SOLUTIONS MANUAL for Contemporary Linguistic Analysis An Introduction 9th Edition by William O'Grady

ANSWER KEY William O’Grady

Contemporary Linguistic Analysis An Introduction

Ninth Edition William O’Grady John Archibald

Contents Chapter 1: Language............................................................................................................

1

Chapter 2: Phonetics............................................................................................................

3

Chapter 3: Phonology…………………………………………..........................................

8

Chapter 4: Morphology…………………...........................................................................

15

Chapter 5: Syntax……………………………………........................................................

22

Chapter 6: Semantics……………………………………...................................................

46

Chapter 7: The Classification of Languages.........................................................................

48

Chapter 8: Historical Linguistics……………………………………..................................

50

Chapter 9: Indigenous Languages in Canada .......................................................................

*

Chapter 10: First Language Acquisition* ............................................................................

56

Chapter 11: Second Language Acquisition...........................................................................

60

Chapter 12: Bilingualism and Bilingual Acquisition............................................................

62

Chapter 13: Psycholinguistics……………………………………....................................... 65 Chapter 14: Brain and Language .......................................................................................... 67 Chapter 15: Language in Social Contexts ............................................................................ 69 Chapter 16: Writing and Language ...................................................................................... 70 Chapter 17: Communication in other species........................................................................ 71

*Chapter 9 is not included because it does not contain practice exercises.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. ii

Chapter 1

Chapter 1: Language 1. (a) dance in a hip hop style (b) travel on a sled pulled by a dog team (c) ride on a unicycle (d) install solar panels (e) made his way across the park using a hula hoop (f) travel in a Tesla (a type of electric car) (g) clean with Ajax (a cleanser) (h) clean with Windex (a window cleanser) (i) wear your hair in dreadlocks (j) put in a carton

2. Answers will vary.

3. (a) impossible (b) possible (c) impossible (d) impossible

(e) possible (f) possible (g) impossible (h) impossible

4. Answers will vary.

5. (a) Binh’s mother left him with nothing to eat. (b) Miriam is eager to talk to someone. OR Miriam is easy to talk to. (c) acceptable (d) acceptable (e) Is the dog hiding [or some other transitive verb] the bone again? (f) Adisa prepared a cake for Zena. (g) acceptable (h) acceptable (i) Ahmed cleaned it up. (j) I hope (that) you’ll leave. OR I want you to leave. (k) That you like liver surprises me.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 1

Chapter 1 6. Note: At this early point in the course, we do not expect technical explanations for the unacceptability of these sentences. Student answers need not include the actual terminology employed here. (a) The form of the verb should be doesn’t when the subject is singular. (b) The form of the verb should be were when the subject is you. (c) In a sentence with pre-verbal there, the form of the verb should be are when the following noun is plural. (d) The form of the verb break should be broken, not broke. (e) A pronoun in subject position should have the ‘nominative’ form (me should be I); gonna and campin’ are too colloquial. (f) A sentence should not end in a preposition (compare: With whom did you come?). (g) The past tense form of see is saw, not seen. (h) The form been can only occur with the auxiliary has (compare: He has been lost ...). (i) The verb needs should be followed by either to be cleaned or cleaning; because should not be contracted to’ cause. (j) The word ain’t is substandard, as is get in the sense of ‘have’; a double negative (n’t and none) is unacceptable (compare: Julie doesn’t have any). (k) Since somebody is singular, the pronoun should be his (or her), not their. (l) The reflexive pronoun should be himself, not hisself.

See pp. 7–8 for a discussion of the problems with prescriptive approaches to language.

7.

It’s yours.

It’s his.

It’s hers.

It’s ours.

It’s theirs.

All other pronouns in the underlined positions end in s. The process of regularization therefore adds an s to mine, giving mines.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 2

Chapter 2

Chapter 2: Phonetics 1. (a) flute [], fuse [], put [], cup [], autumn [], minute [] (b) tough/enough; bought/though (c) made, maid, play, convey, sleigh, lei, latte, fiancé(e), break 2. (a) 2 [] (e) 10 []* (b) 4 [] (f) 7 [ɪgzɪbət] (c) 3 [] (g) 4 [] (d) 4 [] (h) 7 [] *This word may also be pronounced with a final syllabic sonorant: [ ]. The number of segments in (e) would then be 9.

3. (a) voiced [] (b) voiced [] (c) voiced [] (d) voiceless []

(e) (f) (g) (h)

voiced [] voiceless [] voiceless [] voiceless []

(i) voiceless [] (j) voiced [] (k) voiced [] (l) voiced []

(m) voiced [] (n) voiced [] (o) voiced [] (p) voiced []

4. (a) voiceless [] (b) voiceless [] (c) voiced [] (d) voiced []

(e) (f) (g) (h)

voiced [] voiced [] voiceless [] voiced []

(i) voiced [] (j) voiced [] (k) voiced [] (l) voiceless []

(m) voiced [] (n) voiced [] (o) voiced [] (p) voiceless []

5. (a) same: velar

(e) different: bilabial/alveolar

(b) different: bilabial/velar (c) same: alveolar (d) different: (labio) velar/palatal 6. (a) same: stop

(f) different: interdental/alveolar (g) same: interdental

(i) different: alveolar/ alveopalatal (j) same: labiodental (k) same: alveolar

(h) same: alveolar

(l) different: glottal/ alveopalatal

(e) same: fricative

(i) different: affricate/ fricative (j) different: liquid/ glide (k) same: stop (l) different: stop/ fricative

(b) different: stop/fricative

(f) same: liquid

(c) same: fricative (d) same: affricate

(g) same: glide (continuant) (h) same: nasal (stop)

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 3

Chapter 2 7. (a) voiced velar stop (b) voiced palatal glide (c) voiceless labiodental fricative (d) voiced bilabial nasal (e) voiceless alveolar fricative (f) high back rounded tense vowel (g) voiced interdental fricative (h) low front unrounded vowel

[] [] [] [] [] [] [] []

8.

Note: The transcription represents standard Canadian pronunciation here. (a) ban hand same: [] (h) nail whale same: [] (b) push food different: [] / [] (i) line take different: [] / [] (c) cot bought same: []* (j) cloud run different : [] / [] (d) ghost lock different: [] / [] (k) plan hat same: [] (e) mush what different: [] /[]** (l) lunch whoosh different: [] / [] or [] (f) seem sit different: [] / [] (m) bid key diffferent: [] / [] (g) catch watch different: [] / [] (n) get frame different: [] / [] *In many other varieties of English, but not Canadian English, bought has the vowel []. **For some speakers, the vowel sound in these words is the same: [].

9. (a) [    ] are all stops. (b) [  ] are all back round vowels. (c) [   ] are all lax vowels. (d) [  ] are all diphthongs.

10. Note: We do not represent aspiration here. (a) rich [] (i) myth (b) goes [] (j) shock (c) things [] (k) top (d) debt [] (l) gem (e) could [] (m) guess (f) jug [] (n) vex (g) ridge [] (o) wrong (h) ghost [] (p) Butch

(e) [    ] are all fricatives. (f) [     ] are all alveolar. (g) [       ] are all voiceless. (h) [   ] are all voiced.

[] [] [] [] [] [] [] []

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 4

(q) crows (r) Scotch (s) yes (t) should (u) cup (v) lathe (w) buff (x) sham

[] [] [] [] [] [] [] []

Chapter 2 11. (a) tog [] (b) kid [] (c) attain [] (d) despise [] (e) elbow [] (f) haul [] (g) juice [] (h) thimble []

(i) peas (j) stun (k) Oscar (l) cooler (m) sigh (n) hulk (o) explode (p) tube

[] (q) spell [] (r) cord [] (s) accord [] (t) astound [] (u) pool [] (v) wheeze [] (w) remove []/ [ j ] (x) clinical 

[] [] [] [] [] [] [] []

Note: There’s room for variation here, especially in the transcription of unstressed final syllables in words such as cooler ([], [ r ], or [ɚ]), thimble and clinical ([] or [ ]). There '  is also sometimes variation between [] and [] in the second syllable of words such as clinical.*** 12. (a)

L

H

Are you leaving? (b)

H

L

H

L

What are you doing over there? (c)

H L H

L

Take a seat, please.

13. (a) Cánada (b) bóokcàse (c) retúrn (d) gréenhòuse (e) ánecdòte

(f) (the) récord (g) (to) recórd (h) cínema (i) attáin (j) aróma

(k) Canádianìze (l) góvernment (m) gòvernméntal (n) contról (o) Vancóuver Canúcks

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 5

Chapter 2 14.

Answers will vary.

15. (a) in my room regressive assimilation:

Careful Speech [  ] [ ] 

Rapid Speech [  ] [ ]

(b) I see them. consonant deletion & vowel reduction:

[  ] [] 

[ ] []

(c) I see him consonant deletion & vowel reduction:

[  ] [ ] 

[ ] []

(d) within (intervocalic) voicing:

[] [] 

[] []

(e) balloons (vowel) deletion:

[] [] 

[] []

(f) popsicle vowel deletion, which in turn removes the opportunity for aspiration:

[] [] 

[] []

(g) sit down [ ] [] deletion of either [] or []; flapping of [ ]  [] the remaining consonant Note: There is no way to tell which of the consonants deletes. One could even argue that they coalesce into a single consonant (though coalescence is not dealt with in this chapter). In any event, only a single [] or [] flaps in English, so it is important to include deletion in the list of processes and follow it with flapping. (h) sandwich [] deletion of the consonant []; []  assimiliation of [] to the place of articulation of the following []: [] 

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 6

[] [] []

Chapter 2 (i) Scotch tape [ ] [ ] Metathesis ([s] switches places with the three following segments): [ ]  [ ] Note the aspiration of [] now that it occurs at the beginning of the first syllable, as well as the loss of aspiration in the [], which now follows []. [ r ]

(j) protection

[]

vowel reduction:

[ r ] 

[ r ]

metathesis:

[ r ] 

[]

 [tərnow]  [trnow] 

[trnow] [t r now]

(k) Toronto vowel deletion: devoicing:







  

[trnow] 

vowel reduction: (l) Pam will seat you: deletion of initial glide: deletion of unstressed vowel, leaving syllabic liquid: palatalization of [] before the palatal glide []:

[t r nə]

[ wəl sit ju]   [ wl] 

[ ] [æml]

[l] 

[ ]

[] 

[]



Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 7

Chapter 3

Chapter 3: Phonology 1. Inuktitut The following minimal pairs show that /i/ and /u/ are contrastive sounds: (a)  ‘to a house’ and (f)  ‘from a house’ (c)  ‘walrus’ and (l)  ‘she goes home’ The following minimal pairs show that /a/ and /u/ are contrastive sounds: (b) ‘late fall’ and (n)  ‘winter’ (d) , ‘if you leave’ and (g) , ‘because you leave’ The following minimal pairs should that /i/ and /a/ are contrastive sounds: (e) , ‘seal’s breathing hole’ and (j) , ‘(snow) house’ (h) , ‘that one up there’ and (k)  ‘that place up there’ (i) , ‘female’s brother’ and (m) , ‘place, spot’ 2. Mokilese We begin by setting up a table that shows systematically the forms in which the various allophones occur.

Voiced []

Voiceless [ i ]

Voiced []

Voiceless [u]

(i) 

(a) pi° san

(g) 

(b) tupukta

(j) 

(d) k i° sa

(l) 

(c) puko

°

°

°

°

°

(k) 

(e) supwo °

The following word contains both voiced and voiceless allophones of one of the vowels in question: (f)  i°  There are no minimal pairs involving [] and [i] because the two sounds are in °

complementary distribution: [i] occurs between voiceless consonants (such as [], [], °

and []), while [] occurs elsewhere (i.e., between voiced consonants and wordfinally, but never between voiceless consonants). Similarly [u] occurs only between °

voiceless consonants, while [] occurs elsewhere. Hence:

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 8

Chapter 3

// [i]

// [u ]

[]

°

between voiceless Cs

°

elsewhere

between voiceless Cs

[] elsewhere

There’s a general process at work here: high vowels in Mokilese are devoiced between voiceless consonants. (This process could be stated with the help of rules and features, if the instructor desires).

3. Gascon There are no minimal pairs involving [] and [β]; indeed, the two sounds are in complementary distribution: [β] occurs between vowels and [b] occurs elsewhere. // [β] between vowels

[] elsewhere

An exactly parallel state of affairs holds for [] and [] and for [] and [γ]. // [] between vowels

// [] elsewhere

[γ] between vowels

[] elsewhere

There’s a general process at work here: voiced stops in Gascon become fricatives between vowels. (This process could be stated with the help of rules and features, if the instructor desires).

4. The sounds [] and [] belong to separate phonemes in Korean, as shown by the existence of minimal pairs such as [] ‘glue’ and [] ‘fire’. There are also nearminimal pairs that confirm this analysis: compare the forms in (b) and (g).

5. Hindi This is one of the few cases where near-minimal pairs are needed. Although there are no minimal pairs for [] and [b], the two sounds are found in the following near minimal pairs:

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 9

Chapter 3 (a) [] ‘large’ and (b) [ b ] ‘heavy’  (c) [] ‘without’ and (d) [ b ] ‘crowd’  (i) [] ‘father’ and (j) [ b ag] ‘part’  Because there are no plausible conditioning factors that could be used to set up complementary distribution and because there are near-minimal pairs, it is necessary to assume that [] and [ b ] belong to distinct phonemes in Hindi.  6. Swampy Cree i) The data show that [] is found between vowels and [] elsewhere. Parallel complementary distribution is found for [] and [], for [] and [], and for [] and [].

// [] between vowels

// [] elsewhere

[] between vowels

// [] between vowels

[] elsewhere

// [] elsewhere

[] between vowels

[] elsewhere

ii) A general process is at work here: non-continuant consonants (i.e., stops and affricates) become voiced between vowels. A rule can be written as follows.

C -continuant → [+voice]/V ___ V -voice This rule assumes that only voiceless stops and affricates occur in the underlying form in Swampy Cree, and that they are voiced if they occur between vowels.

7. This problem works in a manner very similar to the Swampy Cree problem, but with an important difference in the context in which the voiced allophones occur. [] and [] are allophones of the same phoneme because they occur in complementary distribution: [] occurs between sonorants (i.e., vowels, liquids, and nasals), while [] occurs elsewhere, including at the beginning and ends of words and syllables. This makes sense phonetically, as the voiced allophone ([]) occurs between voiced sounds (sonorants). Parallel complementary distribution is found for [] and [], for [] and [], and for [] and []. In sum: Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 10

Chapter 3

// [] between sonorants

// [] elsewhere

// [] between sonorants

[] between sonorants

[t] elsewhere

// [] elsewhere

[] between sonorants

[] elsewhere

8. Syllable Structure

9. English i) There is no compelling evidence for this position, since the two varieties of l are phonetically similar and in complementary distribution. ii) The clear [] is found in syllable onsets. The dark [ is found in codas.

The clear [] is usually treated as basic since it occurs in the least restrictive set of phonetic environments.

10. Canadian French i) The allophones in the pairs [] and [], [] and [], and [] and [] are all determined by the same phonetic conditions: the tense allophones [], [], and []

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 11

Chapter 3 are found in open syllables and the lax allophones [], [], and [] are found in closed syllables.

On the assumption that open syllables are more “basic” in human languages (see Chapter 7, section 7.2.1), assume that the tense vowel allophones are underlying. ii) Rule: Vowel laxing

-consonantal +syllabic +high

[–tense] / ___ [+consonantal] σ

iii) Syllabification is indicated by dots in the derivation.

UR Vowel laxing

PR

/v i t a m i n/ ‘vitamin’

/l y n e t/

..

.

[      ]

[     ]

‘glasses’

11. English i) In English fast speech, a schwa is deleted from a word when the following syllable also contains a schwa. This condition is satisfied in examples (a) to (f), but not in (g) and (h), where the schwa is not followed by a syllable containing a schwa. ii) (σ = syllable boundary) V [+reduced] → Ø / ______ σ [+reduced]

12. Natural Classes (a) // and // are [+high, -low]. // and // are [-low, -back]. // and // are [-low, +back]. //, //, // and // are [-low]. //, //, and // are [-high]. etc.

Note: All vowels are also [-consonantal, +syllabic, +sonorant].

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 12

Chapter 3 (b) //, // and // are [LABIAL]. //, //, // and // are [-continuant, -nasal]. //, //, // and // are [+continuant]. // and // are [+nasal] //, //, //, //, //, // and // are [-voice]. etc.

Note: All consonants are also [+consonantal].

13. Distinctive Features (a) [voice] (b) [continuant] (c) [tense] (d) [high]

(e) [sonorant]/[nasal] (f) [anterior] (g) [tense] (h) [voice]

(i) [reduced] (j) [strident] (k) [tense] (l) [high]

14. The bold-faced features suffice to distinguish the target sounds from other sounds (in English, at least); the remaining features are all relevant to the phonetic characterization of the sounds, however. (a) []

V  + sonorant   +continuant   -nasal   + voice   DORSAL   -high   -low   -back   + tense 

(d) []

C  -sonorant   +continuant   -nasal   -voice  CORONAL   + anterior   +strident 

(b) []

C

 -sonorant   +continuant   -nasal   +voice   CORONAL   -anterior   + strident 

(e) [] C  -sonorant   -continuant   -nasal   + voice   DORSAL   +high   + back 

(c) [] C  + sonorant   -continuant   + nasal   + voice   LABIAL   -round 

(f) []  -syllabic   -consonantal   + sonorant   + continuant   + voice   DORSAL   + high   -back 

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 13

Chapter 3 15. Processes and Rule Notation. (a) Process: Assimilation (the stops and affricates becomes [+continuant] due to the influence of the surrounding vowels, which are made with no obstruction).

-syllabic +consonantal -continuant

+syllabic → [+continuant] / -consonantal

+syllabic -consonantal

(b) Process: Epenthesis

Ø→[+reduced] /

+consonantal -syllabic -sonorant

+consonantal -syllabic -sonorant

(c) Process: Assimilation (nasalization)

-syllabic +consonantal -continuant -delayed release -nasal

→

+nasal /

+nasal

16. Rules to Statements (a) The vowel [] is inserted before a word-initial sequence of two obstruents.

(For example, a form like [spal] becomes [espal].) (b) /d/ becomes [n] before any nasal consonant (For example, a form like [admi] becomes [anmi].) (c) An unrounded vowel becomes rounded between two labial consonants.

(For example, a form like /pebal/ becomes [pobal] or [pöbal]. Note that the rest of the vowel features remain unchanged; the mid front vowel of the example is still mid and front, though it has become rounded.)

17. Tamil The palatal glide [] occurs predictably before any front vowel (here, all word-initial) and the labiovelar glide [] occurs predictably before any back rounded vowel (here, all word-initial). No glide occurs before the low back unrounded vowel [].

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 14

Chapter 4

Chapter 4: Morphology 1. Roots are underlined; bound morphemes are in boldface. Words (a), (d), (h), and (l) are simple. All the rest are complex. (a) fly (f) re-use (k) spite-ful (p) pre-plan (b) desk-s (g) triumph-ed (l) suite (q) opt-ion-al-ity † (c) un-tie (h) delight (m) fast-est (r) pretti-er (d) tree (i) just-ly (n) de-form (s) mis-treat (e) dis-like (j) pay-ment (o) dis-obey (t) pre-mature †Notice that neither de nor light carries a component of the meaning of delight; hence neither counts as a morpheme in this word. (Compare with de-form or light-en.)

