Social Psychology, Canadian Edition, 7th Canadian Edition, By Elliot Aronson, Timothy Wilson, Santa

(Solution Manual all Chapters) Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

1 Introduction to Social Psychology CONTENTS Learning Objectives Chapter Outline Key Terms Integrating “Try It!” Active Learning Exercises In-Class Exercises Student Projects and Research Assignments Critical Thinking Topics and Discussion Questions Suggested Videos

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1.1

Define social psychology and distinguish it from other disciplines.

1.2

Summarize why it matters how people explain and interpret events, as well as their own and others’ behaviour.

1.3

Explain what happens when people’s need to feel good about themselves conflicts with their need to be accurate.

1.4

Explain why the study of social psychology is important.

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

CHAPTER OUTLINE ____________________________________________________________ I. What Is Social Psychology?

Learning Objective: 1.1 Define social psychology and distinguish it from other disciplines.  Social psychology is the scientific study of the way in which people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviours are influenced by the real or imagined presence of other people.  Social influence shapes our thoughts and feelings as well as our overt acts, and it is at the heart of social psychology. Social influence can be direct, with intimidation, peer pressure, and other deliberate attempts at persuasion, or indirect, through the mere (and sometimes, imagined) presence of others and the transmission of cultural values.

A. The Power of Social Interpretation  Social psychology is distinct from other social sciences because of its emphasis on the nature and influence of people’s construals, or subjective, personal interpretations, of their social environments.  The textbook gives an example of construal involving the initial conviction of supposed murderer, Mark Grant, in 2011. He was convicted based on circumstantial evidence: a sample of Grant’s DNA at the crime scene. In 2017, the Supreme Court determined that Grant’s conviction should be overturned. One main reason was that the original jury’s decision was based on an inference, or a construal, of the circumstantial evidence rather than the facts.  Social psychology is distinct from folk wisdom because it is experimentally based.

B. Social Psychology, Science, and Common Sense  Psychologists have looked to philosophers for insights into the nature of consciousness and how people form beliefs about the social world, and social psychologists often make use of scientific methods to address many of the same questions philosophers do.  Social psychologists approach the understanding of social influence differently than do philosophers, journalists or laypeople. While philosophers use logic and opinion, social psychologists use experiments in which the variables being studied are carefully controlled.  The problem with common sense, or folk wisdom, is that it’s often oversimplified and/or contradictory (“birds of a feather flock together” and “opposites attract”). Folk wisdom also tends to underestimate the power of the particular situation. Social psychologists would say there are some conditions under which one is true, and other conditions under which the other is true.

The social psychologist does the research that specifies those conditions.  Social psychologists have devised an array of scientific methods to test their assumptions, guesses, and ideas about human social behaviour empirically and systematically rather than by relying on folk wisdom, common sense, or the opinions and insights of philosophers, novelists, and political pundits.  Doing experiments in social psychology presents many challenges, primarily because we are attempting to predict the behaviour of highly sophisticated

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

organisms in complex situations.

C. Social Psychology Compared with other Disciplines  Social psychology is related to other disciplines in the physical and social sciences, including biology, neuroscience, sociology, economics, and political science. Each examines the determinants of human behaviour, but social psychology’s level of analysis emphasizes how people interpret the social world (see Table 1.1 on p. 10). a. Social Psychology Compared with Sociology  Sociology is more concerned with broad societal factors that influence events in a society.  Although social psychology shares areas of interest with sociology—groups, institutions and society—it focuses on a more micro level of analysis than sociology: the individual within the group, institution, or society.  Social Psychology also differs from Sociology in its goal— to identify universal properties of human nature that make almost everyone susceptible to social influence, regardless of social class or culture (e.g. proposing and testing the universality of the frustration-aggression hypothesis)  One issue with Social Psychology is that due to its relative infancy and its roots in North America, many of these supposed “universal” properties of human nature have been insufficiently tested cross-culturally.  Cross-cultural research is required to sharpen theories, either by demonstrating their universality or by leading us to discover additional variables. b. Social Psychology Compared with Personality Psychology  Personality psychologists explain people’s behaviour in terms of their traits, focusing on individual differences— that is, the aspects of people’s personalities and habitual patterns of behaviour that differentiate them from others.  Social psychologists believe that this ignores the powerful role of social influence.

II. The Power of the Situation Learning Objective: 1.2 Summarize why it matters how people explain and interpret events, as well as their own and others’ behaviour.  While personality traits are important, we know that social and environmental situations are so powerful that they have dramatic effects on almost everyone.  In a demonstration of the fundamental attribution error, Ross and Samuels (1993) found that university students’ personalities, as rated by the resident assistants in their dormitories, did not determine how cooperative or competitive they were in a laboratory game. The name of the game--whether it was called the Wall Street Game or the Community Game--did, however, make a tremendous difference.

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition





 

The fundamental attribution error is the tendency to overestimate the extent to which other people’s behaviour stems from personality traits and to underestimate the role of situational factors.

This error primarily takes the form of ascribing internal explanations for others’ negative behaviours and/or outcomes (e.g. assuming that someone was late because they are lazy and/or disorganized), and external, situation-based explanations for good things that happen to others (e.g. assuming that someone scored first in the class because she was the teacher’s favourite). As a similar means of maintaining our self-esteem, we tend to do the opposite regarding ourselves, ascribing external explanations for when things do not go our way (e.g. blaming the traffic on our arriving late), and internal explanations for positive behaviours and/or outcomes (e.g. crediting our smarts and conscientiousness for our grades).

Underestimating the power of situation can lead people to have a false sense of security, that is, the belief that problematic and/or disturbing events could not possibly happen to us, and so we fail to guard against their occurring.

The textbook elaborates upon the fundamental attribution error by referencing studies demonstrating victim-blaming directed at battered and sexually assaulted women (Harrison & Abrishami, 2004; Morry & Winkler, 2001; Summers & Feldman, 1984), who are often seen as having somehow “caused” the attack (p. 11).

A. The Power of Social Interpretation  Behaviourism is a school of psychology. It maintains that to understand human behaviour, one need only consider the reinforcing properties of the environment: When behaviour is followed by a reward, it is likely to continue; when it is followed by a punishment, it is likely to stop.  Since early behaviourists did not concern themselves with cognition, thinking, and feeling, this approach has proven inadequate for a complete understanding of the social world. They especially overlooked the importance of how people interpret their environments.  Social psychologists have since learned that it is important to look at the situation from the viewpoint of the people in it, to see how they construe the world around them.  The emphasis on construal has its roots in Gestalt psychology. First proposed as a theory of how people perceive the physical world, Gestalt psychology holds that we should study the subjective way an object appears in people’s minds (the Gestalt, or whole) rather than the way the objective, physical attributes of the object.  Kurt Lewin, generally considered the founder of modern experimental social psychology, was the first to apply Gestalt principles beyond the perception of objects (see Figure 1.2) to how we perceive the social world. He said that it is often more important to understand how people perceive, comprehend, and interpret each other’s behaviour than it is to understand the behaviour’s objective properties.  A special kind of construal is what Lee Ross calls naïve realism, the conviction that we perceive things “as they really are,” and that reasonable others see

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

things just as we do, while anyone with an alternative perspective must be biased. When we think this way, we are underestimating how much we are interpreting or “spinning” what we see.

III. Where Construals Come From: Basic Human Motives Learning Objective: 1.3 Explain what happens when people’s need to feel good about themselves conflicts with their need to be accurate.  Human beings are complex organisms. At any given moment, various intersecting motives underlie our thoughts and behaviours, including hunger, thirst, fear, a desire for control, and the promise of love and other rewards. Social psychologists emphasize the importance of two central motives that steer people’s construals and approaches towards situations: the need to feel good about ourselves and the need to be accurate.  Sometimes these motives both pull us in the same direction. But often we find ourselves in situations where these two motives pull us in opposite directions—where to perceive the world accurately requires us to face the fact that we have behaved foolishly or immorally.  Leon Festinger realized that it is when these two motives pull us in opposite directions that we can learn the most about psychological processes.  The textbook gives a current, Canadian example of when these two motives came into conflict with a reference to the 2019 SNC-Lavalin scandal; after shielding the SNCLavalin corporation—found to be corrupt and fraudulent by the RCMP—from a criminal trial, Prime Minister Trudeau gave a self-justifying explanation of his motivations, despite a compelling counter-narrative given by his former attorney-general and justice minister, whom he promptly demoted.

A. The Self-Esteem Approach: The Need to Feel Good About Ourselves  Most people have a strong need to maintain reasonably high self-esteem: to see oneself as good, competent, and decent. This need can clash with the need for accuracy, leading most people to distort their perceptions of the world so as to put themselves in the best possible light.

1. Justifying Past Behaviour  Human beings are motivated to maintain a positive self-image, which can lead many to justify their past behaviour, especially when to view it accurately would pose a threat to their self-esteem.  This distorted perception of reality is more of a “spin” on the facts than a total delusion.

2. Suffering and Self-Justification  Research demonstrates that when people volunteer to undergo a painful or embarrassing initiation to join a group (e.g., hockey team hazing rituals), they justify the experience to avoid feeling foolish. One way they do this is to decide that the initiation was worth it because the group is so wonderful.  Under certain conditions, the need for self-justification can lead people to do surprising or paradoxical things (e.g. preferring things for which they have suffered over people and things they

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

associate with ease and pleasure). The textbook gives the example of early female military pilot Dee Brasseur, who loyally raved about the value of her experiences in the military despite experiencing relentless sexism, exclusion, and rape (p. 17).

B. The Social Cognition Approach: The Need to Be Accurate  Researchers who investigate processes of social cognition begin with the assumption that all people try to view the world as accurately as possible.

They regard human beings as amateur sleuths who are doing their best to understand and predict their social world.  Social cognition is a cognitive approach to social psychology; it is the study of how people select, interpret, remember, and use social information to make judgments and decisions.  Coming up with an accurate picture of the social world may be difficult because there are many relevant facts to consider—many of which cannot be easily accessed—and people have only a limited time to judge a given situation accurately. Moreover, people make countless decisions every day.

IV. Social Psychology and Social Problems

Learning Objective: 1.4 Explain why the study of social psychology is important.  While social psychologists are often motivated by simple curiosity to study social behaviour, they are also frequently motivated by the desire to help resolve social problems (e.g. reducing hostility and prejudice, increasing altruism and generosity, encouraging pro-environmental behaviours, reducing the spread of HIV, and conflict resolution, to name a few).  Social psychologists’ job as researchers is to ask the right questions and to find a way to capture the power of the social situation and bring it into the laboratory for study.  Research by Canadian social psychologists at the University of Waterloo helped the government produce ad campaigns to promote healthy behaviours. The textbook gives the example of an anti-smoking study led by a team of social psychologists, in collaboration with Health Canada: via polls, focus groups, and sales statistics, it was found that larger and more graphic the images on cigarette packages inspired more fear and rendered the anti-smoking messages more persuasive. The results of these studies inspired new legislation concerning the packaging of commercial cigarettes.  Fear does not always increase the persuasiveness of an intervention or drive positive behavioural change in every social issue; social psychologists found that fear tactics neither dissuaded drivers from speeding nor persuaded French-Canadian students to practice safer sex (Hébert, Bernard, deMan, & Farrar, 1989); rather, participants reverted to denial, choosing to address their other motivational need, to maintain self-esteem, rather than to confront their past and present behaviour accurately.  Findings like these inspire social psychologists to understand the conditions under which one motivational need, such as the need for self-esteem maintenance, prevails over the other, to increase the persuasiveness of altruistic interventions for social problems.

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

KEY TERMS Social Psychology: The scientific study of the way in which people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviours are influenced by the real or imagined presence of other people Social Influence: The effect that the words, actions, or mere presence of other people have on our thoughts, feelings, attitudes, or behaviour Construal: The way in which people perceive, comprehend, and interpret the social world Individual Differences: the aspects of people’s personalities that make them different from other people Fundamental Attribution Error: The tendency to overestimate the extent to which other people’s behaviour stems from personality traits and to underestimate the role of situational factors.

Behaviourism: A school of psychology maintaining that to understand human behaviour, one need only consider the reinforcing properties of the environment Gestalt Psychology: A school of psychology stressing the importance of studying the subjective way in which an object appears in people’s minds rather than the objective, physical attributes of the object Naïve Realism: The conviction all of us have that we perceive things “as they really are,” and that reasonable others see things just as we do, while anyone with an alternative perspective must be biased; When we think this way, we are underestimating how much we are interpreting or “spinning” what we see Self-Esteem: People’s evaluations of their own self-worth—that is, the extent to which they view themselves as good, competent, and decent Social Cognition: A cognitive approach to social psychology; more specifically, it is the study of how people select, interpret, remember, and use social information to make judgments and decisions.

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

INTEGRATING “TRY IT!” ACTIVE LEARNING EXERCISES

Try It! Social Situations and Behaviour (LO 1.2) In this exercise, students are encouraged to think of someone who they consider to be “shy” and then consider situations where that person might not appear to be shy. This exercise provides a good opportunity to discuss the fundamental attribution error as one potential reason why we tend to favour internal attributions (e.g. personality) when explaining others’ behavioural tendencies such as shyness over situational factors (e.g. being uninterested in the conversation, being among strangers, feeling at risk of rejection or negative social evaluation, etc). Please see the Try It! Answer Key for suggestions on how to lead a discussion on this topic.

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

IN-CLASS EXERCISES Exercise 1–1 Common Sense Time to Complete: 15-20 minutes Ahead of Time: This exercise is perfect for the first or second day of class, before students have had a chance to read the relevant portion of the textbook. Copy the handouts on the following pages, each with enough copies for half the class.

In Class: Distribute the handouts (half to each half of the room so that it is easy to tally the results) and ask students to complete them. After students are done, ask students to raise their hand if they have handout 1-1a. Ask these students only to respond. For each phrase, ask students to raise their hand if they answered 3, 4, or 5. A tally form is included for use as a transparency master. Tally the counts (or, in a large class, rough percentages). Repeat this procedure for students who have handout 1-1b.

Ask one student from each group to read each phrase aloud, one at a time for contrast. You may want to allow a couple of extra minutes for discussion about each phrase. Students are often interested in justifying their answers, and you should have several opportunities to note that the accuracy of each phrase depends upon time and situation. There should be few differences in the count between the groups. That is, even though phrases for Group A and Group B give conflicting advice, the majority of students in each group will consider them to be at least somewhat accurate.

Discussion: Why do we believe that both homilies in a pair are generally true? How could this be? How do social psychologists go about trying to resolve the contradictions embodied in this folk wisdom? What does this suggest about one advantage of social psychology over folk wisdom?

This exercise ties in neatly to the textbook’s discussion of folk wisdom on page 5 and 6. Folk wisdom embodies generalizations about human nature. These old sayings are, in essence, society wide implicit personality theories, embodying "common-sense" notions about human behaviour. They often have a basis in reality, and seem to be useful for making predictions, However, as the exercise demonstrates, "common sense" may tell us different things.

While it need not be discarded, common sense is not enough. We need to examine the evidence for and against each saying, to discover the circumstances under which it may be accurate or inaccurate. Empirical research is particularly helpful for this purpose. Of course, you might also note that it would be foolhardy for any social psychological researcher to completely abandon using common sense and to rely upon empirical findings from previously conducted research.

Empirical results or answers are only as good as the questions that have been asked, and when common sense is contradicted by an empirical result, it may indicate (as in the case of these contradictory common sense homilies) that the result is true only under certain circumstances-which the social psychologist will then attempt to specify.

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

Name: ______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT EXERCISE 1–1a: COMMON SENSE Below are several "common sense" phrases. Please indicate the degree to which you think each one is accurate in predicting what people do or is accurate in giving advice. Circle the appropriate number below each phrase.

1. BETTER SAFE THAN SORRY. not at all accurate 1

a little accurate 2

somewhat accurate 3

moderatel y accurate 4

ver y accurate 5

moderatel y accurate 4

ver y accurate 5

somewhat accurate 3

moderatel y accurate 4

ver y accurate 5

somewhat accurate 3

moderatel y accurate 4

ver y accurate 5

moderatel y accurate 4

ver y accurate 5

2. TWO HEADS ARE BETTER THAN ONE. not at all accurate 1

a little accurate 2

somewhat accurate 3

3. BIRDS OF A FEATHER FLOCK TOGETHER. not at all accurate 1

a little accurate 2

4. STRIKE WHILE THE IRON IS HOT. not at all accurate 1

a little accurate 2

5. ABSENCE MAKES THE HEART GROW FONDER. not at all accurate 1

a little accurate 2

somewhat accurate 3

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

Name: ______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT EXERCISE 1–1b: COMMON SENSE Below are several "common sense" phrases. Please indicate the degree to which you think each one is accurate in predicting what people do or is accurate in giving advice. Circle the appropriate number below each phrase.

1. NOTHING VENTURED, NOTHING GAINED. not at all accurate 1

a little accurate 2

somewhat accurate 3

moderatel y accurate 4

ver y accurate 5

somewhat accurate 3

moderatel y accurate 4

ver y accurate 5

somewhat accurate 3

moderatel y accurate 4

ver y accurate 5

somewhat accurate 3

moderatel y accurate 4

ver y accurate 5

somewhat accurate 3

moderatel y accurate 4

ver y accurate 5

2. TOO MANY COOKS SPOIL THE BROTH. not at all accurate 1

a little accurate 2

3. OPPOSITES ATTRACT. not at all accurate 1

a little accurate 2

4. LOOK BEFORE YOU LEAP. not at all accurate 1

a little accurate 2

5. OUT OF SIGHT, OUT OF MIND. not at all accurate 1

a little accurate 2

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

Exercise 1-1 Transparency Master Number in Group A who answered 3,4,5

Number in Group B who answered 3,4,5

ITEM 1

______________

______________

ITEM 2

______________

______________

ITEM 3

______________

______________

ITEM 4

______________

______________

ITEM 5

______________

______________

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

Exercise 1–2 Empirical Questions This activity will help students distinguish between empirical questions and non-empirical questions. Divide students into small groups and give each group the handout with the list of questions, then have them discuss whether each question is (a) empirical or not, and why, and (b) a social psychological topic or not, and why.

After the small group discussions, discuss each question as a class. This activity should help students understand what constitutes an empirical question and which questions fall under the purview of social psychology. You could easily modify this activity by changing the questions to fit your own area of expertise or an area of interest for your students. The answers are below. 

1a. This is not an empirical question. Although one could assess how moral individuals consider living together before marriage to be, whether a practice is actually moral cannot be scientifically tested.

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1b. This is not a social psychological question. You may wish to discuss which other academic disciplines might deal with moral questions (e.g., religious studies, philosophy).

2a. This is an empirical question. It could be answered by comparing survey data that has been collected across time.

  

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2b. This would typically not be considered a social psychological question because it does not consider the individuals within social situations as the level of analysis. Because it is about changes in Canadian society, it is more of a sociological question.

3a. This is an empirical question. It could be answered by comparing the marital satisfaction of couples who cohabitated before marriage with those who did not. If your students are more methodologically savvy, you might discuss how it would be unethical to do an experiment to answer this question, even though it is an empirical question (e.g., you can’t randomly assign people to condition!). You can also revisit this in Chapter 2 to consider alternative explanation for any relationship that is found (e.g., this design would not allow us to infer that living together before marriage increases or decreases marital satisfaction; one main reason is that different types of people might decide to or not to live together before getting married and so there is a strong possibility that a third factor would account for any difference).

3b. This is a social psychological question. It considers the individual in the context of a cohabitating or non-cohabitating couple relationship as the level of analysis.

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

Group Member Names: ___________________________________________________ Date: ____________________________________________ Social Psychology Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT EXERCISE 1–2: EMPIRICAL QUESTIONS Directions: As a group, discuss each question below, and then write your answers in the space provided.

1. Is a couple living together outside of marriage immoral? a. Is this an empirical question or not? Why? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ b. Is this a social psychological question or not? Why? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

2. How have beliefs about whether premarital cohabitation is acceptable changed over the last fifty years in Canada? a. Is this an empirical question or not? Why? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ b. Is this a social psychological question or not? Why? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

3. How does premarital cohabitation affect subsequent marital satisfaction? a. Is this an empirical question or not? Why? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ b. Is this a social psychological question or not? Why? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

Exercise 1–3 Traits and Situations as Determinants of Behaviour Time to Complete: 15-20 minutes Ahead of Time: Make copies of handout 1-3a and prepare transparency 1-3b for class. You will probably want to work through the calculations yourself first so as to avoid confusion. You may wish to have a couple of calculators available for those students who would prefer to do the arithmetic this way; however, most students will likely have calculators on their cell phones.

In Class: To further illustrate the fundamental attribution error and to expand upon the Liberman, Samuels, & Ross (2004) study described in the text, ask students to think of the person they know who would be most likely, and the person they know who would be least likely, to donate food to a food drive. Then distribute handout 1-3a and have students complete the exercise and calculations. Walk around to assist students who are confused over the calculations.

After students have worked through the calculations, ask them to raise their hands and indicate how many of them had a bigger number for the effect of personality traits than for the effect of situations. How many students had a bigger number for the effect of situations than for personality traits? Did anyone have equal numbers for each? Most students will indicate that they had a bigger number for the expected effect of personality traits.

Then tell students that this study was, in fact, conducted at Stanford University by Newton, Griffin, and Ross (1980). Use the sheet provided to show students the results from the Newton et al. study, and walk students through the calculations for the size of the effects of personality traits and situations.

Discussion: Most students will find that the expected effect of personality is larger than the expected effect of the situation. However, when Newton, Griffin, and Ross conducted their study (1980, described on p. 132–133 of L. Ross and R. E. Nisbett, The Person and the Situation: Perspectives of Social Psychology, McGraw Hill), they found that the effect of the situation was more powerful than the effect of personality (see results on transparency master, form 1-4b, for results). Thus those who expect the effect of personality to be stronger than that of the situation are making the fundamental attribution error.

Note that in this study, the situation had a more powerful effect than did personality, even though the people used as participants in the research were both the most helpful and the least helpful people the students knew. If personality were to have a strong effect on predicting helping behaviour, it should certainly be when the target people are known for being extreme on the personality dimension (as compared with the more typical case, when the target people used are randomly selected). But even in this case, the effect of the situation was more powerful than that of personality.

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Name: ______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT EXERCISE 1–3a: TRAITS AND SITUATIONS Directions: Think of the person you know who would be most likely to donate food to a food drive:____________ Think of the person you know who would be least likely to donate food to a food drive:____________ Now imagine the following situation: A student is mailed a letter and is asked to make a donation of food to a campus crusade against hunger. They are assigned a specific type of food to bring and are given a map to the place to deliver their donation. The night before their donation is due, they are called and reminded to bring their food.

How likely is your “most likely” person to donate food? Use a percentage between 0% and 100% to indicate how likely your “most likely” person is to donate food under these circumstances.

Write this number on the line below that says "A." How likely is your “least likely” person to donate food? Use a percentage between 0% and 100% to indicate how likely your “least likely” person is to donate food under these circumstances.

Write this number on the line below that says "B." Now, imagine that each person is mailed a letter asking them to make a donation of food to a campus crusade against hunger, but that this time, no map, type of food, or phone call are provided.

Under these circumstances, how likely is your "most likely" person to donate food? Write this number on the line below that says "C." Under these circumstances, how likely is your "least likely" person to donate food? Write this number on the line below that says "D.”

Cues Given No Cues

Most Likely Person A __________ C __________

Least Likely Person B __________ D __________

Now we’ll have you do some simple calculations. Use a calculator if necessary.

First, what is the value of the difference between A and B (A minus B)? _______ (E)

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Now, what is the difference between C and D (C minus D)? _______ (F) Take these two numbers and find their average (E+F/2). _______ (G) This average is your EXPECTED EFFECT OF PERSONALITY TRAITS.

Now, find the difference between A and C (A minus Q).

_______ (H)

And also find the difference between B and D (B minus D)

_______ (I)

Take these two numbers and find their average (H+112). _______ (J) This average is your EXPECTED EFFECT OF SITUATIONAL CUES.

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Exercise 1–3 Data Table 1-3b Master Sheet for Sharing

Results from Newton, Griffin, and Ross (1980) Effect of Persons

Effect of Situations

Cues Given

Most Likely A 42%

Least Likely B 25%

Average G = 33.5%

No Cues

C 8%

D 0%

H = 4.0%

Average

E = 25%

F = 12.5%

EFFECT OF PERSONALITY TRAITS Average of A-B and C-D is equal to the average of 17 and 8, which is 12.5%.

Difference E – F = 25% – 12.5% = 12.5% EFFECT OF SITUATION Average of A-C and B-D is equal to the average of 34 and 25, which is 29.5%.

Difference G – H = 33.5% – 4% = 29.5%

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

Exercise 1–4 Mock Trial The text presents the idea that individual jurors’ perceptions of the evidence can be very different even when hearing the same evidence presented in the same way during a trial (p. 4). However, in most trials, we don’t have the opportunity to ask jurors why they believed what they believed.

For class, develop an opportunity for students to peer into the jury process. Search online for one of the numerous lesson plans or idea pages on setting up a mock trial in your classroom. Keep the trial brief and simple, and do not allow jurors at the end to visit about their decisions. Instead, have students on the jury record on a sheet of paper their beliefs about the validity of the evidence and the guilt or innocence of the defendant. Gather those sheets and read them aloud to the class to demonstrate how varied the initial thoughts can be, even though every one of the jury members heard the same evidence in the same trial. Allow the class to ask the jurors questions about how they arrived at their conclusions. Discuss with students what leads to different perceptions in the face of identical evidence and discuss the pros and cons of using jurors in the court system.

Exercise 1–5 Self-Esteem Approach and Social Cognition Approach Research suggests that the best way for students to learn is to have them teach others the concepts they themselves are learning. Being able to use good examples while teaching others about a concept is beneficial to learning. To help students solidify their knowledge of the selfesteem approach and the social cognition approach, have them sit together in small groups (three to four people) and develop two or three good examples of each approach. Then have them carefully write each example on its own small slip of paper, for a total of 6. When students have finished writing their examples, collect the slips of paper, mix them up, and pass them back out to the groups. Have the groups determine whether each example is of the self-esteem approach or the social cognition approach. Have each group select their best example of each approach to share with the rest of the class in a discussion at the end of class. This extra practice in understanding these approaches should help students feel more confident in their knowledge.

Exercise 1–6 Fundamental Attribution Error Using Handout 1–6a, provide students with some unique situations to reflect on, and record their explanations for the behaviours described. After students have finished, have them gather into small groups and, using Handout 1–6b, analyse their explanations for signs of the fundamental attribution error. To what degree did their explanation follow the stereotyped explanation for each behaviour (rating 1–5, as shown on the handout). Have students reflect on how easy it is to assume the stereotyped or dispositional explanation for each behaviour and ask them to come up with some ideas to help themselves not make that mistake in the future. They can share some of those ideas with the entire class in an end-of-class discussion.

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Name: ______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT EXERCISE 1–6a: WHY DID THEY DO THAT? Directions: For each of the following scenarios, provide a potential explanation for the behaviour depicted. Be sure to write down the very first thing that comes to mind.

1. A grungy teen rushes into the bathroom at the park with their backpack on their shoulder.

What is the teen most likely doing? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 2. The phone rings and a polite person asks for you but mispronounces your name. Why is this person calling you? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 3. A student enters the classroom late and noisily sets down their backpack with a heavy sigh.

Why is the student late? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 4. A stranger leaves a group of people and staggers over to you, slurring their speech. Why is this stranger slurring and staggering? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

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Name: ______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT EXERCISE 1–6b: WHY DID THEY DO THAT? After completing Handout 1–6a, give your answers to another student in your group. As you might have guessed, this activity is looking at the fundamental attribution error. Remember that the fundamental attribution error is the tendency to overestimate the extent to which people’s behaviour is due to internal, dispositional factors and to underestimate the role of situational factors.

When you have another group member’s answers in front of you, read the explanations for the behaviours and rate them on the scale below, according to how closely the explanation follows a dispositional (closer to 5) or a situational explanation (closer to 1). Remember that your text teaches us that we are likely to explain others’ behaviours due to internal, dispositional factors (something about their personality or their faults), especially when it is negative.

Therefore, it would be expected that most of the ratings would be closer to 5. After rating each answer, share the data with your group. Discuss how common it was for members of your group to fall into the fundamental attribution error. Did most members explain the behaviours with internal/dispositional explanations or did they focus on the potential situational factors? Discuss within your group some strategies to use to keep yourself from falling into the fundamental attribution error in the future. Be prepared to share some of those ideas with the entire class.

1. To what degree is the explanation internal/dispositional (closer to 5) or external/situational (closer to 1)?

1

2

3

4

5

2. To what degree is the explanation internal/dispositional (closer to 5) or external/situational (closer to 1)?

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2

3

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5

3. To what degree is the explanation internal/dispositional (closer to 5) or external/situational (closer to 1)?

1

2

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4. To what degree is the explanation internal/dispositional (closer to 5) or external/situational (closer to 1)?

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Exercise 1–7 Are First Impressions Ever Correct?

Time to Complete: 25-30 minutes Materials: Sticky note pads (approximately 4" x 6") In Class: Break the class down into small groups of about 20 individuals per group. You might ask individuals to do this by counting off in order to separate friends. Assign a group leader or one of your teaching assistants to lead the group discussion. If the class is small enough, you can facilitate the discussion. Ask each student individually to share where they are from, their major, year in school, and any special thing they have done in the last year (trip to Europe, skydiving, or anything else unusual). Now take some sticky note pads and stick a page to each person's back, and ask the rest of the group to write down on the pad their first impressions of the individual. A brief answer is best. Take about 20 minutes for the students to meet each other and write their comments. Now have each student look at their own sticky note. Many will say when asked that the comments are very close to describing their behaviour.

Have the students keep the sticky pads in their notebook. You can ask students to refer back to this information when beginning to discuss social perception (Chapter 4). You might also repeat this exercise at the end of the term. If you do this and time permits, ask students to compare their first and second sticky notes and again discuss the accuracy of first impressions.

Discussion: Are first impressions very good? What information do you draw on in forming a first impression of another person? What kinds of information do people seem to be fairly accurate about and what kinds of information are they not accurate about? What biases or problems are there in relying on first impression information?

This exercise allows the class to collect data on a social phenomenon that they all have an opinion on and also to meet the other students in the class. Additionally, you can refer back to this exercise when discussing schemas in Chapter 3. This will work particularly well if you use a variant of asking a few confederates (teaching assistants or friends) to give very strange answers (for example, saying they spent the summer performing as a human cannonball in a circus).

During the next class period, use the comments on these confederates' sticky notes as a lecture lead-in on the primacy effect. Be sure to indicate to the students that the confederates were as "normal" as everyone else in the class.

(After Whitford & Babcock, 1993)

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Exercise 1–8 Conflicting Social Influences Time to Complete: 5 minutes Learning Objective: 1.1 Define social psychology and distinguish it from other disciplines.

On p. 3, the textbook asks students to think of situations where they feel direct pressures from situational sources such as parents and friends. What kinds of indirect influences are acting on students? Ask students to reflect on how they decide to act in these situations, especially when simultaneous pressures conflict.

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STUDENT PROJECTS AND RESEARCH ASSIGNMENTS ____________________________________________________________ Exercise 1–9 An Informal History of Social Psychology A library assignment can provide the basis for a discussion of the history of social psychology and also serve to familiarize students with the Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science (and other major journals in the field, if you wish). Assign each student, or a group of students, to examine the issues from a specified year of CJBS (available in most university libraries). The assigned years could vary from the 60s, when the CJBS was initially published in partnership with the Canadian Psychological Association, to the present decade (of course, the first year assigned will depend upon the availability of older issues in your library).

Homework Assignment: For each student or group, ask them to find the answers to the following questions. You may distribute Handout 1–11, which covers questions 1–4, if you wish.

1. What were the most popular topics to study in the year you examined?

2. Take one issue from the year you were assigned (making sure that it is not a “special issue” devoted to a single topic) and examine each study in that issue. Look at the participants being used in the studies. What percentage of the studies use participants who are university students? What percentage of the studies use only male participants?

Only female participants? Both sexes?

3. Again, examining a single issue, calculate the average number of authors per article.

Also, calculate the percentage of studies that have a female first author, and the percentage that have any female authors.

4. Again, examining a single issue, calculate the average number of studies presented in each article.

5. [For upper-level social psychology classes where the students can already be expected to know the difference between experimental and correlational/survey methods.] Take one issue from the year you were assigned and examine each study in that issue. What percentage of the studies are experiments? What percentage are surveys? What percentage use other methodologies?

In Class: Have students report their results. You can use the data sheet for Exercise 1–11 to summarize the findings. Have different groups report on each question to demonstrate trends in the history of social psychology. The discussion should reveal trends in the content studied in social psychology—for example, the focus on cognitive dissonance in the 1960s; attribution in the 1970s; heuristics, schemas, and biases in the 1980s; and the self, culture, and motivation in the 1990s. Additionally, students will see for themselves the changes in the use of broader subject populations (though this is still quite limited), the increasing role of women social psychologists as authors in the field, and the trend toward multi-study articles over recent years.

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An article by H. T. Reis and J. Stiller (1992, “Publication trends in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology: A three decade retrospective,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18, p. 465–472) summarizes some of these changes and others from the 1960s to the 1990s in North American social psychology journals, including more detailed methods sections, more tables, more literature cited in introductions, more research participants per study, and more complex statistics. These changes highlight the development of social psychology from a young science to one that has “come of age.” A variation of this assignment could have some students report on American journals such as the Journal of Social Psychology and/or the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, so that the differences between sociology and social psychology can be highlighted.

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Exercise 1–9 Data Sheet: An Informal History of Social Psychology

Decade

Topics

Participants

Mean No. of Previous Mean No. Studies of Authors Cited in Article

1960s

1970s

1980s

1990s

2000s

2010s

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Name: ______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT EXERCISE 1–9: AN INFORMAL HISTORY OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Directions: In this assignment, you will be investigating the history of social psychology by examining issues from your assigned year of the Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science.

1. What were the most popular topics to study in the year you examined? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 2. Take one issue from the year you were assigned (making sure it is not a “special issue” devoted to a single topic) and examine each study in it. Look at the participants who were used in the studies. What percentage of studies used participants who were university students? What percentage used male participants only? Female participants only? Both sexes? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 3. Again, examining a single issue, calculate the average number of authors per article. Also, calculate the percentage of studies that have a female first author, and the percentage that have any female authors. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 4. Again, examining a single issue, calculate the average number of studies presented in each article. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 5. Add any additional observations below. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

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Exercise 1–10 Personal Experience Essays or Journal Have students begin recording self-reflections on their own experience using some of the concepts discussed in each chapter. In chapter one, for instance, construals, the fundamental attribution error, the self-esteem approach, and the social cognition approach serve as easy concepts to relate to personal experience. Have students think about how they have experienced some of these concepts in their own life. Students who can relate new material to personal experiences will be able to learn that material and apply it to other examples more easily.

Exercise 1–11 Social Psychology in the News Have students begin a small folder—hard copy or digital—where they can gather news articles that relate to concepts in social psychology. As they learn more about social psychology and its concepts, have them identify those concepts in news stories and/or posts circulated to the public.

Have them reflect on the concepts in the article and analyse what social psychologists might have to say about the article. As an example, have students collect articles in which someone demonstrates altruistic behaviour, stereotypical behaviour, or completely unexpected behaviour, and then reflect on the article from a social psychology perspective.

Exercise 1–12 Social Issues Term Paper Those instructors who wish to emphasize the applications of social psychology could have students explore social psychological contributions to the research on a particular social problem.

This is probably best done as a term paper. One easy way to approach the assignment is by using the Journal of Social Issues. Each issue of this journal is focused on a different social problem and can be easily found online. (Each issue also lists the topics that have been recently covered.)

Recent issues have examined social psychological approaches to studying hate crimes, the role of race in police shootings, euthanasia, affirmative action, youth violence, and inequalities in higher education. Each issue begins with an introductory article prepared by the editors of that particular issue. This introductory article provides background on the social issue and on key social psychological perspectives that are relevant to the problem. Then the introductory article provides a brief summary of the contents of each article in the issue (there are typically between from eight and ten articles per issue). A term-paper assignment could include assigning students different publication years of the journal and asking them to choose a social issue listed in the introductory article before summarizing the findings from the thematically relevant articles published in that issue. The length of this assignment and the number of articles students should include can be scaled in proportion to the amount of credit given for the assignment. Instructors wishing to include such an assignment as part of their course could ask students at the beginning of the course to begin thinking about topics they are interested in exploring.

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CRITICAL THINKING TOPICS AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS These questions can be used as a starting point for a lecture or during the midpoint in a lecture to encourage active participation and gain the students' attention. They could be discussed in class as a whole, or in pairs or small groups to encourage cooperative learning.

•

Ask students to share some of the “folk wisdoms” or common-sense generalizations they grew up with. How valid does the text suggest that these generalizations are likely to be?

Have students pick a common-sense generalization that seems valid and useful to them and ask them how they might test its validity in an experiment.

•

The textbook emphasizes that social psychology is distinguished by its focus not only on the power of the situation but also on individuals’ construals of the situation. Ask students to think of some examples from their personal experience where two people (or groups) differed in their construals of the same situation. A classic research example of differences in construal is provided by A. Hastorf and H. Cantril (1954), "They Saw a Game: A Case Study" (reprinted in Halberstadt, A. G., & Ellyson, S. L., Social Psychology Readings: A Century of Research, p. 89-94. New York: McGraw-Hill). This study analyses Dartmouth and Princeton students' very different perceptions of a football game whose outcome was contentious. Students could read this article, or you could ask students if they have ever discussed the outcome of a game with friends at rival universities.

•

At the end of the first class, you could ask students to pay attention to their behaviour over the next couple of days, and to note instances when they find themselves acting in a way that is influenced by the context of the situation—that is, when they believe that they are acting in a way called for by the situation that is different than they would have otherwise behaved.

Alternatively, you could have them do this exercise on the first day, just based on memories of the past few days. An example that is familiar to many university students is changing the amount of alcohol consumed to fit in with peer expectations during fraternity and sorority rush. Questions that students could think about in regard to their examples are: Why do you feel that your behaviour was changed by the situation in this instance? How have you behaved in other situations? What, specifically, was it about this situation that changed your behaviour? Was your behaviour motivated at all by the need for accuracy or by the need for self-esteem? This topic could also serve as a first journal assignment if you decide to assign a social psychology journal as part of your course. See Exercise 1–12 under Student Projects and Research Assignments later in this chapter for details on journal assignments.

•

To illustrate that personality traits do not account for all of the variance in social behaviour, ask students to number their papers from 1 to 5 and to respond yes or no to the following questions: (1) Do you often make contributions to class discussions in small seminars? (2) Are you more of a talker than a listener on a first date? (3) Do you regularly strike up conversations with strangers on buses or airplanes? (4) Are you typically lively and outgoing at a party? (5) Are you typically lively and outgoing with your close friends? Once students have recorded their answers, ask them to raise their hands if they responded yes or no to all of the questions. Invariably, a few students will raise their hands. This stimulates a good

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discussion about the relative contributions of traits versus situational factors to behaviour.

•

Ask students to consider the case of an infamous murder that occurred in the Queens borough of New York City, in the early 1960s. A young woman named Kitty Genovese was raped and stabbed to death in the courtyard of her apartment complex. The attack lasted forty-five minutes, and at least thirty-eight observers watched the murder from the windows of their apartments above. However, not a single one of them attempted to help Genovese, not even by telephoning the police. Ask students to reflect on how different types of social scientists— sociologists, personality psychologists, and social psychologists, respectively—might explain the bystanders’ behaviour differently.

•

Ask students if all behaviours seem equally likely to be prone to situational influence. How easy is it for students to believe that a person’s behaviour is influenced by the social situation when they get drunk at a fraternity party? When a person steals a car for a gang initiation?

When a man allows a cult leader such as David Koresh to engage in sexual relations with his wife and young daughter? Students will tend to find it easier to believe that situational influence operates in the first than in the last of these situations. Ask students to consider what situational factors make them especially likely to credit the power of the situation over personality as a determinant of a person’s behaviour, and vice versa.

•

The text provides a relatively in-depth discussion of the self-esteem approach to basic human motives. Ask students to give a personal example of a time when their behaviour was influenced by the need to feel good about themselves. The social cognition approach to basic human motives suggests that our actions may be guided by a need to be accurate. Ask students to give a personal example of a time when their behaviour was influenced by the need to be accurate. Which kinds of situations make one approach dominate the other, and vice versa?

•

The text cites Festinger as noting that we often gain the most enlightenment about social psychological processes when the need to be accurate conflicts with the need to feel good about ourselves. Ask students if they can think of any examples (real or imagined) where these two motives are in conflict.



According to the text, when the need to be accurate and the need to feel good about ourselves come into conflict, we may distort the world to continue to feel good about ourselves. Ask students to reflect on the behaviour of someone they know when their self-esteem is challenged. Do they get defensive? Do they accept the criticism gracefully? How do they respond? Ask students if they can identify that behaviour in themselves. Ask them if it is harder to recognize this tendency in themselves. Discuss the importance of “saving face” and maintaining our self-esteem in light of contradictory evidence.

•

Ask students what kinds of professions are concerned with understanding the effects of social influence. As students list professions (teaching, coaching, advertising, management, nursing, etc.), note that these fields often rely on applications of social psychology for gaining their understanding of what kinds of influence will be effective and in what situations. Have students discuss examples of how social influence might directly impact

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some of these professions. For instance, is it a good idea to tell a student they are wrong in front of the whole class? Why or why not?

•

Have students brainstorm on what they believe are the most pressing questions facing social psychologists today. What should be the focus of research efforts in today’s society?

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SUGGESTED VIDEOS Why Is Social Psychology Important? (1:39min) (Bill Swan, Sam Sommers, Carol Travis) -

Survival Tips! Using Social Psychology to Navigate Your World (1:14 min) (Sam Sommers) -

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2 Methodology How Social Psychologists Do Research

CONTENTS Learning Objectives Chapter Outline Key Terms Integrating “Try It!” Active Learning Exercises In-Class Exercises Student Projects and Research Assignments Critical Thinking Topics and Discussion Questions Suggested Videos

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES 2.1

Describe how researchers develop hypotheses and theories.

2.2

Compare the strengths and weaknesses of various research designs that social psychologists use.

2.3

Explain the impact that cross-cultural studies and social neuroscience research have on the way scientists investigate social behaviour.

2.4

Summarize how social psychologists ensure the safety and welfare of their research participants, while at the same time testing hypotheses about the causes of social behaviour.

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CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Social Psychology: An Empirical Science Learning Objective: 2.1 Describe how researchers develop hypotheses and theories.  Fundamental to social psychology is that many social problems can be studied empirically.  It is important to understand how social psychological research is done.  Findings from social psychological research may appear obvious because they deal with familiar topics.  Findings that appear obvious in retrospect may not have been predictable before the experiment was conducted since people have a tendency to exaggerate how predictable an outcome may have been, as described by the "hindsight bias" or the "I knew it all along effect" (Fischhoff, 1975).  A Try It! Social Psychology Quiz is found on page 24.

A. Formulating Hypotheses and Theories  A theory is an organized set of principles that can be used to explain observed phenomena.  A hypothesis is a testable statement or idea about the relationship between variables.  Many studies stem from a researcher's dissatisfaction with existing theories or the belief that s/he has a better way of explaining a given behaviour (e.g. Festinger and attitude change).

B. Hypotheses Based on Personal Observations  Researchers often construct a theory based on phenomena observed in real-life (e.g., Kitty Genovese’s murder).  Speculation cannot explain a phenomenon—researchers must design a study to test the hypothesis  However observations are done, it is important to construct an operational definition: a precise specification of how variables are manipulated or measured.

II. Research Designs Learning Objective: 2.2 Compare the strengths and weaknesses of various research designs that social psychologists use.  Social psychology relies on three methods—the observational method, the correlational method, and the experimental method--to provide empirical answers to social behavioural questions.  Table 2.1 (p. 27) summarizes the questions answered by the observational, correlational, and experimental methods, respectively.

A. The Observational Method: Systematic Observation and Measurement of Behaviour.

1. Ethnography  Ethnography is an observational method whereby the observer interacts with people being observed but tries not to alter the situation in any way.  It is a chief method of cultural anthropology, but it is used more in social psychology Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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 

It may employ technology to monitor behaviour.

It is important for the researchers to clearly define the behaviours of interest (e.g bullying), since definitions, or operationalizations, of this behaviour may vary between researchers and/or provinces.  Establishing clear operational definitions of behaviours increases interjudge reliability, which refers to the degree to which two or more judges will independently come up with the same observations of the behaviour of interest.

2. Archival Analysis  Archival analysis is a form of systematic observation whereby the researcher observes social behaviour by examining accumulated documents of a culture.  Archival analysis can tell us a great deal about a society's values and interests, even in modern times.  Recent archival studies have studied the unhealthy body ideals that different magazines promote for women and/or men depending on the year and/or the sexual orientation of the magazine’s target reader (Webb, Vinoski, Warren-Findlow, Burrell, & Putz, 2017; Lanzieri & Cook, 2013). Another archival study looked at the body-types of women selected as fashion models and beauty pageant winners, and found them to be predominantly underweight according to Canada’s Health guidelines (Spitzer, Henderson, & Zivian, 1999). Archival studies like these can help to explain current issues such as some men and women’s dangerous and unhealthy efforts to achieve “ideal” bodies, and they can inform future directions for pragmatic solutions (eg. mandating that media-promoted “ideal” bodies fall within Canada’s Health guidelines, and requiring brands to declare when photos have been retouched).  A Try It! exercise on page 30 provides students the opportunity to do their own archival analysis.

B. The Correlational Method  Social scientists want to do more than describe social behaviour. A second goal is to understand the relationships between variables and to be able to predict when different kinds of social behaviour will occur.  The correlational method involves systematically measuring the relationship between two or more variables.  The correlation coefficient provides a metric for calculating the degree of association between two variables. Positive correlations indicate that an increase in one variable is associated with an increase in the other, and negative correlations indicate that an increase in one variable is associated with a decrease in the other.  Correlations can range from - 1 to +1. The sign indicates the direction of the correlation, and the magnitude of the absolute value of the correlation, which ranges from 0 to 1, indicates the strength of the association.

1. Surveys  A survey is a research method in which a representative sample of people are asked questions about their attitudes or behaviour.  The validity of survey data depends on using samples that are representative of the population being studied. Random selection can increase the likelihood of a sample being representative.

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

One possible problem with surveys is sampling errors (for example, the 1936 Literary Digest United States presidential poll fiasco, for which relying on telephone directories and automobile registries as a means of sampling resulted in a selected sample that was wealthier, and more prone to vote Republican than the general voting population). In 2011 and 2012, it was found that telephone surveys’ response rates in Canada had dropped by 15 percent and that polls and surveys conducted solely over landline telephones may produce inconsistent and contradictory poll results that are no longer representative of the Canadian population at large due to changing trends in landline usage: some Canadians may use call display to ignore the survey call, while increasing numbers of Canadians have replaced landlines with cellphones entirely.

Those who answer landline surveys are now predominantly the elderly, rural dwellers, and the less educated.  Survey questions that ask people to predict or explain their own behaviour are likely to be inaccurate.  Answers to survey questions can be influenced by the way the question is phrased.

2. Limits of the Correlational Method: Correlation Does Not Equal Causation  The major problem with the survey and/or correlational method is that it identifies only whether two variables are associated, and not why they are. An association might mean that A causes B, that B causes A, or that some third variable C causes both A and B, which are not causally linked.  Confusion of correlation and causality may turn up in media reports.  Examples are given and students can test their understanding of correlation in the Try It! exercise on page 34.

C. The Experimental Method: Answering Causal Questions  Only the experimental method, which systemically controls and manipulates events, can determine causality.  Readers are asked to imagine how they might test the relationship between the number of people present and helping in an emergency and to consider the ethical problems involved.

Then, the Latané and Darley (1968) study is described. In this study, 0, 2, or 4 other bystanders were presumably present when the confederate victim faked an epileptic fit, and the percentage of participants who tried to aid the victim was measured. The greater the number of bystanders, the less likely participants were to help.

1. Independent and Dependent Variables  The independent variable is the variable that is presumed to cause the change in the other variable. It is manipulated by the researcher. The dependent variable is the one measured by the researcher to see if changes depend on the level of the independent variable 2. Internal Validity in Experiments  An experiment has high internal validity when everything is the same across the different levels of the independent variable, except for the single factor of concern, which is necessary to be confident that any differences in experimental outcome can be attributed solely to changes in the independent variable.  Internal Validity is established by controlling all extraneous variables and by using random assignment to condition. In random assignment, each participant has an equal probability of being assigned to any of the experimental conditions. Random

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3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

assignment helps ensure that the participants in one group are unlikely to differ in any systematic way from those in the other.  Even with random assignment, there is a small probability that participants with different characteristics are distributed unevenly across conditions. To mitigate the risk of misinterpreting the results in such an event, scientists calculate the probability level (p-value) that their experimental results would occur by chance. By convention, a p-value of less than or equal to 5 chances in 100 that an event would occur by chance is considered statistically significant.

External Validity in Experiments  External validity is the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and other people.

Generalizability across Situations  Laboratory research in social psychology could possibly be critiqued as being artificial and hence ungeneralizable to real life. An experiment is high in psychological realism to the extent to which the psychological processes triggered are similar to the psychological processes occurring in everyday life.  Psychological realism often depends upon the creation of an effective cover story, or a false description of the purpose of the study, to make participants feel as though they are partaking in a real event.  Cover stories are used because if participants are forewarned about the true purpose of the study, they will plan their response, and we will not know how they would act in the real world. Thus cover stories increase psychological realism.

Generalizability across People  The only way to be certain that the results of an experiment represent the behaviour of a certain population is to select randomly from that population. However, this may be impractical and expensive. To sidestep this issue, social psychologists often study psychological processes they assume to be fundamental or basic components of human nature and that are thus similar across different populations.  To be truly confident of a study’s generalizability, it should be replicated with different populations.

Field Research  One of the best ways to increase external validity is through field experiments, experiments conducted in real-world settings.

The Basic Dilemma of the Social Psychologist  There is often a trade-off between internal and external validity; making a situation more controlled makes it less realistic, and making it realistic makes it less controlled.

This trade-off has been referred to as the basic dilemma of the social psychologist (Aronson & Carlsmith, 1968). The resolution to this dilemma is the use of replication in both laboratory and field settings.

Replications and Meta-Analysis  Replication is repetition of a study, often with different populations or indifferent settings. This provides the ultimate test of an experiment's external validity.  There is currently a debate in the psychological community, with some arguing that too many studies have failed to replicate (Open Science Collaboration, 2015). Others argue that although scientific methods can always be improved, there actually isn’t evidence of a “replication crisis” (Gilbert, King, Pettigrew, & Wilson, 2016).

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

New standards are being implemented to ensure the reliability and replicability of studies’ findings (e.g., by encouraging experimenters to pre-register hypotheses and post all data and statistical analyses on the Open Science Framework).  Meta-analysis is a statistical technique that averages the results of two or more studies to see if the effect of an independent variable is reliable.  Many findings discussed in the text have been replicated with different populations and/or settings.

D. Basic versus Applied Research  Basic research tries to find the best answer to the question of why people behave the way they do, purely to satisfy intellectual curiosity. Applied research tries to solve a specific social problem. However, in practice, the distinction between basic and applied research is often fuzzy.

III. New Frontiers in Social Psychology Learning Objective: 2.3 Explain the impact that cross-cultural studies and social neuroscience research have on the way in which scientists investigate social behaviour.

A. Culture and Social Psychology  Cross-cultural research is research conducted with members of different cultures to see whether psychological processes of interest are present across cultures.  In conducting cross-cultural research, one must not impose one's own views.

B. Social Neuroscience  Social neuroscience explores the links between social behaviour and biological processes.

IV. Ethical Issues in Social Psychology Learning Objective: 2.4 Summarize how social psychologists ensure the safety and welfare of their research participants, while at the same time testing hypotheses about the causes of social behaviour.  Social psychologists face the tension between wanting experiments to be realistic and wanting to avoid causing participants unnecessary stress and unpleasantness.  The dilemma is less problematic when researchers can obtain informed consent, specifying the nature of the experiment and getting permission from the participants before the experiment is conducted. In social psychology research, this fully informed consent is used whenever possible. However, in some cases, full disclosure of the procedures would influence the nature of the results, and in this case, deception experiments are used, where only partial or misleading information about the procedures is given to participants in advance.

A. Guidelines for Ethical Research  In Canada, a Research Ethics Board ensures that the research adheres to the ethical principles outlined in the Tri-Council Policy Statement.  These ethical principles specify, among other things, that deception experiments conduct a debriefing, or explicit statement to the participant about what deception was used and why it was necessary. During the debriefing, researchers attempt to alleviate any discomfort that occurred during the session, and discuss the research with them, which is educational to both participants and researchers.  Virtually all parties understand and appreciate the need for deception when combined with debriefing.

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KEY TERMS

Hindsight Bias: The tendency for people to exaggerate how much they could have predicted the outcome after knowing that it occurred Theory: An organized set of principles that can be used to explain observed phenomena Hypothesis: A testable statement or idea about the relationship between two or more variables Operational Definition: The precise specification of how variables are measured or manipulated Observational Method: The technique whereby a researcher observes people and systematically records measurements or impressions of their behaviour Ethnography: The method by which researchers attempt to understand a group or culture by observing it from the inside without imposing any preconceived notions they might have Archival Analysis: A form of the observational method in which the researcher examines the accumulated documents, or archives, of a culture (e.g., diaries, novels, magazines, and newspapers) Correlational Method: The technique whereby researchers systematically measure two or more variables and assess the relation between them (i.e., how much one can be predicted from the other) Correlation Coefficient: A statistic that assesses how well you can predict one variable based on another (e.g., how well you can predict people’s weight from their height) Surveys: Research in which a representative sample of people are asked questions about their attitudes or behaviour Random Selection: A way of ensuring that a sample of people is representative of a population, by giving everyone in the population an equal chance of being selected for the sample Experimental Method: The method in which the researcher randomly assigns participants to different conditions and ensures that these conditions are identical except for the independent variable (the one thought to have a causal effect on people’s responses) Independent Variable: The variable a researcher changes or varies to see if it has an effect on some other variable Dependent Variable: The variable a researcher measures to see if it is influenced by the independent variable; the researcher hypothesizes that the dependent variable will be influenced by the level of the independent variable Random Assignment to Condition: The process whereby all participants have an equal chance of taking part in any condition of an experiment; through random assignment, researchers can be relatively certain that differences in the participants’ personalities or backgrounds are distributed evenly across conditions Probability Level (p-value): A number, calculated with statistical techniques, that tells researchers how likely it is that the results of their experiment occurred by chance and not because of the independent variable(s); the convention in science, including social psychology, is to

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consider results significant if the probability level is less than 5 in 100 that the results might be attributable to chance factors and not the independent variables studied Internal Validity: Ensuring that nothing other than the independent variable can affect the dependent variable; this is accomplished by controlling all extraneous variables and by randomly assigning people to different experimental conditions External Validity: The extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and to other people Psychological Realism: The extent to which the psychological processes triggered in an experiment are similar to psychological processes that occur in everyday life Cover Story: A description of the purpose of a study given to participants that is different from its true purpose; cover stories are used to maintain psychological realism Field Experiments: Experiments conducted in natural settings, rather than in the laboratory Basic Dilemma of the Social Psychologist: The trade-off between internal and external validity in conducting research Replication: Repeating a study, generally with different subject populations, in different settings, or by using different methods Meta-Analysis: A statistical technique that averages the results of two or more studies to see if the effect of an independent variable is reliable Basic Research: Studies that are designed to find the best answer as to why people behave as they do and that are conducted purely for reasons of intellectual curiosity Applied Research: Studies designed specifically to solve a particular social problem; building a theory of behaviour is usually secondary to solving the specific problem Cross-Cultural Research: Research conducted with members of different cultures to see whether the psychological processes of interest are present across cultures or whether they are specific to a single culture Informed Consent: Agreement to participate in an experiment, granted in full awareness of the nature of the experiment, which has been explained in advance Deception: The procedure whereby participants are misled about the true purpose of a study or the events that will actually transpire Debriefing: Explaining to the participants, at the end of the experiment, the true purpose of the study and exactly what transpired Research Ethics Board (REB): In Canada, the Research Ethics Board reviews research proposals from various interdisciplinary perspectives (some board members are scientists or from related disciplines, while there is at least one non-scientist community member and one unaffiliated member) before the research can begin, and they encourage the research community to practice ethical research according to the ethical guidelines proposed in the Tri-Council Policy Statement Tri-Council Policy Statement (TCPS): In Canada, the TCPS (presently the TCPS-2 as it is in its second edition) lays out guidelines for ethical conduct for research involving humans, and/or human biological materials Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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INTEGRATING “TRY IT!” ACTIVE LEARNING EXERCISES I.

