9.

Which of the following strings can form prepositional passives? Construct a plausible example for each one where it’s possible. i account for

Everything was accounted for.

ii accuse of

no prepositional passive possible

iii base on

no prepositional passive possible.

A clause like it was based on the same idea has the object of on in its normal position.

iv call for

A new approach was called for.

v deal with

It needs to be dealt with.

vi discriminate against

They were discriminated against.

vii expose to

no prepositional passive possible

viii pay for

The room has been paid for.

ix reckon with

It’s something to be reconned with.

x talk about

It’s not to be talked about.

For each underlined clause, give an extraposed counterpart if one is available, or if none is available, try to explain why. i Why you put up with it is incomprehensible.

It is incomprehensible why you put up with it.

ii It isn’t clear to me whether he was even listening.

Already extraposed

iii The fact that they are married should make no difference.

It should make no difference that they are married.

iv It feels good to be back in my home town.

Already extraposed

v For you to do that would be deeply unethical.

It would be deeply unethical for you to do that.

vi I appreciate that you returned it sincerely.

I appreciate it sincerely that you returned it.

vii That I should have to clean it all up seems a bit unfair.

It seems a bit unfair that I should have to clean it all up.

viii I’m afraid fussing about the pain is no use.

I’m afraid it is no use fussing about the pain.

ix Why she had to do that will always be a mystery.

It will always be a mystery why she had to do that.

x Meeting you and your family has been a great pleasure.

I has been a great pleasure meeting you and your family.

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

10.

11.

Classify the following existentials as bare, locative, temporal, predicative, or hollow infinitival. i There are no mountains on the surface of Saturn.

locative

ii There being no other safer alternatives, the drug was given a green light.

predicative

iii There was no lightning recorded in the area during the weeks in question.

Locative & temporal

iv There wasn’t enough time to steal anything.

Hollow infinitival

v There were other assertions that we had previously debunked.

bare

vi There’s a lot of energy in outer space.

locative

vii There’s an in-bar field test coming up tonight.

Predicative & temporal

viii There’s more to know about Corrigan.

Hollow infinitival

ix There’s nothing to keep me from destroying these crystals.

Hollow infinitival

x There’s nothing wrong with what Avery’s doing.

Predicative

Give existential or presentational counterparts of the following clauses if they are available. If none is available explain why. i Carpentry tools are available for your use.

There are carpentry tools (available) for your use.

ii A friend of yours is on the phone.

There’s a friend of yours on the phone.

iii His wife was very rich.

There was his wife, who was very rich.

iv Only one doctor was present.

There was only one doctor present.

v Several important points emerged.

There were several important points that emerged.

vi A person came riding over the hill.

There was a person who came riding over the hill.

vii The sun came rising over the hill.

The sun is definite, so this is not possible.

viii One key was missing.

There was one key missing.

ix Something is wrong with the battery.

There’s something wrong with the battery.

x Is your job available?

Your job is definite, so this is not possible.

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Geoffrey K. Pullum, Brett Reynolds

12.

13.

14.

Give non-existential counterparts of the following clauses if one is available, and where none is available explain why. i There’s a serious mistake in your argument.

A serious mistake is / exists in your argument.

ii There were two students on the committee.

Two students were on the committee.

iii There’s nothing to worry about.

Not available: It’s a hollow infinitival.

iv There had been a violent demonstration against the new bill.

Not available: It’s a bare existential.

v There’s no doubt that he’s the main culprit.

Not available: It’s a bare existential.

For each of the following, give an it-cleft counterpart with the same truth conditions, with the underlined constituent as the foregrounded element. i I blame you.

It’s you I blame.

ii Most of the leaf growth occurs in the spring.

It’s in the spring when most of the leaf growth occurs.

iii They left the campground only reluctantly.

It was only reluctantly that they left the campground.

iv George took the Volvo.

It was George who took the Volvo.

v I liked the other one most.

It was the other one I liked most.

Identify the category of the foregrounded element in each of the following. i It is naming which separates us.

VP

ii It is this same fear which drives this pathological desire to own guns.

NP

iii It was Jabo who took it upon himself to sneak into villages at night.

NP

iv It was professional historians who raised the alarm.

NP

v It was then that Anne joined the company.

PP

vi It was to learn more about cheetahs that I dropped in on JK.

Clause

vii It was to these people that her father spoke.

PP

viii It wasn’t until that moment that she realized she had never prepared him.

PP

ix It’s not for nothing that there weren’t any people on a single one of her embroideries.

PP

x It’s the ones who are going to deliver the pizza that will get the money.

NP

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15.

16.

Which of the following are it clefts? i It is clear that this region correlates with the expression of active genes.

yes

ii It is my opinion that the market can be restored.

yes

iii It is to reassure themselves that they have enough, that the people do this.

yes

iv It is well known that some neurons are bistable.

yes

v It was also here that I viewed 193 Herschel objects on 44 nights.

yes

vi It was at this time that we began to wake in the night.

yes

vii It was Pride that was getting the alerts.

yes

viii It’s in those moments that I feel a part of something bigger.

yes

ix It’s just that they would avoid each other.

no

x It’s to warn everyone that the contagion has gotten loose.

no (unless the contagion escaped to warn people)

For each of the following, give a pseudo-cleft with the same truth conditions, with the underlined constituent as the foregrounded element (see §16.6.2). i The absurd waste of it all bothers me.

What bothers me is the absurd waste of it all.

ii Most of the leaf growth occurs in the spring.

What occurs in the spring is most of the leaf growth.

iii The backgrounded material gets put in the fused relative construction.

What gets put in the fused relative construction is the backgrounded material.

iv George took the Volvo.

What George took was the Volvo.

v I liked the music most.

What I liked the most was the music.

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