2. Mortlockese i) tooth: ngii my: -j your (sg): -mw his/her/its: -n

our (incl): our (excl): your (pl): their:

-sh -mam -mi -r

ii) your (sg) leg/foot: peshemw his/her/its leg/foot: peshen our (excl) leg/foot: peshemam 3. Irarutu i) Irarutu uses prefixes to mark possession in the case of kinship, and a combination of prefixes and suffixes in the case of body parts. (No suffix is used for the third person.)

For kinship: For body parts: my: amy: a-; -g your: oyour: o-; ­m his/her: ihis/her: iii) his/her younger sibling: infut my eye: amceg his/her eye: imce 4. Kwakum i) I: nyewe: sɛyou (sg): ɔyou (pl): nɛs/he: athey: yebuy: bɔm negation (not): -wɛɛ recent past (recently): -ko remote past (along time ago): -mɛ Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 15

Chapter 4 ii) I bought (recently): nyebɔmko I didn’t buy (recently): nyebɔmkowɛɛ They bought (a long time ago): yebɔmmɛ 5. Persian i) I: -am you (sg.): -i we: -im you (pl): -id

they: -and not: nawas/were + ing (continuous): mi-

ii) They were buying: mixaridand You (sg.) did not buy: naxaridi You (sg.) were buying: mixaridi

6. Zapotec help: cañee present: rapast: cofuture: caI: -a we: -tonoo you (sg): -lo you (pl): -too he/she/they: -ni

7. Turkish i) -ta/-da ii) -ta occurs after a (voiceless) consonant; -da occurs after a vowel.

8. Serbian i) The morphemes: hrabr brave pametn smart sretçn happy lep beautiful lak light -a feminine, singular -o neuter, singular -e neuter, singular after the comparative morpheme -ij -ij more/-er (comparative) -ʃ more/-er (compatative)

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 16

Chapter 4 ii) The allomorphic variation: Neuter, singular is marked by the suffix -e when there is a comparative suffix (e.g., -ij). The comparative suffix can be either -ij or -[]. There is not enough data here to figure out the conditioning factor, but further study would reveal that -ij is used after a root that ends in a consonant cluster.

9. i) (a)

N

A

(d)

V

Af

V

Af

A

Af

V

|

|

|

|

|

|

|

|

desk

s

un

tie

in

sincere

dis

prove

V

(f)

A

Af

N

(g) Af

N V

(h) Af

N V

Af

|

|

|

|

|

|

|

|

triumph

ed

age

less

lose

er

pay

ment

(i)

V

(j)

A

(k)

V

(l)

V

Af

V

A

Af

Af

V

Af

V

|

|

|

|

|

|

|

|

pre

arrange

smart

est

re

distribute

dis

obey

(m)

N A

N

opt

(c)

Af

V

|

V

N

(e)

V

(b)

(n) Af

Af

A A

(o) Af

V Af

(p) V

Af

V

|

|

|

|

|

|

pretti

er

mis

treat

re

sell

Af

| ion al

V

ity

ii) base for -ion = the V opt base for -ity = the A optional opt is also the root

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 17

Chapter 4 10. Puyuma i) -em- is inserted right before the first vowel (alternatively, right after the first onset) of the base. Notice that one cannot say that -em- is inserted after the first consonant, because of examples b) and c). ii) An infix.

11. The correct tree structures are:

-un must combine with an A (see table 4.6)

re- must combine with a V (see table 4.6)

dis- must combine with a V (see table 4.6)

12. i) ‘a resident or native of’ ii) The -er in skater and walker means ‘one who does X’ iii) The -er meaning ‘a resident of’ cannot attach to a base that ends in a vowel or /r/. iv) No, as shown by words such as discoverer, doer, liar, and so on.

13. Because the rightmost component of the compound is the head (p. 121), its category must be the same as the category of the compound. This is especially important in case such as (o), where the rightmost component of the compound (peel) can be used as either a N or a V. Since the whole compound here is a N, peel must also be a N in this use. (a)

N

(b)

N

(c)

N

(d)

N

N

N

N

N

N

N

P

N

|

|

|

|

|

|

|

|

foot

ball

bill

board

sun

spot

in

crowd

(e)

N A

(f) N

N A

(g) N

V V

(h) V

V P

V

|

|

|

|

|

|

|

|

fast

food

soft

ball

freeze

dry

over

see

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 18

Chapter 4 (i)

N N

(j)

A

N

N

(k) A

N N

(l) N

N N

N

|

|

|

|

|

|

|

|

tree

trunk

lead

free

home

plate

girl

friend

(m)

N

(n)

A

(o)

N

(p)

A

N

N

V

A

N

N

A

A

|

|

|

|

|

|

|

|

city

centre

fail

safe

(q)

N

(r)

N

N

|

|

hockey match

(u)

N

N A

(s) N

|

phone

N

N N

|

smart

(v)

potato peel

bitter sweet

(t) N

N A

N

|

|

|

|

flower

pot

blue

print

(w)

N

A

N

N

N

N

N

|

|

|

|

|

|

red

alert

space

ship

exam

day

14. i) (a) exocentric (a loudmouth is a type of person, not a type of mouth) (b) exocentric (a skinhead is a type of person, not a type of head) (c) exocentric (a killjoy is a type of person, not a type of joy) (d) endocentric (junk mail is a type of mail) (e) endocentric (a death blow is a type of blow) (f) exocentric (an airhead is a type of person, not a type of head) (g) exocentric (a Walkman is a radio, not a type of man) (h) exocentric (a cutthroat is a type of criminal, not a type of throat) (i) exocentric (a pickpocket is a type of criminal, not a type of pocket) (j) exocentric (a spoilsport is a type of person, not a type of sport) (k) exocentric (a laptop is a computer, not a type of top) (l) endocentric (brain-dead refers to one definition of being dead) (m) endocentric (blow-dry refers to a way of drying) (n) endocentric (an armchair is a type of chair) (o) exocentric (a lowlife is a type of person, not a type of life)

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 19

Chapter 4 ii) For most speakers, the plural of lowlife is lowlifes, not lowlives; the plural of Walkman is Walkmans, not Walkmen; and the plural of loudmouth is [lawdmʌwθs], not [lawdmawðz] (in contrast, the plural of life as an independent word is [layvz] and the plural of mouth as an independent word is [mawðz]). This is in keeping with the general tendency for exocentric compounds to have completely regular plurals.

15.

Forms such as hold up, carry on, etc. allow inflection on the verb (holding up, carried on, etc.). As noted in section 4.3.1, the first element in a true compound does not permit inflection. The nouns derived from these verbal expressions (holdup, dropout, takeover) are compounds because the inflection is on the entire word, not the first element of the compound: holdups, dropouts, takeovers.

16. (a) inflection; see table 4.15 (b) derivation; see table 4.6 (c) inflection; see table 4.15 (d) inflection; see table 4.15 (e) derivation; see table 4.6 17. Derivational affixes are underlined; inflectional affixes are in boldface. (Note that we identify affixes only, not suppletion and replacement.) (a) The farmer’s cows escaped. (b) It was raining. (c) She noted his impoliteness. (d) José needs the newer copy. (e) The strongest rower continued. (f) The pitbull has bitten the cyclist. (g) She quickly closed the book. (h) The alphabetiz-ation went well.

18. i) Column 1: internal change; Column 2: suppletion; Column 3: suffixation. ii) Column 1: come/came; Column 2: bad/worse; Column 3: increase/increased 19. Samoan i) Reduplication ii) Reduplicate the penultimate (second last) syllable. iii) malolosi

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 20

Chapter 4 20. Chamorro i) I involves reduplication; II involves suffixation; III involves reduplication ii) In I, the first (C)V sequence in the word is reduplicated; in II, the suffix –(y)on is added; in III, the last CV sequence in the word is reduplicated. iii) In II, the suffix has the allomorph -on when attached to a base that ends in a consonant and -yon when attached to a base that ends in a vowel.

21. i) record: Yes outline: No report: No journey: No convict: Yes assault: No exchange: No imprint: Yes answer: No remark: No reply: No import: Yes surprise: No retreat: No access: No (for most people) ii) cónduct (N) vs. condúct (V); cónflict (N) vs. conflíct (V)

22. (a) backformation (b) derivation (e) conversion (with stress shift) (h) derivation (i) initialism (l) blending (m) acronym (p) clipping (q) cliticization

(c) blending (f) clipping (j) clipping (n) clipping (r) initialism

(d) compounding (g) blending/compounding (k) conversion (o) blending

23. There is not always a single correct answer here, but possible examples follow. (a) USOB (b) klurk (c) bubble (d) cheese string (e) backform (f) windex (g) jonathan(ize) (h) ovin (i) contactable (j) chocseng

24. Korean i) These data illustrate a morphophonemic phenomenon—an alternation involving phonemes that takes place at a morpheme boundary. ii) The voiceless labial stop /p/ is nasalized (becomes /m/) at the end of a morpheme when it is followed by a nasal consonant. iii) A voiceless stop (/p/, /t/, or /k/) is nasalized (becomes /m/, /n/ or /ŋ/, respectively) at the end of a morpheme when it is followed by a nasal consonant.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 21

Chapter 5

Chapter 5: Syntax 1.

The following sentences are likely to be marked as ungrammatical by speakers of standard English. Possible sample ‘explanations’ for their ungrammaticality are also given. (b) Unlike tell, suggest does not fit in this context although it would be acceptable in a sentence such as The instructor suggested that the students study. (d) Unlike ask, request does not occur with for (compare The customer requested a cold beer). (f) Unlike give, donate does not fit in this context, although it would be acceptable in a sentence with to and a different word order (He donated some blood to the Red Cross). (j) Unlike land in (h), write usually appears with both a subject and a direct object; its subject should refer to the writer, not to the thing that is written. (k) Unlike tired in the next example, satisfied does not occur with of (compare Jerome is satisfied with his job).

2. (a) Det That

N V glass broke

(b) Det N V P Det N P Det N A jogger ran toward the end of the lane (c) Det A N Aux V Det These tall trees are blocking the

N road

(d) Det N V P Det N The detective looked through the records (e) Det N Adv V Deg A The peaches never appear quite ripe (f)

3. (a)

N Aux V Det N Con Det N P Det N Jeremy will play the trumpet and the drums in the orchestra

(b)

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 22

(c)

Chapter 5 (d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

(i)

(j)

4. (a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 23

Chapter 5 (e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

(i)

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 24

Chapter 5 5. (a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 25

Chapter 5 (g)

(h)

(i)

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 26

Chapter 5 (j)

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 27

Chapter 5 6. (a) Possible examples: [The news] upset the entire family and it upset me too. (it = the news) (b) Possible examples:They hid [in the cave] and you can hide there too. (there = in the cave) (c) Possible examples: [computer was very] is not a constituent. No substitution is possible. (d) Possible examples: [The houses] will be rebuilt and they will look better than ever. (they = the houses) (e) Possible examples: Jane will [leave town] and Mandeep will do so too. (do so = leave town) (f) Possible examples: [swam across] is not a constituent. No substitution is possible.

7. (a) [Near the river bank] we ate our lunch. (b) The test yields a negative result: *[Up the number] Vijay looked in the book. (c) The test yields a negative result: *[Island has been] the flooded. (d) [Peanut butter and bacon sandwiches] I love—but not salad. (e) The test yields a negative result: *[movement is gaining momentum] the environmental.

8.

Verb (a) Possible examples: option = Ø The grace period expired. (b) Possible examples: option = NP Fire destroyed [NP the house]. (c) Possible examples: option = NP The scientist observed [NP the phenomenon]. (d) Possible examples: option = NP The students discussed [NP the exam]. (e) Possible examples: option = NP PPfor I cleaned [NP the house] [PP for Yoshiko]. (f) Possible examples: option = NP He mumbled [NP an answer]. (g) Possible examples: option = NP PPloc I threw [NP the ball] [PP in the park].

Sarelle painted [NP a picture] [PP for Nevena]. (h) Possible examples: option = NP PPfor Noun (i) option = PPwith PPabout (j) option = Ø (k) option = PPof (l) option = PPof PPto (m) option = Ø Adjective (n) option = Ø (o) option = PPof (p) option = PPwith (q) option = PPabout (r) option = Ø

I had a debate [PP with Menachem] [PP about creationism].

I need a hammer.

We were impressed by the success [PP of the experiment].

I requested the transfer [PP of the money] [PP to the bank].

The scientists investigated the sickness.

Harry is strong.

Delaney is sick [PP of that project].

Virgil is happy [PP with that book].

Jamila is knowledgeable [PP about economics].

That tree is small.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 28

Chapter 5 9. (a)

(b)

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 29

Chapter 5 (c)

10. (a) Deep Structure

Surface Structure

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 30

Chapter 5 (b) Deep Structure

Surface Structure

(c) Deep Structure

Surface Structure

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 31

Chapter 5 (d) Deep Structure

Surface Structure

(e) Deep Structure

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 32

Chapter 5 Surface Structure

11. (a) Deep Structure

Surface Structure

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 33

Chapter 5 (b) Deep Structure

Surface Structure

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 34

Chapter 5 (c) Deep Structure

Surface Structure

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 35

Chapter 5 (d) Deep Structure

Surface Structure

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 36

Chapter 5 (e) Deep Structure

Surface Structure

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 37

Chapter 5 (f)

Deep Structure

Surface Structure

12. In German, either an auxiliary (such as wird ‘will’) or a ‘regular’ verb (such as liebt ‘loves’) can undergo Inversion. Since the Inversion rule is movement from T to C, this suggests that V must be able to move to T in German tree structure.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 38

Chapter 5 13. (a)

(b)

(c)

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 39

Chapter 5 14. (a) Deep Structure

Surface Structure

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 40

Chapter 5 (b) Deep Structure

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 41

Chapter 5 Surface Structure

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 42

Chapter 5

(c) Deep Structure

Surface Structure

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 43

Chapter 5 (d) Deep Structure

Surface Structure

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 44

Chapter 5 (e) Deep Structure

Surface Structure

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 45

Chapter 6

Chapter 6: Semantics 1. a) entailment b) equivalence c) contrariety d) None of the above e) None of the above f) contradiction 2. a) antonymy b) synonymy c) incompatibility d) subordination 3. a) agent, patient, benefactive b) patient, location c) agent, patient d) experiencer, stimulus e) experiencer, stimulus f) experiencer 4. a) accomplishment b) activity c) achievement d) accomplishment 5. Open-ended. Answers will vary.

6. i) yes ii) no iii) yes iv) no v) yes vi) yes vii) yes 7. a) Presupposition: John has wanted to live in the city for some time.

Trigger: the aspectual verb continue b) Presupposition: John has friends Trigger: the possessive John’s c) Presupposition: The painting is a fake.

Trigger: the factive verb realize d) Presupposition: The police were searching for the missing key.

Trigger: the aspectual verb stop

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 46

Chapter 6 8. The maxims of relevance and quantity both suggest that the interpretation of “I can’t swim” is that the addressee didn’t go to the pool party.

9. a) The reflexive pronoun is grammatical because it has a c-commanding antecedent (Mary) in the same clause. The plain pronoun is unacceptable on this interpretation because it cannot have a c-commanding antecedent in the same clause. b) The plain pronoun is acceptable when the antecedent is John because John is not in the same clause. It is unacceptable when the antecedent is Fred, because Fred c-commands the pronoun and is in the same clause.

10. Each other behaves like a reflexive since it obeys Principle A: it requires a c-commanding antecedent in the same clause. Principle A is satisfied in (a)—and also in (d), when the antecedent is taken to be their mothers. However, it is violated in (b), where the antecedent (the children) is not in the same clause, and in (c), where the antecedent is in the same clause but does not c-command each other.

11. a) The two readings of the sentence: Each raccoon searched a different garbage can. (narrow scope interpretation) Each raccoon searched the same garbage can.

This ambiguity in scope is permitted because the NP containing the universal quantifier every c-commands the indefinite NP. b) The two readings of the sentence: A particular raccoon searched each of the garbage cans.

A different raccoon searched each of the garbage cans. (narrow scope interpretation) The second interpretation is more difficult to get here because the NP containing the universal quantifier does not c-command the indefinite NP. c) The two readings of the sentence: Each of the girls nominated her own teacher. (bound variable interpretation) Each of the girls nominated Jane’s teacher.

This ambiguity in scope is permitted because the NP containing the universal quantifier every c-commands the NP containing the pronoun.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 47

Chapter 7

Chapter 7: The Classification of Languages 1. (a) Afrikaans Non-low back vowels are rounded; there are front unrounded vowels (as expected), in addition to the less common front rounded vowels. The vowel system includes the very common /i-a-u/ triangle. (b) Squamish The basic /i-a-u/ vowel triangle is present; the front vowel is unrounded and the non-low back vowel is rounded.

2. (a) Maltese Arabic Yes. The presence of contrastive long vowels implies the presence of contrastive short vowels. (b) Awji Yes. The presence of contrastive nasal vowels implies the presence of contrastive oral vowels.

3. (a) Tahitian There is no /k/ in the stop system (usually the missing stop is /p/); /k/’s place is filled by the voiceless glottal stop //. The presence of fricatives should imply the presence of stops, which are found here, as expected. The following facts are also worth noting: there is at least one liquid and one nasal phoneme in most languages, and Tahitian complies with this tendency; however, /s/, the most common fricative, is missing. (b) Palauan There is no /p/ among the voiceless stops; this is generally the expected gap among stops. The presence of voiced obstruent phonemes implies the presence of voiceless obstruent phonemes, and this expectation is met here. The presence of fricatives, including the most common fricative /s/, implies the presence of stops, and both are found here. As in most languages, there is at least one liquid and one nasal phoneme. (c) Nengone This language lacks /p, t, k/—the most common type of stops, although it does have an aspirated series of stops and a voiced series. It has voiceless nasal sonorants, and (as expected) there are corresponding voiced nasal sonorants as well. (There is one voiced nasal, the palatal //, with no voiceless counterpart, which also complies with the implicational universals in the chapter.)

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 48

Chapter 7 (d) Mixe The two nasal phonemes are the expected /m/ and /n/. Because there are affricates, we also expect there to be fricatives and stops—and there are. However, Mixe is one of the rare languages that has no liquid phoneme (/l/ or /r/), and it is also unusual in that it has a voiced obstruent (the fricative /v/) with no voiceless counterpart.

4. (a) Siberian Yupik: polysynthetic. The word expresses the meaning of an entire sentence and contains a string of roots and affixes. (b) Latvian: fusional/inflectional. The sample words, which contain a single root each, include affixes that simultaneously mark more than one contrast (e.g. -u marks first person, singular, and present tense) (c) Japanese: agglutinating. The sample words, which contain only one lexical category each, include affixes that each encode a single grammatical contrast (e.g., -wa marks a topic, -i marks present tense, etc.)

5. The morphemes: fly: lidot write: rakstit

-er: -āj

nominative: -s accusative: -u dative: -am genitive: -a

The data reflects the implicational universal that if a language has inflectional affixes (here, case markers), it must also have derivational affixes (here the affix - āj which converts a V into a N). Moreover, the derivational affix occurs closer to the root than does the inflectional affix. See p. 266.