Try It! Social Psychology Quiz (LO 2.1)

For this exercise, students are asked to guess the findings for a variety of studies in social psychology. The point of the exercise is to demonstrate the hindsight bias (“The tendency for people to exaggerate, after knowing that something occurred, how much they could have predicted it—before it occurred”). As explained in the textbook: “To find out for yourself what we mean when we say that not all findings that may seem obvious can actually be predicted in advance, take the accompanying Try It! quiz.”

The outcomes of these studies are detailed in the Try It! Answer Key.

II.

Try It! Archival Analysis: Body Image and the Media (LO 2.2)

This exercise suggests that students do their own archival analysis of how women and men are portrayed in the media. “Archival studies have found that women and men are portrayed differently in advertisements. What are the differences in the way the men and woman are portrayed in these photos? To learn more about these differences, complete the Try It! exercise.”

Suggested guidelines for discussion are provided in the Try It! Answer Key.

III.

Try It! Correlation Does Not Equal Causation (LO 2.2)

This exercise is designed to help students understand the difficulty of inferring causality from correlational studies. Students are asked to think about a variety of reasons that a given correlation might have been found. Some answers to consider are provided in the Try It! Answer Key.

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IN-CLASS EXERCISES Exercise 2–1 Answers Name That Method Time to Complete: 10-15 minutes, in class Ahead of Time: Copy handout.

In Class: The exercise in handout 2–1 will allow students to try their hands at determining the type of methodology used based on a brief description of a study. Have students work on the problems first on their own, then in a small group, and then review in a general class discussion.

Discussion: Answers to the problems follow.

1. This is a correlational study examining the association between caffeine consumption and the number of daily hassles experienced. The only question that the researcher can examine is whether or not there is a correlation between these two variables. You can use this example to drive home the idea that correlation does not equal causation by asking students to generate the three possible explanations for any correlation between two variables. If there is a correlation, it could be due (1) to daily stressors leading people to consume more caffeine, (2) to caffeine either actually causing people to make more minor errors and thus experience more daily hassles or causing them to perceive more events as daily hassles, or, (3) to some third variable, e.g., number of hours spent at work in a week, which independently leads people both to consume more caffeine and to experience more daily hassles.

2. This is an experiment. The independent variable is whether or not the participant finds a free quarter in the phone booth. This is an operationalization of the mood variable, since the researchers presumed that people who find the free dime will feel happy about it. The dependent variable is whether or not the participant helps. The hypothesis is that subjects who are put in a good mood by finding a dime will be more likely to help. This example provides a good opportunity to introduce the concept of operationalization, and to discuss the relationship between theory and data. Also note for the students that this exemplifies an experiment conducted in the field rather than in the laboratory. Additional discussion could focus around other ways that the mood could be manipulated and that helping could be measured. Also ask students what possible problems could occur conducting research in the field. Most objections students will raise relate to the lack of control in the field setting, giving you the opportunity to stress that variability in events in the field add to error variance and thus make it harder to find an effect. This doesn’t invalidate the experiment, but it would lead researchers to be conservative in their conclusions. You could also ask students to design a laboratory experiment to test the same hypothesis and have them compare and contrast the advantages of the field experiment and the lab experiment. You could have them address the difference in control of outside variables, and the cost of moving the study to an artificial setting.

3. This is a correlational study. Some students may get confused and say that it is an observational study, since archival analysis is described under this section in the textbook. This Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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example provides you the opportunity to stress that even though this study is archival, it is primarily correlational because it focuses on the relationship between two variables, and not just on describing the pattern of one variable. The hypothesis is that there is a positive correlation between ambient temperature and aggression, measured by the number of batters hit by pitched balls. Some students may wish to argue with this operationalization of aggression--again, this will provide a good opportunity to discuss the idea of operationalization and the relationship between theory and data. If students argue that this is not a good operationalization of aggression because some of the “hits” are really just accidents, you can explain that although that is certainly true, those accidents are really just adding to error variance. Other complaints that students might raise are that the "hits" do not measure aggression of the pitchers, but instead measure poor control of the ball by the pitcher or slow reaction times by the batter. If these are mentioned, then ask students what their interpretation of the finding would be, and what better operationalization of aggression they might choose instead.

4. This is an experiment since one of the two independent variables is manipulated and randomly assigned. The two independent variables are sex (male/female) and performance (success/failure), and the dependent variable is self-esteem. The hypotheses being tested might be something like, “women, but not men, will show lower self-esteem after failure, while both sexes will show higher self-esteem after a success”. Having students generate hypotheses for this study will allow you to mention briefly that this is a factorial design and that the researchers are interested in the interaction of the variables, that is, the way that the independent variable (success/failure) affects the dependent variable (self-esteem), depending upon the level of the other independent variable (male/female).

5. This is primarily a correlational study since both variables are measured rather than manipulated (specifically, it is an ex-post facto study). Some students will be misled into thinking that it is an experiment based on similarities to study #4. Emphasize that it is not a true experiment because participants are not randomly assigned to the gender condition. The association being measured is that between gender and persuasibility (as measured by the amount of attitude change after exposure to a persuasive message).

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Name: ___________________________________________ Social Psychology

Date: ____________________

Course Number and Section: _______________________

HANDOUT EXERCISE 2–1: NAME THAT METHOD Directions: Answer the following questions for each study described below. (A) Is the study primarily an observational study, a correlational study, or an experiment? Why did you give the answer you did? (B) What are the variables involved in the study? For experiments, specify the independent and dependent variables. (C) What might be the hypothesis that the researchers are trying to test?

1. A researcher is interested in the relationship between caffeine consumption and level of stress.

S/he has participants keep a diary for one week during which they count the number of cups of coffee, tea, and cola-based soft drinks they consume, and they record their consumption of chocolate and any medications containing caffeine. In addition, participants complete a measure of "daily hassles" experienced during the week.

A. _____Observational

_____Correlational

_____Experimental

B. Variables: C. Hypothesis: 2. A pair of psychologists are interested in the effects of mood on helping. They go to shopping malls and set up observation near telephone booths. Their participants are individuals who use the phone booths when the vicinity is otherwise unoccupied. For half of the participants, the researchers leave a quarter to be found in the coin slot of the pay phone. For all of the participants, when the phone call is completed and the person leaves the telephone booth, a confederate walks by the booth and drops a file folder full of papers. The researchers watch to see if the participants help pick up the dropped papers.

A. _____Observational

_____Correlational

_____Experimental

B. Variables: C. Hypothesis: 3. Reifman, Larrick, and Fein (1988) were interested in the factors causing aggression. They looked at an entire baseball season's worth of news reports. For each game, they recorded the temperature of the locale, and the number of batters who were hit by pitched balls.

A. _____Observational

_____Correlational

_____Experimental

B. Variables:

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C. Hypothesis: 4. Researchers are interested in influences on self-esteem. Half of the participants used in this study are male and half are female. Participants are given a set of anagram problems to solve in a five-minute time limit. Half are randomly assigned to receive very easy anagrams, and half are given difficult ones. After completing as many of the anagrams as they can, participants are given a questionnaire labelled "Thoughts and Feelings Questionnaire" that is really a measure of self-esteem.

A. _____Observational

_____Correlational

_____Experimental

B. Variables: C. Hypothesis: 5. Researchers are interested in what determines how easily people are persuaded. Half of the participants used in this study are male and half are female. During the session, participants rate their attitude towards an increase in fees that has been proposed at their school. Following this, they listen to a persuasive message providing strong arguments in favour of the fee increase.

Finally, they re-rate their attitude towards the proposed fee.

A. _____Observational

_____Correlational

_____Experimental

B. Variables: C. Hypothesis:

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Exercise 2–2 In-Class Survey Tim Wilson suggests conducting a survey in class to illustrate correlations, t-tests, generalizations, etc. Ask the class to think of hypotheses and design the survey. They usually think of interesting questions (e.g, correlating the amount of alcohol consumption with the frequency of engaging in sexual intercourse or with grade point average). Obviously, collect the data anonymously. You may also be able to collect this data at the beginning of class via the course website or a survey data collection website (e.g., Survey Monkey, Qualtrics), and then use the data you collected from your students to demonstrate correlational methods from this chapter and make later topics more self-relevant.

Exercise 2–3 Designing Observational, Correlational, and Experimental Studies Divide the class into four groups. Each group should be assigned to design a study on the relationship between self-esteem and academic achievement/performance (handout 2–3 provided on next page). One group should be asked to design an observational study, another a correlational study, another an experiment examining the effects of self-esteem on academic achievement, and the fourth an experiment on the effects of academic achievement on selfesteem. The groups should describe their methods and what they would be able to conclude if statistically significant results were found. Once each group has presented their findings, the class as a whole can discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each method. Ask them to indicate how high their study seems to be in internal and in external validity. Note that although the group assigned to devise a correlational study may appear to have the easiest job, students are likely to just say that they will administer two different questionnaires, one measuring selfesteem and the other measuring academic achievement. If a group designs a very simple study such as this, after asking what they could conclude from such a study, you might ask what else they might measure to assess whether or not the correlation between these two variables is real.

Although some correlational research has suggested that there is a strong relationship between these two variables (e.g., Skaalvik, E. M., & Hagtvet, K. A. (1990). Academic achievement and self-concept: An analysis of causal predominance in a developmental perspective. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58(2), 292–307. https://doi.org/10.1037/00223514.58.2.292), other research has suggested that the relationship is spurious and is due to third variables such as intelligence and family status (e.g. Maruyama, G. M., Rubin, R. A., & Kingsbury, G. G, (1981). Self-esteem and educational achievement: Independent constructs with a common cause? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40(5), 962 –975. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.40.5.962). This will allow you to drive home the point that correlation cannot prove causation.

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Name: ___________________________________________ Social Psychology

Date: ____________________

Course Number and Section: _______________________

HANDOUT EXERCISE 2–3: DESIGNING STUDIES Directions: Your group will be assigned to test either a correlational study on the relationship between self-esteem and academic achievement/performance, an experimental study testing the effects of self-esteem upon academic achievement/performance, or an experimental study testing the effects of academic achievement/performance upon self-esteem.

1. Write your hypothesis for the study you are designing. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 2. Describe, in detail, the method you would use. Include operational definitions for your variables and, when appropriate, identify independent and dependent variables. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 3. What can you conclude from your study? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 4. (To be completed after presentations) What are the advantages and disadvantages of your method? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

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5. (To be completed after presentations) How high is the internal validity of this study? How high is the external validity of this study? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 6. (To be completed after presentations) What are the advantages and disadvantages of the other groups’ methods? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 7. (To be completed after presentations) How high is the internal validity of the other groups’ studies? How high is the external validity of the other groups’ studies? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 8. (To be completed after presentations) How might the correlational study be improved? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

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Exercise 2–4 Positive and Negative Correlations To enhance students’ understanding of positive and negative correlations, ask students to pair up and brainstorm examples of variables that would be positively or negatively correlated with each other. To further enhance their understanding, you can collect data from the class on some of the variables they posit will be correlated. In a small class, you can do this by using the transparency master overhead and having students post their own data in a scatterplot; in a larger class, you may wish to collect the data and make the scatterplot for them. Obviously, collect the data anonymously. This exercise can also be used as a lead-in for a discussion on correlation and causality by asking students to come up with alternative hypotheses for why variables that seem to be correlated are related.

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Exercise 2–4 Transparency Master

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Exercise 2–5 Experimental Ethics (Exercise 1) Time to Complete: 30-35 minutes, in class Ahead of Time: Copy handout.

In Class: Distribute handout 2–5 on the following page to class members. Ask each person to fill out the questionnaire individually. Then, divide the class into groups of four or five for discussion. Students should compare their answers. Are there any disagreements about which studies are ethical? Why did these disagreements occur? Which ethical principles do students refer to in making their decision about whether or not a study is ethical? Which ethical principles do students consider most important?

Have each group report back their results on each of the ethical dilemmas. Lead a class discussion about some of the issues raised. For example, when do psychologists have the right to study people's behaviour without their consent?

Discussion: Answers to the problems follow.

In Study 1, the behaviour occurs in a public setting and anyone can observe it. Since the observation involves minimal risk to participants, no informed consent is necessary.

In Study 2, the issue is whether the participation is truly voluntary. On a smaller scale, the participation of introductory psychology students for extra credit points in their classes involves a similar issue.

Study 3 is a description of the work of Piliavin, Rodin, and Piliavin (1969). The issue, as in most field experiments, is the lack of informed consent. When do psychologists have the right to study people's behaviour (or expose them to potentially distressing scenes) without their consent?

The major issue in Study 4 is the lack of debriefing. A second, perhaps more minor, problem is deception: not telling participants the true purpose of the study and observing them without their knowledge. Most studies involving deception are relatively harmless. Potentially harmful effects of deception can be eliminated by careful and sensitive debriefing.

The major issue in Study 5 is the delay in the debriefing. Some aspects of the study are good, such as informed consent to the degree possible and stressing the participant's freedom to withdraw at any time. However, debriefing is delayed for no obvious reason. The delay interferes with the researcher's responsibility to detect and to remove any damaging consequences that might have occurred as a result of the deception.

Study 6 is based on the work of Piliavin, Rodin, and Piliavin (1969). The issue, as in most field experiments, is the lack of informed consent. When do psychologists have the right to study people’s behaviour or expose them to potentially distressing scenes without their consent?

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Study 7 is modeled after work by Meeus and Raaijmakers (1985), who have updated the Milgram paradigm. An ethical issue here is whether freedom to withdraw from the experiment is challenged. You should conclude that attention to the welfare of research participants is extremely important.

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Name: ___________________________________________ Social Psychology

Date: ____________________

Course Number and Section: _______________________

HANDOUT EXERCISE 2–5: EXPERIMENTAL ETHICS Instructions: For each of the following studies, please indicate whether you consider it to be ethical or unethical; for studies you consider to be unethical, which of the Ethical Principles of Psychologists in the Conduct of Research (Figure 2.2 on p. 47) do they seem to violate?

Study #1. A social psychologist sits in a crowded bar all evening and records the number of people who came into the bar alone who leave alone or who leave with someone else, and the time at which they left. ________ ethical ________ cannot decide ________ unethical Ethical principle(s): Study #2. A researcher wants to administer a new drug hypothesized to affect aggressive behaviour. He chooses prison inmates to be his participants, reasoning that aggression is more common in prisons. In order to persuade prisoners to participate, they are promised favourable letters to their parole boards which may facilitate earlier release. ________ ethical ________ cannot decide ________ unethical Ethical principle(s): Study #3. A team of researchers is interested in studying helping behaviour. They stage a scene in a subway in which a confederate falls off his seat and bleeds from the mouth. The dependent variable is how quickly bystanders help the "victim." The bystanders are never told they have been in an experiment. ________ ethical ________ cannot decide ________ unethical Ethical principle(s): Study #4. A psychologist is interested in studying discrimination against homosexuals. She carefully trains a confederate to portray stereotypical "macho" and "gay" behaviour. In the laboratory, naive participants interview the confederate for a hypothetical job. Without their knowledge, the psychologist observes participants’ nonverbal gestures, eye contact with the confederate, and so forth. In order to assure that participants do not talk to their friends about the study, the psychologist never reveals to them that the true purpose was to study discrimination. ________ ethical ________ cannot decide ________ unethical Ethical principle(s): Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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Study # 5. Deception was employed in a study examining the relationship between attributional style and self-esteem. Prior to participation, research subjects were informed of the requirements and purpose of the experiment to the extent possible given the deception. Freedom to withdraw from the study at any time was emphasized. Following an assessment of attributional style, all participants were given false feedback on a test of a particular intellectual ability and were told that their scores indicated that they performed below average. Attribution and self-esteem measures were then administered. Immediately upon completion, subjects were thanked for their participation and promised a detailed report of the study. Two months later, subjects received the report which fully described the deception. ________ ethical ________ cannot decide ________ unethical Ethical principle(s): Study # 6. A team of researchers is interested in studying helping behaviour. They stage a scene in a subway in which a confederate falls off his seat and bleeds from the mouth. The dependent variable is how quickly bystanders help the “victim”. The bystanders are never told they have been in an experiment. ________ ethical ________ cannot decide ________ unethical Ethical principle(s): Study # 7. Participants are invited to be “confederates” of the experimenter, who is ostensibly doing a study on the effects of stress on job-interview performance. The participant’s role is to give another study participant (who is in fact the “real” confederate) negative feedback about his interview performance. They are to tell him that he is performing poorly at the task he is working on and is unlikely to get the job, and to make demeaning remarks about the interviewer’s personality. If the participant protests, the experimenter gives him prods such as, “The experiment requires that you continue”.

Ethical __________ Cannot decide __________ Unethical __________

Ethical principle(s):

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Exercise 2–5 continued Experimental Ethics: Guidelines for Group Discussion Compare your answers for each of the items. Where disagreements occur, participants should explain the reasoning used to decide whether or not a study was ethical. After you do this, answer the following questions. Be prepared to summarize your discussion for the rest of the class.

1. Are there any disagreements about which studies are ethical? Did you disagree more about some studies than others? Why do you think these disagreements occurred?

2. In your group, which issues seem to be the most important in determining whether or not a study is ethical?

Exercise 2–6 Designing Observational, Correlational, and Experimental Studies (Exercise 2) An alternative exercise that also gets students to think in terms of study designs involves dividing students into groups and giving each group a proposition to test. These can be propositions from social psychology that will be addressed later in the course (for example: “People come to love what they suffer for”; “People are more likely to help someone if they are in a good mood”; “Watching media violence fosters aggressive behaviour”; “People are more likely to discriminate against members of other groups when shared resources are tight”; and “Confiding to others about one’s problems is good for one’s health”). In each case, ask the students to design both a correlational and an experimental study to test their hypothesis. In all cases, they should be asked to specify what their variables are, and in the case of the experiments, they should specify their independent and dependent variables. Handout 2–6 includes these questions.

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Name: ___________________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology Course Number and Section: _______________________

HANDOUT EXERCISE 2–6: DESIGNING STUDIES 1. Write your assigned proposition (e.g., “Absence makes the heart grow fonder”) here. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 2. Rewrite the proposition as a scientific hypothesis. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 3. Design a correlational study to test this hypothesis. Be sure to include clear definitions for the variables you will measure. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 4. Design an experimental study to test this hypothesis. Be sure to identify your independent and dependent variables. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

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Exercise 2–7 Analyzing an Experiment for Flaws This exercise has students analyse a very poorly designed experiment for flaws. Distribute Handout 2–7 and have students discuss the experiment in small groups. The main problem with the experiment is that random assignment is not used, and several variables may be affected by the manipulation. These include using seniors vs. freshmen as the experimental and control groups; conducting the experiment in the daytime or the evening; students participating after an exam or not. In addition, the sample, particularly of freshmen, is biased, since only those students who have a free hour after class are able to participate. In addition, the researcher has the problem of using an “absolute” amount of alcohol, when effects depend on blood-alcohol level, which is dependent on sex and weight. Finally, because the researcher is using students from his own classes, there is an enhanced possibility that participants will alter their behaviour due to this relationship, and these behavioural changes may play a role in his results.

After students have discovered the flaws, ask them to properly design the experiment.

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Name: ___________________________________________ Social Psychology

Date: ____________________

Course Number and Section: _______________________

HANDOUT EXERCISE 2–7: ANALYZING AN EXPERIMENT A researcher was interested in the effects of alcohol on perceptions of the physical attractiveness of the opposite sex. To study this, he used students from two of his classes, a senior seminar for psychology majors that met one evening a week from 6 to 9 p.m., and a first-year introductory psychology class that met two mornings a week at 10 a.m. Because the seniors were all legally able to drink, he assigned them to the condition that received 2 oz. of alcohol mixed in with 6 oz. of orange juice. The first-year students were assigned to the “placebo” alcohol condition, in which they received 2 oz. of tonic water (which tastes like alcohol) mixed with 6 oz. of orange juice.

These students believed that they were really being served alcohol as part of the psychological study.

Students were invited to participate in the study if they had a free hour after their class with the professor. The professor conducted the study on a Thursday, on a day when the introductory class had had an exam. Students drank either the alcohol or the placebo drink, waited 30 minutes in a lounge for the “alcohol” to take effect, and then sat at a computer and performed a five-minute task in which they rated various faces of the opposite sex on physical attractiveness.

The group that had received alcohol rated the faces as more attractive than the group that had not received alcohol, and the professor concluded that alcohol makes people of the opposite sex appear more attractive.

Is the professor’s conclusion a reasonable one? Why or why not? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

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Exercise 2–8 Identifying Independent and Dependent Variables Provide students with Handout 2–8 and ask them to identify the independent and dependent variables in each experiment. This will give them practice at understanding independent and dependent variables as they continue to read studies in social psychology. The answers are below.

1. Independent: Level of education Dependent: Perceived happiness in relationship 2. Independent: Whether there is anxiety or not Dependent: Perceived attractiveness of the newly introduced person 3. Independent: Presence of one, five, or ten people Dependent: Time delay until responding to emergency 4. Independent: Political affiliation Dependent: Investment strategy

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Name: ___________________________________________ Social Psychology

Date: ____________________

Course Number and Section: _______________________

HANDOUT EXERCISE 2–8: INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES Directions: For each of the following experimental scenarios, identify the independent and dependent variables.

1. Researchers want to see if the level of someone’s education is related to the perceived happiness in their relationships. In a study, they divide people based on their education level (high school, bachelor’s degree, and advanced degree) and ask them to fill out a questionnaire intended to measure happiness in a relationship.

Independent ________________________________________________________________ Dependent _________________________________________________________________ 2. Researchers study the impact of anxiety on the perceived attractiveness of a person you just met. Researchers give participants an injection of epinephrine (which makes them feel anxious) or saline (which won’t make them feel anxious), and then they are introduced to another “participant.” They are asked to rate the attractiveness of the person they have just met.

Independent ________________________________________________________________ Dependent _________________________________________________________________ 3. Researchers want to understand how the presence of others impacts how people respond in an emergency. The researchers present a mock emergency while a participant is surrounded by one, five, or ten other people. They measure how long it takes the participant to respond to the emergency.

Independent ________________________________________________________________ Dependent _________________________________________________________________ 4. In a study, researchers want to understand how political affiliation impacts investment strategies. Participants are asked whether they identify with Democrats or Republicans, and then the methods they use to invest money are examined.

Independent ________________________________________________________________ Dependent _________________________________________________________________

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STUDENT PROJECTS AND RESEARCH ASSIGNMENTS Exercise 2–9 Conducting an Observational Study To give students some of the "hands-on" flavour of social psychological research, you can have them (ideally, in pairs) conduct an observational study. Some ideas for studies are presented below, though students may wish to derive a method to test a hypothesis of their own. In each case, ask students to specify the hypothesis or research question and to decide ahead of time on a method, including the units that will be sampled, the duration of the sampling period, the method of selecting units, the behaviour(s) that will be coded, and the dimensions along which these behaviours will be coded. Students should devise a coding form for themselves ahead of time.

Both members of a pair should code the data, and the percentage agreement should be calculated as a measure of interjudge reliability, which depends upon how clearly the researchers defined or operationalized the behaviours of interest. Disagreements between coders can be resolved through discussion. Have students report back by writing a paper summarizing their hypothesis, method, coding procedures, and results (using descriptive statistics such as means or frequency distributions).

Possible projects include: 1. What kinds of explanations for their outcome are given by athletes who win versus athletes who lose? Use the sports pages to develop a topology of explanations. (This was done by Peterson, C. (1980). Attributions in the sports pages: An archival investigation of the covariation hypothesis. Social Psychology Quarterly, 43(1), 136–140. https://doi.org/10.2307/3033758). Try not to develop too many categories, but rather use fairly general categories, such as did the athlete(s) accept responsibility for the outcome, or did they cite the competitor as being responsible; were the causes that the athlete(s) cited temporary or changeable (e.g. injury), or were they more long-lasting causes (e.g. problems with the coaching staff, and so forth). When you are done coding, see if you can come up with any generalizations about the explanations used by winners versus by losers.

2. How has the portrayal of men versus of women in the media changed over the past 30 years?

Pick a medium, for example, ads in Maclean’s magazine, or the comic strips from your local newspaper. Go to the library and find some issues from 30 (or more) years ago. After looking through these briefly, develop a coding scheme. For example, you could look at the relative numbers of men and women depicted, what kind of role (e.g., housewife, worker, unable to tell) is being played by the characters portrayed, what setting (e.g., home, work, or social) the characters are in, or how dominant, submissive, or egalitarian male versus female characters act in relationship to each other. [More details on similar projects are given in Carpenter, S. (1998).

Content analysis for research novices. Teaching of Psychology, 25(1), 42–44. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15328023top2501_13] 3. Conduct an "unobtrusive measures" study of the concerns portrayed by men and women, as depicted in the kinds of graffiti found in men's versus in women's bathrooms on campus (of course, you will need a member of each sex in order to do the counts!).

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4. Compare how men versus women portray themselves or the kinds of characteristics they are looking for in a romantic partner by doing an analysis of the personal ads. Alternatively, you might compare and contrast the kinds of ads presented by people in different media (eg. in a small-town paper versus a city paper, or in different special interest magazines).

5. Do an observational study of who physically touches, and is physically touched by, whom.

Find an area of the campus or town to observe, and study pairs of people. Code each pair as to the gender (and possibly age) of each member, count the number of times each person touches the other, and indicate where on the body each touch is made. How often and where on the body do men touch women, men touch men, and women touch women, respectively? You might include young boys and girls separately.

Exercise 2–10 Examining Media Reports of Scientific Research One out-of class project that students often find interesting is conducting a search of advertisements and news media for examples of the confusion of correlation and causation.

Before giving this assignment to students, you might make a handout based on the "Correlation Does Not Equal Causation Quiz" in the text (p. 34-35). Reviewing these items, which include several examples of media reports, should prime students for the kinds of errors they themselves might find in the media.

Exercise 2–11 Debate on Whether the Use of Deception in Research Is Justifiable Have students conduct a debate on whether the use of deception is justified in social psychological research. The textbook provides arguments about why deception may be necessary, and it cites evidence against the idea that it may be harmful (p. 47). Students arguing in favour of deception should review this textbook material as they prepare. Students arguing against deception should refer to Z. Rubin’s (1983) argument that deception may retard scientific progress, which appears in Rubin, Z. (1983). Taking deception for granted. Psychology Today, 17, 74–75. Another pair of articles that the students could read to prepare themselves is the Baumrind-Milgram debate over ethical issues in the Milgram obedience study, which appears in Baumrind, D. (1964). Some thoughts on ethics of research: After reading Milgram's "Behavioural Study of Obedience." American Psychologist, 19(6), 421–423. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0040128; and Milgram, S. (1964). Issues in the study of obedience: A reply to Baumrind. American Psychologist, 19(11), 848–852. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0044954. (This pair of articles has been reprinted in Pines, A. M., & Maslach, C., Experiencing social psychology: Readings and projects (3rd ed., p. 11–18).

McGraw-Hill. Of course, if students read the Milgram study debate, it is helpful for them to have seen a filmed version of the Milgram experiment, such as that presented in the video The Power of the Situation (referenced in the film/video section of Chapter 1). In the class before the debate, assign students to roles. Preparation for the debate could be done outside of class (for example, if debaters are receiving extra credit for this assignment), or the first part of the next class session could be allocated for preparation. Each team should get together and decide what their best arguments are before preparing a three-minute summary statement. Each team presents its side Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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and listens to the other side. Debaters then have five minutes to prepare a one-minute rebuttal. At the end of the debate, class members who are observing can discuss which arguments they found most persuasive.

Exercise 2–12 Participating in Research On-Line Students are assigned to participate in one of the several social psychological studies being conducted over the Internet. One URL that lists web-based experiments is www.socialpsychology.org. Note: studies vary considerably in the amount of feedback that they provide to students; some come complete with debriefing, and others merely thank the respondent for participating. You could have students write a short paper describing their experience after participating in one or more studies, referencing either the hypotheses provided by the researcher or, should these not be available, their speculations as to what the researchers' hypotheses might be.

Exercise 2–13 Social Neuroscience To help students become more familiar with social neuroscience research, have them conduct a search through your school’s database for journal articles specific to topics in social neuroscience. Help them learn to search the database with terms that will lead them to topics in social neuroscience (e.g., fMRI, EEG, hormones, etc.). Have them read an article and identify the hypothesis, the variables, the results, and the implications of the research. Use Handout 2–13 to guide their responses

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Name: ___________________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology Course Number and Section: _______________________

HANDOUT EXERCISE 2–13: Social Neuroscience 1. State the hypothesis of the study. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 2. What are the variables being studied? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 3. How was the study done? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 4. What were the results of the study you found? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 5. According to the researchers of your study, what are the implications of this research? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 6. Is this study considered basic research or applied research? Explain. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

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Exercise 2–14 Design Your Own Observational Study Have students design their own observational study. Have them find a specific place where they would like to do their study. One idea might be to use the cafeteria or dining area at school. Have them decide what behaviours they want to observe. Some ideas include food selection, seat selection, manners/etiquette, and departing behaviours. Instruct your students to record their observations, maintain confidentiality, and explain their behaviour if approached. You might also have students include explanations of their variables when appropriate and note the challenges of observational studies. You can also consider having students work in pairs, and then compare their observations for agreement and disagreement. Have students return to class with their notes and lead a discussion of the observations and the benefits and challenges associated with this research technique.

Exercise 2–15 Did They Get It Right?

This activity is intended to demonstrate to students that popular press reports of research findings can sometimes be misleading. In this activity, students read and compare media and empirical reports of research. Have your students read both reports and complete the handouts associated with each (see Handouts 2–15a, 2–15b, and 2–15c). In class, have students work in small groups to compare their answers to the worksheet questions and work to resolve any differences by referring to the articles. Once the group has reached agreement, they should then work to complete the third handout, comparing the two reports.

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Name: ___________________________________________ Social Psychology

Date: ____________________

Course Number and Section: _______________________

HANDOUT EXERCISE 2–15a: EVALUATING STUDIES Directions: Answer the following questions according to what you read in the popular-press summary of the research article.

1. What is/are the goal(s) of the study? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________ 2. Why was this study done? What question did it hope to answer? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________ 3. What do you read about the sample and data-gathering strategy of the study? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________ 4. What were the main concepts the study focused on? How were the concepts defined and measured? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________ 5. Summarize the main findings in your own words. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 6. Did the media article critique the methods used in this research? If so, what strengths (aspects that made it a good study) were mentioned? What limitations (aspects that made it a questionable study) were mentioned? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 7. What was NOT mentioned in the media article (think about strengths and limitations) that you think would be important to know about the research so that you can draw appropriate conclusions about the study’s findings and implications? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 8. Did you detect any potential bias in how the writer of the media article presented the study (e.g., disclaimers for only some findings, value-laded statements)? If so, list and explain. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

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Name: ___________________________________________ Social Psychology

Date: ____________________

Course Number and Section: _______________________

HANDOUT EXERCISE 2–15b: EVALUATING STUDIES Directions: Answer the following questions according to what you read in the journal article.

1. What is/are the goal(s) of the study? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 2. Sample: Who made up the sample (demographics, size)? How were participants selected?

Can you generalize these findings toward others? If yes, toward whom? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 3. Data Gathering: How was information gathered (self-report, observed, etc.)? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 4. Instruments: What variables were measured? What types of instruments were used to measure each variable (scales, single items, etc.)? How accurately do you think the measures actually recorded what they intended to measure? Is there a better way to measure this variable? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

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5. Results/Discussion, Conclusions: What were the statistical procedures (correlations, means, experimental controls, etc.)? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 6. What were the main findings? Were relationships between variables presented as causal or correlational? How well did the author’s conclusions fit the findings (went too far, ignored something)? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 7. Strengths/Limitations: What strengths of the methodology were mentioned/not mentioned?

What limitations of the methodology were mentioned/not mentioned? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 8. Implications: What are the implications for research, practice, policy, and/or everyday living for consumers (reported or not reported)? Overall, what should readers keep in mind when interpreting the general findings? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

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Name: ___________________________________________ Social Psychology

Date: ____________________

Course Number and Section: _______________________

HANDOUT EXERCISE 2–15c: EVALUATING STUDIES Directions: After you have reached consensus with your group on Handouts 2–15a and 2–15b, respond to the following questions comparing the two articles you read.

1. What type of relevant information about the study is missing from the media article? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 2. What are the differences in how sampling, data gathering, measurement (instruments), statistical analysis, findings, strengths/limitations, and implications are reported? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 3. How meaningful/misleading are the differences? Explain. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 4. How does reading the journal article change your conclusions/opinions of the findings as reported in the media article? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

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5. What could be in the media article to make it more accurate/less misleading? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 6. Did you detect any pattern of bias in the media article? Explain. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 7. What would you conclude from this one experience about media reporting on social research?

Why might it be challenging for media and research articles to match up entirely? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

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CRITICAL THINKING TOPICS AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 

In the first half of the 20th century, doctors began to notice a relationship between smoking tobacco and lung cancer. This line of research finally led to the warning by Health Canada on cigarette packages. Ask the class if anyone is a smoker. There will usually be a smoker who can answer your questions. Ask the smokers "Why can you smoke cigarettes?" The answers will range from, "because I want to", to "because the government allows me to", to, "because there is a powerful lobby pushing tobacco company interests". To each response, reply, “yes, and why else?” Several of the non-smokers are likely to contribute answers, too. After several minutes (if class members have not raised the point), you can indicate that an important reason is that the relationship between lung cancer and smoking is a correlation. No cause-effect relationship between smoking and lung cancer has been definitively demonstrated in humans (for obvious ethical reasons, no experiments have been done). For years, the tobacco industry was able to use this argument as a defence. Ask the class how to establish the cause-effect relationship in humans. Have the class help design an experiment to answer the question. If you do this, you can use this discussion as a platform for a lecture on the ethics of human experimental psychology. Explain your institution's human subjects committee guidelines and explain the rights of participants in experiments.



Suppose you wish to find out how much people know about how to prevent AIDS. You obtain a brochure from Health Canada that indicates sensible precautions to take, and then you use this to design a survey to test whether or not people are aware of these precautions. How will you then find a group of people to take your survey? Use this as a lead-in to a discussion on sampling methods and sampling bias. Note that there are problems with representativeness in convenience samples (for example, college students). Ask how one could get a representative sample of the population. Indicate that many polling organizations derive samples by randomly selecting from address or phone directories. You could note that even these lists might underrepresent populations of special interest such as the non-English speaking or the homeless and indicate that special stratified random sampling techniques can be used (at greater expense) to attempt to reduce (though not totally eliminate) this problem.



Suppose that you wish to find out what actions people are actually taking to prevent the spread of sexually transmitted diseases. You obtain a brochure from Health Canada that indicates sensible precautions to take, and then you use this to design a survey to examine whether or not people actually take these precautions. What kinds of problems are you likely to run into in administering such a survey? Use this to lead into a discussion of the social desirability bias as a potential problem in research. Discuss possible means of reducing social desirability concerns such as anonymity of findings, social desirability scales, and unobtrusive measures (for example, condom sales: if students claim to be practicing safe sex but condom sales in the area are low, then you would suspect that students were answering your questions in a socially desirable way).



What are the problems with using college student samples in research? Pose this question to students. An article by C. Rubenstein, "Psychology's fruit flies" (July 1982 Psychology Today, p. 83-84) provides a useful summary of issues that could be given to students before or after this discussion. Conclude the discussion by asking students why social psychologists so often Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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use college student samples despite the problems, how social psychologists justify this frequent use of college student samples, and how social psychologists might be able to increase the sample base they use without their studies becoming prohibitively expensive. 

If you are teaching at a college or university in which psychology students participate in psychological research, you might try the following: Ask students who have participated in psychology experiments to share their experiences with the rest of the class. Were they deceived in any way? If so, how did they feel about it? Were they properly debriefed at the conclusion of the experiment? Tim Wilson finds that this stimulates an interesting discussion of ethics. Typically, people who have participated in studies recognize the reasons for any deception and bear no ill feelings about it. See Sharpe, Adair and Roese (1992). Note: If you are at a large research institution, you may want to take care not to ruin your students as future research participants by revealing to them the nature of studies being run at your university.

You may want to skip this exercise or make sure the discussion avoids specific details of studies.



Sears and Freedman (1967) wrote a paper on the selective exposure hypothesis that demonstrates the importance of conducting studies in field as well as laboratory settings.

Although researchers working in field settings had found evidence for selective exposure, attempts to reproduce these results in the laboratory led to very inconsistent findings. This discrepancy can provide the basis of an interesting discussion. Suppose you were going to design a study to test the following hypothesis (known as the "selective exposure hypothesis"): when watching political ads on television, people will pay more attention to ads for the candidate that they support than to ads for the candidate that they are against. Ask students to design a laboratory study to test this hypothesis. Then ask: Is this study high in internal validity? What would you think if you conducted the study and found that there were no differences between the groups? Discussion will first focus on internal validity problems with the study. Ask students: If you conducted this study and found no effects, does this mean that the hypothesis is necessarily wrong? Is the study wrong overall, or is there a problem with conducting this kind of experiment in the laboratory? What kind of mindset do people bring to a laboratory? How does it differ from the mindset that they might have when watching television at home? What are the conditions under which the selective exposure hypothesis is likely to apply? What does this suggest about the external validity of the original study? This discussion will sensitize students to the importance of external as well as internal validity.



The textbook discusses the possible cultural limits of research (p. 44) and suggests that many social psychological findings will hold up cross-culturally if the researcher’s own cultural values are not imposed, if behavioural observation is instead of questionnaires, and if the independent and dependent variables (eg. extroversion) are understood in the same way in different cultures. Have any students in class travelled or lived in another culture (or subculture)? If several students in the class have, this can provide the basis for discussions across the term about the potential limits and generalizability of the social psychological findings discussed in the text. An example from research include Kitayama, S., Markus, H. R., Matsumoto, H, & Norasakkunkit, V. (1997). Individual and collective processes in the construction of the self: Self-esteem in the United States and self-criticism in Japan. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(6), 1245–1267. https://doi.org/10.1037/00223514.72.6.1245, who suggest that the same motive of enhancing the self is fulfilled in the U.S., Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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with its individual self-constructions, by promoting the individual self, while in Japan, where the self is seen as part of a greater collective, one is motivated to perfect the self and affirm its belonging to the larger group by criticizing the individual self. In a review paper by Steven Heine (UBC) and colleagues, they also examine when the need for positive self-regard is universal and conclude that this may depend on how it is conceptualized. With the North American conceptualization, this does not seem to be universal: Heine, S. J., Lehman, D. R., Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1999). Is there a universal need for positive self-regard?

Psychological Review, 106(4), 766–794. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.106.4.766. 

In small groups, have students come up with the most unethical social psychological study that they can think of. Then, as a large group, go through each study, first discussing what makes the study unethical and then discussing how it would need to be changed to be ethical.

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SUGGESTED VIDEOS Against All Odds: Inside Statistics (30:00min each, ANN). This series, put out by Annenberg, teaches statistics. Episodes particularly relevant to social psychology are The Question of Causality, Samples and Surveys, and Experimentation.

Secrets of the Psychics. (60:00min, 1993, TLV). This NOVA program explores the efforts of the noted skeptic, "The Amazing Randi" to investigate claims of paranormal phenomena. It can provide a stimulating beginning for discussions of research ethics, values, and methodology.

Ghostbusters (1984). At the beginning of this move, there is a scene in which Bill Murray, playing a psychologist, conducts an experiment on ESP. It is an amusing illustration of how not to do experimental research.

Inferential Statistics: Part 2: Hypothesis Testing--Rats, Robots, and Roller Skates. (28:00min, 1976, PSU). A humorous presentation of basic research principles including random assignment, control groups, and hypothesis testing.

Junk Science: What we know that isn’t so. (58:00min, 1997, ABC). This ABC special, hosted by John Stossel, examines the relationship between science and politics and looks at how scientists view several issues popularized by the media.

Methodology: The Psychologist and the Experiment (31:00min, 1972, PSU). An introduction to research methods and experimental design. Focuses on Schacter's fear-affiliation study and a 1960 study by Riesen on the effects of light deprivation on visual-motor coordination in cats.

Discusses independent variables, dependent variables, control groups, random assignment, and basic statistical concepts.

Observation (28:00min, 1993, IM). The focus is on observing children, but it is a good primer on naturalistic observation in general.

Research Methods for the Social Sciences. (32:00min, 1996, IU). Discusses the scientific method as applied to social science research.

Social Psychology in the Laboratory. (24:00min, 1975, PSU). Three experiments in social psychology illustrate some of the standard features of experimental methodology. Shows experimental procedures such as the briefing and debriefing sessions, as well as aspects of establishing the environmental setting such as design of the laboratory, seating arrangements, and equipment. Experiments explore the stability of three-person groups, nonverbal communication, and communication in problem-solving.

Understanding Research. (27:00min, 1991, ANN, Discovering Psychology series). The scientific method in psychological research is presented along with data collection and analysis in the lab and in the field. The value of critical thinking in interpreting research findings is highlighted.

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3 Social Cognition How We Think about the Social World CONTENTS Learning Objectives Chapter Outline Key Terms Integrating “Try It!” Active Learning Exercises In-Class Exercises Student Projects and Research Assignments Critical Thinking Topics and Discussion Questions Suggested Videos

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES 3.1

Explain the advantages and disadvantages of schemas.

3.2

Describe the types of automatic thinking.

3.3

Analyze how culture influences social thinking.

3.4

Describe drawbacks to controlled thinking and ways to improve its effectiveness.

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CHAPTER OUTLINE I. On Automatic Pilot: Low-Effort Thinking Learning Objective: 3.1 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of schemas.

We form impressions of people quickly and effortlessly, without much conscious analysis of what we are doing. We do this by engaging in an automatic analysis of our environments, based on our past experiences and knowledge of the world. Automatic thinking is thought that is nonconscious, unintentional, involuntary, and effortless. A. People as Everyday Theorists: Automatic Thinking with Schemas  Used in automatic thinking, schemas are mental structures that organize our knowledge about the social world and also influence the information we notice, think about, and remember.  Schemas are particularly useful in helping us figure out what is going on in confusing or ambiguous situations. a. The Function of Schemas: Why do we have them?  Schemas help us organize our knowledge and fill in gaps  People with Korsakov’s syndrome (a chronic memory disorder caused by a thiamine deficiency and/or alcohol abuse whereby new memories cannot be formed) often rely heavily on schemas to fill in memory gaps with schema-consistent information.  Non-disordered minds also “fill in the blanks” with schemaconsistent information when situations are undetermined or ambiguous. The textbook (p. 54) references a study by Kunda et al.

(1997) in which university students offered different schemaconsistent behavioural examples of extraversion depending on the target’s supposed profession (e.g. a salesperson or an actor).  Kelley's (1950) "warm/cold" study is described, in which students were given descriptions of a guest lecturer that differed only in the inclusion of "warm" or "cold." Students who were told the instructor was warm rated him higher, asked more questions, and participated in discussion more than those told he was cold (p. 55).  Viewers of Pamela Wallin’s CTV interview also used schemaconsistent assumptions when they rewrote or dismissed their memory of her accidental and character-inconsistent use of a curse word on live television (p. 55).  The textbook condones using schemas to resolve ambiguous situations as long as they seem reasonably accurate. b. Which Schemas are Applied? Accessibility and Priming  The social world is full of ambiguous information that is open to interpretation. The schema that comes to mind and guides your impressions of a person or situation can be affected by accessibility: the extent to which schemas and concepts are at the forefront of the mind and are therefore likely to be used when making judgments about the social world.

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Schemas can become accessible for three reasons: (1) They are chronically accessible because of past experience. These schemas are constantly active and ready to use to interpret ambiguous situations. (2) They are temporarily accessible because they are related to a current goal. (3) They are temporarily accessible because of recent experiences (see Figure 3.1 for two contrasting examples of how recent experience can lead someone to judge the same behaviour differently on p.57).  Priming is the process by which recent experiences increase the accessibility of a schema, trait, or concept (see Figure 3.2 on p. 58 for an example from a 1977 study in which priming positive or negative trait words influenced participants’ impressions of an individual after reading a description of him).  The “Connections” box on p. 59 references two studies in which priming participants with meal-schemas (by giving them a proper place setting versus having them eat standing up) and by exposing them to God-related words (as opposed to positive or neutral words) influenced participants to eat less or to associate junk food more readily with unpleasantness, respectively. c. Making Our Schemas Come True: The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy  People often act on their schemas in ways that change the extent to which those schemas are supported or contradicted. People can inadvertently make schemas come true by the way they treat others.

This is the self-fulfilling prophecy, wherein expectations about what another person is like influence how one acts toward that person, causing them to behave consistently with people’s original expectations, thus making those expectations come true (see Figure 3.3).  Self-fulfilling prophecies can have frightening consequences; for example, the self-fulfilling prophecies has been implicated in sex differences in academic achievement. Teachers tend to believe that boys are more likely to succeed than are girls, and research suggests that this difference in belief translates into teachers' differential behaviour towards boys and girls.  Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968/2003) demonstrated the selffulfilling prophecy in an elementary school with their “bloomers” study - manipulating teachers’ expectations of students’ abilities changed teachers’ automatic thinking and teaching styles in ways that affected the children’s performance on their IQ tests accordingly (see Figure 3.4).  In Canada, Riley and Ungerleider (2012) tested the self-fulfilling capacity of teachers’ reduced expectations of Indigenous students’ academic performance, based on statistics indicating that indigenous students are more likely to drop out or avoid challenging academic studies, 3-4 Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

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A recent study conducted in Canada, the UK, and the US (p. 62) suggests that horoscopes can also have a self-fulfilling prophecy effect on its reader: reading a horoscope can impact the reader’s beliefs about a given task or venture, which may, in turn, impact their behavioural approach towards it, which effects the outcome.

The self-fulfilling prophecy makes schemas even more resistant to change because we see a good deal of false evidence (created by our own expectations) that confirms them.

Self-fulfilling prophecy-making can be reduced when we are motivated to pay attention and to form an accurate impression of someone; for this reason, Riley and Ungerleider recommend that programs be distributed to teachers to raise awareness of the harmful effects of self-fulfilling prophecies.

II. Types of Automatic Thinking Learning Objective: 3.2 Describe the types of automatic thinking.

A. Automatic Thinking and Metaphors About the Body and Mind  The mind is connected to the body, and so, when we think about something or someone, we also do so with reference to how our bodies are reacting.  A physical sensation (such as a clean smell) can prime or activate an associated schema (such as morality and purity) which can subsequently influence what we judge, think, and do in a given situation, without the awareness that the body has in some way influenced the mind.  Embodied cognition is the process by which bodily sensations activate mental structures such as schemas.  One study found that participants placed in a clean-smelling room were more willing to donate their time and money to a charity than those in the no-scent room condition. The researchers interpreted this finding to suggest that for participants, the clean smell primed a morality schema that then caused participants to behave in a helpful way.

B. Mental Strategies and Shortcuts: Heuristics  With many decisions and judgments, we do not conduct a thorough search of every option. We use mental strategies and shortcuts that make decisions easier.

These shortcuts do not always lead to the best decision, but they are efficient and usually lead to good decisions in a reasonable amount of time.  One shortcut is the use of schemas. When making specific kinds of judgments and decisions, however, we do not always have a ready-made schema to apply.

At other times, there are too many possible schemas, People then often use other mental shortcuts called judgmental heuristics.  Heuristics do not guarantee that people will make accurate inferences about the world; sometimes they are inadequate for the job at hand or are misapplied, leading to faulty judgments. But people use heuristics because most of the time, they are highly functional and serve us well.

1. How Easily Does it Come to Mind? The Availability Heuristic  The availability heuristic is when you base a judgment on the ease with which you can bring certain information to mind. Is Alphonse 3-5 Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

assertive? If it is easier to think of times when he acted assertively, you will conclude that he is assertive; if the opposite is true, you will conclude that he is unassertive.  The trouble with the availability heuristic is that sometimes what is easiest to bring to mind (e.g. if a doctor recalls a disease s/he recently encountered in the news while attempting to diagnose a patient) is not typical of the overall picture and/or does not suit this case, leading to faulty conclusions.  In a sense, it is a cognitive bias whereby you consider an event to be more frequent if you can easily recall a single example (e.g. watching Jaws, a movie about shark attacks, made many people fear going in the water, believing that dying via shark attack was probable, even though the average person runs a much greater annual risk of dying via a vending machine accident).  Figure 3.5 on p. 68 shows the findings of a study whereby researchers varied the level of ease with which participants could list examples of times when they were assertive; some participants had to name only 6 examples of times when they acted assertively, which is relatively easy to do, while other group had to name 12 different examples. As anticipated, participants who had to list 12 examples rated themselves as less assertive overall than the 6 word group since the former group struggled more during the task to think of examples.  The textbook gives another, similar example of this heuristic in action: when a professor changed the number of criticisms students should give about his course from 2 to 10, he improved his students’ course evaluations since struggling to come up with 10 discrete criticisms led students to think that it must have been a great course.

2. How Similar is A to B? The Representativeness Heuristic  The representativeness heuristic occurs when you classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case of a given category (e.g., guessing that someone is from Quebec based on how similar they look to one’s prototype of a Quebecer, regardless of any outside or contextual information).  Another approach to rapid categorization, which contrasts with the representativeness heuristic, is to use base rate information: information about the relative frequency of members of different categories in the population (e.g. judging whether someone may be a Quebecer according to the relative frequency of Quebecers in the area).  Sometimes, these two pieces of information are in conflict (e.g. someone may resemble a typical Quebecer because they speak French and dress fashionably, but they live in a place where Quebecers are infrequent). When attempting to classify someone like this, people often focus on the individual’s observable 3-6 Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

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characteristics (e.g. their representativeness of a Quebecer) rather than the base rate or estimations of probabilities.

A study at the University of Waterloo found evidence that reliance on the representativeness heuristic (or stereotyping) when given conflicting information (as in the case of the unlikely alleged Quebecer) begins at around age 4; contrastingly, 3-year olds relied primarily on base rate information.

III. Cultural Differences in Social Cognition Learning Objective: 3.3 Analyse how culture influences social thinking.

A. Cultural Determinants of Schemas  Although everyone uses schemas to understand the world, the content of our schemas is influenced by the culture in which we live.

B. Holistic Versus Analytic Thinking  An analogy that is often used is that the human mind is like a toolbox filled with tools to help people think about and act in the social world. All humans have access to the same tools, but the culture in which they grow up can influence the ones they use most.  Some basic ways in which people typically perceive and think about the world are shaped by culture. People from Western cultures (European Canadians and Americans) tend to have an analytic thinking style, in which they focus on the properties of objects without considering the surrounding context. People from East Asian cultures (including East Asian Canadians and Americans) tend to have a holistic thinking style, in which they focus on the overall context, particularly the ways in which objects relate to each other. These cultural differences in attention styles have been supported by various research experiments tracking eye movements and measuring event-related potentials (ERPs) in the brain (p. 71—72).  Studies show that culturally holistic thinkers (e.g. East Asian Canadians) have more information-rich cultural products (e.g. more detailed, informational government websites), and the ability to process information-rich resources to make efficient decisions faster than culturally analytic thinkers (e.g. European Canadians).  Thinking styles are influenced not only by the environment in which one lives but also by the environment that has been recently primed; research suggests that participants from any culture can be primed to think holistically or analytically with an exercise inviting them to think in one style or another (e.g. for both East Asian and European Canadian participants, viewing photographs of American cities, which largely focus on foregrounded landmarks, tends to trigger reliance on analytic thinking styles, while viewing photographs of Japanese cities, in which many objects compete for attention in the background, tends to trigger reliance on holistic thinking styles in subsequent tasks).

IV. Controlled Social Cognition: High-Effort Thinking Learning Objective: 3.4 Describe drawbacks to controlled thinking and ways to improve its effectiveness.

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Controlled thinking is thinking that is conscious, intentional, voluntary, and effortful.

One purpose of controlled thinking is to provide a check and balance for automatic processing A. Controlled Thinking and Free Will  It seems like our ability to choose what we do (e.g. to grab a bowl of ice cream) demonstrates the existence of free will, but research has shown that there can be an illusion of free will that is very much like the “correlation does not equal causation” problem if the urge arose unconsciously first (perhaps from viewing an ice-cream commercial), before subsequently causing both your conscious thought and action (people sometimes find themselves on the way to the refrigerator without having had the conscious thought that it was time for a snack).  Sometimes we overestimate the amount of control we have, and sometimes we underestimate it (e.g., the case of facilitated communication).  Rather than argue about the nature of free will versus determinism (as might philosophers, literary critics, neuroscientists, and political scientists), social psychologists are concerned with people’s beliefs regarding free will and the cognitive, emotive, and behavioural consequences of those beliefs.  Some research suggests that the more one believes in free will, the more willing one is to help others in need, and the less likely one is to engage in immoral acts like cheating. Thus it seems that there are distinct benefits of believing in free will regardless of whether free will exists metaphysically.