6. The relevant word order tendencies are summarized in table 8.19 on p. 233. Malagasy is a VO language (as shown by the second example sentence); as expected, it places the P before its NP complement (first and third example sentences).

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 49

Chapter 8

Chapter 8: Historical Linguistics 1. (a) epenthesis (b) deletion (c) umlaut (d) epenthesis (e) metathesis (f) assimilation (g) dissimilation (h) epenthesis (i) assimilation (j) deaffrication (k) nasalization (l) assimilation (m) voicing (n) frication (o) degemination (p) rhotacism (q) deaffrication (r) auditorily-based substitution (s) apocope (t) syncope (u) auditorily-based substitution (v) apocope (w) degemination (x) vowel reduction 2. (a) Preceding front vowels, Acadian French has [t] whereas European French has [k]. (b) Palatalization/affrication. This change commonly affects velar (and dental/ alveolar) stops in the environment of a front vowel. (c) k > t / ___ V [-back] 3. (a) Word final consonant deletion, nasalization, and palatalization/affrication. (b) C > Ø / __# V > Ṽ / __

C [+nasal]

t > ʧ/ __ i

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 50

Chapter 8 4. (a) Syncope, voicing assimilation, vowel reduction ∪

V > Ø / C __ C (b) (1) (2) C > [-voice] / __ C [-voice] -sonorant +voice (3) V >  / __ # Syncope must precede assimilation. Vowel reduction is unordered. (c) lovŭka lovka lofka lofk

syncope assimilation vowel reduction

5. Sample derivations. Alternatives are possible. (a)*feminam femina deletion femna syncope femma assimilation femm vowel reduction Syncope must have occurred before assimilation. (b)*lumine lumne syncope lumre dissimilation lumbre epenthesis These changes must have occurred in the order given here. (c)*tremulare tremlare syncope tremblare epenthesis tremblar apocope temblar deletion The first three changes must have occurred in the order given here. (d)*stuppam stoppam umlaut (lowering) stoppa deletion stopa degemination estopa epenthesis Note: The assumption of umlaut is not historically correct; it does, however, represent a good hypothesis based on the single example given.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 51

Chapter 8 (e)*populu poplu syncope plopu metathesis plop apocope It is likely that syncope occurred before metathesis since that would have left the /l/ next to the /p/.

6. Note: These derivations have been simplified. In particular, unstressed word-final vowels were reduced to [] before the Great Vowel Shift, and some vowel changes have not been addressed. (a) bro de Great Vowel Shift brude apocope brud (b) knotta knota not n

degemination deletion, apocope vowel quality change

(c) w i se w i ze wajze wajz

voicing Great Vowel Shift apocope

(d) hlæfdige hlεfdige hlεdige hlεdije lεdije ledije ledij

vowel quality change: OE æ > ε consonant deletion palatalization and weakening consonant deletion Great Vowel Shift apocope

7. Possible spelling pronunciations (a) [w r' tstrajr] (b) [ejmz] (c) [dnb r' ] (d) [knz] (e) [nufawndlnd]

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 52

Chapter 8 8. The pre-Old English plural suffix for these forms was *-i which triggered umlaut of the base vowel. *b o ci b ø ci umlaut ( o > ø , then derounding of ø to e ) b ec apocope 9. The following are suggested answers. Other interpretations are possible. (a) shift (b) pejoration (c) shift (d) broadening (e) narrowing (f) pejoration (g) narrowing (h) shift (i) broadening (j) broadening (k) amelioration (l) shift (m) broadening (n) broadening (o) narrowing (p) broadening (q) shift (r) broadening (s) narrowing (t) shift (u) pejoration (v) weakening

10. (a) lock was originally a noun suffix that indicated action or process of. (b) craft originally meant ‘strength’or ‘skill’. (c) fast originally meant ‘firm’ or ‘fixed’. This meaning is retained in phrases like ‘to hold fast’. (d) ward was originally a suffix indicating direction. This meaning is retained in words like inward, outward, etc.

11. (a) -e (b) The Great English Vowel Shift. (c) lhude ‘loud’; gr o weþ ‘grows’; s e d ‘seed’; bl o weþ ‘blows’; n u ‘now’. (d) There are examples of verb-subject order. (e) The Middle English third person singular suffix was -eþ (pronounced []. It is now -s.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 53

Chapter 8 12. Words were borrowed into Cree to fill lexical gaps arising from the contact with French speakers and culture.

13. (a) foot (b) nephew (c) fish (d) acre (e) horn (f) two (g) eat (h) kin or kind (as in ‘kind of dog’)

14. Note The following reconstructions are those that can be arrived at based on section 7.

Since the data sample is extremely limited, some of the reconstructions and the sound changes posited may turn out to be incorrect, even if the procedures described in the chapter are followed. For example, although according to the Majority Rules Strategy, the Proto-Romance forms for (d) through (g) would have a diphthong; however, additional data (not given here) shows that it is better to reconstruct a monophthong, with diphthongization occurring in Spanish and Rumanian. Nevertheless, the following reconstructed forms do represent reasonable hypotheses based on the given data. Where two alternative reconstructions are valid, a slash is used; for example, o/u.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 54

Chapter 8

(f) *pjetra

Required sound changes Spanish Sardinian voicing voicing apocope monophthongization deletion monophthongization (<h> is not pronounced) voicing monophthongization

(g) *jerba

-

(h) *o/urso/u (i) *ro/upto/u (j) *lekto/u

deletion deletion weakening palatalization/ affrication

PR (a) *vita (b) *si (c) *riso/u (d) *mjele (e) *fjerro/u

monophthongization frication assimilation assimilation

Rumanian vowel reduction palatalization apocope weakening (l > r) apocope umlaut (je > ja) vowel reduction umlaut vowel reduction apocope apocope

Note 1: Since orthographic b, d, and g represent fricatives in Spanish, not only voicing but also frication can be assumed for (a), (f), and (g) above.

Note 2: The reconstruction in (j) is particularly difficult but not impossible if it is considered in conjunction with the data in (i). The Spanish form can be derived as follows: lekto/u lejto Weakening (k > j) leto Palatalization/affrication

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 55

Chapter 10

Chapter 10: First Language Acquisition* 1. Children who have learned this generalization may overapply it, producing forms such as badder and gooder.

2. (a) No. Because the passive is used relatively rarely even in adult speech, it is possible that the children simply did not produce it during the periods they were being observed. (b) Naturalistic studies rely on speech samples consisting of a relatively small portion of children’s utterances. The fact that a particular sentence type is not observed in a naturalistic study therefore does not allow us to conclude that children cannot produce or understand it.

3. (a) consonant cluster simplification ([sk] → [k]); denasalization ([n] → [d]) (b) consonant cluster simplification and voicing ([sp] → [p] → [b]) (c) stopping ([z] → [d]) (d) fronting and stopping ([d] → [d]) (e) stopping ([] → [t]) (f) stopping ([ð] → [d]) and final consonant deletion ([r] → Ø) (g) consonant cluster simplification ([sm] → [m]); stopping ([] → [t]) (h) stopping ([] → [t]) (i) voicing assimilation ([t] → [d]) (j) consonant cluster simplification ([br] → [b]); fronting and stopping ([ʃ] → [t]) (k) gliding ([l] → [w]); consonant cluster simplification ([mp] → [p]) (l) gliding ([l] → [w]) (m) stopping ([f] → [p]) 4. (a) [sow] (fronting: [ʃ] → [s]), or [tow] (with subsequent stopping: [s] → [t]) (b) [pwiz] (gliding: [l] → [w]) (c) [pt] (consonant cluster simplification: [sp] → [p]), or [bt] (with subsequent voicing: [p] → [b]) (d) [nə] (consonant cluster simplification: [nd] → [n], and deletion of final [r]) (e) [dus] (fronting and stopping: [d] → [d]) (f) [tm] (stopping: [] → [t]), or [tb] (with final consonant denasalization: [m] → [b]) (g) [diro] (stopping: [z] → [d]), or [diwo] (with gliding as well: [r] → [w]) (h) [w] (gliding: [r] → [w]) *Chapter 9 is not included in this manual because it does not contain practice exercises.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 56

Chapter 10 5. (a) rhythmic sound (b) similarity in texture (e.g., soft) (c) small humans (d) metal objects/instruments (e) uniform-wearing person (f) small, edible fruits (g) brightness (h) pictures/figures

6. Possible answers. The appropriateness of each answer varies depending on assumptions about the child’s early experience and environment. (a) (b) (c)

initial underextension birds that they see nearby family dog or cat ball he/she plays with

possible exclusions penguins, ostriches rabbits, lizards, snakes football, lego

7. This will involve constructing nonsense verbs such as gorp, mim, and udge and giving the child a sentence completion task such as the following: The rabbit likes to gorp.

Every day, he ___.

8. No, we would not expect them to be acquired in exactly the same order. This is because morphemes in other languages would presumably differ from their English counterparts in terms of relative frequency, syllabicity, allomorphy, and the other factors that help determine developmental order.

9. (a) fishes (overgeneralization of regular -s suffix for plural) (b) goed (overgeneralization of regular -ed suffix for past tense) (c) mouses (overgeneralization of regular -s suffix for plural) (d) eated (overgeneralization of regular -ed suffix for past tense) (e) haves (overgeneralization of regular -s suffix for third person singular present) (f) gooses (overgeneralization of regular -s suffix for plural) (g) bringed (overgeneralization of regular -ed suffix for past tense) (h) hitted (overgeneralization of regular -ed suffix for past tense) (i) hisself (overgeneralization of possessive form found in myself and yourself) (j) womans (overgeneralization of regular -s suffix for plural)

10. (a) agent-action (b) possessor-possessed (c) agent-location (d) action-theme (e) agent-action Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 57

Chapter 10

11. missing in Jordie’s speech (a) ’s (contracted form of is) (b) does (Aux), it (c) it, ’s (contracted form of is) (d) it, -s (3rd sing.) (e) ’s (contracted form of is) (f) plural -s (g) ’s (contracted form of is)

present in both where, my, blanket go, right, here, Mommy run, -ing, over here (2), go no, that, mine dinosaur, say, gronk there, more

The missing morphemes are for the most part non-lexical categories and bound morphemes, and are low in salience.

12. i) Missing morphemes: be, possessive -’s, determiners a and the, consistent with the findings reported for Jordie in question 11. ii) No. Both past verb tenses (fell and went) are irregular forms that could very well have been learned as unanalyzed words. iii) She seems to be confusing two types of possessives: my, which comes before a noun in adult speech (my book), and mine, which occurs without a noun (That’s mine). The form mines in (n) may be the result of adding the -’s suffix found with possessor nouns or it may reflect further confusion stemming from the alternation involving possessives such as her-hers (That’s her book vs. That’s hers) and their-theirs. iv) No. It is not used consistently—compare (d) with (j).

13. i) Yes, but not the exceptional forms. The -ed suffix is overgeneralized to bite, run and ride in (f) to (h). ii) She produces VPs such as put him in the bathtub in (b), PPs such as in the water in (g), and NPs such as the bathtub in (b). In addition she produces complete TPs with subjects and VPs arranged in the right order, as in (a) and (c). iii) Because Vs and Ns each occur with characteristic inflection (past tense in the former case, plural in the latter case) and because several Ns occur with an appropriate determiner and one verb occurs with an auxiliary, it seems that Holly has mastered the distinction between nouns and verbs.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 58

Chapter 10 14. (a) The fact that children can not learn language from radio indicates that they must be exposed to language that is used in contexts that allow them to infer what is being talked about. The fact that television is also not sufficient suggests that children need to experience language as part of a meaningful interaction with other human beings. (b) The study of language acquisition must take into account how children interact with those around them.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 59

Chapter 11

Chapter 11: Second Language Acquisition 1. (a) The ba[t] guys trie[t] to climb out an[t] thought they ha[t] ma[t]e it until they saw the do[k]. (b) The bad guys tried to climb out and [s]ought [z]ey had made it until [z]ey saw [z]e dog. (c) The bad guys t[ ]ied to c[ ]imb out and thought they had made it until they saw the dog. (d) The bad[] guys[] tried[] to climb[] out[] and[] thought[] they mad[] it[] until[] they saw the dog[]. (e) The bad guys tried to climb out and thought they [ ]ad made it until they saw the dog.

2. (a) Morphological. (b) Syntactic (c) Syntactic (d) Morphological (e) Morphological (f) Lexical (g) Morphological (h) Phonological

3. The words would be pronounced [ip.lan.it] (plant), [it.ran.is.por.it] (transport), and [it.ran.is.let] (translate). The syllable structure for [ip.lan.it] is as follows:

4. Answers will vary.

5. Coda consonants that precede a vowel-initial word are produced, while coda consonants that precede a consonant-initial word are not produced.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 60

Chapter 11 6. The first sentence is relatively simple syntactically and also contains very common words. As a result, the speaker can focus cognitive attention on the difficult sounds.

In contrast, the second sentence is complex syntactically in that the subordinate clause comes first, and it also contains less common words such as ‘swamped’ and ‘yacht’, which will have to be retrieved from memory. Both of these properties may drain the speaker’s cognitive resources, which will limit the attention that can be paid to the sounds.

7. An argument might be made for each position. Most would argue that it is easier for the English speaker to learn to omit a subject in Spanish than it is for a Spanish speaker to learn that pronominal subjects are obligatory in English. If English speakers transfer their L1 grammars, they will produce grammatical Spanish sentences (with respect to pronominal subjects). If Spanish speakers transfer their L1 grammar to English, sometimes they will produce ungrammatical sentences. The fact that English speakers sometimes drop pronominal subjects in certain discourse contexts (e.g., “Looks bad.”) would also make the evidence more confusing for the Spanish speaker.

8. The crucial difference is between how main verbs (like ‘drink’) and copular verbs (like ‘be’) sanction Verb Raising in English. Verb Raising cannot happen with main verbs (hence the ungrammaticality of I drink frequently coffee). However, Verb Raising can happen with copula verbs like ‘be’, as in He is frequently late. English auxiliary verbs also allow raising, as is seen in phrases like is often sleeping and has often lied.

9. Answers will vary. Think about things like how the correction might affect the natural flow of communication, how much ‘work’ the student will have to do to figure out what the error was, what level of proficiency the student might have, and whether the student has been taught about the relevant structure in class.

10. Answers will vary, but the following are possibilities for the intended utterance. (a) I like to eat fish. (b) He said that he would arrive late. (c) I was disgusted by the film. (d) The man read the book that was on what? (e) Me? I would never go to that place! (f) It’s raining. (g) I bought something in Japan.

11. Open ended. Answers will vary.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 61

Chapter 12 Chapter 12: Bilingualism and Bilingual Acquisition 1.

Open-ended; answers will vary with class composition.

2. (a) Mandarin. It's the only language in the top five of all three cities. Across all three cities, 29.5 percent of all immigrant-language speakers are Mandarin speakers. No other language has a percentage of speakers this high. (b) There is a higher concentration of Arabic and Creole speakers in Montréal than in Toronto and Vancouver because of the source countries for immigration. There are many countries in Africa and the Middle East where French and Arabic are spoken. Creole is spoken in Haiti. Immigrants who already speak French (in addition to Arabic and Creole) would be attracted to a francophone city like Montréal. (c) Again this is due to the source countries for immigration. Punjabi speakers are from India, an ex-British colony where English is an official language. Many immigrants from India would speak English (in addition to Punjabi) and would be attracted to anglophone cities like Toronto and Vancouver.

3. (a) chair-flower – to mean a chair with a floral pattern [head + modifier] = yes, crosslinguistic influence from French (b) shark-balloon – to mean a balloon in the shape of a shark [modifier + head] = no crosslinguistic influence from French (c) bed-baby – to mean a crib for a doll [head + modifier] = yes, crosslinguistic influence from French (d) bunny-sheets – to mean sheets with pictures of bunnies on them [modifier + head] = no crosslinguistic influence from French (e) opener-box – to mean a tool for opening boxes [head + modifier] = yes, crosslinguistic influence from French 4.

Single word insertion I’m going with her to the dépanneur c’était le pink foncé the shark nage in there regarde the stripes!

Syntactic code-switches the bonhomme is flying dans le ciel then we stopped parce qu’il pleuvait it has two strings, mon cerf-à-volant we went chez les grandparents hier

5. The child is probably dominant in English and has some lexical gaps in Russian, and so uses English words when speaking to the Russian-speaking parent.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 62

Chapter 12 6. Some variation is expected in the answer.

Child

Maxime (a)

Simultaneous or sequential bilingual? simultaneous

Khadija (b) Emma (c) Youssef (d) Eleni (e) Noah (f)

sequential sequential sequential simultaneous simultaneous

Likely dominant language?

French; possibly English because city = Ottawa English English Arabic English English

L1 majority or minority/ heritage?

L1/ La majority

L2 majority or minority/ heritage?

L2 / Lb majority

L1 minority L1 majority L1 minority L1 / La minority L1 / La minority

L2 majority L2 minority L2 majority L2 / Lb majority L2 / Lb majority

7. NOTE: The definitions given here are from the glossary, but students can write their own. The main purpose of the question is the second part about relationships.

Majority language: A language that is widely-spoken in a community, region or nation; has higher status; and is used as a language of government institutions and schools.

Minority language: A language that is less widely spoken, has lower status, and might be used in a limited way or not all in government institutions and schools.

Heritage language: An immigrant language that is a minority language and the L1 of a bilingual child.

Additive bilingualism: Both languages of a bilingual child are supported sociopolitically, as well as in the education system and media; predictive of success in bilingual acquisition long-term.

Subtractive bilingualism: The minority or heritage language of a bilingual child is not supported socio-politically or in the education system and media; success in bilingual acquisition could be limited long-term.

Relationships: Answers will vary, but here are some possibilities: A minority and heritage language are the same for immigrant languages. Subtractive bilingualism arises when the minority/heritage language of a bilingual child is not supported but the majority language is. In cases of additive bilingualism, both languages of a bilingual child are supported, and this is common when both are majority languages like French and English in Canada.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 63

Chapter 12 8. Answers will vary but should contain some of the following: Bilingual children have superior metalinguistic awareness and attentional control abilities compared with monolinguals. So, when asked to analyze a sentence for grammaticality and not meaning, bilinguals might be better able than monolinguals to ignore irrelevant semantic information and correctly detect that (1) is an ungrammatical sentence but (2) is grammatically correct.

9. Open ended. Answers will vary.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 64

Chapter 13

Chapter 13: Psycholinguistics 1. Theoretical linguistics deals with the structure of language and the implicit knowledge that native speakers have of their language. Psycholinguistics, on the other hand, is concerned with how linguistic knowledge is represented in the mind and how this knowledge is employed in the processes of language production and comprehension.

2. (a) In this slip, the morphemes swim and lake have exchanged places but the past tense morpheme has remained in its original place. This offers evidence that constituent morphemes have an independent status in on-line language production. It is also interesting that in this case, the past tense would have been formed by internal change (swam) in the intended sentence, but shows up as -ed in the error. This supports the claim that morphemes are abstract elements that can have various surface realizations. (b) In this slip, single phonemes have exchanged places. This suggests that words are not simply atomic units but rather consist of smaller phonemic units that can be misplaced in speech errors. (c) This error involves the inappropriate spread of voicing through the sentence. This type of error provides evidence for the psychological reality of abstract phonological features.