B. Thinking about What Might Have Been: Counterfactual Reasoning  Counterfactual thinking is when people mentally change some aspect of the past as a way of imagining what might have been.  The easier it is to mentally undo an outcome, the stronger the emotional reaction to it.  This emotional reaction can affect our behavioural response to the event. For example, one study gave students at Simon Fraser University slightly different versions of a story: after being stranded by a plane crash, a man had wandered on foot in search of shelter and then perished just before reaching a nearby town.

When the researchers varied the distance the man had crossed before perishing, they found that the closer to safety he had gotten before perishing, the more students were willing to give compensation to his family.  Like all controlled thinking, counterfactual reasoning is conscious and effortful.

It is not, however, always intentional or voluntary. Even when we want to stop dwelling on the past, it can be difficult to turn off and can result in rumination where people repetitively focus on negative things in their lives.  In cases where the event being re-envisioned was traumatic, such as losing a spouse or a child in a sudden accident, those who engage in most counterfactual thinking (e.g. “If only I had done something differently, my loved one would still be alive”) were found to experience greater distress, even years later.  Not all counterfactual thinking is harmful; counterfactual thinking about a poor past performance (e.g. a failed test) can have a positive, motivating effect on students who are not high in perfectionism. Similarly, a study asking offenders 3-8 Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

to generate counter-factual thinking about their crimes was said to help them not to re-offend. Counterfactual thinking is also used in Canadian research institutions and beyond to record participants’ responses to various hypothetical situations when it would not be ethical to construct these scenarios in real life.

C. Improving Human Thinking  One barrier to improvement is the overconfidence barrier, which is when people tend to be too confident about the accuracy of their judgments.  One approach to improving human thinking is to have people consider that they may be wrong, and/or to consider the opposite point of view  Another, more direct approach to improving human thinking is to teach people basic statistical and methodological principles about how to reason correctly, with the hope that they will apply these principles to their daily lives. Studies have shown that reasoning processes can be improved by university statistics courses, graduate training in research design, and even brief onetime lessons.

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

KEY TERMS

Social Cognition: How people think about themselves and the social world; more specifically, how people select, interpret, remember, and use social information to make judgments and decisions Automatic Thinking: Thinking that is nonconscious, unintentional, involuntary, and effortless Schemas: Mental structures that people use to organize their knowledge about the social world around them (by theme or subject, for example) and that influence the information people notice, think about, and remember Accessibility: The extent to which schemas and concepts are at the forefront of people’s minds and are therefore likely to be used when making judgments about the social world Priming: The process by which recent experiences increase the accessibility of a schema, trait, or concept Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: The case wherein people have an expectation about what another person is like, which influences how they act toward that person, which, in turn, causes that person to behave consistently with those expectations.

Embodied cognition: The process by which bodily sensations activate mental structures such as schemas.

Judgmental Heuristics: Mental shortcuts people use to make judgments quickly and efficiently Availability Heuristic: A mental shortcut whereby people base a judgment on the ease with which they can bring certain information to mind Representativeness Heuristic: A mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case Base Rate Information: Information about the frequency of members of different categories in the population Analytic Thinking Style: A type of thinking in which people focus on the properties of objects without considering their surrounding context; this type of thinking is common in Western cultures Holistic Thinking Style: A type of thinking in which people focus on the overall context, particularly the ways in which objects relate to each other; this type of thinking is common in East Asian cultures (e.g., China, Japan, and Korea) Controlled Thinking: Thinking that is conscious, intentional, voluntary, and effortful

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

Counterfactual Thinking: Mentally changing some aspect of the past as a way of imagining what might have been Overconfidence Barrier: People tend to have too much confidence in the accuracy of their judgments; their judgments are usually not as correct as they think they are

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INTEGRATING “TRY IT!” ACTIVE LEARNING EXERCISES

I.

Try It! Reasoning Quiz (LO 3.2)

How do heuristics affect your thinking? This exercise is designed to teach students more about the availability and representative heuristics. The answers to each question is provided in the Try It! Answer Key.

II.

Try It! Can You Predict Your (or Your Friend’s) Future? (LO 3.4)

This exercise is designed to demonstrate how much free will people think they have compared to others. For more information on the study by Pronin and Kugler (2010) that inspired these questions, see the Try It! Answer Key.

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

IN-CLASS EXERCISES Exercise 3–1 Schemas and Memory Distribute Handout 3–1a to half of the room and 3–1b to the other half of the room. Do not make it apparent to students that they are receiving different handouts. Ask students to read the story.

For maximum effectiveness, you might have the students wait at least ten minutes while you lecture before they answer the questions on Handout 3–1c. Then compare the answers from the two halves of the class. You may want to record their answers to questions 5 and 6 in different coloured markers or chalk on the board (according to the version of the handout students received, as determined by the half of the room in which they are seated).

Discussion: Although each story is the same except for the first paragraph, students will come up with different interpretations of statements in the story (for example, why Pat’s heart is pounding), and they may have noticed and remembered different facets of the house and its contents depending on whether they believed that Pat and Jamie were house-hunters or burglars. Tie this demonstration into a lecture on schematic processing and point out how schemas can influence information processing every step of the way, from attention to encoding to memory. [This exercise is modeled on an experiment by Zadney and Gerard (1979, “Attributional intentions and informational selectivity,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 10(1), p. 34–52). An analogous experiment with another story can be found in Owens, Bower, and Black (1979, “The ‘soap-opera effect’ in story recall,” Memory and Cognition, 7(3), p. 185–191.]

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

Name: ______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 3–1a: SCHEMAS AND MEMORY Directions: Read the following passage and commit as much of it to memory as you can.

Pat and Jamie were running low on cash. They’d spent everything they got from the heist they pulled on a convenience store two months ago. To try to reduce their chances of being caught, they decided to pull their next robbery in a suburb eight miles out of town. They would break into a house this time, rather than a store. After a week of looking, they spotted a house where the owners seemed clearly to be on vacation: papers were piling up outside the door, and they had never seen a light on in the house.

The time came for them to go to the house. No one was in sight, so they decided to examine the house carefully from the outside. They looked at the front of the house and noticed that the paint on the porch was beginning to peel. They walked around the side and looked through the windows into the spacious living room. The room was luxuriously furnished. The owners had arranged the furniture to face a huge flat-screen television. The living room was split-level, and down three stairs, there was a vast stone fireplace. In front of this were a sofa and a coffee table, on top of which sat a laptop computer. A sliding glass door in the back wall opened to an outside patio.

They then went around the other side of the house. The first room they saw was the dining room, which was big enough to house a table for eight. A cabinet on one side held crystal, china, and silverware. Despite this evidence of luxury, the wallpaper appeared yellowed and faded.

The backyard was fenced in, with a gate at one end. Looking around carefully again, they saw that there was still no one in sight. They tried the latch of the gate, and it opened easily. Going into the backyard, the first thing they spotted was the large deck running the full length of the house.

Outside one of the bedrooms, the deck featured a spa. To ensure privacy, the entire backyard was surrounded by a six-foot-tall fence. This was something that Pat and Jamie thought was just ideal.

The next room they peered into was the master bedroom—a large room with a walk-in closet, airily furnished. A large flat-screen TV sat in front of the bed. A large mirror in front of the dressing table reflected a jewelry collection that showed that the lady of the house had expensive tastes.

The room beyond that was another bedroom, with a desk and computer suggesting that it was used as office space. Apparently, someone in the household was into photography, as a nice camera and a camcorder were both mounted on tripods standing in the room. This room, like the others in back, opened onto the deck.

Just as they completed their tour of the outside of the house, Pat and Jamie heard a noise around the front of the house. Heart pounding, Pat whispered to Jamie, “All right, let’s go!”

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

Name: ______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 3–1b: SCHEMAS AND MEMORY Directions: Read the following passage and commit as much of it to memory as you can.

Pat and Jamie were looking for a house to buy. They were going to be married in June and had asked their parents to contribute to their down payment as a wedding present. After several months of looking, one weekend, while driving around, they spotted a house in their price range in a suburb eight miles out of town. They called the real estate agent listed on the posting and arranged to see the house the following day.

The time came for them to go to the house. No one was in sight, so they decided to examine the house carefully from the outside. They looked at the front of the house and noticed that the paint on the porch was beginning to peel. They walked around the side and looked through the windows into the spacious living room. The room was luxuriously furnished. The owners had arranged the furniture to face a huge flat-screen television. The living room was split-level, and down three stairs, there was a vast stone fireplace. In front of this were a sofa and a coffee table, on top of which sat a laptop computer. A sliding glass door in the back wall opened to an outside patio.

They then went around the other side of the house. The first room they saw was the dining room, which was big enough to house a table for eight. A cabinet on one side held crystal, china, and silverware. Despite this evidence of luxury, the wallpaper appeared yellowed and faded.

The backyard was fenced in, with a gate at one end. Looking around carefully again, they saw that there was still no one in sight. They tried the latch of the gate, and it opened easily. Going into the backyard, the first thing they spotted was the large deck running the full length of the house.

Outside one of the bedrooms, the deck featured a spa. To ensure privacy, the entire backyard was surrounded by a six-foot-tall fence. This was something that Pat and Jamie thought was just ideal.

The next room they peered into was the master bedroom—a large room with a walk-in closet, airily furnished. A large flat-screen TV sat in front of the bed. A large mirror in front of the dressing table reflected a jewelry collection that showed that the lady of the house had expensive tastes.

The room beyond that was another bedroom, with a desk and computer suggesting that it was used as office space. Apparently, someone in the household was into photography, as a nice camera and a camcorder were both mounted on tripods standing in the room. This room, like the others in back, opened onto the deck.

Just as they completed their tour of the outside of the house, Pat and Jamie heard a noise around the front of the house. Heart pounding, Pat whispered to Jamie, “All right, let’s go!”

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Name: ______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 3–1c: SCHEMAS AND MEMORY Directions: Answer the following questions based on your memory of the story.

1. Why do you think Pat’s heart was pounding at the end of the story? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 2. Where do you think Pat and Jamie went after they heard the noise? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 3. How many rooms did they see in the house? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 4. What do you think Pat and Jamie especially noticed while looking at the house? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 5. Write down everything you can remember about what was inside the house. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 6. Write down everything you can remember about the house itself. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

Exercise 3–2 Schemas and the Confirmation Bias Schemas lead us to prefer seeking confirming information, whereas we often disregard, or at least tend not to seek, disconfirming information. To demonstrate this, present students with a series of numbers that fit a rule you have in mind. The students’ goal is to generate other number sequences that conform to the same rule, with the ultimate goal of guessing the rule. The rule that you will have in mind is “every number in the sequence must be equally spaced from the one before and after itself”. The initial sequence to present them with is 2, 4, 6. Do not give them any other “correct” examples; let them propose others, and simply write those that fit on one side of the board, and those that don’t on the other, without giving away the rule. How long does it take students to get the rule? Typically, they will generate other increasing sequences of numbers (such as 1, 5, 9, or 10, 20, 30, or 10, 17, 24, or perhaps -3, -1, 1, all of which are correct), but they will typically take a longer time to try a decreasing series of numbers. This natural tendency to seek bias-confirming information (more examples of what they already believe) results in their failing to seek critical information that could potentially disconfirm whatever schema they have in mind (namely that all sequences must be increasing). [After Wason (1960), “On the failure to eliminate hypotheses in a conceptual task,” Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 12(3), p. 129– 140.]

Exercise 3–3 The Power of Schemas Have students gather in groups of three or four. Ask them to think of everyday activities they engage in where they use schemas to help them know what to expect in different situations. For instance, what should they expect when they go to the movies? What should they expect when they sit down at a restaurant? And what will happen if they go to buy fast food? Ask them what happens when something occurs in their situation that doesn’t support their schema. (For example, they enter a movie theater and someone approaches them and asks if they can take their order).

Help students identify how many situations they encounter in a day where they apply a schema.

This activity will help students see that we are much more dependent on schemas than they may have realized.

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

Exercise 3–4 Automatic Thinking: The Stroop Effect One way to demonstrate the concept of automatic thinking in class is via the Stroop effect. You can readily create the stimuli yourself: Produce two identical lists of colour names. On the first list, print the names in their corresponding colours (“red” in red ink, “blue” in blue ink, and so forth); on the second list, mismatch the name with the colour of the ink (“red” in green ink, “blue” in yellow ink, and so forth). (Alternatively, students can do the task by simply searching online for the Stroop test. Numerous examples exist.) Each student’s task is to describe aloud the names of the colours of the inks; this is considerably more difficult when there is a mismatch between ink colour and colour name, because we automatically read the colour name and it creates interference.

Students will probably remember this task from Introductory Psychology, but it provides a short and powerful demonstration of the power of automatic processing.

Exercise 3–5 Schemas and the Interpretation of Information Time to Complete: 10 minutes Ahead of Time: Insert images as described then copy handouts—enough of each for half the class In Class: Distribute each of the two versions of the handout (dog and person) to half of the room. Ask students to read over the story and answer the questions. Then ask students to raise their hand to indicate their answer, A or B, to the question about what will happen next. If handouts have been given separately to each half of the room, this should show up in the two sides of the room raising their hands to different answers. At this point, you can "debrief' the students about the two different versions of the handout. You can then go through the rest of the question items, comparing how people characterized George when they thought he was a dog versus when they thought he was a person.

Discussion: The schemas we invoke very powerfully shape our interpretation of information. Be sure to stress that people viewed George very differently depending on whether they thought he was a person or a dog, even though they read exactly the same information about him. Tie this demonstration into a lecture on information processing and point out how schemas can influence information processing along every step of the way, from attention to encoding to memory.

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Name: ______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 3–5a: George and Vance

[[INSTRUCTOR TO INSERT PHOTO OF LAZY DOG]]

GEORGE George got up, stretched, and went to see how Vance was doing. Still asleep. George gave him a gentle shove and received only a groan in response. He wandered outside, yawned, scratched himself, then looked around and peed in the bushes. Wandering back in, he checked over the remains from last night's party. Loads of empty beer bottles. Chips and pretzels. George helped himself to the remains of the latter, and burped. A sound in the doorway--a low moan. Vance was up! George gave him a big, sloppy kiss. "Hi, you goof," Vance said, "Boy, does my head hurt!" He collapsed onto the sofa. George sat down next to him, hoping that Vance would give him a little massage, as he often did. No such luck. George nuzzled closer. "Boy, does your breath stink!" Vance said, and moved away. George sat silently, looking at Vance with a hurt expression in his eyes.

What's likely to happen next? a. George and Vance will have a fight. b. Vance will make breakfast for George.

Check off all of the following adjectives that you believe apply to George. ____ slob ____ exhibitionist ____ self-reliant ____ affectionate ____ gay ____ horny ____ hairy ____ playful ____ cuddly ____ self-centred 3-19 Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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Name: ______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology Course Number and Section: _____________________ HANDOUT 3–5b: George and Vance

[[INSTRUCTOR TO INSERT PHOTO OF A YOUNG, ACTIVE MAN]]

GEORGE George got up, stretched, and went to see how Vance was doing. Still asleep. George gave him a gentle shove and received only a groan in response. He wandered outside, yawned, scratched himself, then looked around and peed in the bushes. Wandering back in, he checked over the remains from last night's party. Loads of empty beer bottles. Chips and pretzels. George helped himself to the remains of the latter, and burped. A sound in the doorway--a low moan. Vance was up! George gave him a big, sloppy kiss. "Hi, you goof," Vance said, "Boy, does my head hurt!" He collapsed onto the sofa. George sat down next to him, hoping that Vance would give him a little massage, as he often did. No such luck. George nuzzled closer. "Boy, does your breath stink!" Vance said, and moved away. George sat silently, looking at Vance with a hurt expression in his eyes.

What's likely to happen next? a. George and Vance will have a fight. b. Vance will make breakfast for George.

Check off all of the following adjectives that you believe apply to George. ____ slob ____ exhibitionist ____ self-reliant ____ affectionate ____ gay ____ horny ____ hairy ____ playful ____ cuddly ____ self-centred 3-20 Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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Exercise 3–6 The Availability Heuristic Distribute Handout 3–6a to half of your students and 3–6b to the other half of your students. Do not make it apparent to the students that they are receiving different versions. After students have had a chance to answer, discuss the results below. 

Questions 1–2: To most people, the second type seems more frequent. It is easier to think of words ending in “-ing” than it is to estimate the frequency of seven-letter words in which the penultimate letter is “n.” So people tend to estimate that the second type of word is more prevalent. However, when one notes that the “-ing” words are a subset of the words in which the penultimate letter is “n” (any “-ing” word has “n” as the next-to-last letter), one realizes that, in fact, the first type of word must be more frequent. (This example appears in Fiske, 1995.) Making the error of thinking that “-ing” words are more frequent is thus an example of the availability heuristic: estimating frequency by the ease with which examples come to mind.



Question 3: This comes from Tversky and Kahneman (1974). Tversky and Kahneman found that students given the 8  7  6  5  4  3  2  1 version of the problem made larger estimates of the answer (M = 2, 250) than those given the 1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8 version of the problem (M = 512), despite the fact that the numbers involved in each problem are the same. But students given the version beginning with large numbers had large numbers more readily available. (However, both groups in fact underestimated the answer, which is 40, 320.)



Questions 4–6: Also based on Tversky and Kahneman (1974), these ask students to estimate the percentage of people who die of different causes. In each case, more people actually die of the lung disease; however, people tend to estimate that deaths due to homicide, motor vehicle accidents, and fire are greater. Of course, these latter causes are much more likely to appear in news reports. Russo and Schoemaker (1989, Decision Traps: The Ten Barriers to DecisionMaking and How to Overcome Them, p. 83, Doubleday) did a one-year survey of how often accounts of deaths due to these different causes appeared in the news, and found that the lung diseases virtually never appeared in newspapers, whereas reports of accidents and homicides were much more frequent. Salient incidents are likely to be easily recalled and thus bias people’s estimates.

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Name: ______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 3–6a: ESTIMATING TASKS Directions: Answer the following questions.

1. What do you think is the frequency of words that would fit here: -----N-? Are they rare or frequent? ____________________________________________________________________

2. What do you think is the frequency of words that would fit here: ----ING? Are these more frequent or rarer than words that fit -----N- (see 1.)? ____________________________________________________________________ 3. Quickly estimate (don’t calculate) the answer to 8  7  6  5  4  3  2  1 = ______ ____________________________________________________________________

4. Do you think more people die each year of emphysema or homicide? ____________________________________________________________________

5. Do you think more people die each year of lung cancer or in motor vehicle accidents? ____________________________________________________________________

6. Do you think more people die each year of tuberculosis or in fires? ____________________________________________________________________

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Name: ______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 3–6b: ESTIMATING TASKS Directions: Answer the following questions.

1. What do you think is the frequency of words that would fit here: -----N-? Are they rare or frequent? ____________________________________________________________________

2. What do you think is the frequency of words that would fit here: ----ING? Are these more frequent or rarer? ____________________________________________________________________ 3. Quickly estimate (don’t calculate) the answer to 1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8 = _______ ____________________________________________________________________

4. Do you think more people die each year of emphysema or homicide? ____________________________________________________________________

5. Do you think more people die each year of lung cancer or in motor vehicle accidents? ____________________________________________________________________

6. Do you think more people die each year of tuberculosis or in fires? ____________________________________________________________________

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Exercise 3–7 The Representativeness Heuristic and Base Rate Information Time to Complete: 15-20 minutes Ahead of Time: Copy handout Distribute Handout 3–7 to class members. Ask them to read the description and make their estimate. By a show of hands, count how many students gave each response. The “right” answer, or best guess, using the base rate information provided is 80%. However, a fair proportion of the class will underestimate this likelihood.

Discussion: If students believe that Melissa is more likely to be a staff member/secretary than a programmer/analyst, they are using the representativeness heuristic, which causes them to make a base rate fallacy. The information about Melissa (her gender, good communication skills, etc.) may make her seem to be fairly typical, or representative, of what secretaries/staff are like, and thus may lead people to think that it is more likely that she is a secretary than that she is a programmer. The information about her is vivid, concrete, and easily usable. Relying on the representativeness of a stimulus to judge probability leads to the base rate fallacy, because it leads people to under-emphasise or even ignore the base rate information provided about the proportion of staff versus programmers in the company. Statistical or base rate information is more abstract and may seem less relevant or more difficult to apply.

During the discussion, it may also be useful to point out the distinction between "diagnostic" and "nondiagnostic" information. Diagnostic information is information that is informative--in this case, information about characteristics that really do distinguish between programmers and staff (e.g. expert-level computer competency). Most of the information in the example is, on the other, nondiagnostic--for example, programmers are probably no more or less likely than staff members to enjoy crossword puzzles or know how to touch-type. If anyone argues that some of the information IS diagnostic, you can introduce the idea of Bayes' Theorem, which allows you to combine the probabilities for diagnostic information with the base rate. The principle provided

by Bayes' theorem is that diagnostic information does help predict probabilities, but only when this information is "weighted" by taking the base rate into account. Even diagnostic information (e.g., if you added "spends most of her day at the office on the telephone") to Melissa's description) only modifies the base rate. Only if you had a characteristic that led to certainty rather than just being diagnostic (e.g., "doesn't know how to program") would you totally ignore the base-rate information.

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Name: ______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology Course Number and Section: _____________________ HANDOUT 3–7: ESTIMATING TASKS Directions: Read the description and answer the question that follows.

In the company Orange, a computer software firm, there are twenty office staff (administrators, administrative assistants, and salespeople) and eighty programmers/analysts.

Melissa Jones works for the company Orange. She is a tall, attractive woman, age twenty-eight, and has worked at Orange for five years. She knows how to touch-type, communicates well with people, and loves her job at Orange. Her hobbies are crossword puzzles, painting, and dancing.

What is the likelihood that Melissa Jones is a programmer/analyst? Place a check mark next to the percentage.

0% ___ 10% ___ 20% ___ 30% ___ 40% ___ 50% ___ 60% ___ 70% ___ 80% ___ 90% ___ 100% ___

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Exercise 3–8 Counterfactual Thinking Have your students participate in the following thought experiment: First, say, “Imagine that you are getting a test back in a class. The professor has posted the grading scale on the board: 94+, A; 90–93, A–; 87–89, B+; 84–86, B; 80–83, B–; and so forth. You receive your exam back.” Now, for half the class, tell them to imagine that they received an 87, and for the other half, tell them to imagine that they received an 89. Now ask students to indicate with raised hands how satisfied or dissatisfied they are with their grade, using a scale from –5 (very dissatisfied) to +5 (very satisfied).

Tabulate the means. Who is more satisfied? The people scoring 87 or those scoring 89? Medvec and Savitsky (1997, “When doing better means feeling worse: The effects of categorical cutpoints on counterfactual thinking and satisfaction,” Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 72(6), 1284–1296) found that students who imagined receiving an 89 actually felt less satisfied than those who imagined receiving an 87. The reason is that people who receive an 89 are just one point away from an A–, so it is easy to imagine having received an A– rather than a B+ (they thus make unfavourable comparisons to counterfactual situations where “it could have been better”, which make them feel worse). Those who receive an 87, however, are just one point away from a B, so it is easy to imagine having received a B rather than a B+ (they thus make favourable comparisons to counterfactual situations where “it could have been worse”). The ease with which these counterfactual possibilities come to mind influences satisfaction, leading those who scored worse to actually feel better.

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Exercise 3–9 Overconfidence Test Time to Complete: 10 minutes Ahead of Time: Copy handouts. Record correct answers to bring along so that students can selfscore their responses. Students score themselves as correct if the right answer falls in between their lowest and highest scores, and as wrong if the right answer is not in between their lowest and highest scores.

In Class: Hand out sheets and ask students to answer. When everyone is done, read aloud the correct answers and allow students to score themselves.

Discussion: How many students had no items wrong? These students are playing it very safe, not taking any risks. Perhaps they are being underconfident. How many students were well enough calibrated to get one and only one answer wrong? Probably quite few. How many got 2, 3, 4, and 5 or more wrong? These students are being overconfident. However, they are in good company.

In a similar test reported by Russo and Shoemaker (1989, p. 70-75), Harvard MBAs who were asked to calibrate themselves to get 98% right (2% wrong) actually got 46% wrong.

Questions to Direct towards the Class (answers provided): 1. Why is the error rate so high? Is it because people are being asked to make estimates about trivia questions in areas they know little about? a. Apparently not. Russo and Shoemaker report that physicians, physicists, and computer company managers asked to make estimates for facts within their domains of expertise (e.g., for physicians, the probability that a patient has pneumonia, given certain described symptoms) were no better than laypeople, scoring from 40% to 80% wrong.

2. Why else might the overconfidence rate be so high? Are some kinds of people (e.g., people in certain professions) who are more likely to be overconfident than others? a. In Russo and Shoemakers’ studies, physicians displayed the highest rates of overconfidence.

3. In what professions is a very high degree of confidence a particular asset?

4. What are the downside risks of being overconfident?

5. Can you think of any real-life examples of poor decisions made because of overconfidence?

Source: Modelled on Russo, J. E, & Shoemaker, P. J. H. (1989), Decision traps: The ten barriers to brilliant decision-making and how to overcome them. Fireside.

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Exercise 3–9

For each of the following items, provide a low guess and a high guess such that you are 90% sure the correct answer falls between the two. Aim to provide the best guess you can without being either overconfident (having too small an interval between your two guesses) or being underconfident (having too large an interval between your two guesses). If you are successful, you should have only one item (10%) wrong.

Item

Low Guess

High Guess

1. Year Justin Bieber released My World.

__________

__________

2. Number of times the Montréal Canadiens won the Stanley Cup between 1915 and 2020.

__________

__________

3. Number of books in the New Testament.

__________

__________

4. Average total income for Canadian males in 2008.

__________

__________

5. Year the computer floppy disk was invented by IBM.

__________

__________

6. Average number of days per year of fog in Halifax.

__________

__________

7. The year Pierre Trudeau first became Prime Minister.

__________

__________

8. Population of Canada in 2006.

__________

__________

9. Air travel distance (in km) from Halifax to Montréal.

__________

__________

10. Year William Shakespeare was born.

__________

__________

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Exercise 3–9

Overconfidence Test Transparency Master 1. Year Justin Bieber released My World. Answer: 2009.

2. Number of times the Montréal Canadiens won the Stanley Cup between 1915 and 2020.

Answer: 24.

3. Number of books in the New Testament. Answer: 27.

4. Average total income for Canadian men in 2008. Answer: $47,000.

5. Year the computer floppy disk was invented by IBM. Answer: 1970.

6. Average number of days per year of fog in Halifax. Answer: 122.

7. The year Pierre Trudeau first became Prime Minister. Answer: 1968.

8. Population of Canada in 2006. Answer: 31,612,897 (according to StatsCan census).

9. Air travel distance (in km) from Halifax to Montréal. Answer: ~2143.6 km 10. Year William Shakespeare was born. Answer: 1564.

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Exercise 3–10 Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Journal Exercise Time to Complete: 10 minutes Instruct all students to write a paragraph reflecting on a time when they felt they were perceived a certain way that they either liked or did not like. How were they treated? Did this treatment cause an alteration in their own behaviour at all in response to this treatment, and, if so, what kind? Give them ten minutes to complete the task, and then ask if anyone would like to volunteer to read their work aloud. This should give students an opportunity to see how what people think of us often alters our behaviour to go along with that belief.

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Exercise 3–11 How Well Do You Reason?

Learning Objective: 3.4 Describe drawbacks to controlled thinking and ways to improve its effectiveness.

Handout 3–11 tests students’ logical reasoning skills.

The answers are below.

1. (a). This question assesses methodological reasoning, the recognition that there are several reasons crime has gone down other than actions taken by the police chief, and that a better test of the mayor’s claim is to compare the crime rate in Middleopolis with other, similar cities.

The other answers might be true, but they don’t involve sound methodological reasoning.

2. (a). The other answers might also be true, but they don’t reflect sound statistical reasoning, which is what this question assesses. Statistical reasoning is the recognition that large samples of information are more likely to reflect true scores and abilities than small samples of information. For example, if you flip a standard coin four times, it is not unusual to get all heads or all tails, but if you flip the coin a thousand times, it is extremely unlikely that you will get all heads or all tails. Applied to this example, this statistical principle says that when baseball players have a small number of at-bats, it is not unusual to see very high (or very low) averages just by chance. By the end of the season, however, when baseball players have had hundreds of at-bats, it is highly unlikely that they will have a very high average just by luck. It is more likely that this sustained score reflects their true abilities. The reason why this means a decrease for the batter with a .450 batting average is regression to the mean, which states that it is expected that a sample that yields an extreme result (e.g. the leading batter) will regress back to the average in future trials. Since most batters’ skill levels tend to pile up around the statistical average, it is expected that regardless of his strong start, this batter’s true ability also lies around the average.

Note: students may argue that regression to the mean resembles and/or supports the gambler’s fallacy, explained in Exercise 3-11. If so, explain that the gambler’s fallacy erroneously asserts statistical dependence between independent swings (“since the batter had many good swings in a row, his next swing will be poor”). Regression to the mean does not do this; it is based on the fact that in normally distributed populations (e.g. the population distribution of Major League Baseball batters), most samples pile up around the group average (you may wish to draw a normal curve). It is thus very likely that any given sample (e.g. the leading batter) also falls in the middle, not the extremely rare, tail ends of the normal curve. Therefore, when a batter performs extremely well (or poorly), statistics tells us this was likely a fluke because it is more likely that his true abilities likely lie closer to the population average; with more trials, his results would likely reflect a more average ability-level. One could only suppose a sample may belong to one of the tails (and significantly differs from the average) after conducting a hypothesis test with a significant p-value. In this case, many trials would still be needed for statistical power.

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Name: ______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 3–11: HOW WELL DO YOU REASON? Directions: The following two questions assess methodological and statistical reasoning. For each question, choose the answer that is correct based on principles of methodology or statistics.

1. The city of Middleopolis has had an unpopular police chief for a year and a half. He is a political appointee who is a crony of the mayor, and he had little previous experience in police administration when he was appointed. The mayor has recently defended the chief in public, announcing that in the time since he took office, crime rates have decreased by 12%. Which of the following pieces of evidence would most deflate the mayor’s claim that the chief is competent? a. The crime rates of the two cities closest to Middleopolis in location and size have decreased by 18% in the same period. b. An independent survey of the citizens of Middleopolis shows that 40% more crime is reported by respondents in the survey than is reported in police records. c. Common sense indicates that there is little a police chief can do to lower crime rates. These are for the most part a result of social and economic conditions beyond the control of officials. d. It has been discovered that the police chief has business contacts with people known to be involved in organized crime.

2. After the first two weeks of the Major League Baseball season, newspapers begin to print the top ten batting averages. Typically, after two weeks, the leading batter has an average of about .450. Yet no batter in major league history has ever averaged .450 at the end of a season. Why do you think this is? a. A player’s high average at the beginning of the season may be just a fluke. b. A batter who has such a hot streak at the beginning of the season is under a lot of stress to maintain his performance. Such stress adversely affects his playing. c. Pitchers tend to get better over the course of the season as they get into shape. As pitchers improve, they are more likely to strike out batters, so batters’ averages go down. d. When a batter is known to be hitting for a high average, pitchers bear down more when they pitch to him.

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STUDENT PROJECTS AND RESEARCH ASSIGNMENTS Exercise 3–12 Pragmatic Heuristics Have groups of students (either during a class session devoted to this exercise or as an out-of-class assignment) come up with a list of “pragmatic heuristics” that people use for solving everyday problems (e.g. what kinds of shortcut procedures do people use when they go grocery shopping and don’t have a lot of time to make decisions about which product to buy? What about when they are going to vote and haven’t thoroughly researched the candidate or the political issues? What about when they’re at a noisy party and want to meet a particular person they are attracted to?

What about when they’re in a new town and trying to decide what restaurant to go to for dinner?

Or what about when there are twenty bills, papers, and forms to fill out on their desk and they might not have time in one evening to complete them all?). Ask the groups to generate several shortcut procedures that people might use to solve each of these everyday problems. Then ask them how they would solve the problem effortfully to achieve the best possible answer. Compare and contrast the responses. Discussion can focus on (1) under what conditions people will use the short-cut solutions and under what conditions people will strive for the best possible solution; and (2) on whether there are any links between the pragmatic heuristics that students have derived and the more general heuristics of availability and judgmental.

Exercise 3–13 Heuristics at Work Assign groups of students to think of the heuristics that would be used in various jobs or careers (teacher, server at a restaurant, police officer, salesperson). Discuss when people in these jobs would be most likely to use the shortcut solutions of heuristics and when they might work effortfully towards the best possible solution instead. Ask students to reflect on whether there are any links between the pragmatic heuristics they have thought of and the more general judgmental heuristics of availability and representativeness.

Exercise 3–14 Schemas Through the Day Ask students to keep a journal of the activities they engaged in throughout the day. Ask them to identify activities where schemas helped them to navigate the activity. Now, ask them to go back through the list of things they did that day and dig a little deeper. See if they can identify schemas where previously they had not even thought of them. This will help point out how automatic our thinking can be in familiar situations. Have them write a reflection paper on what they have learned about their use of schemas in their day-to-day life.

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Exercise 3–15 Self-Fulfilling Prime Ministers Ask students to research any recent Canadian Prime Ministers, using publications available from reliable sources online. Determine if voters’ preconceived notions about the characteristics of the Prime Minister or their campaign promises may have played a role in changing the way they behaved in office. Ask them to give specific examples where expectations may have shaped their behaviour, showing the power of the self-fulfilling prophecy.

Exercise 3-16 Consumer Protection Workshop This exercise focuses on the practical application of the principles learned in this chapter. Divide students into groups and have each group design a brief "Consumer Protection Workshop" oriented towards high school or college students. The workshops focus on teaching people to be wise consumers when it comes to (1) purchasing a car or other big-ticket item; (2) going shopping at the grocery store; (3) using credit cards; and (4) deciding whether to enter the lottery or engage in other forms of gambling. The designers of each workshop should prepare a brief presentation discussing examples of the ways in which businesses and advertisers try to take advantage of consumers' tendency to engage in mindless behaviour. Workshop designers should compare and contrast "mindless" purchasing in each of these domains with a more mindful approach that takes full advantage of all the information that is available and should conclude with suggestions for ways to influence people to process information more mindfully when making consumer decisions.

Alternatively, rather than preparing a workshop, students in each group might prepare a minutelong consumer-protection commercial in each area.

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CRITICAL THINKING TOPICS AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS • Ask students to generate examples of the self-fulfilling prophecy that they have seen operating in the real world—perhaps even examples of a self-fulfilling prophecy that they themselves created. (For instance, a server expects a particular customer to be a big tipper and then gives him special treatment; or she expects another customer to be a cheapskate and gives him accordingly poor service.) Ask students what the implications of the self-fulfilling prophecy are for their education, careers, and relationships.

•

Ask students if they think a self-fulfilling prophecy can be maintained even when the expectation is unfounded. A fictional example of this is the movie Forrest Gump, in which the main character, who displays characteristics consistent with an intellectual disability, has a number of surprising experiences due to others’ positive expectations of him. ("Being There" is an earlier film with a similar theme.)

•

Ask students how one might try to break the cycle of the self-fulfilling prophecy if the expectation about them is negative. Have students discuss in small groups examples from media and their own lives when someone resisted fulfilling a prophecy set by someone’s negative expectations of them. What happened as a result of this? How can we use this to advise other people faced with negative expectations? Can the self-fulfilling prophecy (and/or the ability to resist it) be used for the good of others and ourselves? Might it be applied to the way we speak to and view ourselves, as well as each other?

•

For each of the heuristics discussed in the chapter—availability, representativeness, and counterfactual thinking—ask students to provide a personal example that illustrates how they have used the heuristic to make a decision or solve a problem. In which of the cases presented by students has relying on the heuristic been helpful? In which of the cases have students been misled by relying on the heuristic?

•

The text discusses metaphors and bodily sensations that can affect our impressions of people and situations. For instance, it says that being exposed to the scent of cleanliness or holding a cup of hot coffee can impact a person’s perception of a situation. Ask students to discuss ways in which this might be used by salespeople, servers, and customer-service workers to improve interactions with customers.

•

Ask students why they think people are so likely to engage in counterfactual thinking, contemplating how things might have been better when something bad happens, given that this makes them feel worse.

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•

Have students present some examples of times when they have fallen victim to the overconfidence barrier.

•

Ask students to consider our global society and how our knowledge of holistic versus analytical thinking might help us as we engage in conversations and negotiations between these two types of thinkers.

•

Page 54 of the text references Kelley’s warm/cold guest lecturer study. Ask students how modern professor-review sites, such as ratemyprofessors.com, might influence student perceptions of professors in similar ways.

•

Similarly, ask students how profiles on dating websites might affect how they interpret an individual’s personality once they meet them face to face.

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SUGGESTED VIDEOS The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy (classic about Robert Rosenthal) 1:42min

Survival Tips! Avoiding the Self-Fulfilling Prophecy 1:33min

Culture and Psychology (Sinobu Kitayama) 1:26min

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4 Social Perception How We Come to Understand Other People CONTENTS Learning Objectives Chapter Outline Key Terms Integrating “Try It!” Active Learning Exercises In-Class Exercises Student Projects and Research Assignments Critical Thinking Topics and Discussion Questions Suggested Videos

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 4.1

Explain how people use nonverbal cues to understand others.

4.2

Analyze how first impressions form quickly and then persist.

4.3

Explain how people rely on implicit personality theories to get to know others.

4.4

Explain how we determine why other people do what they do.

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Nonverbal Communication Learning Objective: 4.1 Explain how people use nonverbal cues to understand others.  The textbook describes social perception as the study of how we form impressions of other people and make inferences about them, citing the Amazing Race Canada television show as a prime example of when social perception comes in handy: in order to win, participants must rapidly decide others’ trustworthiness, start collaborating, and navigate dissolving alliances.  Nonverbal expressions provide others with a wealth of information about us. Nonverbal communication refers to how people communicate, intentionally or unintentionally, without words. It can substitute or enhance verbal communication.  Facial expressions, tone of voice, gestures, body positions and movement, the use of touch, and eye gaze are the most frequently used and most revealing channels of nonverbal communication.  Nonverbal cues help us express our emotions, attitudes, and personality (and to perceive those same characteristics in others).  Nonverbal communication, namely mimicry, may also play a role in eliciting and reflecting empathy (Hess & Fischer, 2013).  Mirror neurons fire in the same region of our brain whether we are experiencing an emotion ourselves or whether we are watching the emotional expression appear on another’s face (e.g. an actor’s).

A. Facial Expressions of Emotion  The crown jewel of nonverbal communication is the facial-expressions channel. Its primacy is due to the exquisite communicativeness of the face.  Darwin believed that the primary emotions conveyed by the face are universal: the argument that all humans encode, or express, these emotions in the same way and that all humans can decode, or interpret them, with comparable accuracy.  Darwin believed nonverbal forms of communication were species-specific, not culture-specific. He proposed that facial expressions were vestiges of once-useful physiological reactions, a conclusion supported by research by Susskind and colleagues (2008).  The facial expressions for six major emotions—anger, happiness, surprise, fear, disgust, and sadness—seem to be, for the most part, universal. But recent studies paint a more complicated picture, and cultural variation in encoding and decoding remains an open research question.  Researchers are exploring whether there are, beyond these six emotions, other emotional states—such as contempt, anxiety, shame, determination, envy, and embarrassment—that are communicated with distinctive and readily identifiable facial expressions.  The Try It! Exercise on p. 84 invites students to try out various “universal” facial expressions.

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1. Are Facial Expressions of Emotion Universal?  Ekman and Friesen (1975) originally posited 6 emotional expressions to be universal: happiness, sadness, anger, fear, disgust, and surprise.  However, not all expressions were identified across cultures with equal degrees of success; happiness was most often identified correctly (by ~82 % of participants), but fear and disgust hovered at 54 % and 44 %, respectively.  In addition, more nuanced facial expressions proposed to be universal (such as contempt, embarrassment, heroism, love, pride, shame, and pain, to name a few) show even greater variability across cultures.  Rates of correct identifications of supposedly “universal” facial expressions were further reduced when participants were tasked with naming the emotion expressed in the photograph rather than selecting the image from the group that best depicted the emotion.

2. Cultural Differences in the Perception of Facial Expressions  Perceptions of facial expressions are also culturally and/or contextdependent; interpretations change depending on the described situation, other facial expressions shown, and the facial expressions of surrounding targets.  Holistic thinkers tend to moderate their perception of a target’s emotional expression depending on the emotional expressions of surrounding targets, while analytic thinkers tend to judge the emotional expression of a target regardless of the emotional in/congruities of surrounding targets.  Research by Masuda et al. (2008) indicates that people from collectivistic cultures attend more to background and contextual information (such as the emotions of figures in the background) when evaluating the emotional expression of the central, foregrounded figure than do Americans.  A 2012 study showed that Japanese participants were faster when identifying a face’s emotion when it was congruent with the tone of the picture’s background.

3. Why Is Decoding Sometimes Difficult?  Decoding facial expressions accurately is complicated for multiple reasons. First, people frequently display affect blends, in which one part of their face registers one emotion while another part registers a different emotion.  Second, Ekman and colleagues determined that display rules dictate what kinds of emotional expression people are supposed to show and they are particular to each culture (for example, in multiple collectivist cultures, strong displays of negative emotions are discouraged; as the expression of these emotions thus become more moderate, they become less recognizeable to someone from an individualistic culture).

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Aspects of the same facial expression can have different implications based on context (e.g. situation, gender and age) as well as cultural differences (i.e. collectivist versus individualist cultures).

B. Other Channels of Nonverbal Communication  Other channels of nonverbal communication besides facial expressions are strongly shaped by culture, including the figures used for counting, preferences regarding eye contact and gaze, and how people use personal space (see Figure 4.1 on p. 88).  Gestures of the hands and arms are also a means of communication. Ones like the OK sign and “flipping the bird,” which have clear, well-understood definitions, are called emblems. Emblems are not universal, though; each culture has devised its own emblems, which are not necessarily understandable to people from other cultures (see Figure 4.1 on p. 88).  In a study referenced in Figure 4.2 on p. 89, participants felt they correctly broadcast whatever emotion they intended to their partner, who was either a stranger or a friend, regardless of the communication format—face to face, using voice-only communication, and via email; however, participants were not as successful at conveying their desired emotions to their partners as they had thought (especially in the e-mail condition), and friends decoded these messages no better than did strangers!

II. First Impressions: Quick But Long-Lasting Learning Objective: 4.2 Analyse how first impressions form quickly and then persist.  When we first meet people, we form impressions of them based on the slightest cue.  Nonverbal communication plays a major role in first impressions as well.  Research indicates that we form initial impressions of others based solely on their facial appearance in less than 1/10 of a second.  Very limited exposure to other people is enough for us to form meaningful first impressions about their abilities or personalities. Such social perception based on extremely brief snippets of behaviour can, with accuracy levels above chance, identify sexual orientation and social class, and can even predict election wins based on perceived power and warmth in their appearance.

A. The Lingering Influence of Initial Impressions  When we are trying to understand other people, we can use just a few observations as a starting point, and then, using our schemas, create a much fuller understanding, though it may not be accurate.  Our initial impressions, often based on trivial factors such as physical appearance or orientation, tend to have “staying power” and influence the traits we believe a person has (for example, we assume people with baby-like physical features also have child-like personality traits, and that famous heroes who are depicted looking up and off to the right are warmer, prouder, and more future-oriented).

III. Implicit Personality Theories: Filling in the Blanks Learning Objective: 4.3 Explain how people rely on implicit personality theories to get to know

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others.  Implicit Personality Theory is a type of schema people use to group various kinds of personality traits together; for example, many people believe that if someone is kind, he or she is generous as well.  Research confirms that people associate less positive personality characteristics with someone who is described as having low self-esteem or as being shy.  In a study on p. 92, despite having seen the same video, participants who were told the protagonist, Alex, had low self-esteem rated her lower in positive traits such as extraversion and emotional stability after than did participants who read that she had high self-esteem.  A 1992 Canadian and American study found potentially lethal implications of using implicit personality theory: students admitted to using superficial and otherwise irrelevant attributes of a potential romantic partner (e.g. choice of clothing, romantic attachment, and city of residence) as the basis upon which to decide whether having unprotected sex with them could incur the risk of contracting HIV or AIDS. A. Culture and Implicit Personality Theories  The nature of implicit personality theories vary across cultures, but its occurrence is relatively widespread.  Collectivistic cultures are less likely than individualistic cultures to assume that positive personality traits coincide with physical attractiveness, since positive traits are more often associated with group-oriented tendencies.  Conceptions of personality types or schemas vary between cultures—the Western conception of artists as being overly dramatic, unreliable, and temperamental, for example, does not exist in Chinese culture; the Chinese equivalent of the artist’s personality profile is a shi gú, someone who is worldly, devoted to family, socially skilful, and reserved. When tasked with filling in missing personality traits for an ambiguously-described artist, Western participants and Chinese-English bilingual participants working in English both filled in traits consistent with the “temperamental artist” type, while Chinese-English bilingual participants working in Chinese formed an impression consistent with the shi gú schema (see Figure 4.3 on p. 95 for results).

IV. Causal Attribution: Answering the “Why” Question Learning Objective: 4.4 Explain how we determine why other people do what they do.  Nonverbal communication is sometimes easy to decode and first impressions are quick to form, but there is still ambiguity as to what a person’s behaviour really means. To answer this “why” question, we use immediate observations to form more elegant and complex inferences about what people are really like and what motivates them to act as they do.

Attribution theory is the study of how we infer the causes of other people’s behaviour.

A. The Nature of the Attribution Process  Fritz Heider, often referred to as the father of attribution theory, discussed what he called “naive,” or “common sense,” psychology: People were like amateur scientists, trying to understand others’ behaviour by piecing together information until they arrived at a reasonable explanation or cause.  One of Heider’s most valuable contributions is a simple dichotomy. When Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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trying to decide why people behave as they do, we can make one of two attributions: an internal attribution, which assigns the causes of behaviour to something about the individual (their disposition, personality, attitudes, or character), or an external attribution, which assigns the cause to something in the situation (see the Try It! Exercise on p. 96).

B. The Covariation Model: Internal versus External Attributions  Kelley’s theory of the covariation model says that we examine multiple behaviours from different times and situations to determine whether to make an internal or an external attribution.  The data we use are about how a person’s behaviour “covaries,” or changes, across time and place, and depending on the target of the behaviour. By discovering covariation in people’s behaviour, you can reach a conclusion about what causes their behaviour.  When we are forming an attribution, we examine three key types of covariation information: Consensus information refers to how other people behave toward the same stimulus. In other words, is there consensus to how various people respond. Distinctiveness information refers to how a person responds to other stimuli. Consistency information refers to the frequency with which the observed behaviour between the same person and the same stimulus occurs across time and circumstances (see Figure 4.4 on p. 98).

C. The Fundamental Attribution Error: People as Personality Psychologists  The fundamental theory or schema most of us have about human behaviour is that people do what they do because of the kind of people they are, not because of the situation they are in. The tendency to overestimate the extent to which people’s behaviour results from internal, dispositional factors, and to underestimate the role of situational factors, is called the fundamental attribution error (also called the correspondence bias).  A classic example of this occurred in Jones and Harris’ (1967) study, during which participants read a number of essays in favour of Castro; even in the conditions in which participants were told the author had not chosen their stance as it was assigned to them, participants assumed that the author’s internal thoughts and beliefs aligned with the paper. Figure 4.5 on p. 101 illustrates these results.  The nature of attributions made about criminal acts largely impacts the actor’s sentence: situational causal attributions for crimes typically result in less severe sentencing.

1. Blaming the Victim: A Consequence of the Fundamental Attribution Error  Even if people are made aware of the situational factors responsible for the plight of disadvantaged members of our society (e.g., inadequate nutrition, disrupted family life), they may still see these individuals as responsible for their misfortune and stigmatize these victims accordingly, especially if their plights are generally considered to be the product of controllable, causal factors.  These attributions can have real-life consequences: a study conducted at Lakehead University (1998) found that students were

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less accepting of a lonely student if they attributed his or her loneliness to controllable factors.

2. The Role of Perceptual Salience in the Fundamental Attribution Error  One reason people fall prey to the fundamental attribution error is that when we try to explain someone’s behaviour, our focus is usually on the person, not the surrounding situation. In fact, the situational causes of a person’s behaviour are practically invisible to us.  Although the whole of any given situation may be largely unknown to us or even out of sight, the individual is “perceptually prominent” and seems like the reasonable and logical cause of the observed behaviour. We can’t see the situation, so we overlook its importance. People, not the situation, have perceptual salience for us; we pay attention to them, think about them, and tend to assume that they alone cause their behaviour (Figures 4.6 and 4.7 on p. 103 illustrate a study during which each participant felt that the perceptually salient speakers, those within their view, were the ones leading the conversation).

3. The Two-Step Process of Making Attributions  We go through a two-step attribution process when we make attributions: We make an internal attribution, assuming that a person’s behaviour was due to something about that person, and then we sometimes attempt to adjust this attribution by considering the situation the person was in (see Figure 4.8 on p. 105).  Often we don’t make enough of an adjustment in this second step; when distracted or preoccupied, we often skip it altogether, making an internal attribution in the extreme. This is because the internal attribution is made quickly and spontaneously, whereas adjusting for the situation requires more effort and conscious attention.

4. Culture and the Fundamental Attribution Error  People from individualistic cultures tend to prefer dispositional attributions, while collectivistic cultures are less prone to making the fundamental attribution error.  People from individualistic cultures can consider situational explanations for behaviours when taught the difference between the two types of attributions, as demonstrated during a race-related study of black men; compared to participants who had not been trained to make situational attributions, Western participants who were taught to consider situational rather than dispositional explanations showed reduced implicit race-based stereotyping in a subsequent, supposedly unrelated study (Stewart, Latu, Kawakami, & Myers, 2010).  The actor/observer difference describes our tendency to look toward situational explanations for our own behaviour, and toward dispositional explanations for others’.

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The textbook references Suedfelt’s (2003) study UBC in which, when tasked with accounting for the survival of Holocaust survivors who narrowly escaped death, Jews who had been safe from Nazi persecution cited internal factors, while the Holocaust survivors themselves cited situational factors.

D. Self-Serving Attributions  When our self-esteem is threatened, we are often motivated to make selfserving attributions. This refers to people’s tendency to take credit for their successes by making internal attributions, but to blame the situation (or others) for their failures by making external attributions.  Most people try to maintain their self-esteem whenever possible, even if that means distorting reality by changing a thought or belief. Here we see a specific attributional strategy that can be used to maintain or raise self-esteem: just locate “causality” where it does you the most good.

1. Culture and the Self-Serving Bias  The self-serving bias was found to be the strongest in the United States and some other Western countries—Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.  Conversely, Asian cultures display a markedly low or even absent level of self-serving bias: Japan, the Pacific Islands, and India  In collectivistic cultures, self-blame can increase sympathy, compassion and interdependence within a group. Unlike people in individualistic cultures, people in collectivistic cultures tend to make internal attributions and blame themselves for failures, while crediting other people (e.g. teachers, mentors or parents) for their successes.

E. Defensive Attributions  People alter their attributions to deal with other kinds of threats to their selfesteem, such as tragic events, which remind us that if such tragedies can happen to someone else, they can happen to us. So, we take steps to deny this fact.  We use defensive attributions to explain behaviours and negative outcomes—whether they happen to us or to strangers—to avoid feelings of vulnerability and mortality.  One example of a defensive attribution is the belief that bad things happen only to bad people; it allows us to rest assured that bad things won’t happen to us. This belief in a just world is the assumption that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get.  Research conducted at the University of Calgary and the University of Western Ontario by Mitch Callan and colleagues (2006; 2010) shows that people are so motivated to maintain the belief that the world is a just place that they will engage in irrational thinking to preserve this belief. When told that the victim of a car crash had been having an affair, participants were more likely to blame him for the accident or to feel that he got what he deserved; Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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this effect was even more pronounced when participants were under a cognitive load, suggesting that this is an automatic process.

The just-world belief has other sad and even tragic consequences: oftentimes, victims of rape are falsely accused of and/or blamed for having invited and/or provoked the attack, sometimes with reference to something as trivial as flirtatious behaviour or choice of clothing.

The bias blind spot is the tendency to think that others are more susceptible to attributional biases than we are. Our own thoughts seem rational and sensible, but other people, hey, they’re susceptible to biases!

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KEY TERMS

Social Perception: The study of how we form impressions of other people and make inferences about them Nonverbal Communication: The way in which people communicate, intentionally or unintentionally, without words; nonverbal cues include facial expressions, tone of voice, gestures, body position and movement, the use of touch, and eye gaze Encode: To express or emit nonverbal behaviour, such as smiling Decode: To interpret the meaning of the nonverbal behaviour other people express, such as deciding that a smile was an expression of sincere liking and not just politeness Affect Blend: A facial expression in which one part of the face registers one emotion while another part of the face registers a different emotion Display Rules: Culturally determined rules about which emotional expressions are appropriate to show Emblems: Nonverbal gestures that have well-understood definitions within a given culture; they usually have direct verbal translations, such as the “okay” sign Implicit Personality Theory: A type of schema people use to group various kinds of personality traits together; for example, many people believe that if someone is kind, he or she is generous as well Attribution Theory: The study of how people explain the causes of their own and other people’s behaviour Internal Attribution: The inference that a person is behaving in a certain way because of something about him or her, such as his or her attitude, character, or personality External Attribution: The inference that a person is behaving a certain way because of something about the situation he or she is in; the assumption is that most people would respond the same way in that situation Covariation Model: A theory stating that to form an attribution about what caused a person’s behaviour, we systematically note the pattern between the presence (or absence) of possible causal factors and whether or not the behaviour occurs Consensus Information: Information about the extent to which other people behave the same way the actor does toward the same stimulus Distinctiveness Information: Information about the extent to which the actor behaves in the same way to different stimuli

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Consistency Information: Information about the extent to which the behaviour between the actor and the stimulus is the same across time and circumstances Fundamental Attribution Error: The tendency to overestimate the extent to which other people’s behaviour is due to personality traits and to underestimate the role of situational factors Perceptual Salience: Information that is the focus of people’s attention; people tend to overestimate the causal role of perceptually salient information Two-Step Attribution Process: Analyzing another person’s behaviour first by making an automatic internal attribution and only then thinking about possible situational reasons for the behaviour, after which one may adjust the original internal attribution Actor/Observer Difference: The tendency to see other people’s behaviour as dispositionally caused, while focusing more on the role of situational factors when explaining one’s own behaviour Self-Serving Attributions: The tendency to make internal, dispositional attributions for our successes but blame our failures on external, situational factors Defensive Attributions: Explanations for behaviour that avoid feelings of vulnerability and mortality Belief in a Just World: A form of defensive attribution wherein people assume that bad things happen to bad people and good things happen to good people Bias Blind Spot: The tendency to think that other people are more susceptible to attributional biases than we are

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INTEGRATING “TRY IT!” ACTIVE LEARNING EXERCISES I. Try It! How Many Universal Facial Expressions of Emotion Are There? (LO 4.1) This exercise is designed to have students contemplate how many universal facial expressions of emotions there actually are. See the Try It! Answer Key for a suggested in-class exercise.

II. Try It! Listen as People Make Attributions (LO 4.4) This exercise is designed to teach students about the conditions under which people make an attribution to “fate”. Students are encouraged to ask others about their attributions for improbably events. As noted in the Try It! Previous research has found that East Asian participants (as compared to European Canadians) and Christian participants (as compared to nonreligious participants) were more likely to attribute events to fate. See the Try It! Answer Key for other activity suggestions.

III. Try It! Self-Serving Attributions in the Sports Pages (LO 4.4) In this exercise, students are asked to examine the sports pages for player's attributions for their wins and losses, to see whether in fact they find that winners are more likely to make internal attributions and losers to make external attributions. They are also asked to see how well the examples they find fit Roesch and Amirkhani's (1997) research, in which the researchers found that stars and players in solo sports were more likely to make self-serving attributions than nonstars and players in team sports. Finally, they are asked to consider which motive (protection of self-esteem, positive self-presentation, and personal knowledge of past performances) they think underlie self-serving attributions. Are stars protecting their private or public self-image by making self-serving attributions, or are these just logical to make given their past history of exceptional success? See the Try It! Answer Key for suggestions of how to integrate student athletes’ own attributions as well as additional suggestions for classroom discussions.

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IN-CLASS EXERCISES Exercise 4–1 Demonstrating Nonverbal Behaviour Nonverbal behaviour is one of the more interesting areas of social psychology to students. One way to begin your lectures on this topic is to have student volunteers come to the front of the class and demonstrate their ways of communicating nonverbally. Ask the students to use more than just simple hand gestures. Have a list of behaviours that you would like them to perform without speaking. This list could include: “Give me some money,” “Please pass the salt,” “Do you want to go out tonight?” and “Please pick me to do the job.” Be creative and compile new ideas from the students for a future list. The other students in the class can attempt to guess what the actor is trying to portray. Discussion should focus on which nonverbal channels are being used to portray the messages, which channels are most informative, and whether different channels are better for some kinds of messages than others.

Exercise 4–2 Detecting Deception Another exercise involving nonverbal behaviour is to have a panel of students prepare one or two statements about themselves and tell them to the class. (In a small class, everyone can be involved.) These statements can be either the truth or a lie.

Before students present their statements, tell the audience that their task is to guess whether or not each statement is the truth or a lie. Everyone should keep notes about their guesses, and also keep notes about which clues—including nonverbal clues—they based their guesses on. After the panel members have presented their statements, ask the class to report their guesses and indicate which nonverbal behaviours they used as clues. Were some channels more informative than others? Were the men in the audience better at detecting deception than the women, as Rosenthal and DePaulo (1979) found?

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Exercise 4–3 Touch Task This exercise will allow students to explore how effective touch can be as a nonverbal channel for communicating emotions. Have students form pairs and inform them that they will see an emotion word on the board (or in a slide show), and that they will need to communicate it to their partner by touching them on their arm, from the elbow to the end of the hand (of course, if any students do not wish to touch or be touched, they may join another pair as an onlooker, with no explanation necessary). Have touchees close their eyes while you show the word. After each round, have the touchees make their selection from the five emotions on Handout 4–3 (anger, fear, disgust, love, and sympathy). After five rounds, collect the handouts, tally the class’s results, and discuss which emotions were the easiest to communicate and the easiest to guess via touch, and how they were communicated. You may also wish to see which emotions had correct guesses at rates above chance (i.e., 20% correct).

This task is a replication of research by Hertenstein, Holmes, McCullough, and Keltner (2009, “The communication of emotion via touch,” American Psychological Association, 9(4), p.

566–573), conducted in the U.S. and Spain. Their research found that all five emotions were correctly guessed at rates higher than chance and that the emotions involved distinct tactile behaviours.

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Name: _________________________________________ Date: ___________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: ____________________

HANDOUT 4–3: TOUCH TASK Directions: For each round, circle the emotion that is being communicated.

Round 1 Anger

Fear

Disgust

Love

Sympathy

Fear

Disgust

Love

Sympathy

Fear

Disgust

Love

Sympathy

Fear

Disgust

Love

Sympathy

Fear

Disgust

Love

Sympathy

Round 2 Anger

Round 3 Anger

Round 4 Anger

Round 5 Anger

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Exercise 4–4 Fundamental Attribution Error If you did not use Exercise 1–6 during your presentation of Chapter 1, you may wish to do so here in Chapter 4.

Exercise 4–5 Demonstrating a Self-Serving Bias Return exams or assignments in class. Include along with the exams Handout 4–5, which has students indicate whether they feel like their overall performance represents a success or a failure. Then have them explain why they got the score they did. Tabulate the percentage of internal attributions they report in the “failure” condition and the percentage of internal attributions they list in the “success” condition. Then explain the results to the class and discuss whether they are consistent with a self-serving bias. This can also lead to a discussion of the trade-off between making attributions that make them feel better (e.g., the exam was unfairly difficult) and making attributions that may be more accurate, and thus may lead to more improvement in the future (e.g., they didn’t study hard enough).

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Name: _________________________________________ Date: ___________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: ____________________

HANDOUT 4–5: EXAM PERFORMANCE SURVEY Directions: For question 1, circle the answer that is most accurate.

1. To me, personally, my score on this exam represents: A success

A failure

2. Why do you think that you got the exam score that you did? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

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Exercise 4–6 Covariation Theory Detectives This activity lets students use covariation theory to solve an attributional mystery—Why did Chad ask Darlene to the prom?—and to show how different pieces of information lead to different attributions. Nine students will play the roles of Abby, Alice, Agnes, Brenda, Bobby, Becky, Claire, Carl, and Cindy. Each of these nine students will be given a specific piece of information to convey to those who ask them (Handouts 4–6a, b, and c each contain the information for three of the nine roles). The other students will be given a handout that asks them to seek out the information from three individuals (Handouts 4–6d, e, and f) and, based on those pieces of information, make an attribution about why Chad asked Darlene to the prom.

After the students have collected their information and made their attributions, discuss how these decisions represent Kelley’s covariation theory.

During the discussion, you can clarify the terms so students understand them. You may also wish to discuss whether people are likely to be this careful and systematic with their attributions, and put this much effort into them. One critique of covariation theory is that it assumes that humans are more careful and rational decision makers than we may actually be.

The answers for the three versions of the handout are below.

Handout 4–6d Consensus Distinctiveness Consistency

High High High

Lots of guys ask Darlene out.

Chad doesn’t ask a lot of girls out.

Chad usually shows interest in Darlene.

External attribution Darlene is really attractive.

Handout 4–6e Consensus Distinctiveness Consistency

Low Low High

No guys ask Darlene out.

Chad asks out a lot of girls.

Chad usually shows interest in Darlene.

Internal attribution Chad is a player.

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Handout 4–6f Consensus Distinctiveness Consistency

Low Low Low

No guys ask Darlene out.

Chad asks out a lot of girls.

Chad doesn’t usually show interest in Darlene.

Unusual circumstances Chad’s friends bet him $50 he wouldn’t do it.

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Name: _________________________________________ Date: ___________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: ____________________

HANDOUT 4–6a: COVARIATION THEORY DETECTIVES

In this activity, you will be playing the role of Abby. When asked about why Chad asked Darlene to the prom, you should supply the following information: I’m Darlene’s best friend, Abby. OMG, guys are always asking Darlene out. She can barely focus on class with all the texts she gets from guys trying to date her.

______________________________________________________________________________

In this activity, you will be playing the role of Alex. When asked about why Chad asked Darlene to the prom, you should supply the following information: I’m Chad’s twin brother, Alex. He is kind of shy with the ladies, except for Darlene. That’s alright, though. Leaves more of them for me.

______________________________________________________________________________

In this activity, you will be playing the role of Agnes. When asked about why Chad asked Darlene to the prom, you should supply the following information: I’m Darlene’s cousin Agnes. Chad does usually talk to Darlene, flirt with her, and just happens to be standing by her locker in between classes.

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Name: _________________________________________ Date: ___________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: ____________________

HANDOUT 4–6b: COVARIATION THEORY DETECTIVES

In this activity, you will be playing the role of Brenda. When asked about why Chad asked Darlene to the prom, you should supply the following information: I’m Darlene’s best friend, Brenda. Darlene is a great girl, but she’s not exactly popular with the guys. Who needs to date anyway?

______________________________________________________________________________

In this activity, you will be playing the role of Bobby. When asked about why Chad asked Darlene to the prom, you should supply the following information: I’m Chad’s twin brother, Bobby. It seems like my brother is chatting up a new girl every week. But don’t hate the player, hate the game, right?

______________________________________________________________________________

In this activity, you will be playing the role of Becky. When asked about why Chad asked Darlene to the prom, you should supply the following information: I’m Darlene’s cousin Becky. Chad does usually talk to Darlene, flirt with her, and just happens to be standing by her locker in between classes.

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Name: _________________________________________ Date: ___________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: ____________________

HANDOUT 4–6c: COVARIATION THEORY DETECTIVES

In this activity, you will be playing the role of Claire. When asked about why Chad asked Darlene to the prom, you should supply the following information: I’m Darlene’s best friend, Claire. Darlene is a great girl, but she’s not exactly popular with the guys. Who needs to date anyway?

______________________________________________________________________________

In this activity, you will be playing the role of Carl. When asked about why Chad asked Darlene to the prom, you should supply the following information: I’m Chad’s twin brother, Carl. It seems like my brother is chatting up a new girl every week. But don’t hate the player, hate the game, right?

______________________________________________________________________________

In this activity, you will be playing the role of Carl. When asked about why Chad asked Darlene to prom, you should supply the following information: I’m Darlene’s cousin, Cindy. It’s kind of weird that Chad asked Darlene to prom, because he never really seemed interested in her before. This may even be the first time he spoke a full sentence to her.

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Name: _________________________________________ Date: ___________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: ____________________

HANDOUT 4–6d: COVARIATION THEORY DETECTIVES Task: Find Abby, Alex, and Agnes. Listen to what each of them has to say and fill in the information in the table below. Then decide whether you would make an internal or external attribution, and what specific attribution you would make. You may discuss this second part with your classmates, but there are three versions of the exercise, so make sure you discuss it with people who have the same version as you (4–6d).

Consensus Distinctiveness Consistency

High / Low High / Low High / Low

Why? Why? Why?

Internal / External attribution?

Why did Chad ask Darlene to prom? (Fill in your own answer here and circle the option below that makes the most sense.) ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ Chad is a player.

Darlene is really attractive.

Chad’s friends bet him $50 he wouldn’t do it.

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Name: _________________________________________ Date: ___________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: ____________________

HANDOUT 4–6e: COVARIATION THEORY DETECTIVES Task: Find Brenda, Bobby, and Becky. Listen to what each of them has to say and fill in the information in the table below. Then decide whether you would make an internal or external attribution, and what specific attribution you would make. You may discuss this second part with your classmates, but there are three versions of the exercise, so make sure you discuss it with people who have the same version as you (4–6e).

Consensus Distinctiveness Consistency

High / Low High / Low High / Low

Why? Why? Why?

Internal / External attribution?

Why did Chad ask Darlene to prom? (Fill in your own answer here and circle the option below that makes the most sense.) ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

Chad is a player.

Darlene is really attractive.

Chad’s friends bet him $50 he wouldn’t do it.

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Name: _________________________________________ Date: ___________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: ____________________

HANDOUT 4–6f: COVARIATION THEORY DETECTIVES Task: Find Claire, Carl, and Cindy. Listen to what each of them has to say and fill in the information in the table below. Then decide whether you would make an internal or external attribution, and what specific attribution you would make. You may discuss this second part with your classmates, but there are three versions of the exercise, so make sure you discuss it with people who have the same version as you (4–6f).

Consensus Distinctiveness Consistency

High / Low High / Low High / Low

Why? Why? Why?

Internal / External attribution?

Why did Chad ask Darlene to prom? (Fill in your own answer here and circle the option below that makes the most sense.) ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ Chad is a player.

Darlene is really attractive.

Chad’s friends bet him $50 he wouldn’t do it.

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Exercise 4–7 Emblems The text describes emblems as “nonverbal gestures that have well-understood definitions within a given culture; they usually have direct verbal translations, such as the OK sign” (p. 90). It further indicates that emblems are not universal, but culturally specific. Have students break into brainstorming groups of three or four students. Ask them to identify some emblems common in Canadian culture. Have them consider if it is possible that some emblems are also subculturespecific. For instance, ask them if they belong to any subcultures (surfing, skateboarding, hiphop, anime, hearing-impaired communities, etc.), and then have them brainstorm about whether there are specific emblems used by their subculture that might not be understood by those outside of the subculture. Lastly, have students reflect on the idea that emblems may also be generationally specific. Ask them to think of some examples to share in a larger classroom discussion.

Exercise 4–8 Exploring Implicit Personality Theories For this exercise, the instructor will serve as the target for impression formation. Both Lashley (1987) and Lyons (1981) (reprinted in Ware & Johnson (1996, Handbook of demonstrations and activities in the teaching of psychology (Vol. 3, pp. 221-223))) suggest exercises where the students are asked to answer questions about their instructor's preferences and to rate their instructors on several personality dimensions (perhaps with the latter using a "yes," "no," or "it depends" format if you want to use this exercise to discuss the actor/observer effect as well). The instructor provides feedback about his or her own self-perceptions, and discussion can focus on where students were accurate and why (what cues were they using), and where they were inaccurate and why (use of a professor stereotype, over-reliance on information from early in the term (primacy effect), actor/observer differences, or possibly a self-serving bias on the part of the instructor). Using oneself as a target involves a certain amount of risk and personal courage, but has the advantage of allowing the students to get to know you better.

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Exercise 4–9 Understanding Internal and External Attributions Time to Complete: 15-20 minutes; In class Ahead of Time: Copy both 4–9 handouts; Frequency distribution; Overhead transparency In Class: Often we tend to attribute an individual's behaviour to either internal causes (ability or effort) or to external causes (task difficulty or luck). The following alternate forms can be used to show the attributional differences for male and female success. Being careful to not let the class know that there are two forms, pass out the "Monica" form to half the class and the "Mike" form to the other half. After the form has been completed, tally the results and plot the data on the overhead or board. Many times females who succeed in a traditional male activity or profession are seen as harder-working or lucky. Does your class's perceptions reflect this? Why or why not?

Does the domain of medicine make a difference--would students have answered differently if M. Green had succeeded as a car mechanic or as a nurse instead? What kinds of attributions would students have made if M. Green had failed at being a doctor? Particularly in a masculine domain, people tend to attribute women's failure to low ability and task difficulty (stable causes) and men's failure to low effort or bad luck (unstable causes). A recent meta-analysis (Swim & Sanna, 1996) suggests that there still are differences in attributions for performance for men and women.

However, they note that effect sizes in these studies are small.

Source: Adapted from: Feldman-Summers, S., & Kiesler, S.B. (1974). Those who are number two try harder: The effect of sex on attributions of causality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 30, 846-855.

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Name: _________________________________________ Date: ___________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: ____________________

HANDOUT 4–9: UNDERSTANDING INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL ATTRIBUTIONS Carefully read the following account of Dr. Monica Green.

After finishing medical school, Monica Green went to Toronto General Hospital where she completed both her internship and residency in general surgery. Though her obligations as a resident took up most of her time, Monica volunteered to work part-time in a health clinic which was considerably understaffed. There she reorganised the surgery services to improve the postoperative care of the patients.

When her residency in surgery was completed, she returned to her hometown--Steinbach, Manitoba.

After two years in Steinbach, Dr. Green has almost doubled the size of her practice, and is ready to hire another doctor as her partner. Monica's interest in good surgical care and her boundless energy have resulted in increased community activities to improve health care for the poor. This year she received an award naming her Steinbach's Doctor of the Year. She is the youngest doctor to have received the award.

How much did each of the following factors contribute to Dr. Green’s success? Express your hunch by circling a number below each of the four factors.

1. Ability as a doctor: Not at all 0 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9 To a great extent

2. Motivation to be successful as a doctor: Not at all 0 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9 To a great extent

3. The ease of the goal: Not at all 0 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9 To a great extent

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9 To a great extent

4. Good luck: Not at all 0 1

(Adapted from Feldman-Summers and Kiesler, 1974)

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Name: _________________________________________ Date: ___________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: ____________________

HANDOUT 4–9: UNDERSTANDING INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL ATTRIBUTIONS Carefully read the following account of Dr. Mike Green.

After finishing medical school, Mike Green went to Toronto General Hospital where he completed both his internship and residency in general surgery. Though his obligations as a resident took up most of his time, Mike volunteered to work part-time in a health clinic which was considerably understaffed. There he reorganized the surgery services to improve the postoperative care of the patients.

When his residency in surgery was completed, he returned to his hometown—Steinbach, Manitoba.

After two years in Steinbach, Dr. Green has almost doubled the size of his practice, and is ready to hire another doctor as his partner. Mike's interest in good surgical care and his boundless energy have resulted in increased community activities to improve health care for the poor. This year he received an award naming him Steinbach's Doctor of the Year. He is the youngest doctor to have received the award.

How much did each of the following factors contribute to Dr. Green's success? Express your hunch by circling a number below each of the four factors.

1. Ability as a doctor: Not at all 0 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9 To a great extent

2. Motivation to be successful as a doctor: Not at all 0 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9 To a great extent

3. The ease of the goal: Not at all 0 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9 To a great extent

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9 To a great extent

4. Good luck: Not at all 0 1

(Adapted from Feldman-Summers and Kiesler, 1974)

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Exercise 4–9 Master to use in class

0123456789 ABILITY Mike: Monica: MOTIVATION Mike: Monica: EASE Mike: Monica: GOOD LUCK Mike: Monica:

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Exercise 4–10 Demonstrating the Fundamental Attribution Error Time to Complete: 15-20 minutes; In class

Ahead of Time: Copy handout 4–10; prepare overhead transparency. You may want to bring a calculator to class to help quickly generate means.

This exercise was developed by David L. Watson (in the APA's Activities Handbook for the Teaching of Psychology, Vol. 2, pp. 135-137). It is based on a study conducted by Ross, L. D., Amabile, T. M., and Steinmetz, J. L. (1977), Social roles, social control, and biases in social perception processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 485-494.

Watson's demonstration version of the study involves asking members of the class to break up into pairs, preferably of people who don't know each other very well. The pairs are told they are going to play a game. Each pair decides, by flip of a coin, who will play each of two roles: the Quizmaster and the Contestant. Once this has been decided, the Quizmaster has five minutes to make up five difficult but not impossible questions of general knowledge (e.g., how many symphonies did Beethoven write?). The Quizmaster will make up the questions and then the Contestant will have a chance to answer them. The Quizmaster will then tell the Contestant whether he or she is right or wrong. Give the Quizmasters about five minutes to make up the questions, and allow the pairs another five minutes for the Contestants to give their responses and the Quizmasters to "grade" them. After the quiz, have each person fill out the post-quiz questionnaire. Collect them and use the overhead transparency to tally the results.

You can calculate averages based on the tally. Watson reports that he typically finds that the contestants rate their partners about half a point higher than the quizmasters rate theirs.

Discussion: Why did the contestants generally rate themselves lower? What do you think the results would have been if your role were switched with that of their partner? How does this exercise demonstrate the fundamental attribution error?

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Name: _________________________________________ Date: ___________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: ____________________

HANDOUT 4–10: POST-QUIZ QUESTIONNAIRE Indicate whether you were a Contestant or a Quizmaster (Circle one).

Rate the general knowledge of the person that you worked with by comparing that person with yourself. Do not put your name on this sheet or allow your partner to see it.

The other person I worked with seems to have (check one):

1. ______ less general knowledge than I have

2. ______somewhat less general knowledge than I have

3. ______about the same level of general knowledge that I have

4. ______somewhat more general knowledge than I have

5.______more general knowledge than I have

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Exercise 4–10 Questionnaire Master to use in-class

The other person I worked with seems to have (check one): Contestant Quizmaster 1. Less

_________ ________

2. Somewhat Less

_________ ________

3. About the Same Level

_________ ________

4. Somewhat More

_________ ________

5. More

_________ ________

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Exercise 4–11 Demonstrating the Actor-Observer Effect To demonstrate actor-observer differences in attribution, ask students to write down why they chose their major and why a friend chose his/her major. After people answer the questions, have them exchange answers with a classmate, and then explain how to code the number of dispositional versus situational attributions that were made.

Alternatively, an in-class replication of the Study 3 from Nisbett, Caputo, Legant, and Maracek (1973) study, usually works well. (Behavior as seen by the actor and as seen by the observer, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 27, 154-164).

In this demonstration, you will copy enough of the handouts to have one “self” and one “target” handout for each student. Select a target person for students to rate--ideally someone they will know from the media—the Prime Minister, Celine Dion or Wayne Gretzky, for instance. It's better not to have students rate their personal friends or family, as Nisbett et al.'s data show that the better that one knows a target, the more likely one is to believe that that person's behaviour depends on the situation. Have students rate the target person you've selected, and then rate themselves. After students have completed their ratings, ask them to count up the number of times they have selected a trait and the number of times they have selected "depends on the situation" for both themselves and for the target.

Did students select "depends on the situation" more for themselves than for the target? If so, then students have shown the actor/observer difference. If you collect this data at the end of one class, you can tabulate means and present them on the transparency master.

Alternatively, you can have each student ascertain whether or not his or her individual data fit the predications, and ask students to raise their hand if they did. Kite (1991, Observer biases in the classroom, Teaching of Psychology, 18, 161-164) reports that in five classes doing this exercise, all reported means that fit the predictions, and for four of the five classes, the difference was statistically significant. For comparison, the means from the Nisbett et al. study are 15.1 traits for the target person (in their case, Walter Cronkite) and 11.9 traits for self.

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Name: _________________________________________ Date: ___________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: ____________________

HANDOUT 4–11: TARGET-RATING For the target person selected by your instructor, circle the trait from each pair that you believe best describes him or her, or circle "depends on the situation" if that seems most applicable.

Energetic

Relaxed

Depends on the Situation

Realistic

Idealistic

Depends on the Situation

Emotional

Unemotional Depends on the Situation

Dominant

Submissive

Depends on the Situation

Disorganized Organized

Depends on the Situation

Critical

Supportive

Depends on the Situation

Quiet

Talkative

Depends on the Situation

Predictable

Imaginative

Depends on the Situation

Serious

Light-hearted

Depends on the Situation

Slipshod

Careful

Depends on the Situation

Generous

Stern

Stingy

Depends on the Situation

Sympathetic

Depends on the Situation

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Opinionated

Firm

Receptive

Flexible

Bold

Cautious

Sensitive

Tough-Minded

Intense

Depends on the Situation

Depends on the Situation

Laid-Back

Depends on the Situation

Depends on the Situation

Depends on the Situation

Uninhibited

Self-Controlled

Depends on the Situation

Spontaneous

Planful

Depends on the Situation

Skeptical

Trusting

Depends on the Situation

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Name: _________________________________________ Date: ___________________ Social Psychology Course Number and Section: ____________________ HANDOUT 4–11: SELF-RATING Circle the trait from each pair that you believe best describes you, or circle "depends on the situation" if that seems most applicable.

Energetic

Relaxed

Depends on the Situation

Realistic

Idealistic

Depends on the Situation

Emotional

Unemotional Depends on the Situation

Dominant

Submissive

Depends on the Situation

Disorganized Organized

Depends on the Situation

Critical

Supportive

Depends on the Situation

Quiet

Talkative

Depends on the Situation

Predictable

Imaginative

Depends on the Situation

Serious

Light-hearted

Depends on the Situation

Slipshod

Careful

Depends on the Situation

Generous

Stern

Stingy

Depends on the Situation

Sympathetic

Depends on the Situation

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Opinionated

Firm

Receptive

Flexible

Bold

Cautious

Sensitive

Tough-Minded

Intense

Depends on the Situation

Depends on the Situation

Laid-Back

Depends on the Situation

Depends on the Situation

Depends on the Situation

Uninhibited

Self-Controlled

Depends on the Situation

Spontaneous

Planful

Depends on the Situation

Skeptical

Trusting

Depends on the Situation

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

Exercise 4–11 Master to use in class

Self Other # Traits # Depends on Situation

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Exercise 4–12 Demonstrating a Self-Serving Bias Dana Dunn (1989, Teaching of Psychology, 16, 21-22) suggests an exercise that should lead to discussion of the self-serving bias. At the end of a class period, tell students that in the next class period, the psychology of the self will be one of the topics of discussion, and in preparation ask students to list their personal strengths and weaknesses on a form that they turn in to you, anonymously. Tabulate the number of strengths and weaknesses before the next class. Students tend to report twice as many positive as negative traits. Why do we do this? Is this due to a need to maintain self-esteem, or is there an information-processing origin of the bias (we have positive expectations for ourselves and only notice our positive characteristics). Also, samples of the positive and negative traits can be discussed--many of the negative ones, e.g., "workaholic" or "too trusting" have positive implications. Conclude discussion by talking about the adaptive implications of such biases.

Exercise 4–13 Self-Serving Biases Time To Complete: 15-20 minutes; In-class Ahead Of Time: Copy handout 4–13.

In Class: Distribute handout 4–13, and ask students to fill them out. Collect the completed forms. Appoint one or two student helpers to sort the forms according to answer, and to count the number in each response category. Construct a frequency distribution on the board or overhead projector. We expect most characteristics to be normally distributed in the population. The results obtained will hardly ever be normally distributed in the sample, because most people perceive themselves to be better than average.

Discussion: The self-serving bias, also called the ego-defensive bias, refers to a general tendency to perceive ourselves as competent, helpful, good, etc. In this example, perceptions of the self in relation to other people are affected by the bias.

By definition, only half of all people can be above average, but nevertheless, most of us see ourselves as above average on many dimensions.

What purpose does this self-serving bias serve? Are there any people who seem to lack the selfserving bias? What else do these people who lack the self-serving bias seem to have in common?

The self-serving bias is an illusion that actually seems to enhance our ability to be happy or contented. The illusion may be especially valuable in dealing with depression, negative feedback, or threatening information.

Do people display the self-serving bias for all traits or are there some traits that are more likely to show it than others? Work on the "Muhammad Ali" effect shows that people are more likely to show the self-serving bias on traits relevant to morality than on intellectual traits—like Ali, they tend to believe that they are "better, not smarter" than others.

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Name: _________________________________________ Date: ___________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: ____________________

HANDOUT 4–13: TRAIT SELF-EVALUATION Consider your own sense of humour as an example. Please rate your own sense of humour, compared to other people. Circle one of the numbers on the scale below and do the same for the other traits: MY SENSE OF HUMOUR IS: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Much worse Average Much better than other than other people's people's MY HONESTY IS: 1 2 3 4 Much worse than other people's

5 6 7 Average

8 9 Much better than other people's

MY INTELLIGENCE IS: 1 2 3 4 Much worse than other people's

5 6 7 Average

8 9 Much better than other people's

MY LEADERSHIP ABILITY IS: 1 2 3 4 Much worse than other people's

5 6 7 Average

8 9 Much better than other people's

MY DEPENDABILITY IS: 1 2 3 4 Much worse than other people's

5 6 7 Average

8 9 Much better than other people's

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

MY EMPATHY FOR OTHERS IS: 1 2 3 4 Much worse than other people's

5 6 7 Average

8 9 Much better than other people's

MY COMPETENCE IS: 1 2 3 4 Much worse than other people's

5 6 7 Average

8 9 Much better than other people's

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

STUDENT PROJECTS AND RESEARCH ASSIGNMENTS Exercise 4–14 Field Study of Nonverbal Behaviour Describe the four primary uses of nonverbal behaviour: expressing emotion, conveying attitudes, communicating personality traits, and facilitating verbal communication. As a homework project, instruct students to study the amount of eye contact, the types of voice changes, the body positions, and the movements others make with them in different situations: casual friends in the student union building, while waiting for a bus, in a bar or church. Ask students to see if there is a pattern that forms in these contacts. Also have individual students report in front of the class, and in a one-page paper, on their findings on factors such as emotions, attitudes, and personality traits. As a follow-up to the first phase of the assignment, have all students wear very dark sunglasses and have them minimize the use of any nonverbal communication as they make the same observations in the same locations. This is probably best accomplished the following day.

Have the students compare their results to what they observed the day they didn’t wear sunglasses and report to the class or add to their paper. Ask the students to keep track of the gender differences if they find any.

Exercise 4–15 Students as Psychological Detectives Using Kelley’s Covariation Theory Have students pick a crime that was widely covered in the media (or you can assign a recent and relevant one to students). They will then gather several articles about the crime, document what covariation information the articles include (distinctiveness, consensus, and consistency), and use it to figure out, according to Covariation Theory, why the individual committed the crime.

Exercise 4–16 First Impressions for Success Have students apply what they know by creating a quick brochure that could be used at a career centre to help students make a best first impression when searching for jobs. Have them include a section on résumé writing that explores the best words to use and, potentially, what order to place those words in (primacy effects). Another section can include appearance, and another can include impression-management during interviews.

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Exercise 4–17 Nonverbal Communication Observations The text describes the importance of Darwin’s theory that nonverbal forms of communication are species-specific and instinctual. A great way to gather evidence for whether or not we are born with the ability to communicate nonverbally is by watching small children. If possible, connect with a childcare centre near your university and see if small groups of students can observe children of varying ages, watching for signs of communication. Have students record their basic observations, and then ask them to use those observations to defend, in a short, one-page paper, their belief regarding whether or not nonverbal communication is innate.

Exercise 4-18 Attributions and Advertisements Present examples of ads which your students may be familiar. Which of Kelley's attributional principles are these ads relying on: distinctiveness, consensus, or consistency? Once students understand these three examples, a take-home exercise can be for them to find their own ads and to discuss which attributional principles are implicated in their ads.

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CRITICAL THINKING TOPICS AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 

Ask students if they have ever had a misunderstanding with a friend because they misread a text. Was the misunderstanding fueled by the fact that texting lacks nonverbal communication? Was the misunderstanding because they could not “read” the mood or emotion of the situation from the words in front of them? Have them discuss how our current communication style of using texts and instant messages may impact the quality of our communication.



The textbook talks about expression display rules and the idea that we have a specific expectation for how close someone can come to us before we begin to feel uncomfortable. Ask students if they have ever broken a cultural display rule. What was the response of people around them? And have they ever had anyone step too close to them, making them feel uncomfortable? Have them reflect on how the relationship we have with someone prescribes how far we can let them come into our space without feeling uncomfortable (for instance, the closeness expected with your employer is probably different than the closeness you are comfortable with from your boyfriend or girlfriend).



The text debates the accuracy of first impressions. Ask students to pair up and discuss personal examples from the last few weeks, one in which their first impression of someone turned out to be right and one in which their first impression proved to be wrong.



Third variables aside, a cause can be defined as “that condition which is present when the effect [behaviour] is present and which is absent when it is absent.” A reason is a statement that is offered to another for explanation or justification. The causes of behaviour can be quite different from the underlying reasons for it. Ask students to contrast “causes” and “reasons,” and to explain how they differ.



Ask students what they would think if they heard the Deputy Prime Minister say, “I’m 100% in favour of the Prime Minister’s proposal for saving the Health Care System.”

What would they think if they heard him or her say, “This is probably impolitic for me to say, but actually I have some serious reservations about it”? In which case would they feel more certain that they had heard the Deputy Prime Minister’s real attitude? Why?



Give students the following scenario and have them relate their answers to Kelley’s consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness dimensions: Suppose the other day, their friend named John has raved about a movie he saw. Today, they see it in the video store and are thinking about renting it, but they can’t get a very good sense of the movie from the information provided on the package. They want to choose a movie carefully since they are a little short on cash and this will be the only movie they see this month. What else would they want to know before following John’s recommendation?

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

Ask students to imagine the following situation: They are driving along a local highway when they get a flat tire. It is twenty kilometers to the next exit, so they pull off to the side of the road. They have a broken wrist, so they cannot change the tire themselves. As they stand there waiting for help, they see a good friend drive by without stopping, leaving them stranded. As they continue to stand there, they fume about why their friend didn’t stop to help. What are the possibilities? What would they want to know before deciding that their friend wasn’t their friend after all (i.e., before they made a correspondent inference)? Have students spell out the possibilities (e.g., their friend didn’t see them or was late for a job interview) and relate them to the idea of internal versus external attributions. Also ask students to indicate what emotion they would feel if each proposed hypothesis were in fact true.

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Ask students if people really make attributions in the rational way that the covariation model predicts they do. When do people seem to follow this model and when do they seem not to?

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Ask the class if we always try to explain someone else’s behaviour. When do we and when don’t we?

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Ask students what is different about how we interpret verbal behaviour and how we interpret nonverbal behaviour. What kinds of information do students believe we get from each? Are we equally able to control each channel? Is each kind of information equally informative? Equally trustworthy?

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The text describes gender differences in the encoding and decoding of nonverbal behaviour. What are these differences? How can they be explained? What kinds of evidence might you gather to support different explanations of this difference?

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If you have any international students or students who have travelled recently in a foreign country, ask them to help you in your discussions of the role of culture in the fundamental attribution error and in self-serving biases. These students will typically be very interested in helping with this section of your lectures.

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Ask students if the “just world assumption” was emphasized during their childhood, perhaps by their parents or in religious teachings. Do they think this assumption colours the way they see the world today? Have they ever experienced any distinct advantages or disadvantages to having this assumption?

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Ask the class how the ideas of the fundamental attribution error, defensive attributions, and the belief in a just world explain many people’s reactions to the homeless.

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Ask students what factors affect the accuracy or inaccuracy of our impressions of other people. What factors affect our perceptions of the accuracy of our impressions of other people? Can they think of any examples where they felt pretty certain that they had an accurate impression of someone and then found out that they were wrong? What factors

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can make them feel confident that their impression was accurate when it was not? 

Have students think about their first impressions of a person—for example, when they met their university roommate or when they went out on a first date (especially a blind date). To what extent did they rely on dispositional attributions to get an initial understanding of that person? Were their impressions accurate, or was the correspondence bias operating?

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When we feel threatened, we sometimes resort to the defensive attribution of belief in a just world (bad things happen to other people because they made mistakes that we wouldn’t make). Ask students whether this defensive attribution can be applied to the tragic loss of 10 lives in the Toronto van attack on April 23, 2018. How does this affect people’s anxiety about future terrorist attacks and the probability that they themselves might be harmed?

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Ask students to imagine the following scenario, word-for-word, then ask students the accompanying follow-up questions: Imagine that you are an influential member of an organization on campus, working on a panel that hands out awards. One Friday night, you are at a party for this organization, and the party is getting pretty wild--lots of beer, music, and dancing. While you are at the party, you meet a new person who starts coming on to you. You are beginning to feel attracted to this person, when a friend of yours pulls you aside and whispers to you that this person is really interested in joining your organization, and they might be being nice to you hoping that you will exert your influence to get them nominated for an award. What would your response be? Would you make a correspondent inference about the new person's behaviour (i.e., infer that s/he really likes you)—why or why not?

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Ask the class how belief in a just world might affect people’s reactions to those who are injured or killed by police officers. How might bias blind spots make it difficult to have a productive conversation between those who believe that police officers have become increasingly brutal and racist and those who believe that victims of police violence brought it on themselves? How are students’ own beliefs on this issue influenced by the biases in Chapter 4 (the fundamental attribution error, self-serving attributions, and belief in a just world)? What would thinking beyond those biases look like? (For example, instead of blaming the victims of police violence, it might be worth considering that the temptation to blame them stems from our need to feel that we are safe and that it will not happen to us. Similarly, instead of blaming individual police officers for being cruel—the fundamental attribution error—it might be worth considering whether their training, their supervisors, and the general lack of consequences for police brutality influenced their perception of how they should respond to various situations on the job.)

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SUGGESTED VIDEOS Quiz Show Attributions (5:54 min) (Sam Sommers)

Survival Tips! Avoid Jumping to Conclusions (1:12 min)

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5 The Self Understanding Ourselves in a Social Context CONTENTS Learning Objectives Chapter Outline Key Terms Integrating “Try It!” Active Learning Exercises In-Class Exercises Student Projects and Research Assignments Critical Thinking Topics and Discussion Questions Suggested Videos

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES 5.1

Describe the self-concept and how it develops.

5.2

Explain how people use introspection, observations of their own behaviour, and other people to know themselves.

5.3

Compare when people are likely to succeed at self-control and when they are likely to fail.

5.4

Explain the factors that determine whether we will evaluate ourselves positively or negatively.

5.5

Describe the conditions under which people seek self-enhancement and when they seek selfverification.

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CHAPTER OUTLINE I. The Origins and Nature of the Self-Concept Learning Objective: 5.1 Describe the self-concept and how it develops. 

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Are we the only species that has a “self”? Some fascinating studies suggest that other species have at least a rudimentary sense of self. Chimps and orangutans realized that they were looking at themselves, and not another animal, in a mirror, and they recognized that they looked different after a dot of red dye was applied to their forehead.

A variation of the red-dye test with toddlers found that human self-recognition develops at around eighteen to twenty-four months of age. Then, as we grow older, this rudimentary sense of self develops into a full-blown self-concept, defined as the overall set of beliefs that people have about their personal attributes.

To study how people’s self-concept changes from childhood to adulthood, psychologists have asked people of different ages the question “Who am I?” Typically, a child’s self-concept is concrete, referencing clear-cut, easily observable characteristics (e.g., age, sex, hobbies). As we mature, we place more emphasis on psychological states and considerations of how other people judge us.

A. The Content of the Self: Self-Schemas  Self-schemas are an organized body of knowledge about ourselves that includes our attitudes, our likes and dislikes, our personality traits, and so on 

Self schemas can bias our memory processes, especially if we are trying to make ourselves look good.

1. Self-Concept Clarity  Self-concept clarity is defined as the extent to which knowledge about the self is stable and clearly and consistently defined  People who are low in self-concept clarity tend to have low selfesteem, are depression-prone, more neurotic, and less aware of their internal states than those who are high in self-concept clarity 

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People low in low-self concept clarity also tend to prefer rumination over positive forms of self-focus such as reflection, and tend to believe happiness is achievable externally (e.g. through material acquisitions).

Research at Brandon Univeristy in Manitoba suggested that university students low in self-concept clarity are also more likely to engage in selfhandicapping, creating excuses in advance so that they do poorly on

a task, they can avoid self-blame.

B. Cultural Differences in Defining the Self  In many Western cultures, people have an independent view of the self, which is a way of defining oneself in terms of one’s own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions, and not in terms of the thoughts, feelings, and actions of others. In contrast, many Asian and other non-Western cultures have an interdependent view of the self, which is a way of defining oneself in terms of one’s relationships to other people and recognizing that one’s behaviour is often determined by the thoughts, feelings, and actions of others. Here, connectedness and interdependence between people are valued, whereas independence and uniqueness are frowned on.

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Research suggests that women’s self-concepts tend to reflect more relational interdependence, meaning that they focus more on their close relationships, such as how they feel about their romantic partner, a friend, or their child.

Men are generally higher in collective interdependence, meaning that they tend to define themselves in terms of social groups, such as the schools or sports teams to which they belong.

One study found that this gender divide was most prominent in individualistic cultures, whereas in collectivistic cultures, men were as likely as women to hold a relational view of the self.

II. Self-Knowledge Learning Objective: 5.2 Explain how people use introspection, observations of their own behaviour, and other people to know themselves.

A. Knowing Ourselves Through Introspection  Introspection is looking inward to examine the “inside information” that we— and we alone—have about our thoughts, feelings, and motives. One of the most amazing things about the human mind is that we can use it to examine ourselves, but there are consequences and limits to introspection.  Research suggests, however, (a) we do not spend very much time thinking about ourselves, and (b) even when we do, we don’t often understand the reasons for our feelings and behaviours, as these can be hidden from our conscious awareness.

B. Focusing on the Self: Self-Awareness Theory 

When we think about ourselves because of external circumstances (e.g., seeing ourselves in a mirror), then we are in a state of self-awareness. According to selfawareness theory, when we are focused on ourselves, we evaluate and compare our current behaviour to our internal standards and values (see Figure 5.1, p. 123). In short, we become self-conscious in the sense that we become objective, judgmental observers of ourselves, seeing ourselves as an outside observer would.

1. Cultural Differences in Self-Awareness 

People who grow up in East Asian cultures not only tend to have a more interdependent view of the self, they are also more likely to have an outsider perspective on the self, viewing themselves through the eyes of other people.

Conversely, people who grow up in Western cultures are more likely to have an insider perspective on the self, focusing on their own private experiences without considering how other people see them.  In one study, American students listed more discrepancies between their ideal and actual selves when a mirror was present, whereas East Asian participants were not affected by the presence of a mirror, suggesting that East Asians are already generally more self-aware (Figure 5.2, p. 124).  It is important to note, however, that people from both Eastern and Western cultures can adopt either perspective, but the “default” state tends to differ.

C. Judging Why We Feel the Way We Do: Telling More Than We Can Know  Many of our basic mental processes occur outside of awareness. We are usually aware of the final result of our thought processes but often unaware of the cognitive processing that led to the result. But even though we often don’t know why we feel a

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certain way, it seems we are always able to come up with an explanation.

Nisbett and Wilson referred to this phenomenon as “telling more than we can know,” because people’s explanations of their feelings and behaviour often go beyond what they can reasonably know.

People have many causal theories about what influences their feelings and behaviour and often use these to help explain why they feel the way they do. We learn many of these theories from the culture in which we grow up. Our schemas and theories are not always correct, however, and thus can lead to incorrect judgments about the causes of our actions.

D. Knowing Ourselves by Observing Our Own Behaviour  Self-perception theory argues that when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behaviour and the situation in which it occurs.  According to self-perception theory, people use the same attributional principles that they use with others—the attribution theory—to infer their own attitudes and feelings.  Self-perception theory has two components: first, people infer their inner feelings from their behaviour only when their feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, and second, people evaluate whether their behaviour really reflects how they feel or whether the situation they are in led them to act that way E. Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Motivation  Intrinsic motivation is the desire to engage in an activity because you enjoy it or find it interesting, not because of external rewards or pressures. In other words, it is play, not work.  Extrinsic motivation is the desire to engage in an activity because of external rewards or pressures, not because you enjoy the task or find it interesting.

1. The OverJustification Effect 

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Rewards can make people lose interest in activities they initially enjoyed. This is called the overjustification effect, which occurs when people view their behaviour as being caused by extrinsic reasons, leading them to underestimate the role of intrinsic reasons.

Task-contingent rewards are granted simply for doing a task, regardless of the quality of the performance. Performance-contingent rewards depend on how well people perform a task—and can thus convey positive feedback.

F. Knowing Ourselves though Other People  The self-concept does not develop in a solitary context but is shaped by the people around us.

1. Seeing Ourselves Through the Eyes of Others: The Looking-Glass Self  The looking-glass self is the idea that we see ourselves through the eyes of other people and incorporate their views into our self-concept.  Who we are and how we evaluate ourselves, others, and a situation, is determined, at least in part, by the internal audience that we have in mind.  In a series of studies, priming participants with either an older family member or a young friend influenced participants’ enjoyment of a story about a woman who engages in sexually permissive behaviour. In a 5-5 Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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follow-up study, priming Catholic women with a disapproving image of the pope was associated with more negative self-ratings after reading the same explicit passage than when an image of an unfamiliar, disapproving male was used as a prime.

G. Knowing Ourselves by Comparing Ourselves to Others 

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Social comparison theory holds that people learn about their own abilities and attitudes by comparing themselves to others. The theory revolves around two important questions: When do people engage in social comparison? And with whom do they choose to compare themselves?

In answer to the first question: People socially compare when there is no objective standard to measure themselves against and when they are uncertain about themselves in a particular area.

In answer to the second: It depends on your goals.

People find it most informative to compare themselves with others who are similar to them on the attribute or dimension in question.

III. Self-Control: The Executive Function of the Self Learning Objective: 5.3 Compare when people are likely to succeed at self-control and when they are likely to fail. 

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Self-control is the ability to subdue immediate desires to achieve long-term goals. An important function of the self is to be the chief executive who sets goals and makes choices about what to do in the present and the future. We appear to be the only species, for example, that can imagine events that have not yet occurred and engage in long-term planning, and it is the self that does this planning and exerts control over our actions.

More often than not, this process is hard, because to get what we want, we need to avoid short-term pleasures that would get in the way. One approach that helps is to form specific implementation intentions in advance of a situation in which we will need to exert self-control, which entails making specific plans about where, when, and how we will fulfill a goal and avoid temptation.

IV. Self-Esteem: How We Evaluate Ourselves Learning Objective: 5.4 Explain the factors that determine whether we will evaluate ourselves positively or negatively.

A. Social Comparison Revisited  Downward Social Comparison refers to the process of comparing ourselves with people who are worse than we are in a particular trait or ability, whereas upward social comparison refers to the process of comparing ourselves with people who are better than we are in a particular trait or ability.  Downward social comparisons generally tend to make people feel better, while upward social comparisons tend to make people feel worse; however, as Penelope Lockwood’s (2002) study with University of Toronto students suggests that comparing ourselves with someone who is worse off (e.g. a student who is struggling) will only make us feel good if we don’t feel vulnerable to that person’s negative outcomes.  The textbook also cites mounting evidence that exposure to other people’s idealized images on social media such as on Instagram contributes to lower state self-esteem, body dissatisfaction, and other negative outcomes such as depression and dissatisfaction with life.

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Anne Wilson and Michael Ross found that we can get a self-esteem boost when we compare our current performance to our past performance. Lockwood’s (2012) later studies also suggest that upward social comparisons can be inspiring when we first focus on our actual or usual self; when we focus on our best or ideal self before making this upward social comparison, it may be discouraging to realize that someone else has already surpassed our highest hopes and dreams (Figure 5.3, p. 134).

One’s feelings following social comparisons also depends on the identity of the person with whom one is comparing. For example, we actually feel better after engaging in upward social comparisons (focusing on domains in which your partner outperforms you) than in downward social comparisons (focusing on areas in which you perform better than your partner).

Lastly, being a target of an upward social comparison can make one feel simultaneously proud, and uncomfortable at the other person’s unhappiness.

1. Relationship Social Comparisons  We can also make upward and downward comparisons of our relationships to see how they “stack up” against others’.

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The effects of upward relationship social comparisons varies depending on the types of thoughts they trigger; comparing one’s own relationship to a friend’s, which may be better, can trigger either inspiring or negative thoughts.  Studies suggest that for women low in self-esteem, making upwards comparisons between one’s own relationship and idealized depictions of others’ relationships on social media is associated with feeling worse.  Downward relationship social comparisons, however, seem to trigger more positive thoughts about one’s own relationship.

2. Social Comparison and Culture  Research suggests that people from collectivist cultures are more motivated by downward comparisons as they are generally more concerned with avoiding failure than with achieving success, whereas just the opposite is true in individualist cultures.  In a similar study, Asian Canadians did not capitalize on an opportunity to get a self-esteem boost by making downward comparisons but, rather, used upward social comparison information to identify areas for selfimprovement, unlike European Canadians.

B. Social Acceptance and Self-Esteem: Sociometer Theory  Sociometer theory states that self-esteem is a gauge that monitors the extent to which we are accepted or rejected by others.  When we believe that we are valued and accepted, our self-esteem rises; when we feel devalued and rejected, our self-esteem drops. A dip in self-esteem serves as a signal to take action to restore our relationships.  High self-esteem people see themselves in terms of qualities that are valued by 5-7 Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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other people (e.g., popular, interesting to talk to), and thus are eager to engage in social interactions, compared to their low self-esteem counterparts, who are more likely to report feeling anxious and worried about how they will come across in social situations.

V. Self-Evaluation: Biased or Accurate?

Learning Objective: 5.5 Describe the conditions under which people seek self-enhancement and when they seek self-verification.

A. Self-Enhancement: Wanting to Feel Good about Ourselves, Regardless of the Facts  One way of boosting our self-esteem is to hold unrealistically positive views of ourselves, a tendency known as self-enhancement.  Studies at the University of British Colombia and at the University of Manitoba suggest that self-enhancement is associated with greater self-esteem and life satisfaction.

1. Self-Enhancement and Culture

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Self-enhancement is less common in collectivist, interdependent cultures.

In fact, some studies suggest that in Asian cultures, the tendency is to hold a negative view of oneself—a phenomenon known as self-effacement  This finding is still contentious, however: some studies suggest that Asian cultures simply demonstrate a lesser degree of self-enhancement than do their North American counterparts, while other researchers argue that cultural differences in self-enhancement are actually cultural differences in selfpresentation, which for people from Asian cultures would be motivated by cultural norms about modesty and restraint.

B. Self-Verification: Wanting to Know the Truth about Ourselves  According to the theory of self-verification, people have a need to seek confirmation of their self- concept, whether the self-concept is positive or negative; in some circumstances, this tendency can conflict with the desire to uphold a favourable view of oneself.  When people with negative self-views receive positive feedback, for example, opposing needs go head to head—the desire to feel good about themselves by believing the positive feedback (i.e., self-enhancement needs) versus the desire to maintain a consistent, coherent picture of themselves and avoid the embarrassment of being found out (i.e., self-verification needs).  People generally strive to uphold their negative self-beliefs only when they are highly certain of those beliefs, however, and do prefer positive feedback if they believe their negative trait is subject to improvement with a bit of work.  Swann et al. (2002) argue that whether we seek flattery or accuracy depends on the topic and our relationship to the evaluator: we seek flattery from our partners in the physical domain, for example, but would expect the honest truth about our appearance from a friend or roommate. Similarly, we prefer flattery about our artwork from our art instructors and about our athletic ability from our sports teammates, but we would prefer self-verification if these same people were asked about our other qualities.

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KEY TERMS

Self-Concept: The overall set of beliefs that people have about their personal attributes Self-Schemas: An organized body of knowledge about the self (e.g., attitudes, preferences, traits) that influences what people notice, think, and remember about themselves Self-Concept Clarity: The extent to which knowledge about the self is stable and clearly and consistently defined Self-Handicapping: Creating excuses in advance so that if one does poorly on a task, one can avoid self-blame Independent View of the Self: Defining oneself in terms of one’s own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions, and not in terms of the thoughts, feelings, and actions of other people Interdependent View of the Self: Defining oneself in terms of one’s relationships to other people; recognizing that one’s behaviour is often determined by the thoughts, feelings, and actions of others Relational Interdependence: The tendency to focus more on one’s close relationships, such as how one feels about one’s romantic partner, a friend, or one’s child Collective Interdependence: The tendency to define oneself in terms of social groups, such as the sports teams to which one belongs Introspection: The process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings, and motives Self-Awareness Theory: The idea that when people focus their attention on themselves, they evaluate and compare their behaviour with their internal standards and values Insider Perspective on the Self: Focusing on one’s own private experiences without considering how one is seen by other people Outsider Perspective on the Self: Viewing oneself through the eyes of other people Causal Theories: Theories about the causes of one’s own feelings and behaviours; typically, we learn such theories from our culture (e.g., “absence makes the heart grow fonder”) Self-Perception Theory: The theory that when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behaviour and the situation in which it occurs Intrinsic Motivation: The desire to engage in an activity because we enjoy it or find it interesting, not because of external rewards or pressures Extrinsic Motivation: The desire to engage in an activity because of external rewards or 5-9 Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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pressures, not because we enjoy the task or find it interesting Overjustification Effect: The case whereby people view their behaviour as caused by compelling extrinsic reasons, making them underestimate the extent to which their behaviour was caused by intrinsic reasons Task-Contingent Rewards: Rewards that are given for performing a task, regardless of how well the task is done Performance-Contingent Rewards: Rewards that are based on how well we perform a task Looking-Glass Self: The idea that we see ourselves through the eyes of other people and incorporate their views into our self-concept Social Comparison Theory: The idea that we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves with other people Self-Control: The ability to subdue immediate desires to achieve long-term goals Implementation Intentions: People’s specific plans about where, when, and how they will fulfill a goal and avoid temptation Downward Social Comparison: The process whereby we compare ourselves with people who are worse than we are in a particular trait or ability Upward Social Comparison: The process whereby we compare ourselves with people who are better than we are in a particular trait or ability Sociometer Theory: The theory that self-esteem is a gauge that monitors the extent to which we are accepted or rejected by others Self-Enhancement: An unrealistically positive view of oneself Self-Effacement: The tendency is to hold a negative view of oneself Self-Verification Theory: A theory suggesting that people have a need to seek confirmation of their self- concept, whether the self-concept is positive or negative; in some circumstances, this tendency can conflict with the desire to uphold a favourable view of oneself

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INTEGRATING “TRY IT!” ACTIVE LEARNING EXERCISES I.

Try It! A Measure of Self-Concept Clarity (LO 5.1)

This exercise provides an opportunity for students to reflect on the consistency of their selfconcepts by completing the Self-Concept Clarity Scale. Please see the Try It! Answer Key for suggestions on how to integrate this into class discussion.

II.

Try It! A Measure of Relational Interdependence (LO 5.2)

This exercise, located on page 122 of the text, includes an eleven item relational interdependence scale. In addition, if students have completed the Twenty Statements Test in Exercise 5–1 and have coded it, they can see whether there is any relationship between their scores on the Measure of Relational Interdependence and their TST scores. Do students with more interdependent self-views also have higher relational interdependence scores? Students can informally assess this for themselves, or you can ask them to turn in their scores and do a tabulation for the class. See the Try It! Answer Key for other suggestions.

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IN-CLASS EXERCISES Exercise 5–1 Self-Discovery Distribute Handout 5–1a to class members. This is the “Who Am I?” or Twenty Statements Test (TST) from Kuhn and McPartland (1954). Students are to answer the question “Who am I?” twenty different times.

A coding scheme for the TST is provided in Handout 5–1b. This coding scheme is adapted from The Manual for the Twenty Statements Test (Kansas City: Greater Kansas City Mental Health Foundation, rev. ed., 1965), as quoted in Zurcher (1977, The Mutable Self: A Self-Concept for Social Change, pp. 44–47. Beverly Hills: Sage). Have students code their own responses.

The most difficult responses to code are attitude, belief, and personal preference statements, which sometimes fall into category B and sometimes into category C, depending on the extent to which the statement puts the subject into a group with others and the extent to which others can judge or validate that behaviour for themselves. Category B statements tend to clearly imply behaviour in a social situation (we would be very surprised to find the Toronto Maple Leafs fan rooting for the opposing team), whereas Category C statements are more “situation-free.” Thus, Zurcher says that “I am a Catholic” falls into category B, but “I am a puzzled Catholic” falls into category C. Discussion: It can be pointed out that responses to “Who Am I?” comprise what McGuire has called the “spontaneous self-concept.” These are the aspects of the self most salient to the individual. People typically mention factors that are unusual or distinctive in relation to others they are comparing themselves with. Do students’ self-views seem more independent or interdependent? What self-schemas do students have? Are the concepts listed primarily for attributes that differentiate students from others, as opposed to those that make them similar? How much is the students’ self-perception a “looking glass self”? How much does it rely on social comparisons to others?