3. (a) Lexical decision (response) latency and/or lexical decision (response) accuracy. (b) watch (c) watched

4. Top-down processes lead us to expect an auxiliary verb after the subject NP in (a), a determiner after all in (b), and the word black in the idiom as black and white in (c).

Bottom-up processes involving the perception of individual phonemes help us identify the particular auxiliary verb in (a) as are, to realize that the determiner in (b) is the (rather than, say, these or those), and to confirm that the adjective in (c) is black.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 65

Chapter 13 5. The first five sounds of the word hippopotamus are sufficient for determining that the word must be hippopotamus, since no other word in the language begins with those five segments. However, one has to hear all the sounds in computerize to know that the word will not be computerization. (Nonetheless, one can rule out computational after hearing the first vowel in the word, which is [ɑ], compared to [ə] in computerize.) Likewise, one needs to hear all the sounds in splat to know that the word will not be splash or splatter.

6. Answers will vary.

7. Answers will vary.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 66

Chapter 14

Chapter 14: Brain and Language 1. The cerebral cortex in the human brain occupies a larger proportion of brain mass than it does in the nonhuman brain. (Reptiles and amphibians lack a cerebral cortex altogether.)

2. The cerebral hemispheres are anatomically separated by the longitudinal fissure and each has distinct functions.

3.

4. Answers will vary.

5. The left cerebral hemisphere is specialized for words, numbers, and Morse code while the right cerebral hemisphere is specialized for melodies and environmental sounds.

Possible examples of stimuli that would be interesting to present dichotically: a siren, the crowing of a rooster, a telephone’s ring, a car door slamming, an unfamiliar language.

6. Answers will vary; see section 14.3.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 67

Chapter 14 7. A sample answer could include the following points: non-fluent aphasia difficulty in articulation frequent omission of function words and inflection some syntactic disruption comprehension is partially impaired

8. phonological dyslexia can recognize known words loss of spelling-to-sound rules

fluent aphasia no difficulty producing fluent speech function words generally present correct word order comprehension is severely impaired patient’s own speech makes no sense surface dyslexia cannot recognize words as wholes overuse of spelling-to-sound rules

9. Answers will vary.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 68

Chapter 15

Chapter 15: Language in Social Contexts All answers are open-ended; answers may therefore vary.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 69

Chapter 16

Chapter 16: Writing and Language 1. Answers will vary. For example, a picture of a bow and arrow might be used to represent the concept ‘hunt’ in (a); a picture of a chunk of ice might be used for the concept ‘cold’ in (b); and so on.

2. The single biggest problem here is that English has such a large number of different syllables (only a subset of which are exemplified in this question). A further problem arises when one considers affixes that consist only of consonants and are therefore not themselves syllables. For example, when the plural suffix -s is added to the word shop, the resulting form is the entirely new syllable shops, which would require a different symbol. This obscures the relationship between the words shop and shops.

3. (a) [hIm] (b) [part] (c) [rsjt] (d) [rdus] (e) [dzajn] (f) [krItkl] (g) [ænl]

[hImnl] [parl] [rstejn] [rdkn] [dzInejn] [krItsajz] [krItsIzm̩] [næls] [nældi]

Within each pair of words, the root is spelled in exactly the same way despite difference in how it is pronounced.

4. No. The examples show that in some cases variation in the form of morphemes does show up in the orthography.

5. Answers will vary.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 70

Chapter 17

Chapter 17: Communication in other species 1. i) All are symptomatic because they are spontaneous manifestations of an internal state and in this sense are all essentially non-arbitrary. ii) (a) symbolic, in that there is an arbitrary relationship between the sign and its referent—there is no direct link between tail-wagging or tail-flicking and friendliness or irritation. (b) symbolic, in that there is an arbitrary relationship between the sign and its referent. (c) iconic, in that the gestures “picture” attack or retreat (submission). (d) indexical, in that there is a direct causal link between the chemical structure of the tree and leaves and the changing seasonal light (and possibly temperature).

The leaf colour is a “sample” of the season. (e) indexical, in that there is a direct causal link between the atmospheric state and the shape of clouds that are formed.

Virtually all the answers in ii) are open to further discussion. For example, it could be argued that in b), the bright red colour of the aggressive octopus is also indexical in that the redness reflects some specific aspect of the animal’s circulatory and nervous system and thus is evidence of a direct causal link, a “trace” of the system’s activity just as smoke is a “trace” of fire. This line of argument is made more complex, however, by the fact that the blood of an octopus is blue, not red.

2-4. For all of these questions, the answers will vary. Some examples for 2: iconic— picture of stairs near an exit; symbolic—colours on a sports team uniform; indexical—bird tracks around a backyard feeder.

5.

Answers will vary here as well; it is a good idea to make sure the following points are covered in any answer.

• Arbitrariness of signs PRO: Some possibilities include Washoe’s use of sign language; Sarah’s manipulation of plastic symbols.

CON: Signing can be interpreted as response to human cues, either unintentional or due to dressage; Sarah’s use of plastic symbols is a kind of intelligent puzzle solving, not open-ended language.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 71

Chapter 17 •

Productivity PRO: For example, Washoe’s creation of novel compounds such as WATER BIRD. CON: Combination of elements is spontaneous but accidental—Washoe showed no rules of compound formation; furthermore, there is no evidence of compounding in chimp communication in the wild.

•

Prevarication PRO: It has been reported that Koko sometimes signed up UP when she meant down.

CON: Treating this behavior as deliberate rather than a simple mistake is just wishful thinking on the part of the observer.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 72

STUDY GUIDE ANSWER KEY Prepared by

Teresa Merrells

Contemporary Linguistic Analysis An Introduction

Ninth Edition William O’Grady John Archibald

Contents Chapter 1: Language: A Preview..........................................................................................

1

Chapter 2: Phonetics: The Sounds of Language...................................................................

2

Chapter 3: Phonology: Contrasts and Patterns…………………………………………......

9

Chapter 4: Morphology: The Analysis of Word Structure………………….......................... 20 Chapter 5: Syntax: The Analysis of Sentence Structure…………………….......................

27

Chapter 6: Semantics: The Study of Meaning……………………………………..............

54

Chapter 7: The Classification of Languages........................................................................

60

Chapter 8: Historical Linguistics: The Study of Language Change…................................

62

Chapter 9: Indigeneous Languages in Canada ....................................................................

65

Chapter 10: First Language Acquisition .............................................................................

69

Chapter 11: Second Language Acquisition..........................................................................

72

Chapter 12: Bilingualism and Bilingual Acquisition...........................................................

74

Chapter 13: Psycholinguistics……………………………………......................................

76

Chapter 14: Brain and Language .........................................................................................

81

Chapter 15: Language in Social Contexts ...........................................................................

84

Chapter 16: Writing and Language .....................................................................................

88

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. iii

CHAPTER 1. LANGUAGE: A PREVIEW CREATIVITY Exercise! Limitations on the creativity of language 1.

2.

3.

4.

b, d, e, h (phonology) b, d, f (morphology) b, d, e (syntax) a. Example: Every early bird catches a worm. b. Example: A worm catches every early bird. c. Example: A bird every early worm catches.

GRAMMAR

Exercise! Fill in the blank a. b. c. d. e. f.

3 5 1 2 3 4

g. h. i. j. k.

2 1 4 3 5

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 1

CHAPTER 2.

PHONETICS: THE SOUNDS OF LANGUAGE SEGMENTS Practice! Practice! Getting ready for transcription 1.

a. 3 b. 3 c. 5

d. 6 e. 3 f. 4

3.

a. gh b. ng c. ow

d. m e. s f. ee

2.

a. th b. ou c. ph

SOUND CLASSES Exercise! Identify the underlined sound 1.

2.

3.

4.

consonant vowel consonant glide

5. consonant 6. glide 7. vowel 8. consonant CONSONANT ARTICULATION

Try This! Articulatory terms for place of articulation a. labiodental b. palatal

c. uvular d. alveolar

e. glottal

Now Try This! IPA symbols for consonants 1. a. [θ] b. []

c. [n] d. [w]

e. [f] f. [k]

2. a. [f] b. []

c. [s] d. [θ]

e. [m] f. [s]

Exercise! Aspirated stops, syllabic consonants, and velarized l 1. talk, pending, careful 2. bottom, suffer, kitten, bushel 3. silly, pull, meal

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 2

d. n e. ch f. ea

FACIAL DIAGRAMS FOR CONSONANTS Completed facial diagrams

[]

[t]

[]

[p]

[n]

[]

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 3

Labeled Facial Diagrams

[k]

[z]

[h]

[m]

[θ]

[d]

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 4

VOWEL ARTICULATION Practice! IPA symbols for vowels 1. a. [u] b. [aj]

c. [i] d. []

e. [] f. []

FACIAL DIAGRAMS FOR VOWELS Completed facial diagrams

[æ]

[]

[]

[]

[ej]

Labeled facial diagrams

[o] or [ow]

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 5

PRACTICE WITH SOUNDS 1. a. [] b. [i]

c. [m] d. [θ]

2. a. low front lax unrounded b. voiceless labiodental fricative

c. voiced palatal glide d. mid central lax unrounded

3. a. voiced oral stops b. strident alveopalatals c. voiced sonorants

d. back vowels e. front lax unrounded vowels

4. a. [z], non-strident fricatives b. [n], oral stops c. [], back tense vowels PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION A Start!

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

[kræft] [rɪt] [θɑt] [sa] [tʰejp] [hæd] [hɛlθ]

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

[ve] ɑg] [junɪt] [ɛgzɪt] [kwejnt] [strejndʒ] [ɪnstɛd]

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

[ʃʊg] [pæɾ] [rænd] [rust] [endʒ] [sɑf]

5.

6.

7.

8.

[wɪm] [gɛɾɪŋ] [lowfpʰæn] [wʊd]

9.

10.

11.

12.

[ʰɑi] [howmejd] [θru] [mæt]

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

[s] [h] [flɔr] [ɔr] [hɔrs] [kʰɔrs]

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

[hart] [hard] [harm] [arp] [t] [θwɔrt]

Vowel Practice!

1.

2.

3.

4.

[swɛɾi] [tiz] [bown] [ʃuz]

More Vowels!

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

[tir] [ðejr] [tʃejr] [kʰar] [star] [skɔr]

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 6

Practice with Diphthongs 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

[vojs] [traj] [bajsɪk] [aw] [ojli] [owt]

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

[ajz] [prajz] [ɪmbrojd] [sejlɪŋ] [krow] [krajm]

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

[praw] [kʰawnt] [lejzi] [najft] [dawn] [sawnd]

9.

10.

11.

12.

[stʌf] [nejʃn] [nawns] [ʌndstænd]

Practice with Schwa and Wedge 1.

2.

3.

4.

[slʌdʒ] [θʌnd] [æl] [kwalɾi]

5.

6.

7.

8.

[bhejv] [ʌv] [lʌk] []

One More Try! 1.

[dejz]

11.

[barɪn]

21.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

[ædʒtejt] [nowm] [sævdʒ] [rowst] [pʰɪnstrajp] [ɛs] [θiætrk] [mæskjulɪn] [jɛlow]

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

[svajv] [bætl] [mn] [fɔrmjul] [tejrɪ] [trup] [kʰɑmdi] [ɛkstɪŋwɪ] [kʰɑstjum]

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

[rædjuejt](verb)[rædjut] (noun) [ɪmplmɛnt] [pʰɑnd] [irgejt] [ajslejt] [tʰajmtʰeb] [ʌnfrgɪvb] [frajt] [lɛmnejd] [kʰɑld]

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

softened worthy tube phony once

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

choice statue shade mention square

Reverse Transcription 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

leisure shy pipe axe sweet

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 7

SUPRASEGMENTALS Exercise!

1.

2.

3.

4.

[skrnd] [dskvi] [ɪksplwʒ] [dʒ i′njs]

5.

6.

7.

[mækrwni] [dplkejt] [dktejt]

8.

[kjupajd]

9.

10.

[ɪnfrmtɪv] [jdlajz]

PROCESSES 1.

2.

metathesis epenthesis, nasalization (regressive)

6.

7.

epenthesis deletion, nasalization (regressive), place assimilation

3.

4.

5.

epenthesis, voice assimilation flapping dissimilation

8.

9.

10.

deletion

vowel reduction epenthesis

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 8

CHAPTER 3.

PHONOLOGY: CONTRASTS AND PATTERNS MINIMAL PAIRS Exercise! Identify minimal and near minimal pairs 1.

2.

3.

4.

minimal pair near minimal pair not a minimal pair or near minimal pair minimal pair

5. not a minimal or near minimal pair 6. near minimal pair 7. minimal pair

COMPLEMENTARY DISTRIBUTION Exercise! Environments for English allophones 1.  occurs after [] and after a stressed vowel ʰ occurs at the beginning of a word and before a stressed vowel [] occurs at the end of a word and before a consonant 2. [] occurs at the beginning of a word, after [], and before a stressed vowel [ɫ] occurs at the end of a word after a vowel and after a stressed vowel [] occurs at the end of a word after a consonant Try This! Finding complementary distribution 1. [] occurs between vowels; [] occurs elsewhere. // [] E

[] V__V

2. [] occurs before []; [] occurs elsewhere. // [] E

[] __ j

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 9

3. [] occurs before a high back tense vowel; [] occurs before a high front tense vowel; [] occurs elsewhere. // [] E

[] __ u

[] __ i PHONOLOGICAL ANALYSIS

Some Data to Try . . .

1. [] and [] are allophones of separate phonemes. They are in contrastive distribution: (a) and (e) is a minimal pair, as is (b) and (f), (c) and (g), and (d) and (h). //

//

[]

[]

2. [θ] and [] are allophones of the same phoneme. They are in complementary distribution: [θ] occurs between vowels and [] occurs elsewhere. // [] E

[θ] V__V

3. [] and [] are allophones of separate phonemes. They are in contrastive distribution: (a) and (b) is a near minimal pair, as is (e) and (f). //

//

[]

[]

Arabic: A voiceless alveolar stop becomes an interdental fricative between vowels.

Remember…

Problems. Phonological analysis; statements 1. Russian. [] and [] are allophones of the same phoneme. They are in complementary distribution: [] occurs before a velarized lateral liquid, and [] occurs elsewhere. // [] E

[] __[ɫ]

Statement: A low central unrounded vowel becomes back before a velarized lateral liquid.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 10

ˇ 2. Korean. [] and [r] are allophones of the same phoneme. They are in complementary ˇ distribution: [r] occurs between vowels, and [] occurs elsewhere.

// [] E

ˇ [r] V__V

Statement: A lateral liquid becomes flapped between vowels.

3. Inuktitut. [] and [] are separate phonemes. They are in contrastive distribution: (2) and (8) is a minimal pair, as is (6) and (10). //

//

[]

[]

4. English. [], [ʲ], and [ʷ] are allophones of the same phoneme. They are in complementary distribution: [ʲ] occurs before a high front tense unrounded vowel, [ʷ] occurs before a high back tense rounded vowel, and [] occurs elsewhere. // [] E

[ʷ] __u

[ʲ] __i

Statement: A voiced velar stop becomes labialized before a high back tense rounded vowel. A voiced velar stop becomes palatalized before a high front unrounded vowel.

5. Tojolabal. [] and [ˀ] are separate phonemes. They are in contrastive distribution: (1) and (8) is a near minimal pair, as is (4) and (12). //

/ˀ/

[]

[ˀ]

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 11

6. English. [] and [ɫ] are allophones of the same phoneme. They are in complementary distribution: [ɫ] occurs before velar stops, and [] occurs elsewhere. // [] E

7.

Statement: A voiced alveolar lateral liquid becomes velarized before velar stops.

[ɫ] __ k __ g

Sindhi. [], [], and [ʰ] are separate phonemes. They are in contrastive distribution: (1), (6), and (10) is a minimal pair (triplet!). //

//

/ʰ/

[]

[]

[ʰ]

8. Kenyang. [] and [] are allophones of the same phoneme. They are in complementary distribution: [] occurs between vowels, and [] occurs elsewhere.

// [] E

[β] V__V

Statement: A voiced bilabial stop becomes a fricative between vowels.

PHONETIC AND PHONOLOGICAL REPRESENTATIONS Try This! Arabic Phonetic form θ 

Phonological form  

with me always

RULES Try This! Convert statements into phonological notation  p  → b  / # _____ 1.  t  d  k   g

2.

{dt ∫ } → {∫} / V_____V Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 12

 / 3. V → V

4. 

_____ m    n   ŋ 

→ Ø / _____#

5. Ø → ə / p ___ l Exercise! Convert phonological notation into statements 1.

2.

3.

4.

A voiceless alveolar stop becomes glottalized after a glottal stop.

Voiceless fricatives become voiced between vowels.

Front tense vowels become lax word finally.

Alveolar stops become a flap between vowels.

Problems! Phonological analysis; rules using phonological notation 1. Tongan:    are allophones of the same phoneme. They are in complementary distribution:  occurs before a high front unrounded vowel, and  occurs elsewhere.   E

 ___

Statement: A voiced alveolar stop becomes a fricative before a high front unrounded vowel.

Rule:    __i Process: assimilation for manner (frication)

2. Malay:  and  are separate phonemes. They are in contrastive distribution: (1) and (8) are minimal pairs; (1) and (6) are near minimal pairs. 







3. Micmac:    are allophones of the same phoneme. They are in complementary distribution:           E

 V__V

Statement: A voiceless bilabial stop becomes voiced between vowels.

Rule:    V__V Process: assimilation for voice (voicing)

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 13

4. Italian:   ŋ are allophones of the same phoneme. They are in complementary distribution: ŋ             E

Statement: An alveolar nasal becomes velar before a voiced velar stop.

Rule:  ŋ  __ Process: assimilation for place (velarization)

ŋ __

5. Serbo-Croatian:  and  are separate phonemes. They are in contrastive distribution: there are many near minimal pairs including (1) and (7), (2) and (3), (8) and (13), and (9) and (12).    Now . . .

Tongan: Micmac: Italian:



     (missing property: continuant)      (missing property: voice)      (change in place of articulation from alveolar to velar) SYLLABLES

Try This! Identify basic and complex syllables 1. ; both are basic 7 ; basic, basic, complex 2. ; basic 8 ; all are basic 3. ; basic 9 ; basic 4. ; both are basic 10 æŋg; both are basic 5. ; both are basic 11 ; both are basic 6. ; both are basic 12 /; complex, basic Now! Syllable representations σ

σ

σ

σ

σ

σ

R

R

R

R

R

R

N

O N

 



O N C O N C  



 ɪ



O N C   

O  



N  ɛ 

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 14

C

O 





σ

σ

σ

σ

σ

σ

σ

R

R

R

R

R

R

R O N

O N C O N

O N C O

N

N C O N

  ɪ ŋ  

 ᴧ



ᴧ

 

  



C

 æ  

Problems! Phonological analysis; syllable-based 1. Every word in the data set contains only one CVC, or closed syllable. This is the syllable that receives the stress.

2. In Alabaman, long vowel occur in open syllables while short vowels occur in closed syllables.

Rule: V V  __σ 3. Igbirra: [] and [] are separate phonemes. They are in contrastive distribution: (1) and (5) form a near minimal pair, as do (2) and (6), (3) and (7), and (4) and (8). //

//

[]

[]

There is an alternate analysis of the data: [] and [] are allophones of the same phoneme.

They are in complementary distribution: [] occurs when the nucleus of the following syllable contains a tense vowel; [] occurs when the nucleus of the following syllable contains a lax vowel.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 15

FEATURES

Exercise!

1. a. [voice] b. [continuant]

c. [strident] d. [nasal], [sonorant]

e. [continuant], [delayed release]

2. a. Segment: any vowel, or syllabic liquid/nasal; Feature: [+syllabic] b. Segment: any fricative; Feature: [-sonorant, +continuant] c. Segment: any tense vowel; Feature: [+tense] d. Segment: any stop (oral or nasal); Feature: [-continuant, -delayed release] e. Segment: any sonorant; Feature: [+sonorant] f. Segment: any front vowel; Feature: [-back] 3. a. glides

b. voiced fricatives

4. a. [], [+voice]; [], [-continuant] b. [], [+round]; [], [+sonorant]; [], [-nasal]; [], [+consonantal] c. [], [-continuant] or [+consonantal]; [], [-nasal]; [], [+voice] d. [], [-back] 5. a.

+consonantal -syllabic -sonorant +continuant -strident

d.

-consonantal +syllabic +sonorant +continuant +voice -back

b.

+consonantal -syllabic -sonorant -continuant

c.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 16

-consonantal +syllabic +sonorant +continuant +voice +round -low +back +tense -reduced

RULES (AGAIN) Problems! Phonological analysis; rules using feature notation 1. Canadian French: [] and [] are allophones of the same phoneme. They are in complementary distribution: [] occurs before a high front vowel, and [] occurs elsewhere. // Rule: // → [] / __[] [] [] __[ɪ] E __[] __[] __[ɪ] __[] __[] Process: assimilation for manner __[] Note: The phonetic environment can be captured using features, as the sounds constitute a natural class (i.e., [-consonantal, +syllabic, +sonorant, +continuant, +voice, +high, -back]).

2. Burmese: [] and [] are allophones of the same phoneme. They are in complementary distribution: [] occurs after a voiceless glottal fricative, and [] occurs elsewhere. The same is true for [] and [], and [ŋ] and []. More generally, voiceless nasals occur after a voiceless glottal fricative and voiced nasals occur elsewhere. /ŋ/ [ŋ] E

Rule:   

[] [] __

→

  

/ h__

Process: assimilation for voice (devoicing) Using features:

+consonantal -syllabic +sonorant -continuant +nasal +voice

→

[-voice] /

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 17

-consonantal -syllabic -sonorant +continuant -voice +SG

3. Tamil: [] and [] are allophones of the same phoneme. They are in complementary distribution: [] occurs between vowels, and [] occurs elsewhere. The same is true for [] and [], [ṭ] and [ḍ] and [] and []. More generally, voiced stops occur between vowels, and voiceless stops occur elsewhere. /, ṭ, , / [, ṭ, , ] E

Rule:  ṭ  

[, ḍ, , ] V__V

→

 ḍ  

/ V__V

Process: assimilation for voice (voicing) Using features: +consonantal -syllabic -sonorant -continuant -delayed release -voice 4.

→

[+voice] /

-consonantal +syllabic +sonorant +continuant +voice

-consonantal +syllabic +sonorant +continuant +voice

Angus: [] and [] are allophones of the same phoneme. They are in complementary distribution: [] occurs at the end of words, and [] occurs elsewhere. The same is true for [] and [], [ŋ] and [], [] and [], and [] and []. More generally, voiceless sonorants occur at the end of words, and voiced sonorants occur elsewhere.   ŋ  

  ŋ   E

Rule:

     __#

  ŋ  

  __#    

Process: assimilation for voice (devoicing)

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 18

Using features: +consonantal -syllabic +sonorant -voice

[+voice] / ___ #

There is a restriction on word-final consonants in Angas: word-final consonants (sonorants and obstruents) must be voiceless.

4. Gascon: [] and [β] are allophones of the same phoneme. They are in complementary distribution: [β] occurs between vowels, and [] occurs elsewhere. The same is true for [] and [ð], and [] and []. More generally, voiced fricatives occur between vowels and voiced stops occur elsewhere. /, , / Rule: [, , ] E

[β, ð, ] V__V

  

→ β ð 

/ V__V

Process: Assimilation for manner (frication) Using features: +consonantal -syllabic -sonorant -continuant -delayed release +voice

→ [+continuant] /

-consonantal +syllabic +sonorant +continuant +voice

-consonantal +syllabic +sonorant +continuant +voice

Oral and nasal vowels are also allophones of the same phoneme. Nasal vowels occur before nasal consonants; oral vowels occur elsewhere.

Using features:

-consonantal +syllabic +sonorant +continuant +voice -nasal

→

[+nasal] /

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 19

+consonantal -syllabic +sonorant -continuant +nasal

DERIVATIONS UR →

// ‘timid’

Affrication



PR →

[]

UR →

// ‘to bend’

// ‘minute’

// ‘tube’



Nasal Devoicing

[]

[]

// ‘slow’

// ‘bird’





PR →

[]

[]

[]

UR →

// ‘ship’

// ‘jump’

// ‘cloud’





[]

[]

Stop Voicing PR →

[]

UR →

// ‘name of village’ // ‘to forgive // ‘bark’

Sonorant Devoicing







PR →

[]

[]

[]

UR →

// ‘to lay eggs’

// ‘husband’

// ‘long’

β

Frication Nasalization

ũ

PR →

[ũ]

ũ [β]

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 20

[ũ]

CHAPTER 4. MORPHOLOGY: THE ANALYSIS OF WORD STRUCTURE WORDS AND WORD STRUCTURE Exercise! Identifying morphemes 1. 1, 1 3. 1, 2 5. 2, 2 2. 1, 2 4. 2, 2, 2 Practice! Practice! Determining number of morphemes; identifying types of morphemes Word

# of Morphemes eraser 2 wicked 1 invalid (A) 2 invalid (N) 1 Jack’s 2 optionality 4 refurnish 2 inabilities 4 denationalize 4 present 1 activation 4 rewinding 3

Free

Bound

erase wicked valid invalid Jack opt furnish able nation present act wind

-er in-’s -ion, -al, -ity rein-, -ity, -s de-, -al, -ize -ive, -ate, -ion re-, -ing

Here are a few easy ones to try!

1. Mende (Sierra Leone): 2. Ganda (Uganda):

[-], [], night [-], [-], []

Practice! Identifying morphemes in an unfamilar language 1. Turkish:

ocean house hand tooth

[] [] [] [σ]

plural [-] to [-] my [-] our [-]

house dog cornfield

[] my [-] plural [-] [] your [-] [] his [-] dogs [], []

of little from in

[-] [-] [-] [-]

Morpheme order: noun+adjective+plural+possessive determiner+preposition Turkish word: []

2. Michoacan Aztec:

English: Michoacan Aztec words:

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 20

3. Lebanese Arabic:

I he you (masc) you (fem) you (pl)

[-t] none [-ak] [-ik] [-kun]

me [-ni] us [-na] him [-u] her [-a] them [-un]

Morpheme order: root+subject pronoun+object pronoun 4. Isthmus Zapoteco:

foot shoulder father chin ear your (pl)

Morpheme order: 5. Czech:

6. Fore:

I he we they we (dual) they (dual)

Morpheme order: Fore words:

your [-] our [-] his [-] plural [-]

plural+noun+possessive determiner

carry lead drive swim will will/away will/here

Morpheme order: Czech words:

[ñ] [] [] [] [] [-]     - - -

I he we they you you (pl)

- - - - - -

tense/location verb pronoun [    [-] [-] [-] [-:] [-] [-:

eat yesterday today will question statement

[] [-] [-] [- [-] [-]

verb+adverb+personal pronoun+question/statement marker [], [], [:]

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 21

ANALYZING WORD STRUCTURE Exercise! Identifying lexical categories Word

# of Morphs healthiest 3 amazement 2 reusable 3 dishonest 2 Manitoba 1 lovelier 2 historical 3 uncontrolled 3 impersonal 3 trees 2 faster 2 rereads 3 beautiful 2 couch 1

Root health amaze use honest Manitoba lovely history control person tree fast read beauty couch

Root Category N V V A N A N V N N A V N N

Word Category A N A A N A A A A N A V A N

Exercise! Exercise! Word Trees N N tree

A Af s

A loveli

A Af er

Af dis

A N V amaze

Af re

A honest

N beauti

A V use

Af ful

A

V Af ment

A

Af able

Af im

N person

N Af al

couch

DERIVATION Try This! Derivation in English V

A

Af V dis infect

N Af home less

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 22

N A Af electric ity

A

A N A

N

Af

N

Af

un

law

ful

V Af trans

V Af Af from ation al

V

Af

appli

cant

Now . . . All of the affixes belong to Class 2 except for -ity and -ion, which belong to Class 1.

Try This! Derivation in unfamilar languages 1. Kanuri (Nigeria):

prefix, [-], [], [], derivation N Af

A

νəm



[--], infix, derivation

2. Bontoc:

COMPOUNDING Exercise! Identify types of English compounds bathroom: noun+noun bittersweet: scarecrow: verb+noun upstairs: skin-deep: noun+adjective

adjective+adjective preposition+noun

Now . . .

N

N

N N bath room

V N scare crow

A

N

A A bitter sweet

P up

A

N stairs

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 23

N skin

A deep

Then . . .

N V

N

N

P V under take

V Af wash er

V Af dry er

N

N

P over

N sight

N dish

N soap

Compounding in unfamiliar languages. Turkish 1. endocentric 4. endocentric

2. endocentric 5. exocentric

3. exocentric

INFLECTION Practice! watched: runs: sorriest: lamps:

V, past tense V, 3rd person sing.

A, superlative N, plural

playing: driven: lovelier:

V, progressive V, past participle A, comparative

Inflection in unfamiliar languages. Isleta I you he

[-] [-] [-]

Types of affixes: Morpheme order: Isleta words:

go [] come []

pres. prog. past prog. past future prefixes (subject), suffixes (tense) subject+verb+tense [], [], []

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 24

[-] [-] [-] [-]

INFLECTION VERSUS DERIVATION Identify the Affix! trucks: -s, IA (plural) insanity: in- and -ity, DA reuse: re-, DA girl’s: -’s, IA (possessive) smallest: -er, IA (superlative) Form versus Function!

1. S, N, S, D 2. S, D, S, N 3. S, N, D, S

delightful: nationalize: watched: mistreat: unhealthiest:

4. D, S, S, N 5. N, S, D, S 6. N, D, S, S

-ful, DA -al and -ize, DA -ed, IA (past tense/perfective) mis-, DA un- and -y (-i), DA; -est, IA (superlative)

7. S, D, N, S 8. D, S, S, N

MORE PRACTICE WITH WORD TREES N (comp) V (Infl)

(deriv) A

Af en

V open

V take

Af ing

N night

A (Infl) V (Deriv)

(Deriv) A

V try

N silk

Af re

N (Infl) V (Infl) V step

Af s

N (Infl) (Deriv) N V ski

N (Infl) N step

Af s

(Deriv) V A Af thick en

P N in sight

N (Comp) Af ful

A hot

N tub

V (Infl) V Af make ing

A (Deriv) N (Deriv) V box

Af ing

Af er

A (Deriv) (Comp) N

Af Af er s

Af est

N (Deriv)

(Deriv) N V Af Af introduce tion s

Af i

A (Deriv) Af V Af un break able

N (Infl) A (Deriv) V attract

Af ive

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 25

(Comp) N N N Af moon rock s

N (Deriv) V bless

V (Infl)

Af ing

V bless

N (comp)

Af ing

N head

N line

N (Deriv) A Af clumsi ness

N (Deriv)

V (Infl)

N (Deriv) Af N Af ex Alberta an

V (Infl) V lunch

V (Comp)

Af ed

P over

(Deriv) V

V think

Af

V Af dis appear ed

N (Comp) A (Deriv) Af im

V (Infl)

A pure

N critic

Af ize

A (Infl) (Deriv) A N wealth

(Deriv) N V Af treat ment

V (Infl)

(Deriv) V N centre

Af de

V Af frost ing

N (Deriv) (Deriv) A

Af i

Af est

N self

Af ish

Af ness

OTHER INFLECTION Exercise! Exercise! drove: internal change was: suppletion (is) jumping: affixation wouwou: reduplication (full) better: suppletion

largest: George’s: mejmejr: mice:

affixation affixation reduplication (partial) internal change

OTHER PROCESSES Practice! Practice! Identify morphological processes infomercial: blending demo: (to) ship: conversion export: sold: inflection, internal change written: sunflower: compounding he’s: chirp: onomatopoeia smartphone: Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 26

clipping conversion (stress shift) inflection cliticization compounding

MADD: predictable:

acronym derivation

Now Try This!

Acronym: Backformation: Blending: Clipping: Coinage: Compounding: Initialism:

bought: ATM: tase:

suppletion initalism backformation

scuba enthuse, laze smog, urinalysis profs, flu, doc, lab dacron, watts (eponym), ohms (eponym), volts (eponym) spoonfeed, scuba diving, dry suit, headache, sunstroke, blood test UCLA, ENT, USA, MIT

MORPHOPHONEMICS Practice! Luisesno son house blanket wife

[] [] [] []

pipe my his

[] [-] [-]

your their our

[-] [-] [-]

Plural allomorphs and their conditioning environments: [-], which occurs after consonants, and [-], which occurs after vowels and glides.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 27

CHAPTER 5. SYNTAX: THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE CATEGORIES OF WORDS Practice!

1. beat (V); really (Deg); listened (V); the (Det); intermittent (A); knocking (N); door (N); near (P); tracks (N); beside (P); thought (V); bum (A); heard (V) 2. agent (N); Navajo (N); coming (N); may (Aux – modal); bring (V); prosperity (N) 3. leg (N); fractured (A); said (V); in (P) 4. long (A); and (Con); great (A); says (V); could (Aux – modal); be (Aux – non-modal); circumnavigated (V) 5. turned (V); key (N); my (N); would (Aux – modal); very (Deg); dull (A); had (Aux – nonmodal); flopped (V); was (Aux – non-modal); little (A); frantically (Adv); realized (V); bugged (V) 6. a (Det); rather (Deg); but (Con); green (A); diluted (V); were (Aux – non-modal); making (V); cutting (A); that (Det); of (P) 7. hate (V); pineapples (N); dolefully (Adv) 8. fortune (N); buy (V); pigs (N); will (Aux – modal); a (Det)

PHRASE STRUCTURE Now . . .

Answers will vary.

Practice . . . the rat (NP) Juan (NP) in the barn (PP) really mean (AP) worked (VP) worked at the station (VP) extremely boring (AP) that house on the corner (NP) never walks to the park (VP) very small (AP) in the room (PP) awfully cute (AP) seldom smiles (VP) swept the floor (VP) the poem about love (NP) pancakes (NP)

specifier: the; head: rat; complement: none specifier: none; head: Juan; complement: none specifier: none; head: in; complement: the barn specifier: really; head: mean; complement: none specifier: none; head: worked; complement: none specifier: none; head: worked; complement: at the station specifier: extremely; head: boring; complement: none specifier: that; head: house; complement: on the corner specifier: never; head: walks; complement: to the park specifier: very; head: small; complement: none specifier: none; head: in; complement: the room specifier: awfully; head: cute; complement: none specifier: seldom; head: smiles; complement: none specifier: none; head: swept; complement: the floor specifier: the; head: poem; complement: about love specifier: none; head: pancakes; complement: none

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 27

TESTS FOR PHRASE STRUCTURE Try This . . .

1. a. all are phrases (NP, PP, PP) b. not a phrase

c. phrase (NP) d phrase (NP)

2. a. not a phrase b. phrase (NP)

c. phrase (PP) d. not a phrase

3. Possible answers: a. NP: the new desk and chair b. VP: assembled the new desk and ate lunch c. AP: new but broken d. PP: in a hole or in a pot e. AP: rather huge, but lovely

e. not a phrase

f. VP: worked on a movie or did nothing g. PP: beside the fence and under the rocks h. AP: really lovely and very fragile i. VP: talked to the girls and left the room j. NP: a dentist or a veterinarian

COMPLEMENT OPTIONS Try This! (some possibilities only; answers may vary) panic: watch: imagine: write: wonder: play:

Ø, PPabout, PPwith NP, NP PPin, NP PPat CP NP, PPin, PPabout PPabout PPin, PPwith, PPat, PPon

pleasure: with: contribution: intelligent: out: upset:

N, PPof P, NP N, PPto A, Ø P, PPof A, PPabout, PPwith THE BLUEPRINT (for Tree Diagrams)

Exercise!

Tree diagrams are shown with X-Bar (intermediate) structure. All of the X-Bar structure may be omitted except for the following (Xʹ categories such as Nʹ, Vʹ are omitted if they don’t branch into two parts.): - the highest NP in the phrase ‘the house on the corner’ - the highest AP in the phrase ‘really happy with him’ - the highest VP in the phrase ‘usually eats lunch’

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 28

NP

NP

AP

VP

det

N′

N′

deg

A′

V′

the

N rat

N Juan

A really mean

V ran

VP V′ PP

V

PP

P′ P

in

P′ NP

P

det

N′

the

N barn

ran

NP

into

AP

NP

det

N′

deg

A′

the

N shed

A rather boring

det

N′

many

N trucks

NP Det

N′ N

PP

PP

P′

P′

P

NP

AP

Det

N′

the house on the

N corner

P

Deg

A′

very

A small

under

NP

VP

Det

N′

the

N stove

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 29

Adv

V′

V seldom smiles

NP Det VP

N

V′ V

swept

N′ PP

NP NP

P′

NP

N′

P

NP

AP

Det

N′

N′

N

N′

A′

the

N floor

N Nuria’s

hand

N the poem about love

A silly

AP VP

Deg

V′ V

read

A′ A

PP

NP

VP

P′

NP

N′

N′

N

N your

poem

P

VP

Adv NP

V′ V

N′ N really happy with him

usually eats

V′ NP

V

AP

N′

A′

N lunch

A looks good

SENTENCES Tree diagrams are shown with X-Bar (intermediate) structure. All of the X-Bar structure may be omitted except for the following: - The TP in every sentence (every TP will have a specifier (NP), a head (T), and a complement (VP)).

- The VP in the sentences ‘They usually watch the sunset’, ‘Grandparents often live in condominiums’, and ‘Those monsters never hide under beds’.

- The subject NP in the sentence ‘That house across the street sold’.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 30

Practice!

TP

TP

NP

T′

N′

T

N

NP

T′

VP

N′

V′

N

T -pst Adv

V

V Det

N should conceal the document

They

usually

T′ T +pst

N the sunset

watch

N′

NP VP

N′

V′

N

V

T′ T

VP V′

PP

V

P′ P

A

penguin

N′

TP

NP

N

NP

N′

TP

Det

V′

NP Det

Atila

VP

walked

into

NP Det

N′

the

N room

NP NP

N′

N′

N

N

Katya

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 31

might

sell

her

car

TP NP

T′ T -pst

Det

VP

N′

V′

N

V

AP Deg

A′

A

The

air

smells

really fresh

TP NP

T′ T N′ +pst

Det

VP V′

N

PP V P′ P

NP Det

N′ N

The

house across the street sold

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 32

TP NP

TP T′

T N′ N

NP VP

N′

V′

N

V

T′ T

AP

VP Adv

V′ V

PP

A′ A

P′ PP

P

P′ P

NP Det

NP

N′ N

N′

Gerard may seem tired

of

N studying

Dogs will sometimes run in

the

park

COMPLEMENT CLAUSES Practice! Practice!