What kinds of cross-cultural differences might you expect in this task? Trafimow, Triandis, and Goto (“Some tests of the distinction between private and collective self,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, pp. 649–655) have used the TST to examine cultural differences. They find that American students tend to describe themselves with traits, while Chinese students tend to identify themselves by their group affiliations. You might have students simply count the number of traits and the number of group affiliations rather than doing a more detailed coding. (See also Dhawan, Roseman, Naidu, and Rettek, 1995, “Self-concepts across two cultures: India and the United States,” Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 26, pp. 606–621.)

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Name: _________________________________________ Date: ___________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: ____________________

HANDOUT 5–1a: WHO AM I? Directions: Each of us plays many roles in life, and we see ourselves in many ways. Give twenty answers to the above question. Work quickly and write your responses as soon as they come to mind.

1. I am ______________________________________________________________________.

2. I am ______________________________________________________________________.

3. I am ______________________________________________________________________.

4. I am ______________________________________________________________________.

5. I am ______________________________________________________________________.

6. I am ______________________________________________________________________.

7. I am ______________________________________________________________________.

8. I am ______________________________________________________________________.

9. I am ______________________________________________________________________.

10. I am ______________________________________________________________________.

11. I am ______________________________________________________________________.

12. I am ______________________________________________________________________.

13. I am ______________________________________________________________________.

14. I am ______________________________________________________________________.

15. I am ______________________________________________________________________.

16. I am ______________________________________________________________________.

17. I am ______________________________________________________________________.

18. I am ______________________________________________________________________.

19. I am ______________________________________________________________________.

20. I am ______________________________________________________________________.

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Name: _________________________________________ Date: ___________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: ____________________

HANDOUT 5–1B: CODING CATEGORIES FOR “WHO AM I?” TEST A. PHYSICAL SELF-DESCRIPTIONS Physical qualities that do not imply social interaction; “identity card”–type information. For example: “I am female.”

“I am a redhead.”

“I am nineteen.”

“I live in Ontario.”

B. SOCIAL SELF-DESCRIPTIONS Relationships, group memberships, social roles, and attitudes that are socially defined and validated. For example: “I am a son.”

“I am Canadian.”

“I am on the soccer team.”

“I am a worker in the Admissions Office.”

“I am a Leafs fan.”

“I am a liberal.”

C. PSYCHOLOGICAL SELF-DESCRIPTIONS Psychological traits and states, and attitudes, that do not refer to particular social referents. For example: “I am shy.”

“I am happy.”

“I am ambitious.”

“I am thrifty.”

“I like to drink socially.”

“I dislike hypocrites.”

“I like good music.”

D. HOLISTIC SELF-DESCRIPTIONS Characteristics so comprehensive or vague that they do not distinguish one person from another.

For example: “I am me.”

“I am a human being.”

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Exercise 5–2 The Overjustification Effect Hom (1994, “Can you predict the overjustification effect?” Teaching of Psychology, 21, pp. 36– 37) suggests having students make predictions about the outcomes of the Lepper, Greene, and Nisbett (1973) overjustification study before they read about it or hear a lecture.

First, describe the research: In this study, preschoolers who had shown a strong interest in drawing were randomly assigned to one of three conditions. a. In the “expected reward” condition, the experimenters showed the children a “good player badge” and told them that they could earn their own badge by drawing well; b. in the “unexpected reward” condition, children drew without expecting to receive a badge and then were given one after they had drawn; c. and in the “control” condition, children drew without expecting or receiving a badge.

The children were observed during a free play period and the amount of time they spent drawing was assessed. Now ask students to predict how long the children in each of the groups spent playing with the markers.

What actually happened was that children in the expected reward condition spent less time drawing than children in the other two conditions (the unexpected reward condition and controls did not significantly differ in their time spent drawing). Hom reports that students do not often make the correct prediction. Use the exercise as a lead-in to a discussion of overjustification effect research and the potentially negative effects of rewards on intrinsic motivation. When do rewards hurt motivation and when do they help? The difference between the expected and unexpected reward conditions suggests that rewards serve multiple functions: control and information. When rewards are used to control behaviour (as in the expected reward condition), they undermine intrinsic motivation, but when they provide information or feedback about performance, they do not.

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Exercise 5–3 Self-Presentation Divide the class into small groups of four or five. As directed in Handout 5–3, class members should write down three pieces of information they would like other people in their group to know about them. Then, taking turns, each member should disclose their first piece of information, then their second, then their third.

Next, each group should have an open discussion about similarities and differences among the types of information each person considered significant about themselves. Some people may have emphasized family or job or future aspirations. If time permits, it may also be interesting to discuss how the type of information chosen to be shared would differ in different types of groups (for example, a singles club, a sports club, or a Bible study class).

Each group then chooses a spokesperson to briefly summarize the conclusions of the open discussion for the rest of the class.

Discussion: We care about what others think of us, and usually seek to establish or maintain a positive image through self-presentation or impression management. By controlling the “face” we present to others, we may attempt to control their impressions of us. There are two types of selfpresentation: strategic self-presentation (to make a good impression or get people to like us) and authentic self-presentation, also called self-verification (to help other people get to know the “real” us). The student handout asks them to differentiate between these two types of self-presentation.

In some social situations, there might be a conflict between the two: the “socially desirable you” versus the “real you.”

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Name: _________________________________________ Date: ___________________ Social Psychology Course Number and Section: ____________________

HANDOUT 5—3: SHARING YOURSELF Directions: Read and follow the directions for each section below.

A. Write down three pieces of information about yourself that you want to share with the other members of your group, so that they can get to know you. (Your name should not be one of them, although everyone should introduce themselves.)

1. ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 2. ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 3. ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________

B. Taking turns, go around the group as each person shares their first piece of information. In a second round, each member will share their second piece, and in a third round, their third.

C. Next, have an open group discussion about the kinds of information different people chose to share. What were the similarities and differences? Classify them into at least two categories: 1. To help others get to know the “real you”: __________ 2. To make a good impression (get people to like you): __________

D. If time permits, you may discuss how you think the choice of information to share would differ in different types of groups (for example, a singles group, a Bible study group, or a sports group).

E. Choose a group spokesperson to summarize the discussion in C for the rest of the class. Into which category did most of the information fall?

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Exercise 5–4 Strategies for Self-Presentation: Best Self Forward The following strategies for self-presentation were identified by Jones and Pittman (1982, “Toward a general theory of self-presentation,” in J. Suls, ed., Psychological Perspectives on the Self, Vol. 1, pp. 231–262. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum). They can be used as the basis for a lecture on selfpresentation and/or as the basis for an in-class exercise. 

Ingratiation: Attempting to be seen as likable and attractive

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Intimidation: Arousing fear and gaining power by convincing someone you are dangerous

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Self-promotion: Attempting to impress someone with one’s own accomplishments

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Exemplification: Attempting to project integrity and moral worthiness

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Supplication: Advertising one’s weakness or dependence in order to solicit help or sympathy

Start the lecture by identifying the different strategies and by asking students to come up with examples of each. After the class seems clear on the distinctions between them, divide the students into five groups and ask each group to come up with a short role-play skit in which they act out any one of the five strategies. (You may choose to randomly assign a strategy to each group to avoid having everyone present the same one.) The groups should be able to act out the strategies clearly enough so that the other members of the class can identify the one they are illustrating.

Discussion: Ask students what kind of (emotional and behavioural) response each strategy is trying to elicit in others. Which strategies are used in different situations? Which strategies are used by those who have more power and which by those who have less power? What other factors will influence the strategy one chooses? Which strategies are most effective in achieving their goals?

Least effective?

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Exercise 5–5 Self-Handicapping Scale Students might be interested in completing Rhodewalt’s Self-Handicapping Scale (Rhodewalt, 1990, “Self-handicappers: Individual differences in the preference for anticipatory self-protective acts,” in Higgins, Snyder, and Berglas, eds., Self-Handicapping: The Paradox That Isn’t, pp. 69– 106. New York: Putnam); the scale is also available online through a simple browser search. This could then lead to the discussion of issues such as what methods of self-handicapping are used (for example, Rhodewalt’s studies find that student athletes who score high on his scale may selfhandicap by failing to practice before important matches).

Ask students what kinds of behaviours constitute self-handicapping. How do you know if a behaviour (for example, going drinking the night before an exam) is being done to protect the selfimage, by providing an excuse for failure, or for some other reason? Do students think men and women differ in their tendencies to self-handicap? (In fact, research suggests that men are more likely to behaviourally self-handicap, but there are few gender differences in verbal selfhandicapping. Why might this be? Does it relate to differences in relational interdependence?)

What are the costs and benefits of self-handicapping? How might you try to discourage the selfhandicapping tendency? Do people ever engage in impression management in order to influence their own perceptions of themselves (e.g., when they are alone)? If you know that you are selfhandicapping, does it work?

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STUDENT PROJECTS AND RESEARCH ASSIGNMENTS Exercise 5–6 Self-Knowledge Have students reflect on themselves using introspection. Have them record the primary thoughts, feelings, and motives they uncover as they explore themselves. After they have focused on themselves, have them write a one-page reaction paper that outlines who they believe themselves to be.

Exercise 5–7 Learning from Others As a follow-up to Exercise 5–6, have students ask two best friends, one parent, and one sibling to write a description of them on a piece of paper. Students should compare these perceptions with the reflections they completed through introspection, then convey what similarities and differences there are, and what they found most surprising about the exercise.

Exercise 5-8 Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation Questionnaires that measure intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are easily found online with a simple search. Prior to having students fill in the questionnaire, ask them to reflect on what they believe the questionnaire will show. After they complete the questionnaire and get their data, have them reflect on whether or not their predictions were correct and what, if anything, about the results surprised them.

Exercise 5–9 Cross-Cultural Views of the Self Divide students into groups and have them present material on cross-cultural views of the self. If your school has students from other countries, they are an excellent source of information. Students can interview them, perhaps asking questions such as: In your culture, what kinds of things would make somebody feel especially proud? What kinds of things would make people feel especially embarrassed? Is it more important to feel like you stand out from the crowd or like you are a part of the group? (Thinking up what kinds of questions to ask in order to elicit information about another culture’s view of the self is a useful exercise in and of itself.) Search the faculty as well as the student population for potential guest speakers on topics specific to their ethnicity.

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Exercise 5–10 The Self in the Movies A take-home assignment that students may find enjoyable is to watch a movie and write a paper about how it reflects the concepts discussed in this chapter. Some relevant movies include Saving Face (2004; relevant to impression management and issues of social comparison and culture), The Devil Wears Prada (2006; relevant to issues of motivation, self-perception theory, ingratiation, and social comparison), A Fond Kiss (2004; a movie about a mixed ethnicity/religion couple, relevant to culture and the self), Good Will Hunting (1997; relevant to self-schemas, self-concept, social comparison, and self-evaluation) and I Love You Man (2009; relevant to how men experience themselves in romantic relationships and same-sex friendships).

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CRITICAL THINKING TOPICS AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 

Ask your students why they think that only humans and great apes demonstrate a sense of selfconcept. Are there any limitations to the way that self-concept is measured that may make it more difficult for other species to demonstrate a self-concept?

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Ask students whether they believe their self-concept is something that is stable or something that changes. Arguments have been made for both points of view—what do the students think?

Markus and Kunda (1986, “Stability and malleability of self-concept,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, pp. 858–866) provide a study aimed at resolving this controversy that would provide a good lecture segment. In this study, students were brought into a room with two other students who were, unknown to the subject, confederates of the experimenter.

All three students made a number of judgments (which cartoon of three provided was funniest, which colour from the swatches provided they preferred, etc.). The “real” subject always answered first. For half of the subjects, on the majority of trials, the two confederates agreed with her; for the other half, on the majority of trials, the confederates disagreed with her, but agreed with each other. Thus the subject was made to feel either exceptionally similar to others or exceptionally unique. Dependent measures included a reaction time task that had subjects categorize words (those related to similarity and uniqueness and control words) as “me” or “not me”; a word association task; and a reference group comparison task. While the two groups did not differ in how they described themselves (they described themselves as both average and similar to others and special and unique), demonstrating stability of the selfconcept, the groups had very different latencies to respond, very different associations to terms related to similarity and uniqueness, and very different responses on the reference group comparison task, showing malleability in the self-concept. Specifically, on these latter measures, subjects tended to engage in some compensation—for example, having more negative associations to similarity-related words and more positive associations to uniquenessrelated words if they had been made to feel similar than if they had been made to feel unique.

Have students discuss what may contribute to these results.

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Ask students how they respond when somebody tells them something about themselves that doesn’t fit with their perception of themselves—for example, that they are really attractive when that’s not the way they think of themselves; or that they seem to be more of a follower when they see themselves as a leader. Do the students accept this feedback and incorporate it into their self-concept? Or do they argue with the person or otherwise reject the feedback?

Does it make a difference how certain they feel about themselves in that domain? (Swann, 1987, “Identity negotiation: Where two roads meet,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, pp. 1038–1051, and other earlier works by the same author deal with precisely this issue and would be a good source for a lecture on this topic.)

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Ask students how we come to know ourselves. What are the sources of knowledge that we use? Do individuals differ from one another in how much they rely on different sources? These sources include self-observation of behaviour in different situations, self-reflection on inner thoughts and feelings, direct and indirect (i.e., reflected appraisals) feedback from others, and social comparison. Sedikides and Skowronski (1995, Journal of Social & Clinical Psychology, 14, pp. 244–270) find that, overall, self-reflection is perceived to be the most important determinant of self-knowledge. Additionally, this source of information is especially important for subjects high in private self-consciousness, while subjects high in self-monitoring considered social comparison and direct and indirect feedback from others more important.

Ask students to discuss these findings.

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Ask students if we know ourselves better than we know others. On its face, the answer seems obvious. Yet research by Osberg and Shrauger (1986, “Self-prediction: Exploring the parameters of accuracy,” Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 51, pp. 1044–1057) shows that students who were asked to make predictions for their own behaviour over the course of the term (e.g., how often they would speak to their parents on the phone) and then to report on their behaviour were not much more accurate about their own behaviour than about the behaviour of the average student’s. Ask students why they think these results were found.

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The text discusses the concept of independent and interdependent self-concepts as something that differs between cultures. Ask students if this is just a difference between cultures or if it is also a difference between individuals, or even within individuals (i.e., individuals having two different parts to their self-concepts).

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Ask students when self-awareness is a pleasant experience, and when it is an unpleasant experience. What are the consequences of becoming self-aware? Who seems most focused on themselves, people who are feeling good or people who are feeling down in the dumps?

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Ask students to provide a personal example of a time when they inferred what their attitude was from their behaviour and/or the situation in which that behaviour occurred. One example that students can relate to has to do with physical symptom perception. Most people have experienced waking up and not being sure if they were ill or they were having an allergy attack—the physical symptoms by themselves do not clearly indicate what is wrong. In such a case, people often consider their recent experience (amount of sleep, exposure to allergens) in order to decide what is wrong.

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Ask students what kinds of situations are likely to lead to an overjustification effect. How can knowledge of this effect be used to try to increase a child’s intrinsic motivation for school?

How can knowledge of this effect be used to increase workers’ productivity? Ask students if they have ever had a hobby that turned into a way to make money. Was their enjoyment of the activity heightened or lessened by making money from it?

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Ask students if, in kindergarten through twelfth grade, they ever received external rewards for completing their work or improving their performance academically. Have them describe those rewards and discuss whether or not they truly motivated them, or whether they seemed to take the thrill out of an activity they previously loved. Relate these thoughts to the readings in their 5-23 Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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textbook. 

Have students describe a time when they made a social comparison between themselves and someone else. Was the comparison an upward comparison or a downward comparison? Why did they engage in the comparison? Did the comparison change the way they were initially feeling about themselves?

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Students are very interested in the concepts of social comparison and will be drawn to the material on when and with whom we compare ourselves. Some questions for discussion: (1) Suppose you have just received a 75 on a test in a class that you care about a lot. You don’t have the entire distribution or even the mean for the class, and you won’t be able to ask the professor for them until after the weekend is over. You will, however, have the chance to ask some of your friends or acquaintances in the class about their scores. Who will you ask and why? Will you ask someone who you think did really well, someone who you think did slightly better than you, someone who you think did the same as you, someone who you think did slightly worse than you, or someone who you think did much worse than you? Or would you ask no one at all? (2) Now suppose it’s the same situation, but the test was in a class that you don’t particularly care about. Who, if anyone, will you ask in this case? (3) Who would you ask if your score was a 45 in a class that you cared about a lot? If it was a 45 in a class that you didn’t care about? A 95 in a class that you cared about a lot? A 95 in a class that you didn’t care about? After discussing these questions, try to draw some conclusions about the following: (a) What are the conditions under which people will care about making social comparisons, and what are the conditions under which they won’t care? (b) What are the conditions under which people will tend to make upward comparisons, downward comparisons, and comparisons to similar others?

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Other questions on social comparison can centre on different situations in which we make comparisons. Here are two examples: (1) Suppose the item for social comparison is not a test score but an opinion. Tell students they have just moved to a new state and want to find out some information about the local candidates and/or political issues before casting their ballot in the election. Whose opinion would they be most interested in: that of somebody who they think seems similar to them or that of somebody who seems dissimilar? When are they likely to seek information from someone who is dissimilar? If somebody who they thought was very dissimilar to them agreed with their opinion, what would their reaction be? (2) Now have students imagine that the situation for social comparison is one in which they have just experienced a trauma of some sort—for example, as a victim of an earthquake or hurricane.

Who will they be interested in comparing themselves to: someone who has experienced more damage than them or someone who has experienced less? How would each of these comparisons make them feel? What kind of information do they get from social comparisons?

How does their interest in social comparison change over time?

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Ask students if they have ever used a self-handicapping strategy. In what situation? What did they do? How did it turn out for them? Do they believe the self-handicapping strategy changed others’ perception of you during the event?

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encourage, and why might that be? Ask students what role they may play in perpetuating the curation of the ideal online self-image and whether they believe this might promote more positive or negative self concept for themselves and others. 

Ask students which scenario they would prefer: looking at a posed collection of “influencers” promoting their “aspirational lifestyle”, or looking at “finstas” or “unfiltered” photographs of their friends and/or acquaintances on Instagram? Why might that be? Follow up by asking students whether the majority of the people they follow on social media are ones to whom they would make downward or upward social comparisons. Now ask students whether making these social comparisons results in positive or negative self-concepts and/or affect.

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Gergen (1991) suggests that technology leads to “social saturation” and the fragmentation of the self as we become part of a multitude of social realities. Does technology indeed lead to a fragmenting of identity? Does it lead us to become more strategic in our self-presentations (note the boom in self-presentations over the internet, such as on diary sites and webcam sites, and in “reality programming”)? How can we know ourselves when we can be so many people in so many different circumstances during the course of a day with technology? Is the idea of a unitary, consistent self a myth? Or is there some underlying consistency? How does the ability to use technology for self-display affect us? Use these questions to lead the class in a discussion, or, have them break into groups and have one representative from each group volunteer their answers at the end.

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SUGGESTED VIDEOS The Red-Dye Test with Human Toddlers 0:35min

Mindsets and Motivations 3:32min

Survival Tips! Avoiding Self-Handicapping 1:00min

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6 Attitudes and Attitude Change Influencing Thoughts, Feelings, and Behaviour CONTENTS Learning Objectives Chapter Outline Key Terms Integrating “Try It!” Active Learning Exercises In-Class Exercises Student Projects and Research Assignments Critical Thinking Topics and Discussion Questions Suggested Videos

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES 6.1

Describe the types of attitudes and what they are based on.

6.2

Describe the conditions under which people’s attitudes will predict their behaviour.

6.3

Explain how internal and external factors lead to attitude change.

6.4

Describe how advertising changes people’s attitudes.

6.5

Identify strategies for resisting efforts at persuasion.

6.6

Explain what cognitive dissonance is and how people try to reduce it.

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CHAPTER OUTLINE I. The Nature and Origin of Attitudes Learning Objective: 6.1 Describe the types of attitudes and what they are based on.  Attitudes are evaluations of people, objects, or ideas.  They are important because they often determine what we do.  Attitudes are made up of three components: (1) an affective component, (2) a cognitive component, and (3) a behavioural component.

A. Where Do Attitudes Come From?

1. Affectively Based Attitudes  An attitude rooted more in emotions and values than in an objective appraisal of pluses and minuses is called an affectively based attitude.

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Affectively based attitudes come from many sources, but we can group them into one family because they (1) do not result from a rational examination of the issues, (2) are not governed by logic, and (3) are often linked to people’s values, so that efforts to change them challenge those values.

2. Cognitively Based Attitudes  To the extent that an evaluation is based primarily on beliefs about the properties of an attitude object, we say that it is a cognitively based attitude.

3. Behaviourally Based Attitudes  A behaviourally based attitude is an attitude based primarily on observations of how one behaves toward an attitude object.  According to Daryl Bem’s (1972) self-perception theory, under certain circumstances people don’t know how they feel until they see how they behave.

B. Explicit Versus Implicit Attitudes  Attitudes can exist at two levels: Explicit attitudes are ones we consciously endorse and can easily report, while implicit attitudes are involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconscious evaluations.

II. When Do Attitudes Predict Behaviour?

Learning Objective: 6.2 Describe the conditions under which people’s attitudes will predict their behaviour.  Corporations and other groups are willing to spend heavily on ad campaigns because they assume that when people change their attitudes, they change their behaviour as well. The relationship between attitudes and behaviour is not so simple, though, with the former sometimes being poor predictors of the latter.  Attitudes do indeed predict behaviour, but only under certain specifiable conditions. One key factor is whether the behaviour we are trying to predict is spontaneous or planned.

A. Predicting Spontaneous Behaviours  Sometimes we act spontaneously, thinking little about what we are about to do. Attitudes will predict spontaneous behaviours only when they are highly accessible to people. Attitude accessibility refers to the strength of the Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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association between an object and an evaluation of it, which is typically measured by the speed with which people can report how they feel about the object or issue.

B. Predicting Deliberative Behaviours: The Theory of Planned Behaviour  According to the theory of planned behaviour, when people have time to contemplate how they are going to behave, the best predictor of their behaviour is their intention, which is determined by three things: their attitude toward the specific behaviour, their subjective norms, and their perceived behavioural control (see Figure 6.1, p. 153).

1. Specific Attitudes  The more specific the attitude toward the behaviour in question, the better that attitude can be expected to predict the behaviour.

2. Subjective Norms  In addition to measuring attitudes toward the behaviour, we need to measure subjective norms—people’s beliefs about how others they care about will view the behaviour in question. Knowing these beliefs can be just as important as knowing the person’s attitudes when it comes to trying to predict someone’s intentions (see Table 6.1, p. 153).

3. Perceived Behavioural Control  As seen in Figure 6.1 (p. 153), people’s intentions are influenced by perceived behavioural control, which is the ease with which people believe they can perform the behaviour.  Research supports the idea that asking people about these determinants of their intentions—attitudes toward specific behaviours, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control— increases the ability to predict their behaviour.  The theory of planned behaviour has been applied in other areas as well, such as predicting whether people will engage in proenvironmental behaviours.  Culture may play a role in the importance placed on the components of the theory of planned behaviour.  In a study, personal attitudes toward smoking predicted intentions to quit more strongly in Western countries than in Southeast Asian countries.  Even in individualist countries, such as Canada, we are still influenced by how we think the important people in our lives view our behaviour.

C. The Theory of Planned Behaviour: Implications for Safer Sex  People’s intentions are influenced by the ease with which they believe they can perform the behaviour. If people think it is difficult to perform a behaviour, such as remembering to use a condom when having sex, they will not form a strong intention to do so.

1. Subjective Norms  There is evidence that whether university students use condoms depends on their beliefs about the norms for sexual behaviour that

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operate among their friends, social group, and sexual partner.  Social norms can also vary depending on the situation, for example viewing casual sex as more acceptable while on vacation.

2. Perceived Behavioural Control  If people think it is difficult to perform a behaviour, they will not form strong intentions to do so.  A study conducted with sexually active students at the University of British Columbia found that those who were embarrassed about buying condoms bought them less often than did those who were not embarrassed.  The more difficult you find it to perform behaviours such as buying condoms or bringing up the topic with your partner, the less likely you are to actually use them.

3. Behavioural Intentions  Even among those who have positive attitudes toward condom use, various behavioural factors are associated with lower intentions to use condoms, such as being in a bad mood, having low self-esteem or depression (especially for women), and alcohol intoxication.

III. How Do Attitudes Change?

Learning Objective: 6.3 Explain how internal and external factors lead to attitude change.

A. Persuasive Communications and Attitude Change  Persuasive communication is communication advocating a particular side of an issue, such as a speech or television advertisement.  Carl Hovland and his colleagues studied the conditions under which people are most likely to be influenced by persuasive communications. In essence, they examined “who says what to whom,” looking at the source of the communication (e.g., how expert or attractive the speaker is), the communication itself (e.g., the quality of the arguments, whether the speaker presents both sides of the issue), and the nature of the audience (e.g., whether the audience is hostile or friendly to the point of view in question). This is known as the Yale Attitude Change approach (see Figure 6.2, p.

159).  The problem that emerged with the Yale Attitude Change approach is that many aspects of persuasive communications turned out to be important, but it was not clear which were more important than others—that is, it was unclear when one factor should be emphasized over another.

1. The Central and Peripheral Routes to Persuasion  The elaboration likelihood model of persuasion specifies when people will be influenced by what the speech says (i.e., the logic of the arguments) and when they will be influenced by more superficial characteristics (e.g., who gives the speech or how long it is). See Figure 6.3 (p. 161).  Under certain conditions, people are motivated to pay attention to the facts in a communication, so the more logically compelling those facts are, the more persuasion occurs. This is the central route to persuasion.  Under other conditions, people are not motivated to pay attention to the

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facts; instead, they notice only the surface characteristics of the message.

This is called the peripheral route to persuasion because people are swayed by superficial cues, things peripheral to the message itself.

B. Fear and Attitude Change  A fear-arousing communication is a persuasive message that attempts to change people’s attitudes by arousing their fears  In 2000, the Canadian government began to place frightening images on cigarette packages—larger and more graphic than those used anywhere else in the world.  In one study, participants’ arousal, negative emotions, and desire to quit smoking was stronger when larger and more fear-arousing packages were used.  Fear only induces people to change their attitudes if people believe that listening to the message will teach them how to reduce this fear.  A fear-arousing communication will fail if it only arouses fear without providing a specific recommendation for people to follow, even if people are feeling vulnerable and worried that they are at risk for experiencing the feared event.  Fear-arousing communications will also fail if they are so strong that they are overwhelming.  Studies have suggested that for those who were most threatened by the fear-producing messages, using humour can increase attitude change and intention to enact the desired behaviours.

IV. Advertising and Attitude Change Learning Objective: 6.4 Describe how advertising changes people’s attitudes.  In many respects, advertising is a direct application of social psychology—it’s a concerted effort to change the way that consumers think about and act toward a certain product.  Most people think advertising works on everyone but themselves, but this is not the case; more than we like to believe, we can all be susceptible to the effects of advertisements.

A. Tailoring Advertisements to People’s Attitudes  If advertisers are trying to change an affectively based attitude, then it is best to fight emotions with emotions. For example, different cola brands are more or less the same, so ads do not emphasize facts and figures, but instead play to people’s emotions by trying to associate feelings of excitement, youth, energy, and attractiveness with the brand.  Conversely, if an attitude is cognitively based, it is best to change it with rational arguments (see Figure 6.4, p. 164).

B. Culture and Advertising  In addition to trying to change attitudes towards consumer products via advertising, the media also shapes and reflects cultural attitudes in less direct ways. The attitudes we form toward women and men, members of different racial groups, people of different ages, and so on are all related to the manner in which members of these groups are portrayed in advertising, television shows, movies, and the internet.  Similarly, advertisements can also make use of cultural values to appeal to their

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diverse consumer audiences. Thus advertisements contain more individualist content in Western cultures such as North America and more collectivist content in countries such as Japan, Korea, China, and Mexico.

C. Subliminal Advertising: A Form of Mind Control?  Subliminal messages are words or pictures that are not consciously perceived but that supposedly influence people’s judgments, attitudes, and behaviours.

1. Debunking the Claims About Subliminal Advertising  There is no evidence that the types of subliminal messages encountered in everyday life have regular influence on people’s behaviour.

2. Evidence for Subliminal Influence in the Lab  There is evidence, however, that people can be influenced by subliminal messages under carefully controlled laboratory conditions.  Research conducted at the University of Waterloo shows that people also have to be motivated to accept the persuasive message.

V. Resisting Persuasive Messages Learning Objective: 6.5 Identify strategies for resisting efforts at persuasion.

A. Attitude Inoculation  Attitude inoculation is the process of making people immune to attempts to change their attitudes by exposing them to small doses of the arguments against their position  Inoculation is also effective in resisting attacks on our attitudes.  The more people have thought about pro and con arguments beforehand, the better they can ward off attempts to change their minds using logical arguments.

B. Being Alert to Product Placement  One reason product placement can work is that, unlike with a commercial, people do not always realize that someone is trying to influence their attitudes and behaviour.

Our defences are down. As a result, we don’t generate counterarguments.  When people are forewarned, they analyse what they see and hear more carefully and as a result are likely to avoid attitude change.

VI. Changing Our Attitudes Because of Our Behaviour: The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance Learning Objective: 6.6 Explain what cognitive dissonance is and how people try to reduce it.  Sometimes people change their attitudes not because another person is trying to get them to, but rather because their own behaviour prompts them to do so (i.e. because they have behaved in ways that contradict ofr are inconsistent with their attitudes).  Cognitive dissonance is a feeling of discomfort caused by the realization that one’s behaviour is inconsistent with one’s attitudes or that one holds two conflicting attitudes.  Because discomfort is unpleasant, we are motivated to take steps to reduce it (see Figure 6.5, p. 171 for a depiction of ways that people resolve the discomfort caused by cognitive dissonance).  Researchers at the University of Manitoba and Queen’s University found that we are particularly likely to change our attitudes to bring them in line with our behaviour when the attitude in question isn’t particularly important to us.  Sometimes people change their behaviour to resolve dissonance, such as by discontinuing smoking upon being confronted with its harms.

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

The third route of reducing dissonance is by adding new cognitions, often in the form of self-justifications; smokers who have tried and failed to quit, for example, may try to reduce their dissonance by convincing themselves that smoking is not as bad as they thought, or that the benefits (e.g., the pleasure of smoking) outweigh the risks.

A. Decisions, Decisions, Decisions  Each time we make a decision, we experience dissonance because the chosen alternative is seldom entirely positive and the rejected alternative is seldom entirely negative.  Post-decision dissonance is dissonance that is aroused after making a decision; such dissonance is typically reduced by enhancing the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and devaluing the rejected alternatives 1. The Permanence of the Decision  Once an individual makes a final and irrevocable decision, he or she has a greater need to reduce dissonance.  In one study, people who had already placed their irreversible bets subsequently estimated that their horses had a much better chance of winning than did those who had yet to place their bets.

2. The Decision to Behave Immorally  Dissonance reduction that occur afters a moral decision can cause people to behave either more or less ethically in the future.  For example, dissonance might arise depending on whether a student seizes or rejects an opportunity to cheat on a test. The students’ resultant attitude about the immoral act may soften or harden as a function of dissonance reduction according to whether they cheated.  The dissonance reduction that occurs for these students— regardless of whether they cheated—is not necessarily just a rationalization of their behaviour but can result in an actual change in their system of values.

B. The Justification of Effort  Justification of effort refers to the tendency for individuals to increase their liking for something they have worked hard to attain (see Figure 6.6, p. 175).  If a person believes they have agreed to go through an effortful, difficult, or an unpleasant experience to attain some goal or object (e.g. raising a child, or passing an initiation to join a fraternity, cult, or the army), that goal or object becomes more attractive.  In a study, parents’ evaluation of their experience as a parent was improved via dissonance reduction when they were told the experience was costly and/or had little long-term benefits.

C. Counterattitudinal Behaviour  External justification is a person’s reason or explanation for dissonant behaviour that resides outside the individual (e.g., to receive a large reward or avoid punishment).  Internal justification is the reduction of dissonance by changing something about oneself (e.g., one’s attitude or behaviour).  Counterattitudinal behaviour is defined as acting in a way that runs counter to a Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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person’s private belief or attitude.

1. Using Counterattitudinal Behaviour to Tackle Social Problems  Research on counterattitudinal behaviour be used to solve social problems.  In a study, white students ended up convincing themselves that they actually believed in a policy to increase their university’s academic scholarship funding for African-American students, to the detriment of scholarship funds available for themselves, after being asked to write an essay publicly endorsing it.

2. The Power of Mild Punishment  While at first it may seem that harsh punishments would best deter illegal behaviour, dissonance theory would predict that harsh punishment just steps up people’s efforts to avoid getting caught.  Why? Because a mild punishment (such as to a bully), so long as it is obeyed, creates dissonence due to insufficient punishment.  Insufficient punishment is the dissonance aroused when individuals lack sufficient external justification for having resisted a desired activity or object, usually resulting in individuals devaluing the forbidden activity or object.  The best way of deterring people from behaving in an undesirable way is to induce them to devalue that behaviour internally, via dissonance reduction, as opposed to transforming the behaviour into an even more appealing, forbidden fruit.  Research suggests that the effects of mild or insufficient punishment can be long-lasting.

D. The Aftermath of Bad Deeds  To reduce dissonance that arises from hurting another person, people (military personnel and everyday students) may self-justify their behaviour by increasing their dislike for the victim, by justifying how the victim may have deserved it, and, in some cases, by dehumanizing the victim.  Dehumanizing the victim virtually guarantees a continuation or even an escalation of the cruelty, through an endless chain of violence followed by self-justification.

E. The Hypocrisy Paradigm  Making people aware of their own hypocrisies, evident in their self-justifying rationalizations, can encourage them to start practising what they preach.  Hypocrisy induction is defined as the arousal of dissonance by having individuals make statements that run counter to their behaviours and then reminding them of the inconsistency between what they are saying and their actual behaviour.  Hypocrisy induction has shown success with young children in inducing them to refrain from engaging in risky, unsafe behaviours on school playground equipment.

F. Self-Affirmation Theory  Self affirmation theory is a theory suggesting that people will reduce the impact of a dissonance-arousing threat to their self-concept by focusing on and affirming their competence on some dimension unrelated to the threat.

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People in individualistic cultures especially feel dissonance when their atttidues and behaviours are inconsistent since, in individualistic cultures, behaviours are seen as diagnostic of what one is really like.  This is not always the case for people in collectivistic cultures, however, because the self may be defined in relation to others. Thus in collectivistic cultures, behaviour is more likely to be tailored to the demands of the group with minimal dissonance.  Self-affirmation can protect people from engaging in dissonance reduction, but only when it affirms a culturally valued trait.

G. The Solar Temple Revisited  There were many factors operating in this tragic event, such as a charismatic leader and the silencing of opposing views, but many of them can be explained as an extreme manifestation of cogntiive dissonance.  Festinger’s theory of cognitive dissonance tells us that more people sacrifice and the harder they work for something, the greater their need to convince themselves that their views are correct; in the case of the Solar Temple cult, they made many profound personal and professional sacrifices for the cult, sacrifices which served to increase their commitment to the cult via dissonance reduction.  At a certain point, to begin to question these beliefs would have produced too much dissonance to bear given all that the cult’s members had already sacrificed.

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KEY TERMS Attitudes: Evaluations of people, objects, or ideas Affectively Based Attitude: An attitude based primarily on people’s emotions and feelings about the attitude object Cognitively Based Attitude: An attitude based primarily on a person’s beliefs about the properties of an attitude object Behaviourally Based Attitude: An attitude based primarily on observations of how one behaves toward an attitude object Explicit Attitudes: Attitudes that we consciously endorse and can easily report Implicit Attitudes: Attitudes that are involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconscious Theory of Planned Behaviour: A theory that the best predictors of people’s planned, deliberate behaviours are their attitudes toward specific behaviours, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control Persuasive Communication: Communication advocating a particular side of an issue Yale Attitude Change Approach: The study of the conditions under which people are most likely to change their attitudes in response to persuasive messages; it focuses on the source of the communication, the nature of the communication, and the nature of the audience Elaboration Likelihood Model: A theory explaining that there are two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change: the central route, when people are motivated and have the ability to pay attention to the arguments in the communication, and the peripheral route, when people do not pay attention to the arguments but are instead swayed by surface characteristics Central Route to Persuasion: The case in which people have the ability and the motivation to elaborate on a persuasive communication, listening carefully to and thinking about the arguments Peripheral Route to Persuasion: The case in which people do not elaborate on the arguments in a persuasive communication but are instead swayed by more superficial cues Fear-Arousing Communication: A persuasive message that attempts to change people’s attitudes by arousing their fears Subliminal Messages: Words or pictures that are not consciously perceived but that supposedly influence people’s judgments, attitudes, and behaviours Attitude Inoculation: The process of making people immune to attempts to change their attitudes by exposing them to small doses of the arguments against their position

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Cognitive Dissonance: A feeling of discomfort caused by the realization that one’s behaviour is inconsistent with one’s attitudes or that one holds two conflicting attitudes Post-Decision Dissonance: Dissonance that is aroused after making a decision; such dissonance is typically reduced by enhancing the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and devaluing the rejected alternatives Justification of Effort: The tendency for individuals to increase their liking for something they have worked hard to attain External Justification: A person’s reason or explanation for dissonant behaviour that resides outside the individual (e.g., to receive a large reward or avoid punishment) Internal Justification: The reduction of dissonance by changing something about oneself (e.g., one’s attitude or behaviour) Counterattitudinal Behaviour: Acting in a way that runs counter to a person’s private belief or attitude Insufficient Punishment: The dissonance aroused when individuals lack sufficient external justification for having resisted a desired activity or object, usually resulting in individuals devaluing the forbidden activity or object Hypocrisy Induction: The arousal of dissonance by having individuals make statements that run counter to their behaviours and then reminding them of the inconsistency between what they are saying and their actual behaviour Self-Affirmation Theory: A theory suggesting that people will reduce the impact of a dissonance-arousing threat to their self-concept by focusing on and affirming their competence on some dimension unrelated to the threat

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INTEGRATING “TRY IT!” ACTIVE LEARNING EXERCISES I. Try It! Affective and Cognitive Bases of Attitudes (LO 6.1) This exercise is located on page 149 of the text. The scales were developed by Crites, Fabrigar, and Petty (1994) to measure the affective and cognitive components of attitudes. Students are asked to fill out these scales with reference to the attitude object of snakes (typically an affectively based attitude) versus vaccuum cleaners (typically a cognitively based attitude).

Scoring instructions are presented in the text. In the text they suggest that students create a difference score and note that, when rating snakes, the affective component of their attitude should be further from zero than the cognitive component. By contrast, when rating vaccuum cleaner, the cognitive component of their attitudes should be further from zero than the affective component.

II. Try It! Advertising and Mind Control (LO 6.4) This exercise is designed to examine people’s beliefs about the power of advertising. Students can try this exercise with family and friends, or the instructor can try this in class. As can be seen in the textbook, there is limited evidence that subliminal advertising is effective; people are more likely to be influenced by the advertisements that they consciously perceive and encounter in everyday life. Some additional relevant findings can be found in the Try It! Answer Key.

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INLASS EXERCISES Exercise 6–1 The ABCs of Attitudes The text discusses the affective, behavioural, and cognitive basis of attitudes, as well as the distinction between affectively based, cognitively based, and behaviourally based attitudes. To reinforce these distinctions, divide students into small groups of two or three and ask each group to come up with one example of an affectively, cognitively, and behaviourally based attitude.

Once the groups have decided on their three attitudes, ask them to further specify the affect, behaviour, and cognition likely to be associated with each of these three attitudes. Other questions for discussion include: How highly associated are the affective, behavioural, and cognitive components of each attitude? Are they always highly associated with one another? If not, for which attitudes do they seem most highly associated? For each of the attitudes specified, how might you go about trying to induce an attitude change? Handout 6–1 can be used to guide students and help them prepare for the discussion.

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 6–1: THE ABCs OF ATTITUDES Directions: Together with your partners, create an example of an affectively based attitude, a behaviourally based attitude, and a cognitively based attitude, then specify the affect, behaviour, and cognition likely to be associated with each of these attitudes. Finally, indicate for each attitude how you might try to induce an attitude change.

1. Affectively based attitude and likely affect _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________

2. Behaviourally based attitude and likely behaviour _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________

3. Cognitively based attitude and likely cognition _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________

4. For each of the attitudes specified, how might you try to induce an attitude change?

The affectively based attitude _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________

The behaviourally based attitude _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________

The cognitively based attitude _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________

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Exercise 6–2 Attitude Measurement Many scaling techniques have been developed to measure attitudes. A useful lecture and activity session might introduce some of the traditional attitude scaling techniques (e.g., the semantic differential and the Likert scale) as well as the concepts of reliability and validity, and also discuss problems with self-report measures (response styles and strategies, notably social desirability). You can conclude with a discussion of alternative attitude measurement techniques, including unobtrusive measures and physiological measures.

You may also refer students to Harvard’s Project Implicit website, where they can look at and take an Implicit Attitude Test. You can conclude this class session by dividing students into small groups and having them design two attitude measures—one self-report and one non-selfreport—of an attitude of their choosing.

Handout 6–2 is designed as a quick assessment of students’ abilities to distinguish between implicit and explicit attitude measures.

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 6–2: IMPLICIT AND EXPLICIT ATTITUDE MEASUREMENT Directions: In this assessment, you will demonstrate your knowledge of different techniques for measuring attitudes. Please answer the following questions and explain your answers in detail.

1. In your own words, describe and explain the difference between implicit and explicit measurement of attitudes. _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________

2. How might someone measure a person’s attitudes towards members of a particular religion using an explicit measurement technique? _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________

3. How might someone measure a person’s attitudes towards members of a particular religion using an implicit measurement technique? _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________

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Exercise 6–3 Attitude Accessibility For a quick demonstration of the concept of attitude accessibility, post the following scale on the board: –3 very negative –2 negative –1 slightly negative 0 neither positive nor negative +1 slightly positive +2 positive +3 very positive Then tell students that you will read aloud some words, and that their task is to raise their hand when they are certain of their rating of the word. They don’t need to write down or say their rating, they just need to know what it is. Stress that it is important that they be clear about their rating rather than just racing to get their hand in the air as quickly as possible.

Then read aloud the following list of words and phrases: “candy,” “bird,” “war,” “having fun,” “graduation,” “teakettle,” “vomit,” “cotton,” “getting a job,” and “crossword.”

You should observe that for some words, students’ hands will all raise very quickly, while for others there will be more variability and a slower raising of hands. Those words for which students’ hands raise quickly (e.g., “candy,” “vomit”) are those for which they have accessible attitudes, according to Fazio’s definition, discussed in the text. That is, there is a close linkage between thinking of the concept and thinking of one’s evaluation of the object. For other words (e.g., “cotton” or “crossword”), there is less of a linkage between the attitude object and its evaluation; these attitudes are less accessible. According to Fazio et al., there is likely to be a stronger linkage between attitudes and those objects that people feel strongly about (e.g., “having fun”) than between attitudes and those objects that people feel less strongly about (e.g., “cotton” or “bird”). Fazio’s work also indicates that accessibility will differ for different people—in particular, where people have had direct experience with an attitude object (e.g., “having fun” or “graduation”), the linkage between the concept and the evaluation will be much closer than for people who have not had direct experience.

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Exercise 6–4 Predicting Deliberate Behaviours In class, have students determine if they can predict deliberate behaviours based on the theory of planned behaviour. Provide them with an example (below) and then divide the class into small groups. Ask each group to develop two or three additional examples to share with the other groups, so that they can practice applying this theory to predicting behaviour. Use Handout 6–4 to help them organize their ideas.

Example: First, remind students that the theory of planned behaviour states that people’s intentions are the best predictors of their deliberate behaviours, which are determined by their attitudes toward specific behaviours, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control.

Now ask students to predict the behavioural outcome of Jackson, who has been asked by his mom to get his teeth cleaned at the dentist. Jackson is terrified of the dentist and has had anxiety attacks at the dentist’s office (attitude). However, he knows that his mom thinks that cleaning his teeth is important, and he knows that many of his friends have their teeth cleaned (subjective norm). Lastly, his mom scheduled the appointment for a day when he is off school and she is available to take him to the appointment (behavioural control).

So, what do students think Jackson will do?

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 6–4: PREDICTING DELIBERATE BEHAVIOURS Directions: Use this handout to help you organize your scenarios for predicting deliberate behaviours.

Scenario 1 What is the activity?

What is the character’s attitude about this activity?

What is the social norm of this activity?

What is the character’s perceived behavioural control?

Write out the scenario for other groups to read.

Scenario 2 What is the activity?

What is the character’s attitude about this activity?

What is the social norm of this activity?

What is the character’s perceived behavioural control?

Write out the scenario for other groups to read.

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Scenario 3 What is the activity?

What is the character’s attitude about this activity?

What is the social norm of this activity?

What is the character’s perceived behavioural control?

Write out the scenario for other groups to read.

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Exercise 6–5 Are Subliminal Messages Helpful?

During class, have students pretend that their mother has sent them a letter asking if she should spend money on subliminal tapes that are supposed to help her lose weight. Based on what they have learned from the text and your discussions, have them write a letter back to her saying yes or no, and why they would make that recommendation.

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STUDENT PROJECTS AND RESEARCH ASSIGNMENTS Exercise 6–6 Responses to Advertisements This exercise is useful for introducing ideas on attitude change.

About a week in advance, give students Handout 6–7—the “Advertisement Reaction Questionnaire”—and briefly go over the instructions in class.

Have students turn in their questionnaires for you to analyse. Frequencies may be recorded on the data sheet on the next page. Cross-tabulations and correlations are fairly easy for students to understand, although you will have to be somewhat selective, because of time constraints, in choosing which portions of the data to present to the class.

Summarize and discuss the results of the data analysis in class. Interesting relationships often emerge. You may, for example, find sex differences in “sex as a positive reinforcer.” Were these differences due to different choices of the ads or different perceptions of the ads?

Discussion: This exercise gives students valuable experience in analyzing the ubiquitous ads in their lives. In the long run, of course, advertisers want to change our behaviour; positive attitudes about a product are of only limited value—advertisers want to see consumers buying the product.

Environmental and situational pressures (such as lack of money) reduce the strength of the relationship between attitude and behaviour. The specificity of attitude is also important.

People’s attitudes most strongly predict their behaviour when they are asked about performing specific actions. The present exercise assesses “intention to purchase” a product rather than a general attitude toward the product because research in advertising (e.g., Atkin and Block, 1983) finds behavioural intention to be a better predictor. The attitude change process is also relevant to this exercise. Items on the questionnaire assess the amount of information presented in the ad, its perceived trustworthiness, and its likability. Although an advertisement is technically a message rather than a source, a source is frequently implied (or an endorser is present in the ad), and thus the trustworthiness and likability items were included.

Optional Paper: You may choose to assign a paper based on a comparison of the results with the textbook discussion of the topic of persuasion.

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Exercise 6–6 Data Sheet (Record Frequencies) 1. To what extent does this ad use sex as a positive reinforcer?

Not at all

1

2

3

4

5

Very much

2. To what extent does this ad use money (low cost) as a positive reinforcer?

Not at all

1

2

3

4

5

Very much

3. How much information about the product does the ad present?

Not at all

1

2

3

4

5

Very much

2

3

4

5

Very much

2

3

4

5

Very much

3

4

5

Very much

4. How trustworthy is the ad?

Not at all

1

5. How likable is the ad?

Not at all

1

6. How familiar is this product to you?

Not at all

1

2

7. Based on this advertisement, what would be your intention to purchase or use this product?

Not at all

1

2

3

8. Your sex:

Male

Female

Other

4

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5

Very much

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 6–7: ADVERTISEMENT REACTION QUESTIONNAIRE Directions: Your task is to find a magazine advertisement that you find particularly effective. Be sure to select an ad for a consumer product, and make a photocopy of the ad to turn in with your questionnaire. Examine the ad carefully, and then answer the following questions. Many of the items ask for your opinion. Be as honest as possible.

1. To what extent does this ad use sex as a positive reinforcer?

Not at all

1

2

3

4

5

Very much

2. To what extent does this ad use money (low cost) as a positive reinforcer?

Not at all

1

2

3

4

5

Very much

3. How much information about the product does the ad present?

Not at all

1

2

3

4

5

Very much

2

3

4

5

Very much

2

3

4

5

Very much

3

4

5

Very much

4. How trustworthy is the ad?

Not at all

1

5. How likable is the ad?

Not at all

1

6. How familiar is this product to you?

Not at all

1

2

7. Based on this advertisement, what would be your intention to purchase or use this product?

Not at all

1

2

3

8. Your sex:

Male

Female

Other

4

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5

Very much

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Exercise 6–8 Analyzing Ads as a Source of Persuasive Appeals In this project, the goal is to survey the kinds of appeals being used by advertising. First, have students pick a particular medium (TV commercials, magazine ads, direct mail, online ads, or phone advertisements) and/or a particular product. You might suggest something like financial services ads in business magazines, alcohol ads in men’s sports magazines, toy commercials on kids’ Saturday morning TV, an analysis of junk mail ads that arrived in the student’s mailbox this week, etc. Have students find six ads and compare them. Preferably, they should look for two sets of three ads each—ads that are generally similar but differ along one dimension: for example, car ads in business magazines vs. car ads in women’s magazines; toy commercials shown in the morning vs. those shown in the afternoon; ads for medical products vs. ads for cosmetic products.

The first step in comparing them should be to have the students make a chart (see Handout 6–8). The rows of the chart will be for the individual ads. The columns will provide information about (a) the product or service being offered; (b) the intended audience for the appeal (both in terms of demographics and in terms of whether the audience is likely—because of level of ability or motivation—to use the central or the peripheral route to persuasion); (c) whether the ad makes more use of the central route or the peripheral route, or equal use of both; (d) the “source” of the appeal—especially focusing on the source’s appeal (credibility? likability?); (e) the “message” (appealing to emotions or logic?). You may add any other columns that seem appropriate.

Then have students write a paper that briefly describes each ad and spells out why they’ve categorized the audience, the source, and the message as they have, and that analyses the principles of persuasion that are being applied. Have them ask, “Is the ad getting the person to persuade him- or herself to make a commitment? Is the ad relying on contrast effects?

Distraction? Scarcity? Appeals to emotions (e.g., fear or guilt)?” In other words, given the intended recipients of the ad, have students reflect on how the advertiser is trying to persuade them. Have students summarize this briefly for each ad. Then have them try to draw a conclusion about the types of ads being used for that product/medium (e.g., “Do alcohol ads in men’s sports magazines all tend to rely on sex as the appeal?”). Have students reflect on the following: Do ads for medical products (e.g., antacids or headache remedies) rely more on the central route than ads for perfumes or cosmetics? How do ads placed in scholarly journals differ from ads placed in newsmagazines? How do ads shown during the evening news differ from ads shown during a late-night entertainment program?

Have students draw a conclusion appropriate to the ads they have analysed, and relate their conclusion to the theories discussed in this chapter.

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 6–8: AD COMPARISON PROJECT Directions: Find six ads to compare and record features of the ads on the chart below.

Product or service being offered

Features of likely intended audience

Route used (central, peripheral, or both)

Features of the source of the appeal

Message delivered through logic, association, or emotion?

Other

Ad 1

Ad 2

Ad 3

Ad 4

Ad 5

Ad 6

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Exercise 6–9 Attitude Change in the Real World One possible classroom project is to present a situation where attitude change is desired (e.g., a campaign to encourage people to stop smoking, or to practice safe sex, or to vote for a particular candidate, or to buy a new brand of antacid or soft drink) and have students describe how they would use each of the theories to design an attitude change program. Students should specify whether they are going to use the central route or the peripheral route to induce attitude change, and justify why this route seems the more reasonable one. Students should then design an advertising campaign and be able to explain its theoretical basis as well as why they designed the campaign the way that they did. They should also be prepared to answer the question of assessment—that is, how will they know whether or not their advertising campaign was effective?

Exercise 6–10 Attitude Change Through Public Service Announcements Ask students to identify a behaviour on campus that needs to be changed (e.g., binge drinking, inadequate recycling, wasting water). Using factors from the Yale Attitude Change appraisal, have them develop a public service announcement for campus-wide distribution. For each characteristic examined in the Yale Attitude Change appraisal, have students justify the choices they made and why they believed those choices would encourage the most change.

Exercise 6–11 Attitude Change Through Printed Materials Ask students to identify a behaviour on campus that needs to be changed (e.g., binge drinking, inadequate recycling, wasting water). Using factors from the Yale Attitude Change appraisal, have them develop a trifold brochure for campus-wide distribution. For each characteristic examined in the Yale Attitude Change appraisal, have students justify the choices they made and why they believed those choices would encourage the most change.

If you can, have half of the students do Exercise 6–10 and half of them do Exercise 6–11.

Observe and evaluate how the two different mediums—the public service announcement and the brochure—may have impacted students’ decisions about the source of the communication, the nature of the communication, and how to get their ideas across to their audience.

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Exercise 6–12 Advertisements in the Technology World With the world connected by social networks, and people spending more and more time every day looking at screens, the world of advertising has been given a whole new realm in which to sell ideas and products. Have students go online and describe five ads that they encounter there.

For instance, have students evaluate the impact of pop-up ads on Facebook or the ads that now appear in their news feed. Distribute five copies of Handout 6–12 to help them evaluate the effectiveness of the five ads they identified online. Then have students share their experiences in class.

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 6–12: ADVERTISEMENTS IN THE TECHNOLOGY WORLD Directions: Find an online advertisement and then answer the questions below. Use a separate sheet for each of your five advertisements.

1. Describe the ad. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 2. Did the ad make you want to click on it to get more information? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 3. If you clicked on the ad, how much time did you spend distracted by it? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 4. Did the ad convey something desirable about the product? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 5. What forms of persuasion did you see used by the ad to convince you to buy the product? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 6. Would you buy the product? Why or why not? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 7. What were characteristics of the ad that attracted you? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 8. What were characteristics of the ad that distracted you? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 9. On a scale of 1 to 10 (with 10 being the best), rate the overall effectiveness of the ad: ______

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CRITICAL THINKING TOPICS AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 

Ask students to provide personal examples of attitudes that are cognitively based, affectively based, and behaviourally based.



Have students identify a few attitudes where they may have a different explicit and implicit attitude. Remind them that the explicit attitude is how someone displays their attitude. The implicit attitude is the involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconscious evaluation that people may give something



Ask students what attitude accessibility is and what some of the ways are that an attitude can become highly accessible. Ask them to pretend that they are working for a marketing firm, trying to advertise a particular product. What are some marketing ploys they can use to try to make people’s attitudes about the product highly accessible?



Ask students to pretend that a new national political issue has arisen, one toward which they had no prior attitude. Ask them to consider who would be the most credible communicator, in their eyes, for establishing their attitude toward the issue. Why would this person be credible to them? What characteristics would this person have?



Ask students under what conditions a politician might choose the peripheral route to attitude change. Under what conditions might that politician be more likely to choose the central route?



Ask students to imagine that they are working for a marketing company. In their job, they are asked to market a new candy bar. Which route to persuasion might they consider using and why? What specific strategies might they use? Then ask them to pretend that they are marketing a new antacid pill that prevents heartburn and only needs to be taken once a day (unlike any of the current products). Which route to persuasion might they consider using in this case, and why? What strategies might they use? Finally, ask them to market a wristwatch. What kinds of things do they want to know about this product in order to determine the most effective marketing strategy?



Ask students to think of a person who has recently changed their own attitude about an important issue. Considering the different ways discussed in this chapter that someone can change your attitude, how did that person succeed in changing the student’s attitude?



Ask the class if they think university students, in general, are more or less persuasive than older adults. Why? Does that hold true to every audience? Are they more or less likely to be persuaded? Why?



Ask students what functions attitudes serve. That is, what does holding a certain attitude (e.g., “I like Cheerios” or “I am pro-life”) do for us?

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consciously or not, the peripheral route in changing an attitude they held. 

Ask students to identify and discuss a personal event in which they chose, whether consciously or not, the central route in changing an attitude they held.



Ask students to imagine that they are trying to encourage a younger sibling to engage in safe sex when they consider becoming sexually active. Remind them that their sibling may experience strong peer pressure from a partner to “be spontaneous.” Then ask students to draw on attitude inoculation and any other material from this chapter that they deem appropriate to design a program for young people (perhaps in High School) that encourages them to engage in safer sex practices. Be sure to have students explain the theoretical underpinnings of the program they design.



Ask students if they think there are really only two modes of thought (central and peripheral). Do they believe it is possible to use both at the same time?



Ask students what subjective norms are, and have them provide an example. When and how are subjective norms important in determining attitude-behaviour consistency?



Ask students to find a fear-inducing public service announcement. Then have them use the criterion discussed in the text to evaluate what the impact of the public service announcement will be. Will it be effective? What could have been done better to make it more persuasive?



The text talks about how sometimes it is hard to determine where our feelings are coming from. It makes the argument that sometimes salespeople in stores will use food, music, or artwork to make us feel good, in the hope that the feeling transfers to the product they are selling. Ask students to outline how this might play a role in “buyer’s remorse,” where the person buying the product suddenly doesn’t feel as good about it once they get it home.



Ask students to reflect on the different kinds of influences advertising has on us (other than that of increasing the probability that we may buy certain products). Ask them to consider how advertising shapes our view of the social world, and what the impact might be of the ever-increasing amount of advertising to which we are exposed.



Ask students to identify a figure from politics, religion, or business who is known for being particularly effective at persuading others. What techniques of persuasion does this person rely on?



Have students reflect on potential ways that advertising could be used to build stronger cultural relationships. For instance, how could advertising be used to make us more accepting of gender differences, racial differences, or age differences?



Ask students if they think that some people act more consistently with their attitudes than others. Is there anything similar about people who act most consistently with their

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attitudes? About people who act most inconsistently? See if students can identify any personality characteristics that are associated with attitude-behaviour consistency. 

Ask students to reflect on types of situations in which they observe that people are more likely to act consistently with their attitudes. Ask students what kinds of situations they have observed that lead people to be more inconsistent with their attitudes.



Ask students if there are any kinds of attitudes with which people are likely to act consistently or inconsistently. What kinds of attitudes are those?



Ask students to think of any examples of the use of attitude inoculation that they may have experienced in advertising or political campaigning.



Ask students to think of persuasion attempts that they have experienced. Which features of these attempts were successful? Which features were unsuccessful? Have students reflect on how these attempts could be made more effective.



Ask students to think of a time when someone set up strong prohibitions against an attitude or behaviour. (This may have been their parents forbidding cigarettes, drugs, or sex.) Have them describe how they responded to these strong prohibitions and identify why they responded in this way. Have students suggest a different way to respond, if they determine that their first response was appropriate.

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SUGGESTED VIDEOS Implicit Attitudes 1:53min

Body Movement and Persuasion 3:08min

The Social Psychology of Advertising 1:52min

Resisting Persuasive Efforts 0:56min

Survival Tips! How to Ward Off Efforts to Change Your Mind 1:07min

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7 Conformity Influencing Others CONTENTS Learning Objectives Chapter Outline Key Terms Integrating “Try It!” Active Learning Exercises In-Class Exercises Student Projects and Research Assignments Critical Thinking Topics and Discussion Questions Suggested Videos

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES 7.1

Define conformity, and explain why it occurs.

7.2

Explain how informational social influence motivates people to conform.

7.3

Explain how normative social influence motivates people to conform.

7.4

Describe the three major compliance techniques.

7.5

Explain the main reasons why people are so willing to obey authority figures.

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CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Conformity: When and Why Learning Objective: 7.1 Define conformity, and explain why it occurs.  For social psychologists, the essence of conformity is a change in one’s behaviour as a result of the real or imagined influence of other people.  Some people conform because they do not know what to do in a confusing or unusual situation. The behaviour of the people around them serves as a cue as to how to respond, and they decide to act in a similar manner. Other people conform because they do not wish to be ridiculed or punished for being different.

II. Informational Social Influence: The Need to Know What’s “Right” Learning Objective: 7.2 Explain how informational social influence motivates people to conform.  The behaviour of other people is a powerful source of information that we can turn to in ambiguous and confusing situations. We conform because we believe that others’ interpretation of ambiguous circumstances is accurate and will help us choose an appropriate course of action. This is called informational social influence  An important feature of informational social influence is that it can lead to private acceptance, which is conforming to other people’s behaviour out of a genuine belief that what they are doing or saying is right.  Public compliance is conforming to other people’s behaviour publicly without necessarily believing in what they are doing or saying.

A. When Do People Conform to Informational Social Influence?

1. When the Situation Is Ambiguous  When you are unsure of the correct response, the appropriate behaviour, or the right idea, you will be most open to the influence of others.

2. When the Situation Is a Crisis  In a crisis, we usually do not have time to stop and think about which course of action we should take. If we panic and are uncertain what to do, it is only natural for us to see how other people are responding and to do likewise.

3. When Other People Are Experts  Typically, the more expertise or knowledge a person has, the more valuable he or she will be as a guide in an ambiguous situation.

B. Resisting Informational Social Influence  It is possible to resist illegitimate or inaccurate informational social influence by engaging in rational problem solving, as some members of the Solar Temple cult did, and as some students who witnessed the fatal student-led attack on 14 yearold student Reena Virk did.  Research from the University of Waterloo suggests that decisions about whether to conform to informational influence can affect not only people’s behaviour but also their subsequent attitudes.

III. Normative Social Influence: The Need to Be Accepted

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Learning Objective: 7.3 Explain how normative social influence motivates people to conform.

Beyond the need for information, we also conform so that we will be liked and accepted by other people. We conform to the group’s social norms—implicit or explicit rules a group has for the acceptable behaviours, values, and beliefs of its members.  Normative social influence is the influence of other people that leads us to conform in order to be liked and accepted by them. This type of conformity results in public compliance with the group’s beliefs and behaviours but not necessarily in private acceptance.

A. Conformity and Social Approval: The Asch Line Judgment Studies  Solomon Asch (1951, 1956) conducted a series of now-classic studies examining the power of normative social influence. He devised the studies assuming that there are limits to how much people will conform, that when a situation is wholly unambiguous, people will act like rational, objective problem solvers. See Figure 7.3 (p. 199) for the study details and Figure 7.4 (p. 200) for the results.

B. When Will People Conform to Normative Social Influence?  According to social impact theory, the likelihood that you will respond to social influence depends on three variables regarding the group in question: (1) Strength: How important the group is to you, (2) Immediacy: How close the group is to you in space and time during the attempt to influence you, and (3) Number: How many people are in the group (see Figure 7.5, p. 203).  The results of a study conducted at the University of British Columbia suggests that the effects of group size depend on the kind of social influence that is operating: group size matters less when the first peer response given is correct, but the number of group members in agreement begins to matter more if the response is incorrect.

C. Other Conditions under Which People Conform to Normative Social Influence 1. When the Group is Unanimous  It is extremely difficult to oppose the opinion of the group or a cult when opinions are unanimous, but recreations of the Asch line judgment study suggest that this difficulty can be decreased in the presence of even one dissenting ally.

2. Gender and Conformity  For a long time, it was believed that women conform more than men, but meta-analyses suggest that these sex differences are small.  Furthermore, they depend on the type of conformity pressures. For example, women are more likely to conform when others can directly observe how much one conforms (such as the Asch study, in which all responses were public).  In situations in which conformity is private (e.g., the Asch study in which participants answered privately), gender differences virtually disappear.  This pattern of results suggests that conforming behaviour stems from the men and women’s social roles as opposed to inborn sex differences.

3. When the Group’s Culture is Collectivist  Participants in collectivist cultures showed higher rates of conformity on

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the line task than did participants in individualist cultures.  People in collectivist cultures value normative social influence because it promotes harmony and supports relationships in the group.  In a study at the University of Western Ontario, students of East Asian and Southeast Asian descent rated conformity as either high or low in importance depending on whether they were asked to rate it and other values in terms of their identity as Asians, or as Canadians, respectively.

D. The Consequences of Normative Social Influence  Normative social influence can be used for positive purposes, such as to encourage larger gallery donations and to promote pro-environmental behaviours. Experiments showcasing this stress the importance of suggesting that one’s neighbours and peers behave in the desired fashion is more effective than simply making requests.  Normative social influence can still have negative, even deadly, force; whether the issue is a matter of freedom of speech or of life and death, lone outliers standing up to a norm often risk rejection and/or ostracism from their peer group or workplace.

E. Normative Social Influence in Everyday Life 1. Normative Social Influence and Women’s Body Image  In a recent study conducted by researchers at the University of Windsor, it was found that when women from other countries come to Canada, those who adopt mainstream Canadian culture feel more pressure to conform to the thin body-ideals body ideals presented in the media; those who continue to identify with their own cultural heritage feel less pressure to conform to these ideals.  One cross-cultural study suggested that body-ideals are a product of the reliability of access to food in a given culture; Heavy bodies for women were preferred over slender or moderate ones in cultures with unreliable food supplies, while preference for the slender body increased as food reliability increased.  While North American body-ideals have largely been thin since the 1990s, difficult-to-attain body ideals may be an even greater issue in Japan; having had thin and “Westernized” Japanese body-ideals since World War II, Japanese women were even more likely than American women to perceive themselves as being overweight, and they reported greater dissatisfaction with their bodies than American women—despite the fact that the Japanese women were significantly thinner than the American women.  Researchers have shown that being exposed to media portrayals of thin women exacerbates the tendency of women and girls to perceive themselves as overweight and/or as heavier than they actually are.  In a Canadian study, it was found that 37 percent of girls in Grade 9 and 40 percent of girls in Grade 10 believe they are fat, regardless of their actual weight.  In another study that had women watch a series of commercials featuring various products, women who saw an additional two commercials featuring attractive, thin models were found to base their self-esteem more on their

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appearance and report more body dissatisfaction.  Body dissatisfaction is a risk factor for eating disorders, unhealthy forms of exercise, low self-esteem, and depression.  Girls and women are 10 times more likely to suffer from eating disorders, which are fatal for 1 in 10 people affected.

2. Normative Social Influence and Men’s Body Image  Normative social influence can affect boys and men too.  In a recent study titled “Media Matters for Boys, Too!” it was found that consumption of men’s magazines was associated with disordered eating among adolescent boys (average age of 15 years).  Men who read fitness magazines, which portray models with very muscular bodies, have been found to engage in dangerous behaviours such as crash dieting and using risky substances such as anabolic steroids or ephedrine.  In one study, men in the United States, France, and Austria all chose an ideal body that had on average 12.5 kilograms more muscle than their own, mistakenly believing that women also saw this male body-type as ideal; in reality, women chose a very normal, typical- looking male body as their ideal.  Fortunately, the results of body-image-related interventions with male and female participants suggest that it is possible to help people—especially women—withstand normative pressures to conform.

F. Minority Influence: When the Few Influence the Many  An individual or minority of group members can also influence the behaviour or beliefs of the majority. This is called minority influence.

IV. Compliance: Requests to Change Your Behaviour Learning Objective: 7.4 Describe the three major compliance techniques.  Compliance is a change in behaviour in response to a direct request from another person.

A. The Door-in-the-Face Technique  The door-in-the-face technique is a technique to get people to comply with a request whereby people are presented first with a large request, which they are expected to refuse, and then with a smaller, more reasonable request, to which it is hoped they will acquiesce.

B. The Foot-in-the-Door Technique  The foot-in-the-door technique is a technique to get people to comply with a request, whereby people are presented first with a small request, to which they are expected to acquiesce, followed by a larger request, to which it is hoped they will also acquiesce.  Unlike the door-in-the-face technique, the foot-in-the-door technique works because it triggers a change in self-perception. By agreeing to the small request, people come to view themselves as the kind of person who helps others. Once this self-image is in place, it makes people more likely to agree to the second, larger request, even when it comes later.

C. Lowballing

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

Lowballing is an unscrupulous strategy whereby a salesperson induces a customer to agree to purchase a product at a very low cost, and then subsequently raises the price; frequently, the customer will still make the purchase at the inflated price.

V. Obedience to Authority Learning Objective: 7.5 Explain the main reasons why people are so willing to obey authority figures.  Obedience is defined as conformity in response to the commands of an authority figure.  Obedience to authority is one of the strongest forms of social influence. From a young age, we are socialized to obey authority figures whom we perceive as legitimate. We internalize this norm of obedience such that we usually adhere to rules and laws even when the authority figure isn’t present (e.g., when we stop at a red light).  The textbook cites philosopher Hannah Arendt (1965) who argued that most participants in the Holocaust during World War II, especially Adolf Eichmann, the Nazi official responsible for the transportation of Jews to the death camps, were not sadists or psychopaths who enjoyed the mass murder of innocent people but instead were ordinary citizens subjected to complex and powerful social pressures.  The authors of this textbook argue that it is too easy to explain the behaviours of these figures as the acts of crazy people, and that it is more fruitful—and more frightening—to view their behaviour as the acts of ordinary people exposed to extraordinary social influence.  Arendt’s argument is that a perceived loss of personal responsibility occurs in the face of a legitimate authority figure; they can define what it is you are supposed to do, and they are responsible for the end results—after all, it was their idea, and you were “just following orders.”  In the most famous series of studies in social psychology, Stanley Milgram (1963, 1974, 1976) attempted to find out if an experimenter could influence ordinary people to commit immoral acts, such as inflicting severe pain on an innocent bystander (see Figure 7.6, p.

222).

A. The Role of Normative Social Influence  Normative pressures made it difficult for people in Milgram’s studies to refuse to continue. If someone really wants us to do something, it can be difficult to say no, particularly when the person is in a position of authority. Milgram’s participants probably believed that if they refused to continue, the experimenter would be disappointed or even angry—all of which put pressure on them.  The fact that normative pressures were present in the Milgram experiments is clear from variations of the study that he conducted in 1974 (see Figure 7.7, p.

224 for subtle differences in participant responses to different variations of the experiment).

B. The Role of Informational Social Influence  Another reason Milgram’s participants complied is because they were in confusing circumstances and unsure of what to do. Informational social influence is especially powerful when the situation is ambiguous, when it is a crisis, and when the other people in the situation have some expertise. All three of these characteristics describe the situation Milgram’s participants faced.

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C. Other Reasons Why We Obey 1. Self-Justification  Participants’ agreement to administer the first shock created internal pressure on them to continue to obey. As they administered each successive level of shock, they had to justify it in their own minds. Justifying one level of shock then laid the groundwork for the next level, and quitting would have produced dissonance.

2. It’s not about Aggression  In a variation of the Milgram experiments, in which participants could choose the level of shock administered, only 2.5 percent of the participants gave the maximum amount of shock.  This suggests that the Milgram studies do not show that people have an evil streak that seeps through when the surface is scratched. Rather, these studies demonstrate that social pressures can combine in insidious ways to make humane people act in an inhumane manner.

3. Epilogue: A look at the Minority of Disobeyed  Approximately one-third of Milgram’s participants disobeyed.  A Canadian researcher, Dominic Packer, found that in all of Milgram’s studies, disobedience was most likely to occur at 150 volts, after the confederate asked for the first time to be let out of the experiment (see Figure 7.6, p. 222).  Becoming aware of the powerful way in which obedience to an authority figure can cause us to behave in ways we would normally consider unthinkable makes it more likely that we will take the moral high road.

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KEY TERMS

Conformity: A change in behaviour as a result of the real or imagined influence of other people Informational Social Influence: Conforming because we believe that others’ interpretation of an ambiguous situation is more correct than ours and will help us choose an appropriate course of action Private Acceptance: Conforming to other people’s behaviour out of a genuine belief that what they are doing or saying is right Public Compliance: Conforming to other people’s behaviour publicly without necessarily believing in what they are doing or saying Normative Social Influence: The influence of other people that leads us to conform in order to be liked and accepted by them; this type of conformity results in public compliance with the group’s beliefs and behaviours but not necessarily in private acceptance Social Norms: The implicit or explicit rules a group has for the acceptable behaviours, values, and beliefs of its members Social Impact Theory: The theory that conforming to social influence depends on the strength of the group, its immediacy, and the number of other people in the group Minority Influence: The case in which a minority of group members influences the behaviour or beliefs of the majority Compliance: A change in behaviour in response to a direct request from another person Door-in-the-Face Technique: A technique to get people to comply with a request whereby people are presented first with a large request, which they are expected to refuse, and then with a smaller, more reasonable request, to which it is hoped they will acquiesce Foot-in-the-Door Technique: A technique to get people to comply with a request, whereby people are presented first with a small request, to which they are expected to acquiesce, followed by a larger request, to which it is hoped they will also acquiesce Lowballing: An unscrupulous strategy whereby a salesperson induces a customer to agree to purchase a product at a very low cost, and then subsequently raises the price; frequently, the customer will still make the purchase at the inflated price Obedience: Conformity in response to the commands of an authority figure

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INTEGRATING “TRY IT!” ACTIVE LEARNING EXERCISES I.

Try It! Fashion: Normative Social Influence in Action (LO 7.3)

This exercise invites students to take note of the normative fashion “rules” observable in their own friend group, to observe variations in observable fashion “rules” between social groups, and to try deviating from the fashion “rules” of their own normative group to test people’s reactions. See the Try It! Answer Key for some possible class discussions.

II.

Try It! Body Image and the Media (LO 7.3)

In this exercise, students are asked to look through beauty and/or fitness magazines to compare how each magazine depicts the ideal male and female body image. See the Try It! Answer Key for points that you can discuss in class.

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IN-CLASS EXERCISES Exercise 7–1 Personal Examples of Conforming At the beginning of the class in which you are lecturing on conformity, have students fill out Handout 7–1 (without putting their name on it). It asks them to describe a time when they changed their behaviour because of social influence and to identify whether their example fits into normative or informational functions of conformity. Once they are done filling out the form, collect the handouts, shuffle them, and hand them out to students again. Then divide students into groups of three or four. Have each group read through their examples and determine if they were correctly interpreted as normative or informational. This will give students a great deal of practice in identifying the characteristics of normative or informational influence.

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HANDOUT 7–1: NORMATIVE OR INFORMATIONAL INFLUENCE Directions: Think of a time when you changed your normal behaviour due to the perceived pressure or influence of those around you. Write out a brief description of your experience, then identify if the example you provided is best categorized as normative or informational (if you don’t believe it falls into one of those two categories, explain why).

Behaviour change: ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

Does this behaviour represent a normative or informational influence? (Circle one.)

Normative

Informational

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Exercise 7–2 Group Cohesiveness and Conformity A class or two in advance, ask students to complete Handout 7–2. (If possible, have them record their answers on optical scanning sheets, which will greatly facilitate data entry.) Then collect the questionnaires and perform the data analyses. The first six items comprise a cohesiveness measure derived from Cartwright (1968, “The nature of group cohesiveness,” in Cartwright and Zander, eds., Group Dynamics: Research and Theory, third edition, pp. 91–109, New York: Harper & Row); they should be summed or averaged to yield a cohesiveness score. Items 7 and 8 assess informational and normative influence. Items 9 and 10 assess conformity from both compliance and acceptance perspectives. Compute correlations between group cohesiveness and items 7 through 10. A data sheet follows the questionnaire.

In class, present the results of the data analysis to students and lead a discussion on the positive and negative implications of group cohesiveness and conformity.

Discussion: This exercise ties together several themes running through Chapter 7 and gives students an opportunity to consider how they are influenced by groups in their own lives. The emphasis on groups also makes a good lead-in to Chapter 8. A key concept for students is the differentiation between normative social influence (to gain acceptance and approval from others) and informational social influence (to be more accurate or correct). Cohesive groups tend to reject people who deviate from the group’s normative standards; thus normative social influence should be especially important in cohesive groups. Further, rejection or ridicule—even in mild forms—can be especially potent in cohesive groups.

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 7–2: GROUP QUESTIONNAIRE Directions: Select a group to which you currently belong (such as a fraternity/sorority, a campus organization, or a church group) and then answer the questions below. If you are not currently a member of a group, answer the questions using a group to which you formerly belonged.

Write the group’s name here: ______________________________________

1. To what extent do you want to remain a member of your group?

Not at all

1

2

3

4

5

Very much

2. If several members of your group decided to quit, and it seemed as though the group might discontinue, would you like a chance to persuade others to stay?

Not at all

1

2

3

4

5

Very much

3. To what extent do you feel that your group is better than others at sticking together?

Not at all

1

2

3

4

5

Very much

4. How often do you participate in the activities or meetings of your group?

Never

1

2

3

4

5

Always

5. How strong of a sense of belonging do you feel you have with the people in your group?

Very weak

1

2

3

4

5

Very strong

5

Very much

6. On the whole, how much do you like your group?

Not at all

1

2

3

4

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7. How much information does the group provide you with?

None

1

2

3

4

5

A great deal

8. How much do other members of the group accept you or approve of you?

Not at all

1

2

3

4

5

Very much

9. How much influence does this group have on your behaviour?

None

1

2

3

4

5

Very much

10. How much influence does this group have on the way you think?

None

1

2

3

4

5

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Very much

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Exercise 7–2 Data Sheet

AVERAGE COHESIVENESS SCORE (sum or M of items 1–6): __________

Correlations 1. How much information does the group provide you with?

Correlation coefficient:

2. How much do other members of the group accept you or approve of you?

Correlation coefficient:

3. How much influence does this group have on your behaviour?

Correlation coefficient:

4. How much influence does this group have on the way you think?

Correlation coefficient:

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Exercise 7–3 Conformity Demonstration There are a myriad of possibilities for demonstrating conformity in the classroom. Simply ask a small sample of volunteers (three or four) to wait outside while you ask the rest of the students to perform some behaviour not commonly observed in the classroom (e.g., standing in front of their chairs, sitting on the floor, turning their chairs around, sitting only in chairs on the edge of the classroom, or lying on the floor). While students are doing uncommon behaviours, have one student volunteer enter the room and ask them to go to their seat. Ask the students already in the classroom to record the person’s reactions and behaviours. Note that the more extreme the behaviour, the less likely it is that the student will conform (e.g., a student is more likely to conform to standing in front of their chair than to lying on the floor). Once all the student volunteers have re-entered the room (under varying conditions), discuss volunteers’ and students’ reactions to the exercise. Ask the volunteers if they felt pressure to conform to the unusual behaviours. Ask why they did or did not conform under each of the conditions.

Discuss why people may choose to deviate from or conform to norms, and have students reflect on what types of deviations would be just too hard to conform to. Ask students to imagine the following scenario: They are visiting a foreign country to do humanitarian work for a very poor family. The family wants to thank everyone for their hard work and scrapes together the money to make a large meal. As part of the meal, the family offers them some roasted crickets to eat. Would they eat the crickets or insult the sacrifice of their hosts by not eating the offered snack? What factors would make a difference in their decision to conform?

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Exercise 7–4 Informational Influences You will need to prepare some ambiguous stimuli. This demonstration works better if you use different stimuli for each condition of the experiment. One ambiguous stimulus is a time interval, so you will need a watch with a second hand. Another ambiguous stimulus could be a jar filled with beans, candies, or coins, or a slide with lots of dots on it.

In class, tell students that you are going to have them make some estimations. For the first task, have students write their estimates on a piece of paper. Tell them that they are going to be estimating the amount of time from when you say “go” to when you say “stop.” Use an interval of between 40 seconds and a minute or so. Then for the second task, ask students to estimate the number of beans or dots—but this time, they should make their estimates aloud. You can record their answers by writing them or plotting them on the board or an overhead. Then go back and ask them to read aloud their estimates for the first task and record those. There is likely to be considerably more variability in the first estimates than in the second, thus providing a conceptual replication of the Sherif study.

(You may use time estimations for both the first and second tasks. Ask students to record their estimates for the first task on paper and submit them to you, then have them report the second estimate aloud.

Discussion: You can use this demonstration as a lead-in to a lecture on the Sherif study and informational influence. Be sure to emphasize that it is important in normative influence that the stimulus be ambiguous. Of course, normative influence may play a role here as well. If any students made estimates that were outliers, particularly during the public task, you can ask them what was going on in their minds when they made the estimate. Did they feel uncomfortable? Were they intentionally trying not to conform? To further assess students’ understanding of this demonstration as well as normative and informational social influence, have them complete Handout 7–4.

Source: Suggested by the work of Montgomery and Enzie, 1971, “Social influence and the estimation of time,” Psychonomic Science, 22, pp. 77–78.

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 7–4: NORMATIVE AND INFORMATIONAL SOCIAL INFLUENCE Directions: In this assessment, you will demonstrate your knowledge of normative and informational social influence and analyse the results of our in-class demonstration. Please answer the following questions and explain your answers in detail.

1. Describe and explain normative social influence in your own words. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

2. Describe and explain informational social influence in your own words. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

3. Describe the results of our in-class demonstration. Was this an example of informational or normative social influence? Explain your answer in full. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

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Exercise 7–5 The Milgram Experiment This is an activity to do before students have had a chance to read about the Milgram experiment.

Either show students a clip from the film Obedience (available online by searching “Milgram Obedience video”) or describe the experiment to them, but make sure not to present the overall results. Then have the class complete Handout 7–5, which asks them to estimate both how they would have behaved and how the real subjects did behave. You can either collect the handouts and make a tally or let students report their answers by a show of hands, to display on a screen at the front of the class. You will find that virtually everyone underestimates the percentage of subjects who complied, and that your students will display the self-serving bias by estimating that they would have been less likely than the average participant to obey.

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 7–5: MILGRAM STUDY PREDICTIONS Directions: The table below depicts the shock levels that were presented to “Teachers” on a panel in the Milgram experiment, which your instructor has described or shown to you. Referring to the table, please answer the questions that follow.

VOLTAGE INTENSITY Shock Level

35

75

135

195

255

315

375

Label

Slight Shock

Moderate Shock

Very Strong Shock

Intense Shock

Extreme Intensity Shock

Danger: Severe Shock

XXX

1. At what shock level would you have disobeyed? __________ 2. At what shock level did the average participant disobey? __________ 3. What percentage of the subjects in the Milgram experiment—who were businessmen in the 1960s and early 1970s—do you think continued all the way to the 450-volt level? __________ 4. Have you heard of the Milgram experiment previously?

Yes_____ No_____

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Exercise 7–5 Data Sheet Number in Milgram’s experiment:

Number who said they would have stopped at: Less than 75 volts

__________

0

75–134 volts

__________

0

135–194 volts

__________

0

195–244 volts

__________

0

245–314 volts

__________

5 (12.5%)

315–374 volts

__________

8 (20%)

375–424 volts

__________

1 (2.5%)

425–450 volts

__________

26 (65%)

Number who rated themselves as more likely than average to go all the way: __________ Number who rated themselves just as likely as average to go all the way: __________ Number who rated themselves less likely than average to go all the way: __________

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Exercise 7–6 Obedience to Authority Distribute Handouts 7–6a and 7–6b to students. (Also make several copies of the 7–6 Debriefing handout.) In a stern and professorial manner, you should tell the class, “I want you to circle every consonant on the first page. Be as accurate as possible. Begin as soon as you are ready. Put your pen or pencil down quietly when you have finished.” Be sure to give NO reason why they should obey. You may want to glance at your watch from time to time as they complete the page.

Now tell students to crumple the page they have just finished into a ball and throw it on the floor (an antisocial act!).

For the second page, tell students to circle every vowel. Then follow exactly the same procedure, having them crumple the handout into a ball and throw it on the floor.

At some point, a student will ask why he or she should obey, or why the class is performing these meaningless acts. Ask this student to step out of the room and into the hallway with you. Give him/her a copy of the 7–6 Debriefing handout” and return to the classroom alone. Continue the exercise until about five students have questioned authority or until all the pages have been completed.

Now ask any dissenting students to return from the hall. Debrief the class about the purpose of the exercise and ask the dissenter(s) to report how they felt about obeying, questioning authority, and being removed from the classroom.

Lead a short discussion about the powerful effects of authority. You may want to ask students what they were thinking about during the exercise, which provides an excellent lead-in to a lecture about Milgram’s work on obedience.

To complete the exercise, ask for one more act of obedience: picking up and disposing of the papers on the floor!

Discussion: Of course, the most famous studies of obedience were those of Milgram. Many students are already familiar with the basic outline of his work, but it still makes compelling lecture and/or discussion material. You may also want to discuss how this exercise illustrates legitimate power that is derived from a role or position. Those who have legitimate power do not have to justify their actions.

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 7–6a: PART 1 OF 2 Directions: Please wait for my instructions.

dgkabcdekabceabuqwxvsqegcs bdqwsaxbytwnmkqsacxzvbnom hrtgfhjklopytrewqasahwvqjtab cdekabcekqlpudcsfszxbyiuefbt qpiodjvwfmdcvbgtujkqascxzvf naeubgswqvghwlexbebsdcvbgf dcvbgfsqncsqxkklabdwsjhtyqk lcxzaqwertyuiohfdjksxcvbnzv bnmhrtgfhjklopytrewjvwfmdca xcvfrqrtgfhjklopytrewqaghesx zcvngrfhjuirwegrtefdcvbgfsqn csqxkjtabcdekarbrefqsaxcfgny qeaijklwcmeaddmwrsstuqwxvs qegtqastrtyuiohfdjksxrgfewqa cvbrwqfdcwsdetuisnhbyuipedw xcvqwsdvfrebrhueasxzsaafbex tybahseimprtxgfkimtfewvmlps actrhankgtvw Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 7–6b: PART 2 OF 2 Directions: Please wait for my instructions.

rtyuiohfdjksxrgfewqacvbrwqf dcwsdetuirabdwsjhtyqklcxzaq wertyuiohfdjksxcvbnlkahwvqj tabcdekabcekqlpudcsfszxbyiue fdtabcdekabceabuqwxvsqegcsb dqwsaxbjeygytwnmkqsacxzvbn mhrtgfhjklopytrewqasrbtqpiod jvwfmdcvbgtujkqascxzvfnaeub gntwqvghwlexbebsdcvbgfdcvb gfsqncsqxkklnrtgfhjklopytrew qaghesxzcvngrfhjuirweqgfdcv bgfsqncsqxkjtabcdekarbrefqsa xcfgbwzvbnmhrtgfhjklopytrew jvwfmdcaxcvfrqyqeaijklwcmea ddmwrsstuqwxvsqegtqasgfdwn hbyuipedwxcvqwsdvfrebrhuea sxzsaafbnbtvywkjspqtvxisopa bfestmtpsm Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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Exercise 7–6: Debriefing This exercise deals with the powerful ability of an authority (in this case, your professor) to affect your behaviour.

The professor told you and the rest of the class to perform meaningless actions and gave no reason why you should do so. You were one of the first to question authority.

Please remain where you are until the professor asks you to return to the classroom. The professor may ask you to give a short report to the class about how you felt about obeying, questioning authority, and being removed from the classroom.

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Exercise 7–7 Creating Conformity On the day before your first discussion of obedience, ask students to bring something special to class. This should be any object they can easily fit into their backpacks. On the day of your lecture, ask everyone who brought an item to take it out and place it on the desk in front of them. After presenting the Milgram study, ask students who brought an item to class to place their left hand on top of it. Then ask students to raise their right hand if they are absolutely certain that, under the same conditions as the Milgram study, they would not shock the learner at the highest, 450-volt level. Then ask students to look at their left hand. After a pause, ask students why they have their left hand on the item they brought to class. When a student says something like, “You told us to,” pause again to let students make the connection between the Milgram study and their own behaviour. While bringing a requested item to class does not seem similar to shocking someone, it can help you begin your discussion on why people obey and sometimes do things they wouldn’t normally do.

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STUDENT PROJECTS AND RESEARCH ASSIGNMENTS Exercise 7–8 Norm Violation One way to study the power of social norms in governing our behaviour is to violate them. Have students do this project in pairs, or possibly groups of three. Each group should decide on a norm to break—for example, by singing in a restaurant, applauding at a professor’s lecture or a movie, wearing pajamas to class, walking around with a grocery-sack mask over one’s head, or playing music loudly next to people who are studying. Each group should have its members take turns violating the norm, with the other person acting as an observer (in groups of three, pairs may need to take turns). Groups should perform six norm violations, recording information about the demographics of the participants and their verbal and nonverbal reactions. If appropriate (for example, when playing music in the library), apologies should be issued to people who are disturbed. Students should report this information, as well as their own subjective responses to violating the norms, in an oral report or short paper. More complex versions of the project could add control conditions and manipulate variables such as the apparent status of the norm violator (e.g., a person of authority, a homeless person, etc.).

Exercise 7–9 A Field Experiment on the Influence of Authority on Compliance Have students conduct a quick study to see if they can replicate some of the results of the impact of authority on compliance. Research has shown that compliance or conformity requests are more likely to be fulfilled when a person in authority is asking for that compliance. Students will be setting up an experiment in which they make a request on behalf of themselves (little authority) or a faculty member on campus (much authority). Have them set up outside the student union and provide them with a brief questionnaire about recent changes on campus. This can be very simple: Five questions rating a student’s approval of different changes (such as a recent hike in student fees) on a scale of 1 to 5 (with 5 being full approval). In one condition, have the student present the questionnaire to people by explaining that they are gathering data for their own student project. In another condition, have them explain that they are gathering data for Dr. Timpkins to finish up a project he will be publishing soon. Have students track the percentage of students willing to fill out the questionnaire for the student project versus the students willing to fill out the questionnaire for the faculty member. Then have them write up a brief, one-page summary of their experience and the data they gathered. Have them compare their results to past research showing that people are more likely to comply for an authority figure.

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Exercise 7–10 Foot-in-the-Door and Door-in-the-Face Note: This is a fairly involved activity, but students enjoy it and it helps them remember the persuasion techniques.

Assign students to work in small groups of three to four people. As a class, agree on a request that students could make of other students on campus that would be moderately difficult to get them to agree to. (You can also decide on the request ahead of time—e.g., “Will you walk me to building X?”) Have the groups use Handout 7–10 to come up with three scripts: one that uses foot-in-thedoor, one that uses door-in-the-face, and one that involves just asking. You should review the scripts to make sure they are correct and ethical. After their scripts have been approved, students should go and try out their persuasion attempts on strangers on campus, keeping track of whether people say yes or no to their requests in the different conditions. Each group member should try each of the three techniques at least once (this will result in nine to twelve recorded frequencies for each group).

After the person says yes or no, the student may explain what they were doing and why. Students can make Excel bar graphs summarizing their group’s results. You may wish to have students present their results to the class.

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 7–10: PERSUASION TECHNIQUES 1. What is the request you will be making? Write the request word for word in the space below. _______________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________

2. What will you say to people in the foot-in-the-door condition? Write it word for word in the space below. _______________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________

3. What will you say to people in the door-in-the-face condition? Write it word for word in the space below. _______________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________

4. In the table below, keep track of the success of your requests, recording yes and no answers with tally marks. Be sure to use each technique on a different person.

Technique

Responses

Just asking

Yes

No

Foot-in-the-door

Yes

No

Door-in-the-face

Yes

No

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Exercise 7–11 Using Social Influence for Change Allow students to identify a specific issue on campus that needs to be addressed (e.g., recycling efforts, engagement in sporting events, carpooling). Then, using the information they learned from this chapter, have them draft a plan to produce behavioural change in students. Ask members of the class to write a two- or three-page paper outlining the problem and the techniques they would use to influence change across campus.

Exercise 7–12 When Conformity Can Harm There are many examples of pressures to conform to peers that may result in harmful outcomes.

High school students must focus on academics and on the overwhelming pressures to engage in behaviours that can be harmful (e.g., sex, drugs, drinking, and deviance). Ask students to use what they have learned from this chapter to create a trifold brochure for high school counsellors that could be used to help students learn how to avoid conforming to harmful pressures. In their brochures, students should include the common pressures experienced by high school students, the methods of influence that may be used to get them to conform, and suggestions for how to avoid or deny those pressures and make wise choices in their lives.

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CRITICAL THINKING TOPICS AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 

In the text, the authors introduce a number of examples of conformity. Ask students which of these they find the most alarming, and which of these they find the most encouraging.



Have students describe an incident in which they conformed to group norms due to normative influence, and one in which they conformed to group norms due to informational influence. Are there any generalizations that can be made about the kinds of examples provided by the class?

For example, is informational influence more likely to occur with respect to facts, and normative influence with respect to issues of preferences? Relate students’ examples to the text’s summaries on when people conform to informational vs. normative influence.



Ask students to describe what kinds of norms for appearance (e.g., dress and hairstyle) dominated in their high school. What was the reaction toward people who violated these norms?



Ask students to break a social norm about personal space by either standing too close or too far away from someone while they are having a conversation. You could have students complete this exercise outside of class and systematically observe the reactions of the person they are talking to. Or you could have students pair off in class and have a brief discussion, giving half of the students’ secret instructions to get really close to their partner. Then you could observe the students’ reactions and have everyone discuss how they felt and how this demonstrates the subtlety of social norms as well as their importance in making us feel comfortable during social interactions.



Ask students to reflect on a power example of media conformity mentioned in the textbook: Orson Welles’s War of the Worlds. Given the technology now available to us, do students think this could happen again? Why or why not? Have them consider the power of media in conformity and social influence.



Ask students to provide some examples of situations in which conformity could prove to be either beneficial or harmful.



Ask students to provide examples of times when they conformed to informational social influence. Have them identify if the situation fell into one of the categories presented in the text as being most likely to produce conformity—i.e., situations that are ambiguous, situations that appear to be a crisis, and situations where others around you are experts.



Lead a discussion about sexual pressures on university students, and pressures to use drugs and alcohol. Explain to students the tremendous power of social pressure. As an example, ask them to think of the most trouble they have ever gotten into; then ask how many of them were alone at the time. Most will have been in a group. Use this discussion as a lead-in for a lecture on resisting compliance. Ask students what factors influence whether they use someone else’s behaviour as their guide in an ambiguous situation. For example, they are at a chicken dinner and need to figure out whether it is okay to eat with their hands. Or they walk into a parking lot and find their car’s windshield plastered with flyers; with no trash can available, they need to

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decide whether to toss the flyers on the ground or not. Or an alarm rings and they need to decide whether or not it signals a real emergency. Can students design an experiment to test whether or not their hypothesized factors are indeed influential? 

In response to the recent Tide pod challenges, Procter & Gamble released a public service announcement (easily found online), with the New England Patriots’ Rob Gronkowski discouraging anyone from playing with Tide pods. Ask students to reflect on what they know about conformity and to predict which message (Tide pods or Gronkowski) will have the stronger message of conformity. Why do they think that message will be more influential?



Have students compare and contrast conformity and obedience.



Ask students if they can think of a time or provide an example of an event when they were influenced by a minority opinion or action.



Review with students Latane’s (1981) social impact theory. Remind them that the likelihood of their responding to social influence depends on the strength of their relationship to the group, the proximity of the group (immediacy), and the total number of group members influencing them. Have them provide examples from their own life in which these three elements played a role in their conforming to expectations.



Ask students in what ways they think conformity was a motivator for the millions of people who participated in the 2014 ALS ice bucket challenge. What other factors that students have read about might have influenced the movement?



Ask students to reflect on what they would have done if they had been a subject (the “teacher”) in Milgram’s original shock/obedience study?



Ask students to reflect on the ethics of the Milgram obedience study. Was the knowledge gained worth the stress on participants, or was the stress more than should be induced in a laboratory for the understanding of social processes? You might use the following quotes to illustrate both sides of the debate: o “. . . the discomfort caused the victim is momentary, while the scientific gains resulting from the experiment are enduring.” (Milgram, as cited in Baumrind, p. 422). o “It is important that, as research psychologists, we protect our ethical responsibilities rather than adapt our personal standards to include as appropriate the kind of indignities to which Milgram’s subjects were exposed.” (Baumrind, p. 423) 

Ask students to consider how they have conformed since arriving on campus the first day.

Have them consider musical tastes, favourite artists, dress, hairstyle, verbal expressions, cafeteria behaviour, etc.

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SUGGESTED VIDEOS Informational Conformity 1:09min

Asch’s Line Study 4:32min

Survival Tips! Keeping Parties Clean 0:34min

Tactics of Social Influence 5:35min

Milgram Study Footage 2:22min

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8 Group Processes Influence in Social Groups CONTENTS Learning Objectives Chapter Outline Key Terms Integrating “Try It!” Active Learning Exercises In-Class Exercises Student Projects and Research Assignments Critical Thinking Topics and Discussion Questions Suggested Videos

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES 8.1

Explain what groups are and why people join them.

8.2

Describe how individuals perform differently when others are around.

8.3

Compare the decision-making outcomes of individuals versus groups, and explain the impact of leadership on group outcomes.

8.4

Summarize the factors that determine whether individual and group conflict will escalate or be resolved.

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

CHAPTER OUTLINE I. What Is a Group?

Learning Objective: 8.1 Explain what groups are and why people join them.  A group is a collection of three or more people who interact and are interdependent in the sense that their needs and goals cause them to rely on one other.

A. Why Do People Join Groups?  Joining forces with others allows us to accomplish objectives that would be more difficult to meet individually. Forming relationships also fulfills a number of basic human needs—so basic that there may be an innate need to belong to groups.  Groups also provide a lens through which we can understand the world and our place in it. So they become an important part of our identity. And they help establish social norms, the explicit or implicit rules defining what is acceptable behaviour.

B. The Composition and Functions of Groups 1. Social Norms  All societies have norms about which behaviours are acceptable, some of which all members are expected to obey and some of which vary from group to group. The power of norms to shape behaviour becomes clear when we violate them too often: We are shunned by other group members and, in extreme cases, pressured to leave the group.

2. Social Roles  Most groups have a number of well-defined social roles, which are shared expectations by group members about how particular people in the group are supposed to behave. Whereas norms specify how all group members should act, roles specify how people who occupy certain positions in the group should behave.

3. Gender Roles  In many cultures, women are expected to assume the role of wife and mother, with only limited opportunities to pursue other careers.  Even though trends are changing, the majority of women work in traditionally female-oriented occupations (e.g., nursing, teaching, service, and clerical work).  According to a large-scale survey, in a female-dominated sector such as early childhood workers, the median annual salary is $25,334. Compare that to the median salary of $45,417 earned by truck drivers (a maledominated industry; Alini, 2019).  Women are still expected to maintain traditional roles as caregivers.  The authors of this textbook suggest that a more balanced division of household labour between parents might set an example for their children and promote greater workforce equality for future generations.  Based on their research with the University of British Columbia, Croft and her colleagues conclude that true gender equality will only be achieved when both women and men are free to pursue careers and divide Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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household labour and childcare in ways that are not constrained by gendered expectations.

4. Group Cohesiveness  Another important aspect of how a group functions is how cohesive it is.

Group cohesiveness refers to the qualities of a group that bind members together and promote liking among them.

5. Group Diversity  Related to cohesiveness is the matter of how diverse a group’s composition is.  More often than not, members of a group tend to be alike in age, sex, beliefs, and opinions. In short, people tend to gravitate toward groups with similar others, and such similarity predicts group cohesiveness.  Just because a group is cohesive doesn’t mean it is performing at an optimal level; in a study by McLeod and colleagues (1996), it was found that participants may have enjoyed being in a group with similar others, but their performance was strongest in a diverse group.

II. How Groups Influence the Behaviour of Individuals Learning Objective: 8.2 Describe how individuals perform differently when others are around.

A. Social Facilitation: When the Presence of Others Energizes Us  Studies have consistently shown that as long as the task is a relatively simple, well-learned one, the mere presence of others improves performance.

1. Simple Versus Difficult Tasks  Studies have found that people and animals do worse in the presence of others, though, when the task is difficult.

2. Arousal and the Dominant Response  Zajonc (1965) argued that the presence of others increases physiological arousal. When such arousal exists, it is easier to perform a dominant response (e.g., something we’re good at) but harder to do something complex or learn something new.

This phenomenon became known as social facilitation (see the top part of Figure 8.3, p. 242).

3. Why the Presence of Others Causes Arousal  Researchers have developed three theories to explain the role of arousal in social facilitation: (1) Other people cause us to become particularly alert and vigilant, (2) they make us apprehensive about how we’re being evaluated, and (3) they distract us from the task at hand.

B. Social Loafing: When the Presence of Others Relaxes Us  Social loafing is the tendency for people to do worse on simple tasks but better on complex tasks when they are in the presence of others and their individual performance cannot be evaluated.  This phenomenon occurs because people tend to relax when they are in the presence of others and their individual performance cannot be evaluated (see the bottom part of Figure 8.3, p. 242).  Gender and Cultural Differences in Social Loafing: Who Slacks Off the

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Most?  The tendency to loaf has been found to be stronger in men than in women, who tend to be higher than men in relational interdependence, which is the tendency to focus on and care about personal relationships with other individuals.  Research has also found that the tendency to loaf is stronger in Western cultures than in Asian cultures, perhaps due to the different self-definitions prevalent in these cultures. Asians are more likely to have an interdependent view of the self, which is a way of defining oneself in terms of relationships to other people.

C. Deindividuation: Getting Lost in the Crowd  Being in a group can also cause deindividuation, which is the loosening of normal constraints on behaviour when people are in a group, leading to an increase in impulsive and deviant acts. In other words, getting lost in a crowd can lead to an unleashing of behaviours that we would never dream of exhibiting by ourselves.  To provide examples of deindividuation leading to group behaviour that may not necessarily be characteristic of the group’s individual members, the textbook references multiple real-life examples of heinous physical attacks performed by a group of people against a target; in some cases, members of the group were further deindividuated by wearing masks.

1. Why does Deindividuation Lead to Impulsive Acts? a. The presence of others, or wearing uniforms and disguises, makes people feel less accountable for their actions because it reduces the likelihood that any individual will be singled out and blamed. b. The presence of others lowers self-awareness, thereby shifting people’s attention away from their moral standards. i. If we are focused on our environment, self-awareness will be low, and we will be more likely to forget our moral standards and act impulsively. c. Deindividuation increases the extent to which people obey the group’s norms.

III. Group Decisions: Are Two (or More) Heads Better Than One? Learning Objective: 8.3 Compare the decision-making outcomes of individuals versus groups, and explain the impact of leadership on group outcomes.  One of the major functions of groups is making decisions. In general, groups can perform better than individuals when group members exchange ideas, catch each other’s errors, and reach better decisions. Groups also allow members to divide up tasks, which can lead to better performance.  But several factors can cause groups to make worse decisions than individuals would.

A. Process Loss: When Group Interactions Inhibit Good Problem Solving  One potential problem is that a group can perform well only if the most expert or talented members can convince the others they are right—which is not always easy, given how stubborn people can be. This is an example of

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process loss, which is any aspect of group interaction that inhibits good problem solving.

1. Failure to Share Unique Information  Groups tend to focus on the information they already collectively share, talking less about facts known to only some members of the group.  When the combined memory of a group is more efficient than the memory of its individual members, it is called transactive memory. The tendency for groups to fail to consider important unique information can be overcome if people learn who is responsible for what kinds of information and take the time to discuss these unshared data.

2. Groupthink: Many Heads, One Mind  Group cohesiveness can get in the way of clear thinking and good decision making. Groupthink is a kind of thinking in which maintaining group cohesiveness and solidarity is more important than considering the facts in a realistic manner (see Figure 8.4, p.

248).  The textbook cites groupthink as a possible culprit behind the decision of military leaders to go ahead with the anthrax vaccine despite the fact that Health Canada had not approved it and military lawyers had advised against it, as well as the decision of NASA to launch the space shuttle Challenger in 1986, despite serious objections of engineers (see Figure 8.5, p. 249 for a diagram of Groupthink, including Antecedents, Symptoms, and Consequences).  A more recent possible example of Groupthink is the surprise loss

by Hillary Clinton to Donald Trump in the 2016 U.S. election; she and her advisers seemed to assume from the start that she would be the next president, sometimes turning away voices (and data) that went against that narrative.

3. Avoiding the Groupthink Trap  The textbook cites several evidence-based steps groups and leaders can take to make groupthink less likely. These include: a. Remain impartial b. Seek outside opinions c. Create subgroups d. Seek anonymous opinions B. Group Polarization: Going to Extremes  The tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclination of their members—toward greater risk if people’s initial tendency is to be risky and toward greater caution if people’s initial tendency is to be cautious—is known as group polarization.  Group polarization occurs for two main reasons. a. According to the persuasive arguments explanation, all individuals bring to the group a set of arguments—some of which other

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individuals have not considered—to support their initial recommendation. Another person, with a similar viewpoint, might not have considered these additional arguments; upon hearing additional points, that person can become even more convinced of their position.

The result is that group members end up with a greater number of arguments in support of their position than they initially started out with, and ultimately a more extreme attitude. b. According to the social comparison interpretation, when people discuss an issue in a group, they first check how everyone else feels.

What does the group value—being risky or being cautious? To be liked, many people then take a position that is similar to everyone else’s but a little more extreme. In this way, the individual supports the group’s values and also presents himself or herself in a positive light— a person in the vanguard, an impressive thinker.

C. Leadership in Groups  One of the best-known answers to the question of what makes a great leader is the great person theory, which maintains that certain key personality traits make a person a good leader, regardless of the nature of the situation the leader faces.

1. Leadership and Personality  People of all different personality types can become successful leaders. Surprisingly few personality characteristics correlate strongly with leadership effectiveness, and the relationships that have been found tend to be modest.

2. Leadership Styles  Although great leaders may not have specific kinds of personalities, they do appear to adopt specific kinds of leadership styles. Transactional leaders set clear, short-term goals and reward people who meet them. Transformational leaders, on the other hand, inspire followers to focus on common, long-term goals.

3. Leadership: The Right Person in the Right Situation  A comprehensive theory of leadership needs to focus on the characteristics of the leader, the followers, and the situation. The best-known theory of this type is the contingency theory of leadership, which argues that leadership effectiveness depends both on how task oriented or relationship oriented the leader is, and on the amount of control and influence the leader has over the group.  There are basically two kinds of leaders, this theory argues: taskoriented leaders, who are concerned more with getting the job done than with workers’ feelings and relationships, and relationship-oriented leaders, who are concerned more with workers’ feelings and relationships.

4. Gender and Leadership  It is difficult for women to achieve leadership positions because many people believe good leaders have agentic traits (e.g.,

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 



assertive, controlling, dominant, independent, self-confident), which are traditionally associated with men. In contrast, women are stereotypically expected to be more communal.

When women use a transformational leadership style—a style that is generally regarded as effective—they are still evaluated negatively by their male subordinates.

In most situations there is a double bind for women. If they conform to societal expectations about how they ought to behave by being warm and communal, they are often perceived to have low leadership potential. If they succeed in attaining a leadership position and act in ways that leaders are expected to act— namely, in agentic, forceful ways, they are often perceived negatively for not acting as a woman “should.”

Women leaders are also more likely to be put in precarious, highrisk positions where it is difficult to succeed. Michelle Ryan and her colleagues have called this a “glass cliff.”

IV. Conflict and Cooperation Learning Objective: 8.4 Summarize the factors that determine whether individual and group conflict will escalate or be resolved.  Often people have incompatible goals, placing them in conflict with each other. This can be true of two individuals, two groups, or two nations. The opportunity for interpersonal conflict exists whenever two or more people interact.

A. Social Dilemmas  One of the reasons we have conflicts is because very often what is best for an individual is not always best for the group as a whole.  A social dilemma is a conflict in which the most beneficial action for an individual, if chosen by most people, will have harmful effects on everyone.

1. Increasing Cooperation in the Prisoner’s Dilemma  The tit-for-tat strategy is a way of encouraging cooperation by at first acting cooperatively but then always responding in the way your opponent did (cooperatively or competitively) in the previous trial. This strategy communicates a willingness to cooperate and an unwillingness to sit back and be exploited if the partner is selfish.

B. Using Threats to Resolve Conflict  When involved in a conflict, many of us are tempted to use threats to get the other party to cave to our wishes. A classic series of “trucking studies” by Morton Deutsch and Robert Krauss (1960, 1962), however, indicates that threats (whether coming from one side or both) are not an effective means of reducing conflict as they merely produced a stalemate that was not in either side’s interests.

1. Effects of Communication  In another version of Krauss and Deutsch’s study, they introduced verbal communication over an intercom on every trial in the hopes

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that they would cooperate more. Rather than foster trust, however, people used the intercom to convey threats.  In a later version of the trucking study, Krauss and Deutsch specifically instructed people in how to communicate, telling them to work out a solution that was fair to both parties—one that they would be willing to accept if they were in the other person’s shoes.

Under these conditions, verbal communication increased the amount of money both sides made, because it fostered trust instead of adding fuel to the competitive fires.

C. Negotiation and Bargaining  Negotiation is a form of communication between opposing sides in a conflict, in which offers and counteroffers are made and a solution occurs only when both parties agree.  An integrative solution is an outcome whereby the parties in a conflict make tradeoffs on issues according to their different interests; each side concedes the most on issues that are unimportant to them but important to the other side.  The mode of communication affects the development of trust; according to a recent meta-analysis by Stuhlmacher and Citera (2005), negotiations conducted over electronic media were more hostile and resulted in lower profits than old-fashioned face-to-face negotiations.

Electronic communication has many advantages, of course, but a downside is that it is more difficult to get to know people and learn to trust them.