Tree diagrams are shown with X-Bar (intermediate) structure. All of the X-Bar structures may be omitted except for the TP in every sentence (every TP will have a specifier (NP), a head (T), and a complement (VP)).

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 33

TP NP

T′ T -pst

VP

N′

V′ V

CP

N C′ C

TP NP

T′ T

VP

N′ V′ N V

Nancy

hopes

NP Det

N′

that Sean will become a

N pilot

TP NP

T′ T +pst

VP

N′

V′ V

CP

N C′ C

TP NP

N′

T′ T -pst

VP V′

N Javier

wondered whether aliens

V exist

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 34

TP NP

T′ T -pst

VP

N′

V′ V

CP C′ C

TP NP

T′ T

VP

N′ V′ N

V

PP P′ P

NP N′

Sailors

know

that ships can

sink

at

N sea

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 35

More Practice!

Detailed representations of the triangular NP, AP, and PP phrases are presented after the answers to this chapter. The subscripts ‘1’ and ‘2’ indicate phrases with different types of structure.

Tree diagrams are shown with X-Bar (intermediate) structure. All of the X-Bar structure may be omitted except for the following: - the TP in every sentence (every TP will have a specifier (NP), a head (T), and a complement (VP)) - the VP in the sentences ‘The train often leaves on time’, ‘The rabbit might eat those lilies’, and ‘The rabbit may sometimes hide under the bridge’ - the subject NP in the sentences ‘Those men on the shore saw a signal’, and ‘The driver of that car sped through many streets’ - the subject NP of the embedded CP in the sentence ‘Kayleigh usually thinks that playing at home is fun’ - the PP in the sentence ‘Sandra is almost at the restaurant’ - the AP in the sentence ‘The doctor’s team was quite correct in their diagnosis’ TP TP

NP

NP1

T′ T +pst

N′ VP

T′ T

VP

N

V′

V′ V

The repairman

V

AP A′

NP1

fixed the watch

Neighbours can

be

A unfriendly

TP TP

NP1

NP N′ N

She

T′ T -pst

T′ T -pst

VP Adv

VP Adv

V′

V never complains

V′ V

The train

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 36

PP2

often leaves on time

TP

TP

NP1

T′ T +pst

NP1 VP

T′ -pst

V′

The castle

Adv

V

PP1

fell

into the sea

The rabbit

T′

N′

T -pst

VP

N

V′ V

Children

AP1

are very curious

TP NP1

T′ T

VP V′ V

V′ V

TP NP

VP

NP1

Her assistant should mail the proposal

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 37

might eat

NP1

those lilies

TP NP TP

N′

NP1

T′ T -pst

T′

V′

T

VP

N

Adv

V′ V

PP1

Maila

T′ N′

N

T +pst

VP

PP1

V′ V

NP1

Those men on the shore saw a signal TP NP Det

T′ N′

N

T +pst

VP

PP1

The driver of that car

PP P′ P

TP NP

V Deg

The rabbit may sometimes hide under the bridge

Det

VP

V′ V

PP1

sped

through many streets Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 38

NP1

is almost at the restaurant

TP NP

T′ T +pst

VP

N′

V′ V

CP

N C′ C

TP NP

T′ T

VP

N′ V′ N

Diego

V

NP1

hoped that Adelina would win

a car

TP NP1

T′ T +pst

VP V′ V

CP C′ C

TP NP1

T′ T

VP V′ V

The salesman wondered

NP1

if those customers might buy that sofa Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 39

TP NP

T′ T -pst

N′

VP Adv

N

V′ V

CP C′ C

TP NP

T′

N′

T -pst PP2

N

VP V′ V

AP A′

Kayleigh

usually thinks that playing at home

A fun

is

TP NP1

T′ T +pst

VP V′ V

CP C′ C

TP NP1

T′ T +pst

VP V′ V

The media

reported

that

no candidate

NP1

won the election

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 40

TP NP1

T′ T +pst

VP V′ V

CP C′ C

TP NP1

T′ T

VP Adv

The captain

hoped

V′ V

NP1

that the tourists would perhaps see

a whale

QUESTIONS Try This!

Detailed representations of the triangular NP phrases are presented after the answers to this chapter.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 41

Tree diagrams are shown with X-Bar (intermediate) structure. All of the X-Bar structure may be omitted except for the TP in every sentence (every TP will have a specifier (NP), a head (T), and a complement (VP)) along with the CP shell in those sentences requiring Wh Movement.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 42

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 43

VERB RAISING IN ENGLISH Try This!

Tree diagrams are shown with X-Bar (intermediate) structure. All of the X-Bar structure may be omitted except for the TP in every sentence (every TP will have a specifier (NP), a head (T), and a complement (VP)) as well as the CP shell for those sentences involving Wh Movement.

Detailed representations of the triangular NP and PP phrases are presented after the answers to this chapter.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 44

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 45

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 46

CP NP

C′ C

det

TP

N′ T N

V

+Q

NP1

-pst

T′ T

VP V′ V

VP V′

which restaurant is

the city

inversion

t

V

NP

t closing

t

verb raising

wh-movement

PRACTICE WITH SENTENCES Now . . .

1. D-structure: S-structure:

2. D-structure: S-structure:

the clown can amuse that boy can the clown t amuse that boy Inversion Cillian should wear which coat which coat should Cillian t wear

t Inversion Wh Movement

3. D-structure: S-structure:

who broke my lamp who t broke my lamp Wh Movement

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 47

4. D-structure: S-structure:

Adelina dreamt that Leo flew to England same as the D-structure; no moves occurred

5. D-structure: S-structure:

the player has left the team has the player t t left the team Verb Raising Inversion

6. D-structure: S-structure:

Lorenzo was eating what what was Lorenzo t

t eating t

Inversion Verb Raising Wh Movement

7. D-structure: S-structure:

the vandals could destroy the billboard could the vandals t destroy the billboard Inversion

8. D-structure: S-structure:

Christopher hopes that he has discovered the treasure. same as the D-structure; no moves occurred

9. D-structure: S-structure:

these clothes might fit who who might these clothes t fit t Inversion Wh Movement

10. D-structure: S-structure:

the maids were cleaning the house were the maids t t cleaning the house Verb Raising Inversion

11. D-structure: S-structure:

the winner will be claiming the prize will the winner t be claiming the prize Inversion

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 48

12. D-structure: S-structure:

Elke’s sister might want what what might Elke’s sister t

want

t Inversion Wh Movement

13. D-structure: S-structure:

the jury believed that the prisoner was guilty same as the D-structure; no moves occurred

14. D-structure: S-structure:

who prepared the meal who t prepared the meal Wh Movement

15. D-structure: S-structure:

Javier was wondering whether Matteo would order pizza was Javier t t wondering whether Matteo would order pizza Verb Raising Inversion

SOME ADDITIONAL STRUCTURES Exercise!

1. a. loudly (verb: play) b. really awful (noun: movie) c. undercover (noun: police car); speedily (verb: drove away) 2. a. DS: the roads [CP [TP the snowplows have finished clearing which]] SS: the roads [CP which [TP the snowplows have finished clearing t]] b. DS: the roads [CP [TP which were plowed yesterday]] SS: the roads [CP which [TP t were plowed yesterday]] c. DS: the trucks [CP [TP the city uses which]] SS: the trucks [CP which [TP the city uses t]] 3. a. passive; D-structure: [VP were trained those tigers] b. active c. passive: D-structure: [VP could be fixed that lamp]

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 49

Now . . .

Gabrielle’s dogs are swimming in the river.

TP T′ T -pst

VP V′ V

VP DP DP D′ D

V′ D′

D

V

PP1

NP

NP

N′

N′

N

N are Gabrielle’s dogs swimming in the river

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 50

NP Movement will move the DP (Gabrielle’s dogs) to the specifier position of the TP node.

There is a dog swimming in the river.

TP DP

T′

D′ D

T -pst

VP

NP

V′

N′

V

VP

N

DP

V′

D′ D

V

PP1

NP N′

there

is

a

N dog swimming in the river

Dogs sometimes swim in the river.

TP T′ T -pst

VP V′ AdvP

VP

Adv′

DP

Adv

D′ D

V′ V

PP1

NP NP Movement will move the DP (dogs) to the specifier position of the TP node.

N′

sometimes

N dogs

swim in the river Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 51

TREE STRUCTURE LEGEND

Noun Phrases:

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 52

Prepositional Phrases:

Adjective Phrases:

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 53

CHAPTER 6. SEMANTICS: THE STUDY OF MEANING

MEANING AND LOGIC Try This! Identify relations between words and sentences 1. contrariety 6. complementarity 2. entailment 7. incompatibility 3. subordination 8. contradiction 4. contradiction 9. equivalence 5. contrariety 10. complementarity MULTIPLICITY OF MEANING Exercise! Identify types of meaning relations between words.

1. synonyms 4. synonyms 2. polysemes 5. homophones 3. antonyms THEMATIC ROLES Try This! Identify NPs and their thematic roles 1. Sarah (agent); the bus (patient); Toronto (source); St. John’s (goal) 2. Atticus (agent); Fabian (patient) 3. Desta (agent); a parcel (patient); her nephew (goal/benefactive) 4. The children (agent); the candy (patient); the store (source) 5. Callum (experiencer); answer (stimulus) 6. Talia (experiencer) Now… Ungrammaticality The sentence *Johann gave Leisl is ungrammatical because all of the thematic roles that the verb gave requires have not been assigned. Johann is assigned the agent role, and Leisl is assigned the goal/benefactive role, but the sentence is missing an argument that is assigned the patient role.

The sentence *Johann fell Leisl is ungrammatical because the verb fell only assigns an agent role (Johann). This sentence has an argument (Leisl) that is not assigned a thematic role.

ASPECTUAL PROPERTIES OF PREDICATES Try This! Identify properties of VPs 1. telic, durative, dynamic (accomplishment) 2. atelic, durative, dynamic (activity) 3. telic, durative, dynamic (accomplishment) 4. atelic, durative, dynamic (activity) 5. static, durative (stative) Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 54

6. atelic, durative, dynamic (activity) 7. static, durative (stative) 8. telic, instantaneous, dynamic (achievement) Practice! Classify verb phrases 1. achievement 2. accomplishment 3. activity 4. achievement

5. stative 6. accomplishment 7. activity 8. achievement

9. achievement 10. stative

MEANING AND CONTEXT Exercise! Information needed for interpretation 1. We would need to know who the pronoun I refers to as well as the place that the indexical adverb here refers to (all we can assume is that here is close to the speaker (I).

2. We would need a standard of comparison - watches and their cost.

3. We would need to know who the pronoun she refers to as well as the time that the indexical adverb now refers to.

4. We would need a standard of comparison – the dogs and their sizes.

5. We would need to know who the pronoun they refers to as well as what the demonstrative pronoun this refers to.

PRESUPPOSITION Now… 1. regrets; factive predicate; Julie took a shortcut 2. the; definite article; there is a dog with three legs (existence presupposition) 3. continues; aspectual verb; Leo writes novels 4. the; definite article; the existence of a specific moving van (uniqueness presupposition) 5. stopped; aspectual verb; Kumi used to do her schoolwork.

6. her; possessive; the existence of a sister (existence presupposition) 7. was thrilled; factive predicate; Winslow won a prize CONVERSATIONAL IMPLICATURE Try This! Identify violated maxims 1. Quality 2. Relevance, Quality and possibly Manner

3. Relevance 4. None

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 55

Now… This sentence violates the Maxim of Manner, since it is ambiguous. The sentence could mean either that Susannah is hard-working and would make a good employee, or that Susannah is not hard-working at all.

Think…

The conversational implicature could be cancelled by adding because Susannah puts a lot of effort into everything she does. This does not cause a contradiction. This is different from cancelling an entailment or presupposition, which results in a contradiction. See the discussion in 6.1.1 and 6.4.3 of the text for more information.

STRUCTURAL AMBIGUITY Try This! Identify ambiguity 1. syntactic: only the beer is cool or both the beer and wine are cool.

2. lexical: cool could refer to temperature or it could have more of a slang interpretation.

3. syntactic: the woman is standing by the water cooler or Dev is standing by the water cooler.

4. syntactic: either the bill pertaining to drugs that Parliament passed is dangerous or Parliament passed a bill pertaining to a dangerous drug.

5. syntactic: businessmen like suits that are black and suits that are grey or businessmen like suits that are both black and grey.

6. lexical: duck could refer to noun (a duck) or an action (to duck).

7. syntactic: Radha was in the kitchen eating cake; or Radha was eating the cake that was in the kitchen (Radha might not be in the kitchen or there might be more than one cake).

Now… Group phrases and match with meaning 1. noun phrase: [ [ cool beer ] and wine ] -only the beer is cool [ cool [ beer and wine ] ] -both the beer and wine are cool.

2. verb phrase:

[ met [ the woman ] [ standing by the water cooler] ] -Dev was standing by the water cooler when he met the woman [ met [ the woman standing by the water cooler ] ] -the woman who Dev met was standing by the water cooler.

3. noun phrase:

[ [ dangerous ] [drug bill ] ] -the bill that Parliament passed is dangerous [ [ dangerous drug ] bill ] -the drug is dangerous.

4. noun phrase:

[ [ black ] and [grey ] suits ] -there are black suits and grey suits [ [ black and grey ] suits -the suit is both black and grey.

5. verb phrase:

[ was eating [ the cake ] [in the kitchen ] ] -Radha was in the kitchen eating the cake [ was eating [ the cake in the kitchen ] ] -Radha was eating the cake that was in the kitchen.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 56

PRONOUNS Think…

The pronoun she in the sentence Janice bought the dress that she liked could refer to Janice or it could refer to someone not mentioned in the sentence. The pronoun herself in the sentence Janice wondered if Fiona liked herself can only refer to Fiona. It cannot refer to Janice or someone not mentioned in the sentence.

Now… In the sentence Katoka loves her cat, her behaves like a reflexive in that her refers to Katoka.

This means that Principle A applies. In the sentence I love her cat, the pronoun her can refer to someone outside the sentence. This means that Principle B applies. Possessive pronouns are different from plain and reflexive pronouns in that they can be interpreted using either Principle A or Principle B. Try This! Identifying antecedents using Principles A and B Janice bought the dress that she liked.

TP NP N′

-

T′ T +pst

VP

N

V′

she

V liked

She is a plain pronoun, so Principle B applies. She can refer to Janice, since the NP Janice is not contained within the same TP as she. She can also refer to somebody outside the sentence for the same reason.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 57

Janice wondered if Fiona liked herself.

TP NP

T′

N′

T +pst

VP

N

V′ V

NP N′

Fiona -

liked

N herself

herself is a reflexive, so Principle A applies. The antecedent of herself cannot be Janice, since this NP is not within the same TP as herself. The NP Fiona can function as the antecedent of herself, since it c-commands the reflexive within the same TP.

Janice’s sister liked herself / her.

TP NP

T′

NP

N′

N′

N

N

T +pst

VP V′ V

NP N′

Janice’s -

sister

N liked herself/her

herself is a reflexive, so Principle A applies. The antecedent must be Janice’s sister and not Janice, since only Janice’s sister c-commands the reflexive.

Her is a plain pronoun, so Principle B applies. This pronoun must refer to somebody outside the sentence, since her cannot be co-commanded by an NP within the same TP.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 58

QUANTIFICATIONAL NPs Try This! Identify interpretations 1. Every cyclist rides his own bike; every cyclist rides the bike belonging to someone not mentioned in the sentence. (bound variable interpretation) 2. All cyclists want the same bike; all cyclists want a different bike.

3. Each driver cleaned his own car; each driver cleaned the car belonging to someone not mentioned in the sentence. (bound variable interpretation) 4. The car belonging to someone not mentioned in the sentence bothered every driver. (no bound variable interpretation)

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 59

CHAPTER 7. THE CLASSIFICATION OF LANGUAGES TYPOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION Try This!

The statement represents an implicational universal. Inflectional affixes are less marked; derivational affixes are more marked. A language can have both inflectional and derivational affixes (e.g., English). A language can have inflectional affixes without derivational affixes, but not derivational affixes without inflectional affixes.

PHONOLOGY Exercise!

1. a. affricates b. VCC c. voiced obstruents

d. contour tones e. long vowels f. CCV

2. a. five, /i, e, u, o, a/ b. /p, t, k/; most common is /t/ c. /s, f/

d. /m, n/ e. unrounded, rounded f. unrounded

3. /t/, which is the most common stop; /k/ and /s/, since the presence of the voiced obstruents /g/ and /z/ implies the presence of their voiceless counterparts (/s/ is also the most common fricative); /f/, since the presence of the affricate /pf/ implies the presence of both the stop /p/ and the fricative /f/; /m/ and /r/, since the presence of voiceless sonorants implies the presence of the voiced sonorants.

4. /e, o, u, i, a/, since contrastive long vowels implies the presence of contrastive short vowels. /ã/ also implies /a/, since contrastive nasal vowels implies the presence of contrastive oral vowels.

5. a. /drong/: CCVCC /ben/: CVC /a.dupt/: V.CVCC

/sas.gnu/: CVC.CCV /gle/: CCV /brit.e.aks/: CCVC.V.VCC

b. The language allows sequences of consonants in onsets (e.g., /drong/, /gnu/, /gle/, /brit/) and sequences of consonants in codas (e.g., /drong/, /dupt/, /aks/). c. The language would also have CV syllables, since these are the unmarked syllable type. d. A language that has sequences of consonants in an onset will also have onsets with a single consonant (e.g., /dupt/, /sas/). A language that has sequences of consonants in a coda will also have codas with a single consonant (e.g., /ben/, /sas/, /brit/).

6. a. “man”: two level tones; “woman”: level tone and contour tone “child”: contour tone and level tone b. The language should also have an L level tone. The language might also have other types of contour tones (e.g., MH, HM, ML, LM).

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 60

7. a. impossible b. possible c. impossible

d. possible e. possible f. possible MORPHOLOGY

Try This! a. polysynthetic

b. agglutinating

Now . . .

If a word has both inflectional and derivational affixes, the derivational affix (e.g., -aj) will be closer to the root than the inflectional affix (e.g., -s or -a).

SYNTAX Practice!

1. a. SVO

b. SOV

2. Spanish would have prepositions; Yuwaalaraay would have postpositions. The preposition/ postposition phrase would come after the verb in Spanish and before the verb in Yuwaalaraay.

3. In Tinrin, the demonstrative comes after the noun, while in Limbu the demonstrative comes before the noun.

THE INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY Now . . .

See tables 7.20 to 7.25 along with the information on pp. 234 to 238 of the text for the required information.

Exercise! Exercise!