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KEY TERMS

Group: A collection of three or more people who interact with one another and are interdependent in the sense that their needs and goals cause them to rely on one another Social Roles: Shared expectations by group members about how particular people in the group are supposed to behave Group Cohesiveness: Qualities of a group that bind members together and promote liking among them Social Facilitation: The tendency for people to do better on simple tasks but worse on complex tasks when they are in the presence of others and their individual performance can be evaluated Social Loafing: The tendency for people to do worse on simple tasks but better on complex tasks when they are in the presence of others and their individual performance cannot be evaluated Deindividuation: The loosening of normal constraints on behaviour when people are in a group, leading to an increase in impulsive and deviant acts Process Loss: Any aspect of group interaction that inhibits good problem solving Groupthink: A kind of thinking in which maintaining group cohesiveness and solidarity is more important than considering the facts in a realistic manner Group Polarization: The tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclinations of their members Great Person Theory: The theory that certain key personality traits make a person a good leader, regardless of the situation the leader faces Transactional Leaders: Leaders who set clear short-term goals and reward people who meet them Transformational Leaders: Leaders who inspire followers to focus on common long-term goals Contingency Theory of Leadership: The idea that leadership effectiveness depends both on how task oriented or relationship oriented the leader is, and on the amount of control and influence the leader has over the group Task-Oriented Leader: A leader who is concerned more with getting the job done than with the feelings of and relationships among workers Relationship-Oriented Leader: A leader who is concerned primarily with the feelings of and relationships among workers Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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Social Dilemma: A conflict in which the most beneficial action for an individual, if chosen by most people, will have harmful effects on everyone Tit-for-Tat Strategy: A means of encouraging cooperation by at first acting cooperatively but then always responding the way your opponent did on the previous trial (i.e., cooperatively or competitively) Negotiation: A form of communication between opposing sides in a conflict, in which offers and counteroffers are made and a solution occurs only when both parties agree Integrative Solution: A solution to a conflict whereby the parties make trade-offs on issues according to their different interests; each side concedes the most on issues that are unimportant to them but important to the other side Social Dilemmas: These occur when the most beneficial action for an individual will, if chosen by most people, have harmful effects on every- one. A commonly studied social dilemma is the prisoner’s dilemma, in which two people must decide whether to look out for only their own interests or for their partner’s interests as well Glass Cliff: A situation often faced by women who become leaders, which involves being put in charge of work units that are in crisis and the risk of failure is high

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INTEGRATING “TRY IT!” ACTIVE LEARNING EXERCISES I. Try It! What Happens When You Violate a Role? (LO 8.1) In this Try It! exercise, students are given the opportunity to experience the pressure to conform to social roles, by being asked to deliberately violate a gender role in their culture. See the Try It! Answer Key for more information on how to integrate a discussion of this exercise into class.

II. Try It! Choice Dilemmas Questionnaire (LO 8.3) In this exercise, students are encouraged to have friends fill out a choice dilemma questionnaire and then have their friends discuss their responses in order to reach a consensus. Students are asked to examine who made the riskier decision on average: people deciding by themselves on the group?

III. Try It! The Prisoner’s Dilemma (LO 8.4) In this exercise, students are provided with the opportunity to try a typically prisoner’s dilemma game. This game can be played in class and the results can be discussed. See the Try It! Answer Key for more suggestions of how this can be integrated in class.

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IN-CLASS EXERCISES Exercise 8–1 What Constitutes a Group?

Before discussing the text’s definition of a group in class, have students complete Handout 8–1.

Then have students indicate with a show of hands how many of them considered each example a “group.” For examples where the group determination is not unanimous, ask students to discuss and defend how they classified that example. Help students to understand that there are a lot of different definitions of groups, even among scientists. Have students help to develop a definition of a group and then compare it to the definition provided by the authors of the text.

Based on the definition in the text, the examples in items 2, 4, and 6 on the handout are groups, because people are interacting and interdependent. Those in items 1, 5, 7, 8, 11, and 12 do not meet the interdependence criterion. And those in items 1, 3, 7, 9, and 10 do not meet the interaction criterion.

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 8–1: WHAT CONSTITUTES A GROUP? Directions: Put an X by each item that you believe represents a group.

1. Students in a lecture class ________ 2. A family ________ 3. A member of an advocacy group on campus ________ 4. Members of a basketball team ________ 5. Students standing in a lunch line at the cafeteria ________ 6. Several people helping to build a Habitat for Humanity house ________ 7. Residents of the same dorm ________ 8. Students waiting to make purchases at the bookstore ________ 9. All the residents of your local city ________ 10. All the people waiting in their cars at a traffic light ________ 11. A mob of protestors at a demonstration ________

12. Two strangers standing at a bus stop, texting other people ________

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Exercise 8–2 Social Facilitation Ahead of Time: For this exercise, you will need two 10- to 15-metre pieces of coloured yarn, two needles and two pieces of thread, and two stopwatches.

This demonstration emulates Triplett’s early demonstration of social facilitation. You probably want to do this in class before most people have read the chapter.

Ask for two volunteers to play a simple game. One at a time, ask each volunteer to go out in the hallway, lay their piece of yarn out in a line, and then time themselves as they roll it into a skein around their hand. Record each person’s time and write it on the board.

Then lay out the yarn in the classroom and ask for another volunteer to serve as a second timekeeper. You will time one player and the new volunteer will time the other. This time, tell the volunteers that they are both going to wind the yarn at the same time. Prompt them to start by saying “go” and record their times. The second attempts will probably be faster; if so, this illustrates how the presence of others improves performance—on a simple task.

You can repeat the demonstration, either with the same volunteers or with a different pair, but this time using threading a needle as the task. This task is more complex, and performance should be slowed down in the “race” compared to doing it alone. In this version, have students do the task in front of the class first and then alone. While this is not optimal experimental procedure, it does “stack” the practice effects so that you are likely to get performances that conform to Zajonc’s hypothesis that simple tasks will be performed better in a group than alone, while complex tasks will be performed better alone than in a group.

If a student brings up the idea of practice effects, remind them that if practice effects were the predominant reason for improvement, then the complex task would show improvement too. And, of course, the students’ previous experience with needle threading will affect their performance on the second task. Both of these variations provide a good opportunity for discussing practice effects, individual differences, and experimental design.

An alternative demonstration involves asking students to put beans or Skittles in paper cups one at a time, using their fingers for the “simple” version and chopsticks for the “complex” version of the task. Students rank this as one of their favourite demonstrations, and it really helps them understand the phenomenon of social facilitation.

Following the exercise, use Handout 8–2 to assess your students’ understanding of social facilitation.

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 8–2: SOCIAL FACILITATION Directions: In this assessment, you will demonstrate your knowledge of social facilitation and your understanding of the demonstration we conducted in class. Please answer the following questions and explain your answers in detail.

1. Describe and explain social facilitation in your own words. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

2. What were the results of the in-class experiment? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

3. Did the results of the in-class experiment show support for social facilitation? Why or why not? Explain your answer in full. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

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Exercise 8–3 Social Loafing Ahead of Time: For this demonstration, you will need a cheap sound-level meter (one can be found on Amazon for under $20).

Utilize this demonstration to show how easy it is for social loafing to occur.

Ask a group of six students to volunteer for your demonstration. Have one of the six students clap as loudly as they can while you take a measure with the sound-level meter from the back of the classroom. Next, ask all five of the remaining volunteers to clap as loudly as they can while you take another measure from the same position as before. Explain to the class that the sound level for five students should be approximately five times higher than the sound level for one student alone if social loafing does not occur. In most cases, it will not be, as one or more of the students in the group of five will most likely participate in social loafing during the demonstration. Replicate the experiment with a new group of six students.

You can also experiment with students to see how large the group needs to be to demonstrate some level of social loafing. In this demonstration, have one student clap while you measure the sound level, then two students (the level should double), then three students (the level should triple), and so on. Repeat the demonstration and see if there is an optimal number of students where the sound level does not increase as it should, demonstrating social loafing.

Exercise 8–4 Deindividuation A classic example of deindividuation occurs when the media publicize the antics of university students on spring break. For this activity, ask students to come to class with one online news report describing the behaviour of students on spring break. Have them fill out Handout 8–4.

When they come to class, divide the class into small groups of three or four and ask students to share their articles/handouts and discuss whether or not they believe deindividuation played a role in the behaviour described. Ask them to discuss with each other whether they would ever perform the behaviours mentioned in the article. Why or why not? Have them share what kinds of things they believe contribute to deindividuation during spring break (e.g., sensation-seeking, drug consumption, etc.). Have them share with their group a time when they behaved in a way that was contrary to their normal behaviour and ask them to reflect on why they behaved that way.

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 8–4: DEINDIVIDUATION AND SPRING BREAK 1. Outline the behaviours mentioned in the news article you chose. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

2. Do you believe deindividuation played a role in the behaviours described? (Circle one.)

Yes

No

3. Could you see yourself participating in these types of behaviours? Why or why not? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

4. What things contribute to the deindividuation observed during spring break? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

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Exercise 8–5 Cooperative and Competitive Motives in a Social Dilemma Ahead of Time: For this exercise, you will need red and blue poker chips (enough for each person in class to have one of each).

Split the class into groups of two or three (in groups of three, the third person will act as scorer).

Explain that there will be several rounds of the activity, but do not specify a particular number.

The score sheet (Handout 8–5) has space for ten rounds, but you don’t need to play that many.

Three to five rounds generally work well.

Each round starts when the instructor says, “Now.” At this prompt, both players in each group hold up a chip at the same time. If each player holds up a red chip, they each receive one point; if one player holds up a red while the other holds up a blue, the player with the red gets five points and the player with the blue gets none; and if both players hold up a blue chip, they each get three points.

Discussion: This is a version of the Prisoner’s Dilemma. The students are faced with a choice between cooperating with others and profiting at their expense. What strategy do students use?

Does anyone use the tit-for-tat strategy described in the book?

This activity is an example of a mixed-motive game in which there are incentives to both cooperate with others and compete with them. The greatest gain is made by a player who does not cooperate when the other player does. The greatest loss is experienced by a cooperative individual who interacts with a non-cooperative individual.

This situation is similar to a social dilemma, a situation in which selfish behaviour results in individual gain but can also result in collective disaster (or at least outcomes that are suboptimal). Social dilemmas differ from the Prisoner’s Dilemma because (1) harm is diffused throughout the group and (2) those who fail to cooperate in a social dilemma are often anonymous. An example of an exercise on social dilemma is depicted in Garret Hardin’s “The Tragedy of the Commons.” (“The Tragedy of the Commons” is based on sheep grazing in the Middle Ages: a common field in the center of town provided grazing for all the town’s sheep.

The more sheep an individual farmer let graze, the greater his profit; but if too many sheep grazed, there was not enough grass for all, and all the sheep starved.) Most salient social dilemmas are environmental (for example, water and energy crises).

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Name: ________________________________________ Date:_____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 8–5: MIXED-MOTIVE CONFLICT SCORE SHEET CHIP COMBINATIONS AND PAYOFFS Player 1

Red = 1

Blue = 0

Red = 5

Blue = 3

Player 2

Red = 1

Red = 5

Blue = 0

Blue = 3

Use the table below to record each person’s score.

Round

Player 1

Player 2

Player 3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

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Exercise 8–6 The Dollar Auction This exercise is a replication of a phenomenon observed by Shubik (1971, “The Dollar Auction game: A paradox in noncooperative behaviour and escalation, The Journal of Conflict Resolution, 15 (1), pp. 109–111).

Put a looney up for auction, with the following rules: 1. As at any auction, the looney goes to the highest bidder, who pays whatever the high bid was. Each new bid has to be higher than the current high bid, and the game ends when there is no new bid within a specified time limit.

2. Unlike at a real auction, the second-highest bidder also has to pay the amount of his or her last bid—and gets nothing in return.

You can start the bidding at a nickel and see how high it progresses. According to Shubik, “Experience with the game has shown it is possible to ‘sell’ a dollar bill for considerably more than a dollar.” You might choose not to collect money, or else to donate the proceeds to charity or candy for the class, announcing this to students at the end so that they don’t resent you for personally profiting from this exercise.

This exercise illustrates how conflicts can escalate out of control and lead to irrational behaviour. This conflict is really only resolvable rationally (i.e., by game theory models) when the number of bidders and the amount that each has to bid are known. How many students bid?

How many refused to bid at all? What was going on in the minds of those who continued to bid?

Ask students for some real-life examples of the kind of behaviour modeled by the dollar auction.

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STUDENT PROJECTS AND RESEARCH ASSIGNMENTS Exercise 8–7 Debate on the Costs and Benefits of Group Decision-Making Divide the class into groups of five or six students and have them debate the costs and benefits of group decision-making. Give students time to prepare their arguments outside of class and have them actively debate their positions in class. Have the rest of the class observe the two groups delivering their debate and have them outline what they believe are the strongest points made by each side of the debate.

Exercise 8–8 A Naturalistic Observation of Group Processes The task is for students to find and observe a group working on a project. This could be a group of people producing something or repairing something, or a group making a decision or solving a problem. For example, students could attend a meeting of a community group (the municipal council, the school board) or a group at your institution (the faculty council or the student government). Students should not observe an informal group, such as a party or a group of friends. The group should be observed for half an hour. The following questions can then be addressed: 1. What is the structure of the group? Who is in it and who seems to be the leader or leaders? Is there someone who is a “task-oriented” leader and someone who is an “relationship-oriented” leader? What role does the leader play and is he or she effective?

2. Identify any signs of social facilitation or social loafing. Describe whether the group seems to use group members’ resources and abilities effectively. Are there any signs of groupthink or process loss?

3. Describe the communication patterns within the group—does everyone talk to everyone else, or are there particular people who communicate the most or are communicated to the most? Does the group ever explicitly talk about the nature of their problem-solving process (e.g., deciding how they are going to delegate things)?

4. Evaluate the group’s performance—notice what they get accomplished and note anything they could have done to be more effective.

5. Do you think this group is likely to show groupthink effects? Explain why, and explain what could be done to decrease the likelihood of groupthink operating.

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Exercise 8–9 Conflict Resolution The topics in this chapter open the door to helping students grow in their relationships with others. The chapter talks about conflict and cooperation. Admittedly, conflict is not something that everyone automatically knows how to deal with in a healthy way. Find local resources and groups who conduct training in conflict management and invite them into your class to provide some great skills for your students. If you have difficulty finding local resources, look online for TED Talks or YouTube presentations, where professionals can provide these same skills. After the training, have students write up the most salient points of the training and ask them to recall a time in the recent past when they were in conflict with someone. Have them describe how they responded then, and propose how they might handle the same situation differently after their training.

Exercise 8–10 Deindividuation in Online Comments Have individual students or groups of students find two similar online articles that allow users to post comments (or choose the articles for the students), one whose comments are anonymous and one whose comments are not anonymous. Then have them compare the tone and content of the twenty most recent comments on each of the articles, focusing on hostility, name-calling, racism, sexism, homophobia, or other socially unacceptable content. Finally, students should compare the occurrence of socially unacceptable content in anonymous versus personally identified comments.

After students present their findings, they can discuss how deindividuation might come into play in comment posting and debate whether online articles should allow anonymous comments.

Exercise 8–11 Great Leaders Have students research someone whom they personally consider to be a great leader. Then have them analyse the person’s leadership style using concepts from the chapter. Finally, have students write up their analysis in a short paper where you can provide them with feedback.

Exercise 8–12 Deindividuation This exercise was devised by David Dodd (1985, Robbers in the classroom: A deindividuation exercise. Teaching of Psychology, 12, 89-91). He suggests asking students to imagine and anonymously report what they would do if they knew they would never get caught. Code the results as antisocial, non-normative but not anti-social, neutral, and prosocial. Dodd reports that in his two studies, 36% of the responses were antisocial, 19% nonnormative, 36% neutral, and 9% were prosocial. An interesting note is that one of his two test populations was an undergraduate sample, and the other was a sample of prisoners. Analysis revealed no significant differences between the behaviours reported by prisoners and by undergraduates. This exercise Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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leads to an interesting discussion of the causes and consequences of deindividuated behaviour.

An interesting companion lecture would draw on Zimbardo's work on deindividuation (1969; The human choice: Individuation, reason, and order versus deindividuation, impulse, and chaos. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 171, 237-307), where he reports studies conducted in New York City and Palo Alto where deindividuation and situational cues led to such antisocial behaviour as wrecking cars with mallets. A further useful reference is Mann (1981; The baiting crowd in episodes of threatened suicide. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 41, 703709, who reports an archival study on crowd-baiting of potential suicides who have climbed out on windowsills of tall buildings. Crowd size, night, and physical distance between the crowd and the potential victim are all associated with whether crowd-baiting occurs. A further useful reference on deindividuation is Johnson and Downing (1979; Deindividuation and valence of cues: Effects on prosocial and antisocial behavior, Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 37,1532-1538). They replicate Zimbardo's electric-shock study (described in the textbook), but they manipulate whether the participants are wearing gowns and hoods that resemble KKK uniforms, or gowns and masks that resemble surgical scrubs. Compared to a control condition, the KKK uniforms fostered greater than normal shocking, but the surgical scrubs fostered less.

This emphasizes the point that it is the situational cues, in combination with the deindividuated state, that determine what kind of "non-normative" behaviour may occur.

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Exercise 8–13 Group Problem-Solving Ahead of Time: Photocopy problem sheets for all class members, observer rating sheets for onefourth of class members, and group report sheets for everyone.

In Class: This task looks at the group decision-making process. Divide the class into groups of approximately eight members--six participants and two observers. Review the situation with the class, emphasizing that their very survival will depend on the quality of their decision. Ask each participant to make their own decisions before the group gets together to work on the task. You can either let all groups operate spontaneously, or you may choose, for half of the groups, to appoint a leader.

While the participants are making their own decisions, review the observer instructions with the students appointed to that role. The observers may choose to each code one of the two categories of behaviours (task and relationship-oriented), or they may each code both categories and then come up with an average.

When the participants have made their own decisions and the observers understand their tasks, let the group discussions proceed. When the group has come to a decision, all members should complete the group report sheet.

Discussion: How effective did the group discussion seem to be? Was each group effective in eliciting the full information and thoughts of each group member? How were silent members treated by the group? Were they encouraged to contribute or were they just left alone? What are the benefits and risks of each of these ways of treating silent group members? Was there anyone who forced his or her opinion on the group? If so, why was that person able to do so? What behaviours seemed to make group functioning more effective? What behaviours interfered with group functioning? If you have divided the class into groups with and without appointed leaders, the functioning of these two kinds of groups can be compared.

This task was suggested by Joan Spade of Lehigh University, and adapted based on an exercise from Johnson & Johnson (1997).

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Exercise 8–13 Group Problem-Solving Problem Sheet You are one of a group of college students flying to Bermuda for spring break. Others on the plane include a pilot, co-pilot, three stewards, and the rest of the students in your group. The weather is warm and fabulous until the plane begins to near the mysterious Bermuda Triangle.

Within fifteen minutes of landing at your destination, the pilot screams out "Fasten your safety belts. We are experiencing a bit of turbulence." Not more than two minutes later, the pilot lets out a horrible scream as the plane plunges to the earth. Due to the impact of the crash, all of those in the front half of the plane, including all members of the crew, die. Since you were in the last seat, you luckily survive. You and the other survivors realize that you must get to some sort of civilization, however, a number of circumstances make this goal extremely difficult.

1.

2.

3.

4.

The plane landed in a hot, swampy, mosquito-infested jungle of an unchartered island.

Two students have injuries that prevent them from walking.

One student has severe asthma.

One student is deathly afraid of snakes.

Considering these factors, your task is simply to rank the following twenty items in order of importance. The group can carry a total of only ten of these items and cannot go back to the plane after leaving. Therefore, the first ten items chosen should absolutely outweigh the others in usefulness and necessity. The twenty items are: 1.

2.

3.

4 5 6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

a magnifying glass a case of powdered milk three signal flares suntan lotion a parachute silk a baseball bat a bottle of aspirin eight plastic garbage bags a bottle of vodka a compass a transistor radio a .45 pistol a calendar five gallons of water an empty glass soda bottle grapes the asthmatic's inhaler six chocolate bars a box of matches sixteen yards of rope

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Exercise 8–13 Group Problem-Solving Observer Instructions This exercise looks at group decision-making processes. You are to observe the group and evaluate how well the group uses the resources and contributions of each of its members, and how committed the group seems to its decision. Focus on the following issues: 1. Who participates in the discussion? Who participates the most? Who does not participate?

2. Who seems involved in the decision-making process and who seems uninvolved?

3. How would you describe the atmosphere or feelings among the group during the decision-making process?

4. Who influences the decision and who does not? Why do they have influence–is it their expertise, the loudness of their voice, their gender, or what!

5. What leadership behaviours are present and absent in the group? Specifically, use the rating form below. Put the name of a member at the top of each column, and then make a check in the appropriate box each time that group member enacts one of the behaviours listed. At the end of the discussion, total the number of task- and relationship-oriented behaviours for each member.

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GROUP MEMBERS

Task-oriented behaviours Gives information Gives opinion

Seeks opinions Defines direction Summarizes

Energizes others Checks understanding

Relationship-oriented behaviours Encourages participation Relaxes tensions Comments on process Solves interpersonal problems Supports or praises

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 8–13: GROUP PROBLEM-SOLVING GROUP REPORT Directions: Answer the questions below. Where indicated, circle the appropriate number.

1. Rate the effectiveness of your group.

1. very ineffective 2. ineffective 3. effective 4. very effective 2. Did a leader or leaders emerge: 1. yes 2. no Who was the leader or leaders?

Were they task- or relationship-oriented leaders or both?

3. Is your estimate of group ineffectiveness given in question I supported by the coding of interactions? Why or why not?

4. The observers will total up the number of task-oriented and relationship-oriented behaviours they witnessed for each group member and report these totals to the group.

5. Are your assumptions regarding the emergence of leaders supported by the observer's coding of interactions? Why or why not?

6. What factors (e.g., outside statuses, type of task) influenced the dynamics of your group?

7. Do you feel that you personally contributed your thoughts and information to the group? Why or why not?

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Exercise 8–14 Status and the Transactional View of Leadership Ahead of Time: Copy Handout 8–14; Prepare "status" slips of paper; Pins or paper clips; Prepare "topic" overhead Safety pins work best for this exercise and can be obtained in bulk fairly cheap. If pins are not available, paper clips may be used, although they are less reliable.

You may also want to keep a supply of string on hand to attach labels to students without collars.

Prepare a number of "status indicator cards" by copying and cutting slips of paper from the "status indicator" page that follows. Depending on the size of your class, you must vary the number of status indicator cards, for example: Class size 35-50 -6 Professor -3 Dean -1 University President

Class size 20-35 -3 Professor -2 Dean -1 University President

All the rest of the cards are meant to represent students and are so labelled. For larger classes, copy the "status indicator" page twice and double the numbers of Deans and Professors. Separate the status indicator cards into groups of five or six. Each group should have two high status members and about four "students".

In Class: Divide the class into groups of five or six members each. (2 minutes) Each student in the class is given a status indicator card and is asked not to show it to anyone. Each student gets the status indicator card ready and pins or clips it high on the collar (under the chin) of a fellow student. Thus, an individual student does not know what is written on his or her card, but all other group members can see the card. Scatter the different status indicator cards through the groups. Each group should have two "high status" members, randomly chosen.

Class members are asked not to call any other person by the status indicated on his/her card, but to act toward that person as they would toward a real bearer of the title. Highlight to students that their behaviour toward each other is an important part of the exercise. (Students sometimes get so involved in the topic, they forget to role play.)

Groups hold an open discussion about the same topic for 10-15 minutes. The topic might deal with a social problem or a current "hot" campus issue such as a tuition increase. Two possible topics are (I) What might be done to reduce the amount of "voluntary segregation" of majority and minority students on campus?; and (2) How large a problem is vandalism on this campus? What can be done about it? Feel free to use your own topic, however. Display the topic question on an overhead or on the blackboard. (10-15 minutes) At the end of the discussion, each person fills out the Group Discussion Questionnaire on the following page. (5 minutes) Reveal who is who. Ask the "President", "Dean" or two, one or two of the "Professors" and a couple of the "Students" to report how they felt during the group discussion. To what extent did other group members defer to them? To what extent did they feel like leaders? (5-10 minutes) Optional continuation: Ask students to record their gender and title on the handouts, and turn them in. You then report the results back to the class in a week or so.

Discussion: Status refers to the prestige or evaluation of a position by other people. Status in society is a powerful determinant of social interaction. Status refers to the prestige or evaluation

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of a position by other people. Shaw (1976) discusses many of the effects of status both on the individual and the group. For example, more communications are both initiated and received by a high-status person than by a low-status person. High-status people typically have greater influence on the group's product than low-status people.

Communication and status structure are two of the principal factors that may affect the quality of the group's decision. Lower-status people tend to defer to those with higher status.

This exercise is also relevant to the transactional view of leadership, which sees leadership as a reciprocal process of social influence between leaders and followers. A leader's behaviour may be strongly influenced by the actions and demands of the other group members. The "Presidents", "Deans" and "Professors" in the present exercise will be able to report to the class the ways in which they perceived their own behaviour unknowingly being affected by the ways other group members were responding to them. You may also wish to remind students of the self-fulfilling prophecy.

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Exercise 8–14 Status Indicators

PROFESSOR

PRESIDENT STUDENT

PROFESSOR

DEAN

STUDENT

PROFESSOR

DEAN

STUDENT

PROFESSOR

DEAN

STUDENT

PROFESSOR

STUDENT

STUDENT

PROFESSOR

STUDENT

STUDENT

STUDENT

STUDENT

STUDENT

STUDENT

STUDENT

STUDENT

STUDENT

STUDENT

STUDENT

STUDENT

STUDENT

STUDENT

STUDENT

STUDENT

STUDENT

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 8–14: GROUP DISCUSSION QUESTIONNAIRE Directions: Answer the questions below by circling the appropriate number.

1. Compared to other students in my group, I talked a lot less

somewhat less

about same

somewhat more

a lot more

1

2

3

4

5

2. During the group discussion, other people listened to my opinions not at all

a little

somewhat

a moderate amount

a great deal

1

2

3

4

5

3. During the group's discussion, I felt not at all powerful

a little powerful

somewhat powerful

moderately powerful

very powerful

1

2

3

4

5

4. As a member of my group, I felt not at all important

a little important

somewhat important

moderately important

very important

1

2

3

4

5

5. I enjoyed the group discussion not at all

a little

somewhat

a moderate amount

a great deal

1

2

3

4

5

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Exercise 8–15 Cooperative versus Competitive Behaviour This exercise is suggested by Hollingsworth (1990, Competitive versus cooperative behavior, Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology (Vol. 4), pp 145-146. Washington DC: APA).

The activity requires the use of a soft foam rubber ball. Students play two games, one cooperative and one competitive. The goal of each is to spend five minutes tossing the ball to another member of the group with as few errors as possible. In the first game, students call out the name of the person they will toss the ball to. If an error is made (dropping the ball or tossing it out of the reach of the receiver), record one error point. In the second game, tell students that if they make an error they will be out of the game, and the last person standing will be the winner.

The students are not to call out each other’s names before tossing the ball. Play until one person is left or until seven minutes have passed and count the number of errors for this round. In which trial did they score better? How does competition influence individual and group performance and achievement motivation? What are the costs and benefits of cooperation and of competition?

Exercise 8–16 Brainwriting Pool Time to Complete: 40-45 minutes; In class Ahead of Time: Make up an overhead transparency that contains a problem for the class members to work on. A sample problem is, "What can be done about the problem of 'date rape' on this campus?" However, feel free to make up your own problem; choose one that is relevant and involving. Copy Handouts 8–16a and 8–16b and have blank paper available.

In Class: Form the class into groups of 4-6 members each. Class members will each need about three blank sheets of notebook paper. There are no criteria for group formation. Give each person in the group a copy of the "Instructions" handout, Handout 8–16a. It explains the principles of the brainwriting pool technique of problem-solving.

Go over the basic principles with the class. (5 minutes) Group members try to solve the problem, using the method to "brainstorm" silently. (15 minutes) Group members then choose a solution. The criteria for reaching a choice among the alternatives are explained on Handout 8–16b. (15 minutes) Finally, a spokesperson from each group reports the group's solution. (5 minutes) Discussion: This exercise facilitates discussion of the pros and cons of group compared to individual problem-solving. The "brainwriting pool" technique helps to solve many of the group process problems associated with ordinary brainstorming.

The traditional brainstorming method developed by Alex Osborne in the late 1930s is widely used but suffers from some practical difficulties. In brainstorming, ideas are said aloud, rather than written down, as they are generated. In principle, group members are to defer judgement, and not to criticize each other's ideas. In practice, however, inadvertent group laughter or body language cues may serve to criticize group members' ideas and inhibit creativity.

You may want to remind students of the issues just discussed in Chapter 7 about

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conformity. Group pressure can be subtle yet powerful.

Evaluation apprehension, or concern that one's individual performance will be evaluated by others, can impair performance on complex tasks, such as idea generation. However, social facilitation and "hitchhiking" on other people's ideas can make brainstorming an effective technique of group problem-solving. The "brainwriting pool" technique in this exercise minimizes the effects of group pressure by eliminating direct conversation. However, group members are still able to "hitchhike" on each other’s ideas. Brainwriting is generally most effective when minimal time is available, there are status differences in the group, and/or where the group is large (Edwards (1986).

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 8–16a: THE “BRAINWRITING POOL” Directions: You and your fellow group members will be working on solving a problem that your professor will give you. Please follow these steps:

1. Write any ideas you have about the problem on a sheet of paper. DO NOT worry about whether your ideas are "good" or "practical". The goal at this stage is simply to find as many ideas as possible.

2. As soon as you have produced three ideas, place your sheet of paper in a "pool" in the middle of your group (on a chair, table, or even on the floor).

3. Take someone else's sheet from the pool, read his or her ideas, and add new ideas of your own.

4. Return the new sheet to the pool and exchange it for another sheet whenever you need additional stimulation.

5.

This

procedure

will

continue

for

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about

15

minutes.

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 8–16b: CRITERIA FOR CHOOSING A SOLUTION Directions: After your ideas have been generated, it is time to evaluate them. Your group needs to establish criteria (ways of judging) which will serve as yardsticks to measure how good or bad the ideas are. Some criteria to consider when evaluating your ideas about how to solve this problem are listed below. Please add others of your own in the spaces provided.

Idea

Idea

Idea

Idea

#1

#2

#3

#4

1.

How much time will it take?

2.

Cost

3.

Individuals or groups affected

4.

Moral implications

5.

Opinions, attitudes, feelings

6.

Materials, equipment, space

7.

Will new problems be caused?

8.

Other

9.

Other

10.

Other

etc.

B. Now consider each major idea your group generated during the brainwriting session.

Some will be redundant and can be combined. Evaluate each idea on the criteria above.

C.

Choose one or two ideas that your group agrees are the best ways to solve the problem.

D.

Choose a spokesperson to report the results to the class.

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CRITICAL THINKING TOPICS AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 

Ask students to identify some groups to which they belong. How do these groups fulfill the definition provided in the text, and what benefits do the students receive from belonging to them?



Ask students if they find themselves performing differently on tasks when in the presence of others. Have them describe situations in which their behaviour has been facilitated or interfered with by the presence of others.



Ask students how and when they have observed the diversity of a group improve problem solving. What are the specific benefits of building diversity into groups?



Have students reflect on the last time they were involved in group work. In those cases, were individual efforts evaluated? Was the task simple or complex? Was the group set up in a way that facilitated optimal performance from group members?



Ask students to describe what the text says about gender differences in social loafing. Do they agree with the explanation given? Can they think of any other explanations? What does the text’s theory suggest about the possibility of gender differences in social facilitation?



Ask students how they might prevent social loafing from occurring in their next group effort.



Have students provide an example of a situation that might encourage social loafing.



Ask students why they think Zajonc used cockroaches in his social facilitation research. Why might it be useful to find out that something that is true for humans is also true for cockroaches (or vice versa)?



Ask students what kinds of experiences they have personally had with being deindividuated.

Have them describe what sorts of experiences in our society tend to deindividuate us, and what kinds of behaviour they have observed that might have occurred because people were deindividuated.



Ask students what kind of influence their social roles have on their behaviour. Have them think of a time when they acquired a new role (for example, working at a new job). How did being in the role change their behaviour? How long did it take to get used to the role? Point out that roles powerfully shape our behaviour much of the time, but because we perform role behaviour so automatically, we rarely notice. Situations in which we adopt a new role are perhaps the exception to this.



The text lists several functions of being a leader. Which of these functions do students feel are the most important? Are students more comfortable with a task-oriented or a relationshiporiented leadership style? If they were elected class president, which style would they probably use?

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

Ask students to consider group situations that they’ve encountered in the past. Who became the leader in the situation? How did that person become the leader? Were they a task-oriented or a relationship-oriented leader? Have students describe some sample behaviours of the leader that illustrate why they categorized them as task-oriented or relationship-oriented in their leadership. Have them consider whether or not their leadership was effective, and why.



The textbook states that women’s ability to perform as leaders may be limited by stereotypes about them. Can students give an example? In what kinds of situations do they think this statement is most true? Least true? How long do they think it will be before this situation changes (if at all)?



Ask students if they think they have been a member of a group in which groupthink affected the decision-making. What steps might they take in future groups to avoid falling into the groupthink pattern?



Ask students if they think they have been a member of a group in which group polarization occurred in decision-making. Why do they think the polarization occurred in that case? Was the outcome of the polarization good or bad?



Ask students if they would rather be evaluated for a new job by a single individual (their boss) or by a group (a committee). Why?



Ask students to provide a personal example of an event in which group decision-making proved to be advantageous, and an example of an event in which group decision-making proved to hold negative consequences. What do they feel could be done to stop groupthink and process loss in groups?



Have students provide a personal example of an event in which they fell victim to the group polarization effect. In their example, was their change in attitude due more to informational influence (as the persuasive arguments theory suggests) or to normative influence (as the social comparison theory suggests)?



Ask students to reflect on how deindividuation plays a role in flash mobs (where a large group of people spontaneously meet up and engage in some type of collective act). Is deindividuation always negative?



Ask students what they would do if they were invisible. Would their behaviour change if no one was watching? Would the behaviours they chose to do while invisible be behaviours that would make them proud? Ask them how being invisible would be like deindividuation.

 Ask students why deindividuation might be particularly likely to occur in an online situation?

How can websites prevent it from occurring?

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SUGGESTED VIDEOS Zimbardo’s Prison Study 1:58min

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Survival Tips! Keeping the Band Motivated 0:50min -

The Wisdom of Crowds 3:19min

Survival Tips! How to Create a Better Study Group 1:26min

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9 Attraction and Relationships From First Impressions to Close Relationships CONTENTS Learning Objectives Chapter Outline Key Terms Integrating “Try It!” Active Learning Exercises In-Class Exercises Student Projects and Research Assignments Critical Thinking Topics and Discussion Questions

Suggested Videos

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 9.1

Describe how people decide whom they like and want to get to know better.

9.2

Explain how new technologies shape attraction and social connections.

9.3

Examine the cultural, personality, and biological factors that are associated with different kinds of love.

9.4

Analyze how different theories explain the maintenance of relationships.

9.5

Describe the reasons why relationships end, the break up process, and the experience of breaking up.

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

CHAPTER OUTLINE I. What Causes Attraction?

Learning Objective: 9.1 Describe how people decide whom they like and want to get to know better.

A. The Person Next Door: The Propinquity Effect  One of the simplest determinants of interpersonal attraction is propinquity (also known as proximity). The people who, by chance, are the ones you see and interact with the most often are the most likely to become your friends and lovers. The propinquity effect is the finding that the more we see and interact with people, the more likely they are to become our friends.  Propinquity works because of familiarity, or the mere exposure effect: The more exposure we have to a stimulus, the more apt we are to like it.

B. Similarity  Propinquity increases familiarity, which leads to liking. But the fuel to grow a friendship or a romantic relationship is often similarity—a match between interests, attitudes, values, background, or personality. It is overwhelmingly similarity and not complementarity that draws people together.  The concept of similarity is that we feel attraction to people who are like us.  Contrary to folk wisdom, which suggests that “opposites attract” (the concept of complementarity), research evidence proves it is similarity, not complementarity, that draws people together.  Similarity of attitudes, values, preferences, hobbies, and interpersonal styles are predictive of friendship formation, whereas similarity of traits unrelated to one’s value system are generally not as strong.  Romantic partners also tend to be similar in terms of attachment styles.  Similarity effects seem to be strongest in individualist cultures.  The reason why similarity is so important in attraction is because (1) we tend to think that people who are similar to us will be inclined to like us, and (2) they provide us with important social validation for our characteristics and beliefs.  It is important to note that attraction can precede (and indeed increase) assumed similarity.  Similarity is far more important when people want a serious, committed relationship; in low-committed relationships, people will sometimes deliberately choose someone who is strikingly different from them.

C. Reciprocal Liking  We like to be liked.  Reciprocal liking is when you like someone, and that person also likes you.  Reciprocal liking can come about because of a self-fulfilling prophecy; just knowing that a person likes us fuels our attraction to that individual. Liking is so powerful that it can even make up for the absence of similarity.  Reciprocal liking effects can only occur if you like yourself in the first place and have a positive self-concept.

D. Physical Attractiveness

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition



In field experiments investigating actual behaviour (rather than simply what people say they will do), people are overwhelmingly like physically attractive others.  Men have been found to value physical attractiveness a bit more than women, but both genders rate it as the single most important characteristic that triggers sexual desire.

1. What Is Attractive?  From early childhood, the media tell us what is attractive, and they tell us that beauty is associated with goodness. We are bombarded with media depictions of attractiveness, so it is not surprising to learn that we often share criteria for defining beauty.

2. Cultural Standards of Beauty  Surprisingly, people’s perceptions of beauty are similar across cultures.

Even though racial and ethnic groups do vary in their specific facial features, people from a wide range of cultures agree on what is physically attractive in the human face.

3. Assumptions About Attractive People  Many studies have found that physical attractiveness affects the attributions people make about others (and vice versa).  The “what is beautiful is good” stereotype tends to operate across cultures.  More physically attractive people are thought to be more sociable, extraverted, assertive, and popular than less attractive people.  Studies in Canada and China suggest that facial attractiveness is also associated with perceptions of trustworthiness.  Interestingly, highly attractive people tend to develop good social interaction skills and report having more satisfying interactions with others than do the less attractive.  This is an example of the self-fulfilling prophecy because beautiful people, from a young age, receive a great deal of social attention that helps them develop good social skills.

E. Attraction and the Misattribution of Arousal  Misattribution of Arousal is the process whereby people make mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do. If a person is aroused by something exciting or scary in their environment (e.g., walking across a shaky bridge, as was the case in a classic study by Dutton and Aron), they might mistakenly think that the arousal is the result of physical attraction to an attractive person in their environment.

II. Making Connections in the Digital World Learning Objective: 9.2 Explain how new technologies shape attraction and social connections.

A. Making Connections with Friends  According to the social compensation hypothesis, online friendships are more likely to be formed by lonely, introverted people who lack the social skills to form relationships in person. By contrast, according to the social enhancement hypothesis, people who are extraverted and have good social skills use the internet as another way of acquiring even more friends. Some research suggests that the former was the case for high school boys, and the former was true for high school girls.

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

In addition, researchers at Mount Royal University found that the use of social media led to greater depth of online self-disclosures to a close friend, which leads to increased depth of offline disclosures, which in turn contributes to friendship quality.  After a series of studies investigating relationship satisfaction and progression in online versus offline friendships, however, researchers concluded that digital friendships “should not replace the value of promoting and keeping offline friendships” as offline friendships are “fundamental for our health and well-being.”

B. Making Connections with Romantic Partners  It has become much more socially acceptable to look for romantic partners online and this might be is particularly important to LGBTQ+ individuals, both because of the afforded privacy because it is an efficient way to find partners in “thin markets”.  Online relationship may form more quickly and become intimate sooner than offline relationships because people disclose personal information more quickly online.  In a comprehensive review of online dating research by Eli Finkel and colleagues (2012), it was found that although online dating offers users a much larger pool of potential romantic partners, the success rate of online dates is no higher than connections made through more old-fashioned routes such as meeting at a party or being introduced by friends.

III. Forming Close Relationships Learning Objective: 9.3 Examine the cultural, personality, and biological factors that are associated with different kinds of love.

A. Defining Love 1. Companionate Versus Passionate Love  Companionate love is defined as the feelings of intimacy and affection we feel toward someone with whom our lives are deeply intertwined. People can experience companionate love in nonsexual relationships, such as close friendships or familial relationships, or in romantic relationships, in which they experience feelings of intimacy but not a great deal of heat and passion.  Passionate love involves the feelings of intense longing, accompanied by physiological arousal, we feel for another person; when our love is reciprocated, we feel great fulfillment and ecstasy; but when it is not, we feel sadness and despair.  People who report higher levels of passionate love show greater activation in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and the caudate nucleus, which communicate with each other as part of a circuit.  The VTA is a dopamine-rich “reward” and “motivation” centre, known to be active when we ingest chocolate and/or cocaine, which induces feelings of pleasure, euphoria, restlessness, sleeplessness, and loss of appetite (reactions that are reminiscent of falling in love, as well).

2. “Ordinary People’s Definition of Love”  In a study conducted by Fehr (1998) at the University of British Columbia, students listed both companionate features (e.g., warmth, intimacy, caring) and passionate features (e.g., heart rate increases, sexual attraction, thinking about the other person all the time) as features of the concept of love.  In a follow-up study, participants rated elements of companionate love as more

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characteristic of the true meaning of love than passionate love.

B. Gender and Love  Initially, social psychologists found that men fall in love more quickly than women and are more likely to endorse romantic beliefs such as “true love lasts forever.” Men are also more likely than women to report having experienced love at first sight. In contrast, women hold a more practical, friendship-based orientation to love.  However, more recent research suggests that women’s and men’s views of love are actually more similar than has been thought: while men rated romantic, passionate love higher than women, both sexes gave this kind of love a low rating. Similarly, even though women had rated companionate love higher than men did, both sexes gave this kind of love the highest rating (indicating that this kind of love best fit their conceptions of what love is).

C. Culture and Love  Beyond differences in custom and ceremony, cultures differ with regard to how people think about, define, and experience love.  Although romantic love is deemed an important, even crucial, basis for marriage in individualistic societies, it is less emphasized in collectivistic ones, where the individual in love must consider the wishes of family and other group members, which sometimes include agreeing to an arranged marriage.  It appears that romantic love is nearly universal in the human species, but cultural rules alter how that emotional state is experienced, expressed, and remembered.  Lalonde and colleagues have found that young people from East Asian cultures living in Canada experience conflict because their parents want them to choose mates with more traditional qualities, but, at the same time, these young people are influenced by the norms that are operating in Canada.  Companionate love is valued in all cultures, but especially in collectivist cultures.

D. Why Do We Love?

1. Evolutionary Explanations of Love  The evolutionary approach argues that for women, reproduction is costly in terms of time, energy, and effort, and this means they must consider carefully when and with whom to reproduce. In comparison, reproduction has few costs for males.

The evolutionary approach therefore argues that this leads to different behaviours, with men optimizing their success by pursuing frequent pairings with many women, and women optimizing by pairing infrequently and only with a carefully chosen male.  In addition, men will look for a woman who appears capable of reproducing successfully (e.g., physical appearance) whereas women will look for a man who can supply the resources (e.g., economic and career achievements) and support she needs to bear a child.  In a series of studies by Buss (1989, 1996a, 1996b, 2005) looking at more than 900 adults in 37 countries, women valued ambition, industriousness, and good earning capacity in a potential mate more than the men did, and the men valued physical attractiveness in a mate more than the women did.  Regardless of gender differences emphasized by evolutionary theorists, actual mate selection studies reveal that the top characteristics on both women’s and men’s lists are the same: both want someone who is warm and loving, honest,

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trustworthy, and who has a pleasant personality.  Some critics of the evolutionary approach suggest that male valuation of physical attractiveness and youth in a partner can be explained in terms of decades of conditioning by advertising and media images.  Another argument contrary to the evolutionary approach is that women often have less power, status, wealth, and other resources than men do and thus must consider economic security when choosing a mate when as they rely on men to achieve it.  Consistent with this view, Gangestad (1993) found that the more economic power women had in a given culture, the more women were interested in a physically attractive man.

2. Attachment Styles and Intimate Relationships  One approach to examining intimate relationships among adults is attachment theory, which is the theory that our behaviour in adult relationships is based on our experiences as infants with our parents or caregivers.  A Secure attachment style is characterized by trust, a lack of concern with being abandoned, and the view that one is worthy and loved. An Avoidant attachment style is characterized by a suppression of attachment needs because attempts to be intimate have been rebuffed; people with this style find it difficult to develop intimate relationships. An Anxious/ambivalent attachment style is characterized by a concern that others will not reciprocate one’s desire for intimacy, resulting in higher-than-average levels of anxiety.  Securely attached adults reported that they easily became close to other people, readily trusted others, and had satisfying romantic relationships.  People with an avoidant style reported that they were uncomfortable becoming close to others, found it difficult to trust others, and had less satisfying romantic relationships.  People with an anxious/ambivalent style also tended to have less satisfying relationships but of a different type: They were likely to be obsessive and preoccupied with their relationships, fearing that their partners did not want to be as intimate or close as they desired.  Although most of the research has focused on heterosexual relationships, a study conducted with female same-sex couples in Canada and the United States similarly found that avoidant and anxious attachment are negatively correlated with relationship satisfaction.  Studies suggest that Anxious and avoidant attachment styles are also associated with sexual difficulties in a relationship. Anxious men had sex less often if they felt their partner was pressuring them; anxious women avoided sex, especially if their partner was an avoidant man.

3. Multiple Attachment Representations  It is now acknowledged that rather than possessing one single attachment style that applies to all of our relationships, we can have different kinds of attachment to different people in our lives.  Attachment styles might best be conceptualized as schemas—mental structures that people use to organize information—rather than as stable personality traits.  In the context of attachment theory, this is good news, because it implies that Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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people can learn new and healthier ways of relating to others than they experienced in infancy.

IV. Maintaining Close Relationships Learning Objective: 9.4 Analyze how different theories explain the maintenance of relationships.

A. Social Exchange Theories  Social exchange theory holds that how people feel about a relationship depends on their perceptions of the rewards and costs of the relationship, the kind of relationship they deserve, and the probability that they could have a better relationship with someone else.  How happy you are in your relationship is based on a calculation of the reward/cost ratio. How satisfied you are with your relationship also depends on your comparison level, or your expectations about the levels of rewards and costs that you deserve in a relationship. Finally, your satisfaction with a relationship also depends on your perception of the likelihood that you could replace it with a better one—or your comparison level for alternatives.  The investment model of commitment is the theory that people’s commitment to a relationship depends on their satisfaction with the relationship in terms of rewards, costs, and comparison level; their comparison level for alternatives; and how much they have invested in the relationship that would be lost by leaving it.

B. Equity Theory  Some researchers have criticized social exchange theory for ignoring an essential variable in relationships—the notion of fairness, or equity. Equity theory is the theory that people are happiest with relationships in which the rewards and costs that a person experiences and the contributions he or she makes to the relationship are roughly equal to the rewards, costs, and contributions of the other person.  While both the overbenefited and underbenefited person in the relationship are theorized to feel uneasy in an imbalanced relationship according to equity theory, inequity is perceived as more of a problem by the underbenefited individual, as one might expect.  In casual relationships we trade for in-kind benefits—you lend someone your class notes, he buys you a latte. In intimate relationships, however, we trade very different resources, and it can be difficult to determine whether equity has been achieved.

1. Exchange Versus Communal Relationships  According to Margaret Clark and Judson Mills (1993), interactions between new acquaintances are governed by equity concerns and are called exchange relationships.  Longer-term interactions between close friends, family members, and romantic partners are governed less by an equity norm and more by a desire to help each other as needed. In these communal relationships, people give in response to the other’s needs, regardless of whether they get paid back (see Figure 9.3, p. 298).  Partners in communal relationships are more relaxed about what constitutes equity at any given time, they believe that things will eventually balance out and a rough kind of equity will be achieved over

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time.

C. The Role of Commitment in Maintaining Relationships 1. Commitment and Resisting Attractive Alternatives  If your relationship is an important part of your identity, you are high in “relationship identification”.  People high in relationship identification, defined as are more likely to be highly committed to their partners, to stay together longer, and to look at pictures of attractive people for less time, and to let an attractive alternative partner know that they are “taken”.

2. Commitment and Forgiveness  When we are committed to our partners, we are more forgiving of their mistakes and shortcomings.  Women are more likely than men to respond to relationship transgressions with constructive, accommodating responses.  Being high in forgiveness can also have a dark side when the transgression is intimate partner violence. In this case, victims who forgive are more likely to stay in the relationship and end up experiencing even more abuse.

D. The Role Positive Illusions  Positive illusions, defined in the textbook as “idealization of our romantic relationships and partners in order to maintain the relationship”, are fantasies in which we convince ourselves that we have the most wonderful partner and the most wonderful relationship in the world—regardless of the facts.  Research indicates that participants use positive illusions to maintain a positive view of their partner and their relationship in the face of doubts and uncertainties.  Another, similar means of relationship maintenance is finding redeeming features in our partner’s faults (e.g., by making “yes, but” refutations to a partner’s faults).  Research supports the idea that we are highly motivated to maintain positive perceptions of our partners and our relationships: participants’ ratings of their partners closely resembled their ratings of an ideal partner and exceeded the ratings their partners made of themselves.  Idealization has the most beneficial effects for a relationship when the problems are relatively minor, the partners are socially skilled, and both are committed to the relationship; when partners are having serious relationship difficulties, however, the relationship fares better when the partners adopt a more realistic stance.

E. Self-Expansion and Relationship Maintenance  One drive theorized to exist in humans is self-expansion, or the motivation to expand oneself and fulfill one’s potential.  While being in a new relationship can satisfy that drive initially, the new skills, resources, and perspectives become commonplace as time goes on, boredom may set in, and the initial excitement of self-excitement can begin to wane.  One way to revive feelings of self-expansion is to engage in shared activities that are novel, arousing, interesting, exciting, and challenging.  Studies show that engaging in self-expanding activities with a partner also increases sexual desire and sexual satisfaction in long-term relationships.

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V. Ending Close Relationships Learning Objective: 9.5 Describe the reasons why relationships end, the break up process, and the experience of breaking up.

A. Why Relationships End  Common reasons for the dissolution of marriage are financial difficulties, lower socioeconomic status, unemployment (especially of the husband in heterosexual relationships), younger age at marriage, premarital pregnancy, parental divorce, low level of religiosity, alcohol abuse, and stepchildren.  Social exchange theorists find that relationships are likely to end when rewards are low and costs are high, when attractive alternatives are available to one or both partners, or when the partners have invested little in the relationship.  Equity theorists find that people are likely to end relationships that they feel are inequitable— particularly if they are feeling underbenefited.

B. The Process of Breaking Up  Taking your partner’s feelings into consideration when considering a break-up could be good or bad—good if you are able to ride out the rough patches and restore the relationship; bad if it keeps you trapped in an unhappy relationship.  Research has identified four major strategies used to end a romantic relationship or friendship: (1) withdrawal/avoidance, (2) positive tone (e.g., trying to prevent “hard feelings"), (3) manipulative strategies (e.g., getting a third party to communicate the bad news), and (4) open confrontation.  Today, it is not unusual for people, especially those in relatively casual relationships, to end a relationship in the most indirect and self-oriented way possible, namely through a text message.  It is also common to become totally unavailable to the other on social media and other communication technologies (e.g., blocking text messages), a phenomenon known as “ghosting”.

C. The Experience of Breaking Up  Breakups (particularly divorces) are associated with depression, anxiety, risk of physical illness, and economic hardship, especially if you were the partner broken up with.  In addition to responsibility for the breakup, social exchange variables played a role in partners’ reactions to a breakup: people experienced less distress if they were interested in an alternative relationship but more distress if attractive alternatives were available to their former partner.  Our modern-day ability to “follow” our ex-partner on social media, see our expartner’s relationship status change and/or look up their potential new partner’s profile adds to the difficulty of moving on.  In a study, lower levels of depression were found among people who didn’t focus on what was wrong with the relationship or who was to blame, but rather focused on what they had learned from the relationship and the ways in which they had grown as a person because of the relationship.

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KEY TERMS

Propinquity Effect: The finding that the more we see and interact with people, the more likely they are to become our friends Mere Exposure Effect: The finding that the more exposure we have to a stimulus, the more apt we are to like it Similarity Effect: Attraction to people who are like us Complementarity Effect: Attraction to people who are opposite to us Reciprocal Liking: Liking someone who likes us in return; when you like someone and that persons also likes you.

The “What is beautiful is good” stereotype: The assumptions we make about attractive individuals—namely, that they possess a host of desirable traits Misattribution of Arousal: The process whereby people make mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do Social Compensation Hypothesis: The hypothesis that online friendships are more likely to be formed by lonely, introverted people who lack the social skills to form relationships in person Social Enhancement Hypothesis: The hypothesis that that the “rich get richer,” meaning that people who are extraverted and have good social skills use the internet as another way of acquiring even more friends Companionate Love: The feelings of intimacy and affection we feel toward someone with whom our lives are deeply intertwined Passionate Love: The feelings of intense longing, accompanied by physiological arousal, we feel for another person; when our love is reciprocated, we feel great fulfillment and ecstasy; but when it is not, we feel sadness and despair Attachment Theory: The theory that our behaviour in adult relationships is based on our experiences as infants with our parents or caregivers Secure Attachment Style: An attachment style characterized by trust, a lack of concern with being abandoned, and the view that one is worthy and loved Avoidant Attachment Style: An attachment style characterized by a suppression of attachment needs because attempts to be intimate have been rebuffed; people with this style find it difficult to develop intimate relationships Anxious/Ambivalent Attachment Style: An attachment style characterized by a concern that others will not reciprocate one’s desire for intimacy, resulting in higher-than-average levels of Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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anxiety Social Exchange Theory: The theory that how people feel about a relationship depends on their perceptions of the rewards and costs of the relationship, the kind of relationship they deserve, and the probability that they could have a better relationship with someone else Reward/Cost Ratio: The notion that there is a balance between the rewards that come from a relationship and the personal cost of maintaining the relationship; if the ratio is not favourable, the result is dissatisfaction with the relationship Comparison Level: People’s expectations about the levels of rewards and costs they deserve in a relationship Comparison Level for Alternatives: People’s expectations about the level of rewards and costs they would receive in an alternative relationship Investment Model: The theory that people’s commitment to a relationship depends on their satisfaction with the relationship in terms of rewards, costs, and comparison level; their comparison level for alternatives; and how much they have invested in the relationship that would be lost by leaving it Equity Theory: The theory that people are happiest with relationships in which the rewards and costs that a person experiences and the contributions he or she makes to the relationship are roughly equal to the rewards, costs, and contributions of the other person Exchange Relationships: Relationships governed by the need for equity (i.e., for a comparable ratio of rewards and costs) Communal Relationships: Relationships in which people’s primary concern is being responsive to the other person’s needs Positive Illusions: Idealization of our romantic relationships and partners in order to maintain the relationship Self-Expansion: The motivation to expand oneself and fulfill one’s potential Fatal Attractions: Attractions in which the qualities in a person that once were attractive become the very qualities that repel

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INTEGRATING “TRY IT!” ACTIVE LEARNING EXERCISES I. Try It! Mapping the Effect of Propinquity in Your Life (LO 9.1) In this exercise, students are encouraged to map out propinquity (i.e., the more we see others the more likely they are to become our friends) effects in their life. For discussion ideas, please see the Try It! Answer Key.