1. Italian: Sardinian; Swedish: Icelandic, Faroese, Norwegian, Danish; Yiddish: English, German, Dutch, Frisian, Afrikaans; Catalan: French, Romansch; Polish: Czech, Slovak; Russian: Ukrainian, Belarusan; Latvian: Lithuanian; Bulgarian: Serbo-Croatian, Macedonian, Slovene 2. a. Greek b. Hungarian c. Persian

d. Macedonian e. Albanian f. German

3. a. b. c. d. e.

f. South Slavic g. South Slavic h. West Slavic i. Hellenic j. West Germanic

North Germanic Goidelic (Celtic) Italo-Romance (Italic) Iranian Indic

4. a. true b. false

c. false d. true

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 61

CHAPTER 8. HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS: THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE CHANGE SOUND CHANGE Now . . . [], [], [], [], [], [] NAME THAT SOUND CHANGE 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

voicing 8. syncope, rhotacism consonant deletion 9. epenthesis apocope 10. place assimilation, degemination affrication (palatalization) 11. palatalization nasalization, consonant deletion 12. voicing vowel reduction 13. degemination, frication consonant deletion, degemination, apocope 14. total assimilation

Think . . . frication, voicing, syncope, rhotacism PHONOLOGICAL CHANGE Try This! [:] > [] [:] > [] [:] > [] [:] > [] [:] > [] Try This!

1. [] cool 2. [] lip 3. [, ] crab 4. [, ] grip

noon life sweet boast gown

5. [] foul 6. [] home 7. [] sweet

MORPHOLOGICAL CHANGE Try This! year+ling duck+ling goose+ling

under+ling hire+ling nurse+ling

The words in the first column are normally considered to be more common than those in the second column. Both columns have roughly the same meaning: The first refers to baby animals, while the second refers to people who are connected to someone else or undergoing an experience.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 62

SYNTACTIC CHANGE Try This!

In Old English, negatives were formed by placing the negative particle not after the main verb (treads, counsels, clamber). In Modern English, the negative particle is not placed after the main verb. Instead, some form of do (do, does, did) must be inserted. The negative particle is then placed after the inserted do.

LEXICAL CHANGE Exercise!

1. compounding, acronym, backformation, initialism, blending, clipping, conversion 2. a. adstratum c. superstratum b. substratum d. substratum

SEMANTIC CHANGE Practice! Practice!

1. broadening 2. amelioration 3. metaphor 4. broadening 5. amelioration

6. broadening 7. narrowing 8. semantic shift 9. pejoration 10. semantic shift

COMPARATIVE RECONSTRUCTION Practice!

GROUP ONE 1. * 2. * 3. * Lang A: Lang B:

4. * 5. * 6. * nasalization, vowel reduction, apocope frication, voicing, degemination, palatalization

GROUP TWO 1. * 2. * Lang A: frication, affrication Lang B: voicing Lang C: consonant deletion Lang D: apocope, consonant deletion, rhotacism Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 63

GROUP THREE 1. * 2. * 3. * Lang A: rhotacism, frication, voicing Lang B: apocope, voicing Lang C: apocope, rhotacism, frication Lang D: frication, voicing, rhotacism GROUP FOUR 1.

2.

3.

4.

* * * *

Lang A: Lang B: Lang C:

5.

6.

7.

8.

* * * *

voicing consonant deletion, frication palatalization

GROUP FIVE 1.

2.

3.

4.

* * * *

5.

6.

7.

8.

* * * *

Lang A: degemination, frication, vowel reduction, rhotacism Lang B: degemination, voicing, palatalization Lang C: affrication, voicing, nasalization Lang D: apocope (probably preceded by vowel reduction), nasalization, consonant deletion (probably preceded by degemination), consonant weakening (gliding) Now try this one!

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

* * * * *

Magadhi Prakit: Pali Prakit: Maharastri:

6. * 7. * 8. * 9. * 10. * voicing, palatalization total assimilation voicing, frication, total assimilation, consonant deletion Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 64

CHAPTER 9. INDIGENEOUS LANGUAGES IN CANADA CANADA’S INDIGENOUS LANGUAGES Exercise! Map of Canada exercise 1. Dene/Athabaskan 2. Algonquian 5. Wakashan 6. Siouan 9. Kutenai 10. Haida

3. Inuit 7. Iroquoian 11. Tsimshianic

4. Tlingit 8. Salish

Now . . . Exercise on language families 1. Na-Dene 5. Salish 9. isolate 12. Salish 15. Algonquian

2. Inuit 6. Tshimshianic 10. Iroquoian 13. Algonquian

3. isolate 4. Algonquian 7. Wakashan 8. Iroquoian 11. Siouan-Catawban 14. Na-Dene

Try This! T/F exercise on Canada’s Indigenous languages 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

true false (mainly spoken on Vancouver Island and the BC coast) true (there are an estimated 110 speakers in Canada) true true false (the two most widely spoken languages are Cree and Ojibwe of the Algonquian family) true false (spoken in Haida Gwaii, off BC coast) true true CONTACT LANGUAGES

Exercise!

Identification of words from French/English; French and English based items are underlined.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

tenas cosho (< Fr. cochon ‘pig’) tahtlum cole (< Eng. cold) mamook bloom (< Eng. broom) doctin (< Eng. doctor) kopa letah (< Fr. le dent ‘tooth’) tenas pish (< Eng. fish) Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 65

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

mamook piah (< Eng. fire) klatawa kopa saghalie lamontay (< Fr. la montagne ‘mountain’) potlatch lamah (< Fr. la main ‘hand’) poolie (< Fr. pourri ‘rotten’) lapome (< Fr. la pomme ‘apple’) mamook le pan (< Fr. le pain ‘bread’)

Now . . . Matching English and Chinook Jargon 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

tenas cosho = piglet tahtlum cole = ten years (winters) mamook bloom = to sweep doctin kopa letah = dentist tenas pish = minnow (i.e., small fish) mamook piah = to make/build fire klatawa kopa saghalie lamontay = to go to the top of the mountain potlatch lamah = shake hands (i.e., “give” one’s hand) poolie lapome = rotten apple mamook le pan = knead (make) bread

Think . . . Other observations: As in the case of the mixed language example (Michif) in the textbook, in Chinook Jargon, nouns appear to come from European languages (English and French), but verbs seem to come from Indigenous languages (Chinook and Nuu-chah-nulth).

DECLINE OF INDIGENOUS LANGUAGES Exercise! Identify three languages E: IE: O:

Laurentian, Nicola, Pentlach Squamish, Tagish, Skarù-rę′ Ktunaxa, Secwepemctsin, Tsilhqut’in

Think . . . Factors leading to decline of Indigenous languages 1. There was, at many stages in the past few hundred years, a drastic reduction in the number of speakers for many reasons stemming from the arrival of Europeans, including famine, war, and disease.

2. Another factor that led to decline is the establishment of institutions and policies, such as the residential school system in Canada, whose objectives included reducing the use of or eliminating Indigenous languages (and cultures).

3. The influence exerted by English and French in the Canadian context and the dominance of English in North America and internationally have also led to the reduced use of Indigenous languages. Indigenous parents are also encouraged to raise their children as monolingual Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 66

speakers: that it will somehow disadvantage children to learn an Indigenous language alongside either French or English. This is not true.

STRUCTURAL FEATURES Try This! T/F structural characteristics of Canada’s Indigenous languages 1. false 7. true

2. true 8. true

3. false

4. false

5. true

6. true

Exercise! Exercise! Kanien’kéha (Mohawk) data on yes-no questions 1. Morpheme that is required to form a yes-no question: ken Word order in relation to this morpheme: The morpheme ken consistently follows whatever is sentence-initial in the Kanien’kéha (Mohawk) question, whether what is initial is V, S, or O. In the first two examples, it follows the sentence-initial subject; in the second two examples, it follows the sentence-initial verb; in the last two examples, it follows the sentence-initial object. It appears to have a fixed second position in Kanien’kéha (Mohawk) yes-no questions. The order of what follows the interrogative marker ken appears to be flexible.

Now . . . Further questions on Kanien’kéha (Mohawk) yes-no question formation Observations on word order flexibility and interrogative placement and interpretation: As already observed, word order seems flexible in yes-no questions; however, the interrogative marker ken must follow the sentence-initial item. What these examples show is that word order is constrained by considerations of emphasis (that is, by pragmatic considerations): ken follows the focus of the question. In the first two examples, in which ken follows Sak, what is emphasized is the subject, Sak: Does she like her dress, as opposed to someone else (Sose)? Sentence-initial position is important for emphasis. The order of items following the interrogative marker still appears to be flexible.

2. Identification of Nēhiyawēwin (Plains Cree) morphemes: his father = o:hta:wij(a) and/too = ne:sta dog = atim when (relative marker) = ka:future = taas (dependent clause marker) = e:past (completed action marker) = ki:shout = te:pwe:(w) Two types of verbs: transitive animate and intransitive animate Third person (proximate) verbal endings: Two proximate verbal endings are shown in the data, depending on whether there is a verb in a main clause or a dependent clause. The third person suffix for animate intransitive verbs in an independent clause is -w, which can be seen on the forms itohte:w “he goes (there),” Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 67

pimohte:w “he/she walks/is walking,” kihtohte:w “he goes away,” takihtohte:w “he will go away,” and ki:te:pwe:w “he shouted.” Although there are not enough data to make this obvious, this suffix is different from what we find at the end of the transitive verb wa:pame:w, which contains the animate object marker, the suffix e:w (her, him, it), alongside the animate form of the verb “see” (wa:pam). The third person suffix for animate intransitive verbs in a dependent clause is -t, which can be seen on the form e:pimohte:t “as he was walking.”

Third person obviative verbal endings: There are two third person obviative verbal endings in the data: -liwa and -liti. The formliwa is used for an animate intransitive verb in an independent clause; -liti is the form for an animate intransitive verb in a dependent clause.

Marking obviative on nouns: The suffixes -a and -wa are found in the data: -a marks the obviative on o:hta:wija “his father,” me:ri:wa “Mary,” and ta:na “John”; -wa marks the obviative on “dog.”

3. Forms of the prefix meaning “my”: allomorphy—the forms are ni and nit. The morpheme is ni; a [] is added when the stem begins with a vowel.

Think . . . Additional examples of possession + noun in Nēhiyawēwin (Plains Cree) The semantic distinction is alienable versus inalienable possession. Nēhiyawēwin (Plains Cree) marks differently nouns that have a particular relationship with the possessor (the relationship between possessor and possessed cannot be changed). The inalienable possession category includes relatives and body parts.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 68

CHAPTER 10. FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE ACQUISITION Think . . .

A study that collects data from different children of the same age is an example of crosssectional (experimental) study. This example uses a production task.

Now . . .

A study that collects data from children over a longer period of time is a longitudinal study.

See pp. 324 to 327 of the text for a discussion of experimental and naturalistic studies, including some of the advantages and disadvantages of each.

PHONOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT Try This! T/F Statements 1. false 2. true 3. true

4. false 5. false EARLY PHONETIC PROCESSES

Practice! Identify phonetic processes in children’s words 1. fronting ( → ) 2. stopping ( → d ) 3. CCR (kl → ), deletion (n → Ø) 4. place assimilation (consonant harmony) (d → k) 5. CCR (tr → r), gliding (r → w), denasalization (n → d) 6. CCR (br → b), fronting, ( → s), stopping (s → t) 7. gliding (r → w), fronting (ŋ → n) 8. gliding (l → j), CCR (mp → m) 9. unstressed syllable deletion (d → Ø) VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT Exercise! Classify children’s vocabulary Nouns: table, piggy, chicken, banana, Mommy, coat, juice, dolly, cow, chair, hat, milk, dog, Daddy, horse, boots, kitty Verbs: go, sit, jump, play, up, pull Adjectives: hot, all gone, yummy, yucky Social Words: please, no, bye-bye Think . . .

Concrete nouns are the most common in the data.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 69

Now . . . Classify children’s nouns People: Mommy, Daddy Food/Drink: banana, juice, milk Animals: pig, chicken, cow, dog, horse, kitty Clothes: coat, hat, boots Toys: dolly House: table, chair

MORPHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT Exercise! Exercise! Identify morphemes in child speech 1. -ing, plural -s, the/a 2. possessive -s (may be acquired based on typical order of development), past tense -ed, third person singular -s, auxiliary be 3. derivation (diminutive -ie (duckie), doer -er (duck-feeder)) 4. overgeneralization 5. For the plural: the child has learned the regular rule and is applying it to both the regular and irregular forms (gooses, fishes). The child will next learn the irregular forms. For the past tense: The child has memorized the inflected form (e.g., gave). The child will next learn the regular rule and apply it to both regular and irregular forms (e.g., gived).

SYNTACTIC DEVELOPMENT Exercise! Identify syntactic development 1. Two-word stage 2. One-word stage 3. Telegraphic stage 4. agent+location, agent+action, object+attribute, action+theme Try This! Acquisition of question formation The child has auxiliary verbs (e.g., can, should, am (‘m)) and can apply Inversion, but only in yes-no questions.

Now . . . Passive sentences In the sentence the elephant kisses the lion, the noun phrase the elephant is doing the action.

Children would interpret this sentence as the elephant is doing the action. In the sentence the elephant is kissed by the lion, the noun phrase the lion is doing the action. Children will also interpret this sentence as the elephant is doing the action. Children use a word order strategy: they assume that the first noun phrase (e.g., the elephant in both sentences) depicts the entity doing the action.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 70

REVIEW EXERCISES

1. a. CCR (sk → k) b. Gliding (l → w), stopping (f → p) c. CCR (tw → t), voice assimilation (g → k) 2. Overextension 3. Type Assumption 4. -ing, plural -s, possessive –‘s, the/a, past tense -ed 5. One-Word Stage: Children’s sentences consist of a single word. These sentences are called holophrases Two Word Stage: Children’s sentences consist of two words Telegraphic Stage: Children’s sentences consist of three or more content words (no function words or inflectional endings)

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 71

CHAPTER 11. SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION THE STUDY OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION Exercise! Identify the type of transfer error 1. morphological 4. lexical 2. phonological 5. syntactic 3. syntactic THE FINAL STATE Now . . . textual competence Think...

The initial state is the beginning of L2 acquisition. In the initial state, L2 learners have their L1.

In the intermediate states, learners have interlanguage (IL) grammars.

L2 PHONOLOGY Exercise! Exercise! Markedness Differential Hypothesis 1. The English speaker acquiring German will find it more difficult to acquire contrastive long vowels than the German speaker acquiring English contrastive short vowels. Contrastive long vowels are more marked than are contrastive short vowels. German speakers are therefore moving from the marked to the unmarked, while English speakers have to go from the unmarked to the marked.

2. macaroni, informative, explode, discover 3. a. deletion b. epenthesis c. The Cantonese speaker either reduces a complex coda to a simple coda (creating a CVC syllable) or deletes a simple coda (creating a CV syllable). The Mandarin speaker adds a syllable to each word. In doing so, the Mandarin speaker changes the syllable structure of the English word: codas are syllabified as onsets.

4. The learner may find it easier to acquire /g/ than /ɣ/. Stops are less marked than are fricatives.

L2 SYNTAX Try This! Superset/subset 1. In English, the adverb slowly can come before the main verb as in The man is slowly drinking his coffee. The adverb slowly can also come at the end of the sentence as in The man is drinking his coffee slowly.

2. French is the superset language, and English is the subset language.

3. English speakers learning French as an L2 would require positive evidence.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 72

4. French speakers learning English as an L2 would require negative evidence. Negative evidence might include being explicitly told that a particular structure is not allowed in English.

5. French learners of English would most likely put the adverb after the verb, as this is where it can occur in their L1. This would be an example of a transfer error. English learners of French might continue to put the adverb either before the verb or at the end of the sentence, but not after the verb. That is, they would continue to use English patterns when putting together sentences in French.

L2 MORPHOLOGY Try This! Complexity The past tense ending is an example of sentence level complexity. Every sentence in English must have tense assigned to it, which usually manifests itself on the verb. This might explain difficulties that L2 learners have, in that more complex structures may require greater processing capacities.

THIRD LANGUAGE ACQUISITION Now… Influences on L3 Interlanguage Grammars The L1 Factor theory would argue that the learner’s L1 (Hindi-Urdu) would affect the learner’s interlanguage more than would the learner’s L2. The Linguistic Proximity theory would argue that both the learner’s L1 (Hindi-Urdu) and L2 (Korean) would influence the learner’s interlanguage grammar. The L2 status theory would argue that the learner’s L2 would have more influence on the learner’s interlanguage than would the L1, since the L2 was learned in a classroom situation as is the L3. The typological proximity theory would argue that the learner’s L1 would have more influence on the learner’s interlanguage grammar, since Persian is in the same language family as Hindi-Urdu, while Korean is in a different language family.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 73

CHAPTER 12. BILINGUALISM AND BILINGUAL ACQUISITION

DIFFERENT KINDS OF BILINGUALS Exercise! T/F Statements 1. F 2. T 3. T 4. F

5. F

6. T

Now… Identifying different kinds of early bilinguals A child born in China, who came to Vancouver at age ten, and who attends a bilingual Mandarin school is a sequential bilingual. The child’s dominant language will most likely be English since this is the language of the community. The child will speak a majority L2 with a minority L1.

The child is likely to retain proficiency in Mandarin, since the child attends a bilingual Mandarin school. A child who was born in Montreal before moving to Saskatoon at age three will most likely be a simultaneous bilingual with two majority L1s, if the child is able to retain knowledge and use of French.

EARLY BILINGUAL ACQUISITION Exercise! Fill in the blanks 1. equal 2. babbling; phonological processes; morphosyntactic structure 3. amount of input; proficiency; preference 4. words; phrases; short sentences 5. size of their vocabularies; their morphosyntactic abilities; dominant Now… This child will experience a dominant language shift. The child’s dominant language will first be Korean (a minority language) and then shift to English (a majority language) after entering school.

CROSS-LANGUAGE INTERACTIONS Try This! English and Dutch 1. Laughs Jullie all the time? (cross-linguistic interference from Dutch) 2. Will Maria will learn French?

3. Works Sinne in the garden? (cross-linguistic interference from Dutch) 4. Could Hidde leave the country?

5. Comes Sara from Sweden? (cross-linguistic interference from Dutch) Now… English and Spanish The use of gracias and está in the child’s speech are examples of code-switching. The first is an example of a word-level switch, and the second is an example of a sentence level switch.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 74

IMMERSION AND BILINGUAL EDUCATION Exercise! T/F Statements 1. T 2. T 3. F 4. F

5. F

6. T

7. T

8. T

Then…

Anika will be a sequential bilingual. She will speak a majority L2 with a minority L1, and will experience a dominant language shift from German to English. The German bilingual school that she attends can help with her transition to a new country and a new language. It can also help with her retention and use of her German L1.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 75

CHAPTER 13. PSYCHOLINGUISTICS EXPERIMENTAL METHODS Now . . . Priming experiment chart Answers to this exercise will vary; these are only suggestions. paper – (related) pen – (unrelated) fish nurse – doctor – fridge floor – broom – book train – bus – eye pear – apple – shirt leaf – plant – chair foot – arm – lamp photo – camera – hat Exercise! Fill in the blanks 1. word 2. mental lexicon 5. 500 6. pronounceable 9. content words; clause boundaries

3. 250 7. priming effects

4. the priming paradigm 8. parsing 10. regressive saccades

BRAIN ACTIVITY Try This! Hypothetical ERP experiment 1. moderate 2. positive 5. large 6. large

3. moderate 7. moderate

4. positive 8. large

Think . . . P600 and N400 waves If this were the case, the finding would suggest that syntactic processing happens independently of semantic processing.

PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY Exercise! Slips of the tongue 1. features: feature switch [±nasal]; error occurs at same syllabic position 2. syllables: syllable onset switch 3. phonemes: initial-phoneme switch 4. features: feature switch [±voice] 5. morphemes: root morpheme switch 6. features: feature switch [±lateral]; word-initial position preserved 7. morphemes: derivational affix switch 8. syllables: internal phoneme switch Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 76

Practice! Cohort model Answers will vary for possible cohort.

Target

Uniqueness/ Recognition Point

Possible Cohort After First Two Phonemes

sheep

she, sheen, sheer, sheet, sheath

sheep

medication

Mediterranean, meditation, met, mesh, meadow, medieval, medicate

medication []

badminton

bad, back, badge, banish, bashful, bat, batch

badminton

kneecap

knee, need, knead, needle, neither, near

kneecap []

MORPHOLOGICAL PROCESSING Try This! Morphemes—selectional restrictions

Words that should present greater processing difficulty because they contain illegal morphemes are: flumly, unmern, jatish, merner, jatness, strodful, reflumness Now . . .

1. Explanation: flumly: -ly does not attach to verbs unmern: un- cannot be attached to a noun jatish: -ish is attached to certain adjectives, not nouns merner: -er routinely attaches to verbs, not nouns jatness: -ness must attach to adjectives, not nouns strodful: -ful attaches to nouns to forms adjectives, not to verbs reflumness: re- is okay; -ness must attach to an adjective, not a verb 2. One may wish to consider whether particular sound sequences or syllables in the nonsense words overlap with commonly occurring words. For example, the hypothetical noun mern shows phonological overlap with the verb mourn. If this will have an effect on participants’ responses, the stimulus may have to be changed.

3. Aside from selectional restrictions, we would like to know whether certain derivational affixes are more frequent and would be processed in less time. We may also want to know what the effects on processing time are under the following conditions: one selectional restriction violated (flumly) vs. one of two (reflumness), vs. none of two (reflumable), vs. two of two (no examples given).

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 77

SYNTAX Exercise! Garden path sentences 2. Reason for misanalysis: The answers is read as the complement of the V forgot, rather than as the subject NP of the CP were in the back of the book.

Rewritten form: The student forgot that the answers were in the back of the book.

3. Reason for misanalysis: Questioned, rather than swore, is read as the verb of the matrix clause; questioned is part of an embedded clause within the NP the defendant . . .; the fact that questioned is passive in this context is also confusing.

Rewritten form: The defendant who was questioned (by the lawyer) swore that he was innocent.

4. Reason for misanalysis: The chicken is misinterpreted as the complement of the transitive V eat, rather than as the subject of turned out.

Rewritten form: After Pat ate (finished eating), it turned out that the chicken was bad.

5. Reason for misanalysis: Donations is interpreted as the complement of without [without her donations], rather than as the subject of failed.

Rewritten form: Without her (presence), donations failed to appear. Without Sara, donations failed to appear.

6. Reason for misanalysis: The baby is interpreted as the complement (direct object) of the V dressed, rather than as the subject of splashed.

Rewritten form: While Anna got dressed, the baby splashed in the bathtub.

Think . . . Late closure and minimal attachment 1. late closure 2. minimal attachment 3. late closure 4. both 5. late closure

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 78

Now! Tree diagrams

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 79

PSYCHOLINGUISTIC MODELLING Exercise! Psycholinguistic modelling 1. parallel processing 2. serial processing 3. serial processing 4. Psycholinguistic models help linguists uncover important issues in the mental processing of language. See Section 13.3.2 of the text for a discussion of some of these issues.

5. Computer models allow for a better representation of the complexity of psycholinguistic models. Computer models can also make and test predictions about language processing.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 80

CHAPTER 14. BRAIN AND LANGUAGE THE HUMAN BRAIN Colour Your Brain!

See figure 14.3 on p. 422 of the text for the locations of the frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes. This diagram also shows the central sulcus, lateral fissure, and angular gyrus.

AUTOSPSY STUDIES & IMAGES OF THE LIVING BRAIN

Exercise! Language areas in the brain 1. The angular gyrus is involved with reading and is located in the parietal lobe.

2. Both Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area were discovered through autopsy studies. See the discussion on pp. 422 and 423 of the text for further details.

3. Broca’s area is located in the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere. See the discussion on pp.

428–430 of the text for information on the role of Broca’s area in language.

4. Wernicke’s area is located in the temporal lobe of the left hemisphere. See the discussion on pp. 430–432 of the text for information on the role of Wernicke’s area in language.

Colour Your Brain!

See figure 14.4 on p. 423 of the text for the locations of Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area, and the Angular gyrus. The motor cortex is located in the frontal lobe (near Broca’s area), the auditory cortex is located in the temporal lobe (near Wernicke’s area), and the visual cortex is located in the occipital lobe (at the back of the brain).

Try This! Damage to cortical areas of the brain 1. Yes, Hilda will still be able to read in the morning. Since her right visual cortex has been damaged, she will no longer be able to use her left visual field (each eye has a right and a left visual field). However, the visual cortex in her left hemisphere is still intact. Information from her right visual field will go to her left visual cortex. This will send stimuli to the language areas in her left hemisphere.

2. Yes, Ronald will still be able to understand and process language in the morning. Since his left auditory cortex is damaged, he will be unable to hear using his right ear. However, information from his left ear will go to the undamaged auditory cortex in his right hemisphere. This cortical area will send linguistic stimuli to the language areas in the left hemisphere via the corpus callosum.

3. No, Hillary will not be able to read in the morning. Since her left visual cortex was damaged, she is unable to read using her right visual field. Input received through her left visual field will go directly to her undamaged visual cortex in the right hemisphere. However, since her corpus callosum has also been damaged, linguistic stimuli cannot be sent to the language areas in the left hemisphere for processing.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 81

DICHOTIC LISTENING & BRAIN STUDIES Try This! Listening and Split Brain Scenarios 1. The sound of a cat meowing presented to the right ear will go to the auditory cortex in the left hemisphere. Since the sound is an environmental (i.e., non-linguistic) sound, it will need to travel across the corpus callosum to the right hemisphere for processing. The sound of a car engine presented to the left ear will go to the auditory cortex in the right hemisphere. It can remain in the right hemisphere for processing, since it is also environmental. This means that the sound of the car engine will be heard first as it has less distance to travel in order to be processed. If the sounds are reversed, the sound of the cat meowing will be heard first.

There is a left ear advantage for environmental sounds.

2. The sound of the word lamp presented to the right ear will go to the left auditory cortex. The left auditory cortex will then send the sound to the language areas in the left hemisphere for processing. The sound of the word frog presented to the left ear will go to the right auditory cortex. The right auditory cortex will then send the sound across the corpus callosum to the language areas in the left hemisphere for processing. Lamp will be heard first as it has less distance to travel before it can be processed. There is a right ear advantage for linguistic sound.

3. If the subject is a split brain patient, he will not be able to process environmental stimuli (sound of a cat meowing) presented to the right ear. This type of stimulus will go to the auditory cortex of the left hemisphere but cannot cross to the right hemisphere for processing. Similarly, the subject will not be able to process linguistic stimuli presented to the left ear (the word frog). This type of stimulus will go to the auditory cortex of the right hemisphere but cannot cross to the left hemisphere for processing.

4. No, if Thomas holds a spoon in his left hand, without having seen it, he will be unable to name it. Information from his left hand will go directly to the right hemisphere. To retrieve the name of the item he is holding, this information must be transmitted to the language areas in the left hemisphere. However, since his corpus callosum has been damaged, this information cannot be transmitted.

Yes, he will be able to draw it using his left hand. The right hemisphere is thought to be responsible for artistic ability. To access this information, because of contralateralization, Thomas must use his left hand.

NON-FLUENT APHASIA Exercise! Fill in blanks 1. Broca’s aphasia; in front of 2. mute; produce 3. dysprosody; slow halting speech; lack of normal sentence intonation 4. speech; functional; inflectional 5. are aware

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 82

Think . . .

Broca’s aphasics have difficulty processing functional words and inflectional affixes. Thus the sentences become Fly bother boy and Boy bother fly, which have different meanings. A Broca’s aphasic will still be able to understand the passive sentence as meaning that the flies bothered the boy, since this is more likely than the reverse. However, if the sentence is The boy was bothered by the girl, a Broca’s aphasic will be unsure of the meaning.

FLUENT APHASIA Exercise! Aphasia 1. If a patient has fluent aphasia, then he/she is able to speak but will have difficulty producing meaningful speech as well as understanding the speech of others. If a patient has non-fluent aphasia, then he/she will have difficulty producing speech. Patients with non-fluent aphasia may also have difficulty in comprehending aspects of language related to grammatical words and inflectional affixes.

2. Global aphasia is a more severe form of Broca’s aphasia; while jargon aphasia is a more severe form of Wernicke’s aphasia. A patient with global aphasia may be completely mute.

The speech of a patient with jargon aphasia may contain very few real words of the language.

3. A patient with Broca’s aphasia will primarily have difficulty producing language. His/her speech will be very slow and halting.

4. Agrammatism is often used to refer to difficulty in comprehending syntactic structures due to the omission of function words and inflectional affixes. Loss of function words and inflectional affixes are often characteristics of Broca’s aphasia.

5. A Broca’s aphasic will have more trouble understanding/producing tallest since this word contains an inflectional affix. Beautiful contains a derivational affix.

6. a. the dog broke the window b. unsure of meaning

c. the man chased the bear

7. A patient with Wernicke’s aphasia will primarily have difficulty comprehending language, both understanding speech directed at him/her, and choosing words when putting together sentences.

8. Probably anything except for the actual time.

9. Anomia is another type of aphasia. Patients with this type of aphasia have difficulty finding words in particular the names of people and objects.

10. Patients with Wernicke’s aphasia are typically unaware of the difficulty they are having with language. This is most likely related to difficulties in language comprehension which is important in being able to express ourselves using language.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 83

CHAPTER 15. LANGUAGE IN SOCIAL CONTEXTS SOCIOLINGUISTICS Think… Markers versus Indicators Sociolinguistic markers are features of speech that have social meaning, and which are noticeable within a community of speakers; Sociolinguistic indicators are features of speech that also have social characteristics, but which are not noticeable with a community of speakers.

LANGUAGE VARIATION Try This! Northern Cities Vowel Shift CE = Can Eng; NVS = shifted pronunciation bat: CE = []; NVS = [] / [] / [] father: CE = []; NVS = [] stuck: CE = []; NVS = [] bet: CE = []; NVS = [] stack: CE = []; NVS = [] / [] [] cot: CE = []; NVS = [] bus: CE = []; NVS = [] block: CE = []; NVS = [] Think . . .

Yes, these differences could result in miscommunication because phonemes are involved: listeners could confuse bat and bet, block and black, etc.

Now… T/F Statements 1. T 2. F (Midland Dialect) 3. F (merged & mixed) 4. T (Southwestern England) 5. T 6. F (blinds and running shoes are more common in Canada; faucet is more common in the United States) 7. T (the words in each pair are pronounced differently in Canadian English as a result of Canadian Raising. See Chapter 3; the words in each pair are pronounced the same in American English.)

8. T Then... Terms in other varieties of English 1. takkies/tekkies 2. chilly bin 3. solo parent 5. bakkie 6. jumper 7. footpath 9. lolly/lollies 10. judder bar

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 84

4. rock melon 8. robot

ISOLATION Exercise! Newfoundland English and Quebec French 1. No, fear and fire would not be homophones.

2. likes 3. I’ve told him to do it.

4. (a) and (c) 5. PF: []; QF: [ə] Review! Fill in the blank 1. non-mobile older rural males (NORMs) 2. Midland 3. SW England and SE Ireland 4. apparent-time method/study (apparent-time hypothesis) 5. Dartmouth, NS (Preston) 6. dense/multiplex CONTACT LANGUAGES Try This! Jamaican Creole and Nigerian Pidgin English 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Mi = object form used as subject; tell = unmarked past tense we = subject used as object Dem = object form used for subject bway = unmarked possessive form Im = object as subject; say = lack of 3rd person sg marker -s on present tense; boat no good = copula deletion 6. tok = lack of 3rd person sg marker on present tense 7. don kom = use of completive marker ‘done’ to mark past tense 8. don go = use of completive marker ‘done’ Review! T/F exercise 1. F 2. T 3. F 4. F

5. F

6. T

7. F

8. F

9. T

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 85

10. T

GENDER Now... Functions of like 1. Syntactic positions in which like can occur: before NP (1, 2, 7, 15); before VP (3, 4, 5, 9, 11); sentence initially (before CPs, TPs) (8, 10, 14); before AP (6, 12, 13) 2. Purpose of like in these examples: The like used in almost all of these examples is called focuser like; it functions as a discourse marker, to draw attention to what follows; its function in conversation is similar to that of you know. The purpose of like in sentence 3, is quotative.

Quotative like is used for reporting speech or one’s thoughts. It is typically used in the first or third person; where say and think could be used; and is always preceded by be (be+Like).

3. Answers will vary.

Then . . . Hypothetical results (graphs) on distribution of like 1. Method: apparent-time 2. The study examines how the variable like is realized either with a focus or quotative function which may vary according to a speaker’s age and gender.

3. Type of study to gauge attitudes toward these uses of like: matched-guise experiment 4. Tentative conclusions: Both forms of like are used by both male and female speakers in the younger age groups; it is not clear whether this is an age-graded phenomenon (speakers will use it until a certain age, and then the usage disappears), or if this is indicative of real change in progress. If significant numbers of younger speakers continue to use like as frequently as they do now in later years, then the usage may spread and lead to change. It is also worth noting that women seem to use both types of like more frequently than men do, since women tend to be leaders in language change (see p. 467).

ETHNICITY Now... African American English: punctual vs. habitual aspect 1. SE: She is usually/often telling lies. (habitual) 2. *I have to good is ungrammatical: Infinitival/invariant be (this is not habitual be) cannot be deleted.

3. Ungrammatical: Habitual be conflicts with punctual today (equivalent to SE *“He is regularly going today”).

4. SE: We are waiting for you. (punctual) 5. SE: Some of them are nice. (punctual) 6. SE: They are usually home by five. (habitual) 7. Ungrammatical: Copula deletion not permitted in this position.

8. Ungrammatical: Habitual be conflicts with punctual right now.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 86

SOCIAL INTERACTION AND LANGUAGE Review! Fill in the blank 1. speech events 4. key 7. register 10. jargon

2. communicative competence 5. genre 8. turn-taking cues

Try This! Conversational analysis Answers will vary.

SOCIETIES AND LANGUAGE Now . . . Response to post on “proper English usage” Answers will vary.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 87

3. accommodation 6. style 9. diglossia

CHAPTER 16. WRITING AND LANGUAGE TYPES OF WRITING Exercise! Fill in the blank 1. an abugida 2. an abugida 5. syllabic; alphabetic 6. abjad

3. an abjad

4. logographic

THE EARLY HISTORY OF WRITING Exercise! Airport pictograms 1. departures 2. no entry 5. exit 6. waiting area 8. child facilities 9. rail transportation

3. car rental 4. hotel information 7. ground transportation 10. immigration

Think . . . Pictograms in the modern world Answers will vary. Key points to consider: efficiency and universality of message. Messages conveyed through pictograms are efficient: they can be interpreted quickly (reading lengthy road signs would be dangerous). No common language/writing system is required.

THE EVOLUTION OF WRITING Exercise! T/F emergence of writing 1. False 2. True 3. True 6. False 7. True 8. True

4. True 9. False

5. False 10. True

Try This! Rebuses 1. forearm 2. forehead

4. forebear

5. foresee

3. before

Now . . . Invent five rebuses Answers will vary.

NON-EUROPEAN WRITING SYSTEMS Exercise! Fill in the blank 1. pictograms 2. oracle texts 5. literary script 6. kanji 9. hangul 10. hanja 13. vowel length

3. logographic 4. phonetic determinatives 7. romaji 8. katakana 11. coda consonants 12. direction

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 88

Try This! Hangul Symbols Now... a. ᅡ

b. ᄆ

c. ᅮ

d. ᄉ

e. ᄂ

Then . . . a. ᄅ b. ᄅ c. The same symbol is used for [] and [] because they are allophones of the same phoneme in Korean. Enough data are provided in the whole exercise to arrive at some conclusions about these consonants in Korean. Generally, the lateral is used is syllable-finally; the [], which is really a flap in Korean, is used intervocalically and syllable-initially (in most contexts). d. The symbol ᄋ represents [ŋ] in syllable-final position. As examples 7 to 10 show, it is also used as a ‘dummy’ onset consonant: when syllables begin with vowels, the orthography inserts ᄋ to fill the empty onset position.

Table: Hangul symbol ᄀ

phonetic value []

Hangul symbol ᅵ

phonetic value []

ᄆ

[]

ᅩ

[]

ᄉ

[]

ᅡ

[]

ᄂ

[]

ᅮ

[]

ᄅ

[]/[]

ᄋ

[ŋ]/Ø

1. 손

2. 곤란

3. 기 린

4. 알

Keep Going . . . a. The new symbols (four) are ᄇ, ᄃ, ᅢ, and ᅳ. b. The new symbols represent the following sounds: ᄇ= []; ᄃ = []/[], ᅢ= []; ᅳ = [ + ]. c. Voicing is not phonemic in stops: the data show that [] and [] share the same symbol (ᄃ), and [] and [] share the same symbol (ᄀ). d. Given what we have observed for [] and [], and for [] and [], we would expect that the symbol for [] would be the same as the symbol for []: ᄇ.

Finally . . .

1. 그리고

2. 냄새

3. 마 시다

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 89

4. 이름

5. 알 다

ENGLISH ORTHOGRAPHY Try This! Middle English and Modern English Vowel Phonemes Example bite boat boot mate time see out sea house goat tooth fame

Middle English vowel phoneme // // // // // // // // // // // //

Modern English phoneme // // = [] // //= [] // // // // // // // //

Think . . . Modern English words not showing GVS phonemes These examples have different explanations. Many words with ea (= /:/) did not undergo the GVS, including break and great. The sound represented by oo in good and book did become /:/ but was later shortened to // before certain consonants in some varieties of British English. The word police, with the meaning of overseeing public order, is an eighteenth-century importation from French—it was borrowed too late to undergo the GVS. Exercise! Internal and External Influences on English Orthography 1. external 3. external 5. internal 2. internal 4. external 6. external Think . . .

Etymological spelling. It alters the written form of the word so that its spelling no longer reflects its origin.

Exercise! One-to-several mapping of phonemes to alphabetic symbols Answers will vary. //: ride, buy, tie, sky, eye, rye, aisle //: English, sugar, position, issue, artificial, Russian, ocean, chalet.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 90

Now . . . Reforms to the English writing system Answers will vary. Suggestion: Attempting to adopt single representations for some phonemes will result in a considerable number of homographs and homonyms (many more than English currently has), which could slow down reading.

Try This! Survey on attitudes towards English orthography Answers will vary.

WRITING AND READING Exercise! Fill in the blank 1. logograms/logographic writing 3. syllables; phonemes; syllabaries 5. dyslexia

2. sound-based/phonographic; word-based/logographic 4. a few thousand; several thousand 6. syllabary/syllabic writing system

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Canada Inc. 91

This Page is Intentionally Left Blank

This Page is Intentionally Left Blank