II. Try It! The Passionate Love Scale (LO 9.3) In this exercise, students are encouraged to complete a scale of passionate love. Please see the Try It! Answer Key for discussion topics around this exercise.

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IN-CLASS EXERCISES Exercise 9–1 The Mere Exposure Effect Ask students to write down their favourite fruit, vegetable, and letter of the alphabet. Take a tally of the favourite fruits and vegetables of the class. Are the favourites ones that are most familiar?

For favourite letters, ask students to indicate whether or not their favourite letter is one of the letters of their name or one of their initials. For many, this will be the case. The exercise quickly reinforces the connection between familiarity and liking.

Exercise 9–2 Physical Appearance: True or False Assumptions Copy Handout 9–2 and have students answer the questions. After completion, you can tell students that all the answers are true. Use this quiz as a lead-in for your lectures on physical appearance.

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 9–2: PHYSICAL APPEARANCE—TRUE OR FALSE ASSUMPTIONS Directions: Circle “True” or “False” for each of the following statements.

Compared to less attractive persons, more attractive persons are expected to: True

False

Have more socially desirable personality traits

True

False

Be more likely to marry

True

False

Be more likely to remarry if divorced

True

False

Attain more prestigious occupations

True

False

Have better prospects for happy social and professional lives

True

False

Be better able to reward you

True

False

Have beliefs and values similar to your own

True

False

As children, have higher educational potential and IQ

True

False

Be more responsible for good things that happen to them and less responsible for bad things that happen to them

True

False

Show greater “marital competence”

Compared to less attractive women, more attractive women are expected to: True

False

Be more likely to request a divorce

True

False

Be more likely to have an extramarital affair

True

False

Have more opportunities and temptations to have an extramarital affair

True

False

Be more vain

True

False

Be more sexually warm

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Exercise 9–3 Attitudes and Attraction Ahead of Time: Copy the three “Private Instructions” handouts on the following pages. For Private Instructions 1, make enough copies for half the class. For Private Instructions 2a and 2b, make enough copies of each for one-fourth of the class. Before class begins, collate the sheets so that each number 1 is paired with either a 2a or a 2b. In addition, make enough copies of the “Impressions Questionnaire” so that each member of the class will have one.

In Class: Divide the class into pairs. Ask friends not to be part of the same pair. One student of each pair is randomly assigned to be the confederate and the other will be the subject. Each member of the pair is given “private” instructions and told not to discuss them with the other or show them to the partner. If one student is left unassigned, take them into your confidence and ask them to help you observe the discussion.

Two different statements are provided. For half of the confederates, the statement says to AGREE with all statements of opinion the partner makes. The other half of the confederates are asked to DISAGREE. Subjects are instructed to serve as the leaders of the conversation. A list of conversational topics that should provide an opportunity for agreement and disagreement is provided. After the discussion is over, hand out the Impressions Questionnaire to all students.

Include confederates so as not to arouse suspicions. Once these are completed, reveal the deception. Ask all “agree” confederates and subjects to move to one side of the room and all “disagree” confederates and subjects to move to the other. To facilitate counting, ask subjects to remain toward the front of room while confederates go to the back. Appoint two helpers (confederates) to collect and count subjects’ impressions. Be sure not to collect confederates’ Impressions Questionnaires. Use the data sheet master located after the questionnaires to chart the data so that it can be projected on a screen in front of class. If all goes well, “disagree” confederates should be less liked, and “disagree” conversations should be seen as less comfortable.

Discussion: The reward value of approval (or agreement) from other people can be an important determinant of interpersonal attraction. A great deal of evidence suggests that we like people who have similar attitudes and dislike people whose attitudes are dissimilar. Here are three reasons why similarity is so important: 1. Interacting with a similar other may be directly reinforcing.

2. A similar other validates your version of social reality, bolstering your self-concept.

3. You may anticipate that future interactions will be positive and rewarding.

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 9–3: PARTNER DISCUSSION—PRIVATE INSTRUCTIONS 1 Directions: You have been randomly assigned to LEAD the conversation. You and your partner will be discussing several “current events” issues. As the leader, you should always give your own opinion of the topic first.

You and your partner have been given the same list of topics. Only your “private instructions” are different.

(Fold here to keep private.) _____________________________________________________________________________

TOPICS 1. Should the use of harder drugs than marijuana be legalized?

2. Should laboratory experiments with animals be stopped?

3. Should individual states be able to censor what music is sold to the public?

4. Should fathers have rights in abortion cases?

5. Should the death penalty be made legal?

6. Should suicide be considered a criminal act?

7. Should it be mandatory to attend school year-round?

8. Should drivers over the retirement age have to retake their licensing exam every year?

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 9–3: PARTNER DISCUSSION—PRIVATE INSTRUCTIONS 2a Directions: You have been randomly assigned to be a CONFEDERATE of the professor. You and your partner will be discussing several “current events” issues. Please DISAGREE with every statement of opinion your partner makes. Be sure not to let on to your partner that you are a confederate. Your partner has been instructed always to go first and to lead the conversation.

You and your partner have been given the same list of topics.

(Fold here to keep private.) _____________________________________________________________________________

TOPICS 1. Should the use of harder drugs than marijuana be legalized?

2. Should laboratory experiments with animals be stopped?

3. Should individual states be able to censor what music is sold to the public?

4. Should fathers have rights in abortion cases?

5. Should the death penalty be made legal?

6. Should suicide be considered a criminal act?

7. Should it be mandatory to attend school year-round?

8. Should drivers over the retirement age have to retake their licensing exam every year?

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 9–3: PARTNER DISCUSSION—PRIVATE INSTRUCTIONS 2b Directions: You have been randomly assigned to be a CONFEDERATE of the professor. You and your partner will be discussing several “current events” issues. Please AGREE with every statement of opinion your partner makes. Be sure not to let on to your partner that you are a confederate. Your partner has been instructed always to go first and to lead the conversation.

You and your partner have been given the same list of topics.

(Fold here to keep private.) _____________________________________________________________________________

TOPICS 1. Should the use of harder drugs than marijuana be legalized?

2. Should laboratory experiments with animals be stopped?

3. Should individual states be able to censor what music is sold to the public?

4. Should fathers have rights in abortion cases?

5. Should the death penalty be made legal?

6. Should suicide be considered a criminal act?

7. Should it be mandatory to attend school year-round?

8. Should drivers over the retirement age have to retake their licensing exam every year?

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 9–3: PARTNER DISCUSSION—IMPRESSIONS QUESTIONNAIRE Directions: For each question, circle the response that best matches your opinion.

1. During the discussion, my partner was a likable person.

Slightly disagree 1

Disagree 2

Neutral 3

Agree 4

Strongly agree 5

Agree 4

Strongly agree 5

Agree 4

Strongly agree 5

2. It was uncomfortable to discuss issues with my partner.

Slightly disagree 1

Disagree 2

Neutral 3

3. I would like to work with my partner on another activity.

Slightly disagree 1

Disagree 2

Neutral 3

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Exercise 9–3 Impressions Questionnaire Data Sheet Master

1. During the discussion, my partner was a likable person.

Condition

Slightly disagree (1)

Disagree (2)

Neutral (3)

Agree (4)

Strongly agree (5)

Agree (4)

Strongly agree (5)

Agree (4)

Strongly agree (5)

Agree Disagree

2. It was uncomfortable to discuss issues with my partner.

Condition

Slightly disagree (1)

Disagree (2)

Neutral (3)

Agree Disagree

3. I would like to work with my partner on another activity.

Condition

Slightly disagree (1)

Disagree (2)

Neutral (3)

Agree Disagree

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Exercise 9–4 Similarity and Attraction Have students complete Handout 9–4. When they are done, ask them to calculate first the number of matches between their own personality characteristics and those of their close friend, then the number of matches between their own characteristics and those of the person whom they know but believe they are unlikely to become close to. Ask students to raise their hand if the number of matches between themselves and their close friend is greater than the number of matches between themselves and the acquaintance. Most hands will go up. This provides a short but powerful demonstration of the power of similarity in attraction.

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 9–4: SELF AND OTHER CHARACTERISTICS Directions: In the following exercise, you are to think of one person who is a close friend and another person whom you know fairly well but believe you are unlikely to become close to.

After you have decided on the people you will be rating, first rate yourself on whether or not you possess each of the characteristics listed by placing a check on the line for each characteristic that describes you. Then do the same thing for your close friend and for your acquaintance.

Self

Close Friend

Acquaintance/ Non-Friend

Outgoing

______

______

______

Moody

______

______

______

Soft-Hearted

______

______

______

Disorganized

______

______

______

Creative

______

______

______

Independent

______

______

______

Conscientious

______

______

______

Quiet

______

______

______

Tough-Minded

______

______

______

Efficient

______

______

______

Calm

______

______

______

Practical

______

______

______

Adventurous

______

______

______

Trusting

______

______

______

Organized

______

______

______

Cynical

______

______

______

Passive

______

______

______

Generous

______

______

______

Unconventional

______

______

______

Cautious

______

______

______

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Exercise 9–5 Playing Hard to Get Ahead of Time: Copy the appropriate number of “For Those Seeking a Male Partner” and “For Those Seeking a Female Partner” scenario handouts for your class. Make a copy of the “Computer Match Questionnaire” for everyone. Collate the sheets so that each scenario is paired with a Computer Match Questionnaire.

In Class: Distribute the collated handouts to men and women as appropriate. Ask students to read the scenario carefully, taking as much time as they need. Then ask them to fill out the dating choice form.

Ask students to note which of the three candidates they gave the highest rating. Count the number of students who gave their highest rating to Candidate 1, then Candidate 2, then Candidate 3. You may wish to appoint a student or two to help you count. Record the frequencies on the data sheet provided so that it can be projected to the front of the room.

The results almost always indicate a large majority of class members chose Candidate 3, the selectively hard-to-get person. Lead a class discussion about possible reasons for this preference.

Most important, we like those people who like us. The selectively hard-to-get date appears to represent the best of both possible worlds: popularity and niceness. Being chosen by a selectively hard-to-get person may also raise one’s self-esteem.

Discussion: This exercise is based specifically on Walster, Walster, Piliavin, and Schmidt (1973, “Playing hard to get: Understanding an elusive phenomenon,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 26(1), pp. 113–121). In that study, university men were invited to choose a date from a set of candidates described in folders. The candidates had also evaluated the subjects. One of the candidates was not enthusiastic about any of her choices (uniformly hard-to-get); one was enthusiastic about all her choices (uniformly easy-to-get); one was selectively enthusiastic, liking only the subject. The latter woman was most likely to be chosen as a date.

This exercise replicates the Walster et al. study in “as if” form. It still seems to work moderately well, in that the selectively hard-to-get individual of either sex is most likely to be chosen.

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 9–5: FOR THOSE SEEKING A MALE PARTNER Directions: Imagine the following scenario as vividly as you can.

You have decided to try a computer dating service. On an initial visit to their office, you fill out a computer form listing your likes and dislikes and describing yourself thoroughly. They take a picture of you to include in the file.

When you arrive at the Computer Match office to select a date, you are handed folders containing background information on three men. All three are of approximately equal physical attractiveness, and their likes and dislikes are moderately similar to your own.

The office assistant explains that all three men have already been to the office to rate their potential dates. Sure enough, you check their folders, and you find that all three have checked a scale for each of their potential dates. The scale ranges from –10 (definitely do not want to date) to +10 (definitely want to date). The potential dates are identified by initials, so you are able to tell how each man rated you as well as his other potential dates.

The first man (JK) indicated that he was enthusiastic about dating all of his potential choices.

He rated all of them between +7 and +9. He gave you a rating of +8.

The second man (KM) indicated that although he was willing to date any of the women matched with him, he was not enthusiastic about any of them. He rated all of his date choices from +1 to +2. He rated you a +1.

The third man (AB) indicated minimal enthusiasm for all but one of his date choices, rating most of his potential dates from +2 to +3. However, he gave you a rating of +8.

Now the office assistant hands you a form and asks you to rate your willingness to date all three of the candidates. You fill out the form on the next page.

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 9–5: FOR THOSE SEEKING A FEMALE PARTNER Directions: Imagine the following scenario as vividly as you can.

You have decided to try a computer dating service. On an initial visit to their office, you fill out a computer form listing your likes and dislikes and describing yourself thoroughly. They take a picture of you to include in the file.

When you arrive at the Computer Match office to select a date, you are handed folders containing background information on three women. All three are of approximately equal physical attractiveness, and their likes and dislikes are moderately similar to your own.

The office assistant explains that all three women have already been to the office to rate their potential dates. Sure enough, you check their folders, and you find that all three have checked a scale for each of their potential dates. The scale ranges from –10 (definitely do not want to date) to +10 (definitely want to date). The potential dates are identified by initials, so you are able to tell how each woman rated you as well as her other potential dates.

The first woman (JK) indicated that she was enthusiastic about dating all of her potential choices. She rated all of them between +7 and +9. She gave you a rating of +8.

The second woman (KM) indicated that although she was willing to date any of the men matched with her, she was not enthusiastic about any of them. She rated all of her date choices from +1 to +2. She rated you a +1.

The third woman (AB) indicated minimal enthusiasm for all but one of her date choices, rating most of her potential dates from +2 to +3. However, she gave you a rating of +8.

Now the office assistant hands you a form and asks you to rate your willingness to date all three of the candidates. You fill out the form on the next page.

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 9–5: COMPUTER MATCH QUESTIONNAIRE Directions: Please circle your rating for each candidate.

Candidate 1: JK –10 –9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 +9 +10 Definitely do not want to date

Definitely do want to date

Candidate 2: KM –10 –9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 +9 +10 Definitely do not want to date

Definitely do want to date

Candidate 3: AB –10 –9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 +9 +10 Definitely do not want to date

Definitely do want to date

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Exercise 9–5 Playing Hard to Get Data Sheet

Highest rating given to:

Class frequency:

Candidate 1: JK

______________

Candidate 2: KM

______________

Candidate 3: AB

______________

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Exercise 9–6 Passionate and Companionate Love A quick exercise that helps distinguish between the concepts of passionate and companionate love is suggested by the work of Berscheid and Myers (1997, “The language of love: The difference a preposition makes,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23(4), pp. 347– 362). Ask students to make three lists of people: (1) people they love, (2) people with whom they are in love, and (3) people to whom they are sexually attracted. Then have them examine the overlap between the sexual attraction list and the others. They will find much more overlap between the sexual attraction list and the “in love” list than between the sexual attraction list and the “love” list. Berscheid and Myers report a 2% overlap on the “love” list and an 80% overlap on the “in love” list. This provides a quick and vivid way to help students distinguish between concepts of love.

Exercise 9–7 Reciprocal Liking This is a fast, in-class demonstration of reciprocal liking. Have students form pairs with a partner they do not already know, and then choose who will be partner A and who will be partner B. First, have all of the A’s close their eyes, and show the B’s a slide telling them that, when they have a conversation with their partner, they should smile, lean in, and make eye contact. Then have the B’s close their eyes, and show the A’s a slide that instructs them to avoid eye contact, maintain physical distance from their partner, and not smile. Then, have everyone open their eyes and discuss the same topic (e.g., their plans for spring break) for three to five minutes. After the discussion, do an informal survey by a show of hands, first of the A’s and then of the B’s, about how much they enjoyed the conversation and how much they liked their partners. People tend to like the B’s more because of reciprocal liking.

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Exercise 9–8 Mere Exposure Evidence Break students into groups of three to four people. Have each group propose an experiment that would measure the mere exposure effect. Have them state their hypothesis, describe their specific methods, identify their control and experimental conditions (for true experiment) or variables (for correlation). Have students present their ideas to the rest of the class and have the class help evaluate their design.

Exercise 9–9 Ellen Berscheid’s Theory of Love To help students integrate the definitions that are part of Ellen Berscheid’s theory of the four basic kinds of love on p. 283, have them use Handout 9–9 to list relationships they have had, or they have observed, that fulfill the descriptions of each type of love. These relationships can be from their lives or be relationships they have observed in films or on TV. Have them break into small groups of three of four and defend their selections for each type of love by describing that relationship to their group.

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 9–9: BERSCHEID’S THEORY OF LOVE Directions: For each of the following types of love, list a relationship you know that fulfills the definition of that type of love. These relationships may come from personal life experiences or from relationships in films or on TV shows.

Passionate or Romantic love ____________________________________________________________________________

Companionate love (friendship-based) ____________________________________________________________________________

Compassionate love ____________________________________________________________________________

Attachment love ____________________________________________________________________________

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Exercise 9–10 Attachment Styles Played Out in Relationships The text describes how attachment styles may impact future relationships. Have students break into small groups of three to four people and list three to four behaviours that they predict they would observe in a relationship with someone who has a secure, anxious/ambivalent, and avoidant attachment style. They can record their ideas on Handout 9–10.

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 9–10: ATTACHMENT STYLES Directions: Record under each style of attachment three to four behaviours you might observe in a relationship with someone who has that attachment style.

Secure ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

Anxious/Ambivalent ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

Avoidant ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

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STUDENT PROJECTS AND RESEARCH ASSIGNMENTS Exercise 9–11 Loving, Liking, Attraction, and the Media Have students prepare a five-page paper on loving and attraction in the media. They can use the information from your lectures and the materials in the text to complete this paper. You can supply the students with several examples: films, television (sitcoms or soap operas will do nicely), music (let the students choose, as they are familiar with popular music), and magazines (any of the “pulp” paperback love stories). The students should be able to find more material than they can use in a five-page paper.

Exercise 9–12 What Is Beautiful Is Good A potential paper assignment would be to have students search examples of the current media— soap operas, children’s cartoons or storybooks, sitcoms, etc.—for evidence of whether the “what is beautiful is good” stereotype still holds. Have students select a sample of the media, rate each character as to physical attractiveness, and rate him or her as to (a) moral goodness and (b) competence or successfulness. Do the physically attractive characters appear morally better and/or more successful? Have students report their findings to the class so that different kinds of media outlets can be compared. Are there arenas (e.g., children’s cartoons) where this stereotyping is stronger? What are the implications? The film Shrek provides an interesting counterexample.

Exercise 9–13 Analyzing Love Songs for Their Social Psychological Insights Assign students to listen to music and select a song that is about relationships and/or attraction.

The song can be about any relevant aspect or stage of a relationship. Have them write up a paragraph or two analyzing the song using the material from class. What social psychological principles does it illustrate? You can also assign students to bring their songs and analyses to class and, in small groups, select one song and expand on their analysis to present to the class.

You might also ask them whether the perspective expressed in the song is most consistent with secure attachment, avoidant attachment, or anxious/ambivalent attachment.

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Exercise 9–14 Analysing the Personal Ads This activity is based on research done by Gonzalez and Meyers (1993, “‘Your mother would like me’: Self-presentation in the personal ads of heterosexual and homosexual men and women,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 19, pp. 131–142).

Ask students to find some personal ads online. Have them analyse these ads using Handouts 9–14a and 9–14b. Once they have collected their data and shared it with the class, use the following questions to guide a discussion.

Discussion: Ask students what kinds of attributes people are offering and seeking. Do the ads support equity theory’s assumptions that people will seek about the same level of “resources” (looks, personality, activities, tangible assets) that they are able to offer? Do they support the evolutionary psychology contention that men are more likely to seek variety, and women stability, in relationships? Do they support the idea that people are seeking similar others? What other patterns can you find? You can conclude by asking students to write their own personal ad and by discussing what kinds of information about themselves they think it is important to include or will attract others.

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 9–14a: PERSONAL AD ANALYSIS Directions: What characteristics do people find rewarding in a relationship? What kinds of characteristics do they think other people will find rewarding? The personal ads are a good place to examine this question.

Get copies of some personal ads online. You are looking to make a comparison of some sort: ads placed by heterosexual men vs. heterosexual women, or ads placed by heterosexual men vs. homosexual/bisexual men (or women). You will be selecting fourteen ads to code, so seven of the ads should fall into one category and seven into the other category.

For each ad, you are coding the age of the person in the ad, the age of the person they seek, the type of relationship sought (e.g., marriage, long-term relationship, occasional joint activities), and whether the ad offers and seeks six types of characteristics, as follows:     



Attractiveness: For instance, athletic, petite, cute, slender, classy, debonair, sophisticated Financial Security: For example, accomplished, generous, professional, established; mention of a specific job or occupation, or home ownership Expressive Traits: Any characteristic that refers to caring or emotional expressiveness, such as affectionate, caring, emotional, empathic, nurturing, and sensitive Instrumental Traits: Any characteristic that is predominantly goal- or success-oriented, such as aggressive, ambitious, competitive, intelligent, striving Sincerity: Refers to committed, monogamous behaviours and to characteristics that would prevent exploitation in an intimate relationship; e.g., commitment-minded, considerate, dependable, one-woman man, one-man woman, faithful, monogamous, respectful Sexual References: Any reference to physical contact, explicit sexual behaviour, fantasies, or sex-related physical characteristics. Examples: references to everything from snuggling, cuddling, holding hands, and kissing to preferred sexual activities

When you have coded the ads, complete the summary table by adding up the number of ads of each type that offer and seek each of the six types of characteristics. Then write a paper that summarizes your findings. Do men seek, and offer, different characteristics than women? Or do homosexual men offer and seek different characteristics than heterosexual men? Or compare homosexual men and women to each other—then you can compare your findings with those of someone who has compared heterosexual men and women and see if there are differences.

Summarize your findings in words. Also reflect on the following questions: Do the ads reflect traditional gender stereotypes about what men and women like? What does social exchange theory suggest about the characteristics people will offer and seek? Are these suggestions supported in your data? What does evolutionary theory suggest about what people will seek? Are these suggestions supported?

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EXERCISE 9–14b: PERSONAL AD ANALYSIS

Group 1

Group 2

Gender of person placing ad Gender of person sought Age of person placing ad Age of person sought Type of relationship sought Offers attractiveness Offers financial security Offers expressiveness Offers instrumentality Offers sincerity Offers sexual references Seeks attractiveness Seeks financial security Seeks expressiveness Seeks instrumentality Seeks sincerity Sexual references Other SUM # MENTIONS

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Exercise 9–15 Love Stories An interesting take-home project might be to have students analyse a love relationship found in film in terms of the theories in this chapter. Assign students to view a love story on their own and then to analyse the development of the relationship in terms of the theories assigned in this chapter. Does the relationship depicted in the film seem like it fits the theories, or are there aspects of the story that violate social psychological findings?

Exercise 9–16 Gender Stereotypes Have students prepare a debate on the evolutionary explanation of differences between men and women in their behaviour and preferences in relationships. One side would support evolutionary theory and the other side would argue that it does not reflect gender-specific behaviour. Have groups of five students prepare each side of the argument and deliver their debate before another group of students who have also prepared the same debate. Have the observers produce quality feedback for the debaters and then have them switch roles.

Exercise 9–17 Theories of Relationship Satisfaction The text presents various competing theories for relationship satisfaction including social exchange theory, equity theory, positive illusions, and self-expansion theory. Ask students to reflect on each theory, research each theory in greater depth, and then select one that they can defend as the “most correct” according to their research. In a three-page paper, have them identify the theory they think is most correct and have them provide their defence for their favoured theory using scientific research from peer-reviewed research articles.

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CRITICAL THINKING TOPICS AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 

Ask students to provide a personal example of being affected by the propinquity effect.



Ask students to reflect on whether they think technological advances in our communications ability are changing the importance of proximity in attraction. How?



Ask students if they can think of a relationship they have observed that seemed to thrive on complementarity. Did “opposites attract”? How satisfying did the relationship seem to be and how long did it last?



Ask students if in their own experience, physically attractive people seem to differ in personality from physically unattractive people. Does the “what is beautiful is good” stereotype seem to have any validity? If so, under what conditions and why?



The text talks about how, when even one cellphone or device is present, it decreases connectedness and empathy between two people. Ask students if we are currently raising the most unconnected “connected” generation in history. What is the impact of technology on relationship development, maintenance, and termination?



Ask students if they have ever used deception when presenting themselves to others. Why did they feel they needed to use deception? How did they deceive others? Was it online or in person? Why?



Have students reflect on what may be some of the costs of the “what is beautiful is good” stereotype.



Have students provide an example of how they have been influenced by “mere exposure.”

Ask them to reflect on what the limits are on familiarity being associated with likeability.



As the text indicates, social psychologists have found strong positive effects of similarity on liking, and mixed, inconclusive results for the complementarity hypothesis. Ask students to reflect on the kinds of attributes, or the stages of relationships, for which they might expect to find similarity effects, and those for which they might expect to find complementarity effects, if any.



Tell students their younger sister/brother comes to them asking their advice. She/he has fallen head over heels for the attractive seventeen-year-old singer of a teenage band that plays at high school dances. Using social psychological principles, ask students to help their sibling design a strategy to try to win the attention and affection of the beloved.



Ask students to reflect on what kinds of rewards and costs people contribute to short-term and long-term relationships.

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

Ask students if they have ever been in a relationship where there was very little reciprocal liking. How long did the relationship last, and what brought it to an end?



Ask students to reflect on the section of the text that describes evolution and mate selection.

Ask them if they believe that the principles of selection according to evolutionary theory support many of the relationships they have observed.



Ask students to which kinds of relationships exchange rules apply. To which kinds of relationships do communal rules apply?



Ask students to describe the importance of physical attractiveness, similarity, and proximity in exchange relationships. Is it any different for communal relationships?



Ask students to describe how they know they are in love. How is it different from being infatuated?



Ask students why they think the same areas of the brain involved in reward might be involved in love.



Ask students to describe how they think people with (a) secure, (b) anxious/ambivalent, and (c) avoidant attachment styles view other people. How do they view themselves? Do students think that those with different attachment styles have differences in their level of selfesteem?



Data from studies conducted in the 1970s and 1980s indicated that men have more of a problem coping with a terminated relationship than do women. Ask students why they think that would be. Do they think this is still true today?



Ask students to reflect on how online relationships are similar to and different from face-toface relationships.



How might the varied research findings in this chapter help make dating websites and apps more effective?

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SUGGESTED VIDEOS Attraction and the Matching Hypothesis 5:15min -

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Survival Tips! Looking for Love in All the Right Places 0:54 min

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10 Prosocial Behaviour: Why Do People Help?

CONTENTS Learning Objectives Chapter Outline Key Terms Integrating “Try It!” Active Learning Exercises In-Class Exercises Student Projects and Research Assignments Critical Thinking Topics and Discussion Questions Suggested Videos

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES 10.1 Describe the basic motives that determine whether people help others.

10.2 Describe the personal qualities that influence whether a given individual will help.

10.3 Describe the situations in which people are more likely, or less likely, to help others.

10.4 Explain what can be done to promote prosocial behaviour.

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CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Why Do People Help?

Learning Objective: 10.1 Describe the basic motives that determine whether people help others.  Prosocial behaviour is any act performed with the goal of benefiting another person.  Altruism is the desire to help another person even if it involves a cost to the helper.

Someone might act in a prosocial way out of self-interest, hoping to get something in return, but altruism is helping purely out of the desire to benefit someone else, with no benefit (and often a potential cost) to oneself.

A. Evolutionary Psychology: Instincts and Genes  Darwin realized early on that there was a problem with evolutionary theory: How can it explain altruism? If people’s overriding goal is to ensure their own survival, why would they ever help others at a cost to themselves?

1. Kin Selection  One way evolutionary psychologists attempt to resolve this dilemma is with kin selection, the idea that behaviours that help a genetic relative are favoured by natural selection. Because a person’s blood relatives share some of his or her genes, the more that person ensures their survival, the greater the chances that his or her genes will flourish in future generations.

2. The Reciprocity Norm  Evolutionary psychologists also point to the norm of reciprocity, which is the expectation that helping others will increase the likelihood that they will help us in the future. The idea is that as human beings were evolving, a group of completely selfish individuals would have found it more difficult to survive than a group that had learned to cooperate.

3. Learning Social Norms  It is highly adaptive for individuals to learn rules such as social norms from other members of a society; the person who learns these rules is more likely to survive than the person who does not.  Consequently, it is believed that through natural selection, the ability to learn social norms, such as the value of helping others, has become part of our genetic makeup.

B. Social Exchange: The Costs and Rewards of Helping  Although some social psychologists disagree with evolutionary approaches to prosocial behaviour, they share the view that altruistic behaviour can be based on self-interest. In fact, social exchange theory argues that much of what we do stems from the desire to maximize our rewards and minimize our costs.

C. Empathy and Altruism: The Pure Motive for Helping  Daniel Batson (1991) is the strongest proponent of the idea that people often help purely out of the goodness of their hearts. Sometimes they help others for selfish reasons, but pure altruism is likely to come into play, he maintains, when we feel empathy for the person in need of help, putting ourselves in the shoes of another person and experiencing events and emotions the way that person Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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







experiences them.

According to Batson, if you feel empathy for someone, you will help, regardless of what you have to gain. Your goal will be to relieve the other person’s distress, not to gain something for yourself. This is the crux of Batson’s empathyaltruism hypothesis: When we feel empathy for another person, we will attempt to help that person for purely altruistic reasons, regardless of what we have to gain (see Figure 10.1, p. 317).

Studies suggest that when empathy is low, social-exchange comes into play, whereas when empathy is high, people have more altruistic concerns. A study conducted in British Columbia found a similar effect for children: those who were able to put themselves in another person’s shoes were more likely to behave in prosocial ways toward him or her.

The debate about the existence of altruism centres on how we define “selfinterest.” If we define self-interest as immediate benefits to the self, such as praise from others or a promotion at work, then it is clear that such rewards are not the only reasons that people help others. As we have seen, when people feel empathy toward others, they will help even if it is not in their immediate selfinterest to do so. But if we define “self-interest” more broadly, to include the glow that people feel from helping others and the relief that they feel when they can alleviate another person’s suffering, then this kind of altruism is “selfish” as well.

However, people do still help others even when helping comes with a cost, and/or puts themselves at risk.

II. Personal Determinants of Prosocial Behaviour: Why Do Some People Help More than Others?

Learning Objective: 10.2 Describe the personal qualities that influence whether a given individual will help.

A. Individual Differences: The Altruistic Personality  An altruistic personality is a personality trait characterized by qualities such as sympathy, empathy, and felt responsibility to help others across a wide variety of situations.

B. Gender Differences in Prosocial Behaviour  In virtually all cultures, norms prescribe different traits and behaviours for males and females. In Western cultures, the male sex role includes being chivalrous and heroic; women are expected to be nurturing and caring and to value close, long-term relationships.  Consistent with this norm, the recipients of the Medal of Bravery bestowed by Canada’s governor general for “acts of bravery in hazardous circumstances” tend to be men. In contrast, women are more likely to receive the Governor General’s Caring Canadian Award.  In national survey data gathered in the United States, women spent nearly twice as many hours per month providing emotional support than did men. Women also provided more practical help to kin.  Cross-cultural evidence suggests the same pattern applies cross-culturally.

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C. Socioeconomic Status Differences in Prosocial Behaviour  In a series of studies conducted by Piff and colleagues in Canada and the United States, it was found that people who are of lower socioeconomic status (SES) gave more of the money they earned during an experiment to their partner in the experiment, were more likely to help their partner in an experiment complete his or her tasks, and, in another study, when asked what percentage of one’s income should be donated to charity, gave a higher number than did participants with a higher SES.  Piff and colleagues (2010) conclude that people who have a lower SES are more concerned with the needs of others than those who have a higher SES, and this concern leads them to act in prosocial ways.  Subsequent studies have found differences between socioeconomic statuses in selfconcepts: lower-class people tend to develop more communal self-concepts, meaning that the self is defined in terms of social connection to others. Upper-class people tend to develop more agentic self-concepts, whereby the self is defined in terms of an individual person’s capacity for personal control. Wealthy people also score higher on measures of narcissism and entitlement D. Cultural Differences in Prosocial Behaviour  People often favour their in-groups, or the groups with which they identify as a member, and discriminate against members of out-groups, defined as groups with which they do not identify. However, this chapter provides many examples of people going out of their way to help complete strangers, even if that person belongs to a different group.  It turns out people help in-group and out-group members for different reasons. We are more likely to feel empathy toward members of our in-groups who are in need, but we tend to help out-group members when there is something in it for us, such as making us feel good about ourselves or making a good impression on others.  Though people in interdependent cultures are more likely to help in-group members than are members of individualist cultures, people in interdependent cultures are less likely to help members of out-groups. This seems to be because the needs of in-group members are considered more important, and the line between “us” and “them” is more firmly drawn in interdependent cultures.  In line with this finding, Canadian students scored higher than Japanese students in altruism towards “a person one happens to see occasionally but with whom he or she has no relation”, but the two groups of students did not differ when the person was described as someone with whom one has “personal and close relations.”  The authors of the textbook also warns that cultural differences regarding taking credit for prosocial behaviour may act as a confound in measuring and comparing altruism cross-culturally (e.g., in Asian cultures, children are taught to be modest and selfeffacing—and this includes not seeking recognition for helpful acts). Follow up studies comparing Canadian and Chinese students support this concern.

E. Religion and Prosocial Behaviour  Do religious people engage in more prosocial behaviour?  A very important feature of religion is that it binds people together and creates strong social bonds. As such, some studies answer this question with a qualified yes: Religious people are more likely to help than other people are, but only if the person in need of help shares their religious beliefs.

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

Other studies have shown that religious people engage in more charitable giving and volunteerism “across the board”, not just toward their own group.  When it comes to helping strangers via donating blood or tipping a server, however, research has shown that religious people are no more helpful than non-religious people.  One interesting finding of follow up studies to this phenomenon is that people who are primed with religion actually behave more pro-socially than those who are not, regardless of their own personal religious beliefs, though these effects are most pronounced for people who hold strong religious beliefs.

F. The Effects of Mood on Prosocial Behaviour 1. Effects of Positive Moods: Feel Good, Do Good  In a classic study involving a dime and a pay phone, researchers wanted to see whether people’s mood influenced the likelihood that they would help a stranger in a real-world setting. The answer was an unqualified yes. And this “feel good, do good” effect has been replicated in many experiments since.

2.Negative-State Relief: Feel Bad, Do Good  Sadness can also lead to an increase in helping, because when people are sad, they are motivated to engage in activities that make them feel better. Because helping others is rewarding, it can lift people out of the doldrums.  Feeling guilty can also lead to an increase in helping, as people often act on the idea that good deeds cancel out bad deeds.

III. Situational Determinants of Prosocial Behaviour: When Will People Help?

Learning Objective: 10.3 Describe the situations in which people are more likely, or less likely, to help others.

A. Environment: Rural Versus Urban  People are more likely to help in small towns than in cities. Stanley Milgram (1970) suggested that people living in cities are constantly bombarded with stimulation and keep to themselves to avoid being overwhelmed by it. According to this urbanoverload hypothesis, if you put urban dwellers in a calmer, less stimulating environment, they would be as likely as anyone else to reach out to others.

B. Residential Mobility  People who have lived for a long time in one place are more likely to engage in prosocial behaviours that help their community. Residing in one place leads to a greater attachment to the community, more interdependence with one’s neighbors, and a greater concern with one’s reputation in the community.

C. Bystander Intervention: The Latané and Darley Model  Bibb Latané and John Darley (1970) first proposed the idea that the key situational variable in emergencies where bystanders fail to help might be the number of bystanders who witness the event. Paradoxically, they reasoned, the greater the number of bystanders, the less likely any one of them is to help. In a series of now-classic experiments, they found support for this hypothesis (see Figure 10.3, p. 329), and dozens of other studies since have concurred. This phenomenon is called the bystander effect.  Why is it that people are less likely to help when others are present? Latané and Darley developed a five-step tree that describes how people decide whether to intervene in an emergency (see Figure 10.4, p. 330).

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1. Noticing an Event  Obviously if people don’t notice an emergency, they will not intervene.

2. Interpreting the Event as an Emergency  If people do not realize that this is a situation in which help is needed, they will not help.  Pluralistic ignorance is the phenomenon whereby bystanders assume that nothing is wrong in an emergency because no one else looks concerned.

3. Assuming Responsibility  When there are many witnesses, a diffusion of responsibility can occur: Each bystander’s sense of responsibility to help decreases as the number of witnesses to an emergency or crisis increases.  People increasingly interact on social media sites and chat rooms, and sometimes encounter requests for help. Are people less likely to help each other as the number of people in a chat room increases? When the request was addressed to the group as a whole, Latané and Darley’s results were replicated closely. But when the request was directed to a specific person, that person responded quickly, regardless of the size of the group.  A diffusion of responsibility is especially likely to occur when people cannot tell whether someone else has already intervened.

4. Knowing How to Help  If people don’t know what form of assistance to give, they will be unable to help.

5. Deciding to Implement Help  Sometimes there are still reasons people decide to intervene: some forms of helping might be embarrassing, dangerous, or above our level of expertise (e.g., if we know CPR is required but we do not know how to administer it).

IV. How Can Helping Be Increased?

Learning Objective: 10.4 Explain what can be done to promote prosocial behaviour.

A. Increasing the Likelihood That Bystanders Will Intervene  There is evidence that simply being aware of the barriers to helping in an emergency can increase people’s chances of overcoming those barriers.  As such, several countries are now implementing bystander intervention programs.  One example of such a program was implemented at the University of Windsor, Senn and Forrest (2016); they implemented a condensed version of the Bringing in the Bystander® program with university students. Compared to students in a control group, the students who received the intervention reported positive effects such as feeling more empowered to intervene in sexual assault situations, greater willingness to take responsibility, and so on.  Importantly, these positive effects generally were maintained when these participants were contacted again four months later. These findings are encouraging and suggest that people can be trained to overcome barriers to prosocial behaviour and help their fellow human beings in need.

B. Can Playing Prosocial Video Games and Listening to Prosocial Music Lyrics Increase Helpfulness?  Playing prosocial video games and listening to songs with prosocial lyrics can make Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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people more helpful—because it increases both people’s empathy toward those in need of help and the accessibility of thoughts about helping others (see Figure 10.5, p.

337).

C. Instilling Helpfulness with Rewards and Models  Even children as young as 18 months help others, such as assisting a parent with household tasks or trying to make a crying infant feel better  One powerful way to encourage prosocial behaviour is for parents and others to reward such acts with praise, smiles, and hugs.  Rewards should not be emphasized too much, however, lest the overjustification effect might occur (from Chapter 5), where rewarding people too strongly for performing a behaviour can lower their intrinsic motivation. In a study, intrinsically motivated volunteers donated more volunteer hours compared to those who were less self-motivated.  Another way for parents to increase prosocial behaviour in their children is to behave prosocially themselves. Interviews with people who have gone to great lengths to help others—such as Christians who helped Jews escape from Nazi Germany during World War II—indicate that their parents were also dedicated helpers.

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KEY TERMS Prosocial Behaviour: Any act performed with the goal of benefiting another person Altruism: The desire to help others, even if it involves a cost to the helper Kin Selection: The idea that behaviour that helps a genetic relative is favoured by natural selection Norm of Reciprocity: The expectation that helping others will increase the likelihood that they will help us in the future Empathy: The ability to experience events and emotions (e.g., joy, sadness) the way another person experiences them Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis: The idea that when we feel empathy for a person, we will attempt to help him or her purely for altruistic reasons, regardless of what we have to gain Altruistic Personality: A personality trait characterized by qualities such as sympathy, empathy, and felt responsibility to help others across a wide variety of situations Communal Self-concept: When the self is defined in terms of social connection to others Agentic Self-concept: When the self is defined in terms of an individual person’s capacity for personal control In-Group: The group with which an individual identifies and of which he or she feels a member Out-Group: Any group with which an individual does not identify Urban Overload Hypothesis: The theory that because people living in cities are constantly being bombarded with stimulation, they keep to themselves to avoid being overloaded by it Bystander Effect: The finding that the greater the number of bystanders who witness an emergency, the less likely it is that any one of them will help Pluralistic Ignorance: The phenomenon whereby bystanders assume that nothing is wrong in an emergency because no one else looks concerned Diffusion of Responsibility: Each bystander’s sense of responsibility to help decreases as the number of witnesses to an emergency or crisis increases

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

INTEGRATING “TRY IT!” ACTIVE LEARNING EXERCISES I.

Try It! Does the Reciprocity Norm Increase Helping? (LO 10.1)

In this Try It! exercise students are asked to reflect on times that they might have been induced to help through the norm of reciprocity. They might have received a little gift from an organization soliciting donations or received a free sample from a store. Students are also asked to think about times in their everyday life where this norm might have been evoked. Discussion ideas are provided in the Try It! Answer Key. II.

Try It! The Lost Letter Technique (LO 10.4)

In this exercise, students are invited to try an informal experiment to learn more about the conditions under which people help others. Be sure to check with your ethics board first to ensure that approval is not needed. For discussion ideas, see the Try It! Answer Key.

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IN-CLASS EXERCISES Exercise 10–1 What Kinds of Helping Are There?

Ask students to spend a few minutes trying to list all the different kinds of help they have given or received during the past few months. Describe the taxonomy of helping by A. McGuire (1994, “Helping behaviours in the natural environment: Dimensions and correlates of helping,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20(1), pp. 45–56): casual helping (small favours such as lending a pen or giving an acquaintance a ride in the direction you are going); substantial person helping (e.g., helping a friend move); emotional helping (providing emotional support); and emergency helping (e.g., giving assistance to a stranger after a car accident). Ask students to offer examples of their own from each of the categories. Ask students to categorize each of the forms of help that they gave. What form of helping is the most common? Do men and women differ in any of the forms (e.g., men giving more emergency help and women more emotional help)? After learning about the forms, can students think of any additional personal examples of helping with which they have been involved?

Exercise 10–2 Prosocial Behaviour or Altruism?

Are the examples that are included in Handout 10—2 examples of altruism? Students are asked to indicate whether they can categorize the answers one way or another, or whether they are uncertain. A couple of items are egoistic (i.e., the person gets something in return for helping, either now or in the future); for many other items, the person’s motivation for helping is unclear.

This activity can help to highlight differences in definitions of altruism, which has been a matter of some debate among psychologists. Some authors focus on the altruistic act itself, and specify that altruistic acts are ones for which the doer receives no reward and may incur a cost (this is consistent with the textbook’s definition); other authors (especially Batson) focus on the nature of the motivation behind the act (Batson, 1991, “The altruism question: Toward a socialpsychological answer,” Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum Associates).

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 10—2: PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR OR ALTRUISM? Directions: Do the following actions illustrate altruism or not? Indicate whether you feel the answer is yes, no, or uncertain.

Yes

No

Uncertain

Donating blood for money

______

______

______

Signing an organ donor card

______

______

______

Clicking on a website where, if you click, a corporation will pay to help

______

______

______

A firefighter rescuing a child from a burning house

______

______

______

A couple donating money to church because they believe in tithing

______

______

______

An education major signing up for peer tutoring

______

______

______

A student reporting a fellow student’s cheating on a test

______

______

______

Listening to your sister’s boyfriend’s woes

______

______

______

Donating unwanted food to a food bank

______

______

______

Loaning your roommate $20 until their next check comes in

______

______

______

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Exercise 10–3 Kin Selection as a Determinant of Helping After presenting the basic ideas of evolutionary psychology, ask students to imagine the following situation: You go boating one afternoon, taking your ten-year-old brother and your ten-year-old male cousin with you. Neither of them knows how to swim. The boat strikes a rock and begins to sink. Although you are a strong swimmer, you realize that it is so far to shore that you will likely be able to save only one of the children—if you try to save both of them, you will get too tired and all three of you will likely drown. Who do you save?

Ask students to make their choice and then take a tally. A study by Burnstein, Crandall, and Kitayama (1994, “Some neo-Darwinian decision rules for altruism: Weighing cues for inclusive fitness as a function of the biological importance of the decision,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, pp. 773–789) suggests that in scenarios such as these, degree of relatedness makes a difference. A sibling shares .5 of his or her genes with you, while a cousin shares .125.

You can try the same question comparing an older brother’s ten-year-old son (.25) and his tenyear-old friend (an acquaintance; .0) as well, or a five-year-old and a three-month-old infant.

According to the sociobiologist’s concept of inclusive fitness, people who do things to help those who are closely related to them enhance their own “reproductive fitness” as well. Also, with the comparison between the five-year-old and the three-month-old, reproductive fitness theory suggests that many people will pick the five-year-old rather than the three-month-old, since (due to infant mortality) the five-year-old is more likely to survive to reproduce. However, Burnstein et al. find that comparisons such as this last one may not obtain the predicted results, unless the cultural context of a society living in marginal conditions with uncertain survival rates is provided.

Exercise 10–4 Limits to Helping Have students form small groups of three to four people. Have them work on Handout 10—4, about reasons why people may refrain from helping. Once students fill out their handout and develop their plan, have one student from each group present their ideas to the rest of the class.

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 10—4: LIMITS TO HELPING

1. If helping makes us feel good, why don’t people help more? (Discuss this and relate the excuses to the costs in the social exchange model of helping.) ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 2. What could you do to decrease the costs of helping?

______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

3. What could you do to increase the rewards, or the salience of rewards, for helping people? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

4. Do you think that your strategy would lead to people helping more? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

5. How feasible is the strategy? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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6. How much incentive would be the “right amount”—that is, enough to induce people to help but not so much that the overjustification effect is elicited? (Discuss this in the context of a specific example.) ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

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Exercise 10–5 Ambiguity of an Emergency In Class: Distribute the scenario handouts (randomly) and ask students to complete them. Then ask students with handout A and students with handout B to go to opposite sides of the room.

Further subdivide each large group into small discussion groups of three members each. Give each student a copy of the “Small Group Questionnaire” handout.

For Part 1, ask students to discuss and answer the small-group questions on the handout. The homogeneity of the scenarios should make it a fairly easy task. Recombine the two sides of the room by asking each three-person A group to form a new six-person group by joining with a B group.

For Part 2, the new groups first compare their scenarios and answers to the small-group questions. Second, they discuss and answer the large-group questions on Handout 10—5d. Each group appoints a spokesperson to summarize the discussion for the class.

Discussion: This exercise is based on the study of situational factors by Clark and Word (1974, “Where is the apathetic bystander? Situational characteristics of the emergency,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 29, pp. 279–287). Situational factors are of great importance in determining whether people will intervene in an emergency situation. This exercise examines the effects of the ambiguity of the situation.

Based on Latané and Darley’s classic analysis, a potential helper must go through several steps if he or she is to help in an emergency. Step 1, noticing the event, is not manipulated in this exercise. Step 2 is interpreting the event as an emergency. Students with the A scenario had a very clear emergency (low ambiguity). Students with the B scenario had a moderate-to-high ambiguity emergency. If the event is not interpreted as an emergency, no help is given.

Clark and Word found that virtually everyone helped in the low-ambiguity condition (although helping was usually indirect because of the potential danger of direct helping). In the highambiguity condition, however, only about 25% of the subjects helped.

The discussion questions in this exercise bring up additional points. Step 3 is deciding whether one is responsible for intervening. Of course, if the event is not interpreted as an emergency, then no responsibility will be felt. For low-ambiguity Astudents, the responsibility question is relevant: Did they perceive themselves as responsible or assume that someone else might happen by? The scenario mentions no one else, but a few creative students might “manufacture” additional potential helpers. Students may also be interested in discussing the issue of sex differences. Did men and women seem to give different answers to the discussion questions? There is evidence that men are more helpful than women in emergency situations. One reason might be that role expectations are different. For example, men may be more concerned about looking “heroic,” and women may perceive fewer benefits for out-of-role behaviour.

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 10—5a: BEHAVIOUR PREDICTIONS Directions: Please read the following scenario, imagining it as vividly as you can, and then respond to the questions that follow.

You are walking down a long hallway on campus at about 4 p.m. In one room, a technician is working on some electrical equipment. As you walk by, there is a flash of light and a dull buzzing sound. You are startled. The technician stiffens his body, gives out a sharp cry of pain, upsets his apparatus and his tools, and collapses in a prone position on the floor, apparently unconscious.

You cannot tell whether the technician is still in contact with the equipment and the wires.

What is the likelihood that you would: 1. Enter the room to intervene directly Definitely would not

1

2

3

4

5

6

Definitely would

1

2

3

4

5

6

Definitely would

2. Call for help

Definitely would not

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 10—5b: BEHAVIOUR PREDICTIONS Directions: Please read the following scenario, imagining it as vividly as you can, and then respond to the questions that follow.

You are walking down a long hallway on campus at about 4 p.m. In one room, a technician seems to be working on some electrical equipment. As you walk by, there is a flash of light and a dull buzzing sound. You are startled. You think that you heard a cry from the technician in the room, but you are not sure. There are no more flashes of light, although the dull buzzing sound is continuing. You cannot see into the room very well. You pause for a few seconds in indecision.

What is the likelihood that you would: 1. Enter the room to intervene directly Definitely would not

1

2

3

4

5

6

Definitely would

1

2

3

4

5

6

Definitely would

2. Call for help

Definitely would not

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 10—5c: SMALL GROUP QUESTIONNAIRE Directions: Discuss and respond to each of the following questions.

1. How certain was each group member that there was an emergency? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

2. How much responsibility did each person feel to do something? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 3. What factors affected each person’s decision about intervention? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

4. What additional information did you feel you needed? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 10—5d: LARGE GROUP QUESTIONS Directions: Discuss and respond to each of the following questions.

1. First, compare your scenarios and answers to the questions on Handout 10—5c. For people with high-ambiguity (B) and low-ambiguity (A) scenarios, what were the differences in the interpretations of the event? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

2. What are the most important conclusions you can draw about the effects of ambiguity on helping? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

3. If relevant, did women and men emphasize different factors in the different scenarios? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

4. Choose a spokesperson to report the results of your discussion to the class.

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Exercise 10–6 Who Will Help?

Arrive to class with your arms full of texts and papers. As you enter the classroom door, “accidentally” drop everything on the floor. Observe who steps forward to help. After everything has been picked up, ask the students who helped why they did. Ask some of the students who did not step forward to help why they didn’t. Evaluate the helping behaviour in terms of the characteristics of people and situations that will lead to helping behaviour as discussed in the text.

Exercise 10–7 Theory or Hypothesis?

The urban overload hypothesis has “hypothesis” in its name but is defined as a theory. Have students work on their research methods skills by having them decide whether it is a theory or a hypothesis (Handout 10—7). You may wish to have students answer the first three questions and then discuss the answers as a class before they answer the final question (theories and hypotheses are discussed in Chapter 2 but not defined).

The urban overload hypothesis states that people living in cities may isolate to avoid being overwhelmed by the constant bombardment and stimulation of the city. It is a theory because, rather than being a specific prediction, it is an explanation of why people help less in cities. It is not directly testable, although you could test whether people help more in cities or in rural environments.

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 10—7: THEORY OR HYPOTHESIS? Directions: Respond to the first three questions individually and then discuss as a class. After the discussion, complete question 4.

1. What is the definition of the urban overload hypothesis? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

2. What is a theory? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

3. What is a hypothesis? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

4. Is the urban overload hypothesis a theory or a hypothesis? Explain why it is one and not the other. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

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STUDENT PROJECTS AND RESEARCH ASSIGNMENTS Exercise 10–8 Hero Case Studies There are many examples of people stepping up in emergencies and acting with “heroism” to help others. Have students find an example from the news and write a short summary of what psychological and situational factors may have contributed to the act of heroism. Also have them analyse the behaviour to determine if it was an altruistic act according to the definition in their text.

Exercise 10–9 A Class Helping Project Have the class, either as a whole or in groups, take on a helping project (for example, collecting donations for a charity or working with the Canadian Red Cross to sponsor a blood drive on campus). Have them design a campaign, based on social psychological principles, to try to increase donations. Have the students present their campaign idea and the reasoning behind it to the class.

You can have students, in groups, use different strategies to achieve the same goal and then see how effective each group was in attaining their goal.

Exercise 10–10 Field Studies of Prosocial Behaviour Have students do a field experiment to collect data on when people are helped. Stage a series of requests for minor help—for example, the time, directions, change, help with carrying something heavy, or “mishaps” (for example, a person dropping a large pile of books or papers, or dropping something of value, such as a wallet, and not seeing it). Vary either some aspects of the situation and/or the people involved and have students collect data on who helps and how soon.

To get your students started with their own ideas, tell them about some past research. For example, as a demographer, Levine (1993) was interested in the helpfulness of various cities. He and a team of researchers went to thirty-six locales in the United States and collected the following measures: (1) In the presence of a solitary pedestrian walking in the opposite direction, the researcher “accidentally” dropped a pen as he removed something else from a pocket. (2) Wearing dark glasses and carrying a white cane, the researcher stood at an intersection and acted the role of a blind person needing help crossing the street. (3) Walking with a heavy limp and wearing a leg brace (crutches are more easily available), the researcher dropped and struggled unsuccessfully to pick up a pile of magazines within twenty feet of a passing pedestrian. (4) With a quarter in view, researchers approached pedestrians and asked them if they could make change. (5) Handwritten notes saying “I found this next to your car” were placed on stamped envelopes addressed to the researcher’s home; one of these envelopes was left on the windshield of randomly selected cars parked at meters. (6) The per capita contribution to United Way in each locale was also measured. Some of these measures could be adopted by your students as the basis for their own field studies.

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Some possible variables students could manipulate: 

Characteristics of the Situation: Number of bystanders, ambiguity of emergency, location, or time of day (e.g., just before class, when many people will be in a rush, versus during the middle of class, when those who are outside are less likely to be in a rush to get somewhere). They can also manipulate the mood of the participant. Ideas include exposing participants to pleasant smells or arranging for the potential helper to find a small amount of money or giving the potential helper some candy.



Characteristics of the People Involved: Race of person needing help and of bystanders, clothing of person needing help, sex of helper and helpee, apparent need of person needing help (e.g., using crutches or not), personality of person needing help (aggressive, dominant, or passive).

Allow the students a reasonable amount of latitude in this experimental situation, being sure to check with your campus’ Research Ethics Board for research involving human subjects. Have each group prepare a fifteen-minute talk on the data they collected. This talk could include methods of data collection, analysis, and conclusions drawn. Compare students’ results to information found in the text.

Exercise 10–11 Debate: Does True Altruism Exist?

Have students break into groups taking different sides of this argument. Assist them in learning how to search for research articles to defend each side of the argument. Give them adequate time to prepare their arguments and have an in-class debate. Have student observers give feedback on the strength of each argument.

Exercise 10–12 Paper: Kin Selection Have students reflect on the last time they helped someone outside their family. What did they do?

Was it short-term help or help that helped develop the other’s capacity to meet future needs? How did it make them feel to help? What were the results of their helping? What did they learn from the experience? Would they want to do it again? Have students prepare a brief, one-page paper that outlines their experience according to the questions listed.

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CRITICAL THINKING TOPICS AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 

Ask the class to relate experiences they have had in which they witnessed an emergency.

Invariably, there are several students who have done so, and an interesting discussion results regarding why they helped or did not help the person in need.



Ask students if they think the evolutionary psychology perspective offers useful insights into prosocial behaviour. Have students defend their stance.



Ask students if they can think of any examples of nonhuman animals helping humans. Do they think these examples challenge evolutionary psychology or not? If they have difficulty coming up with an example, suggest the story of Binti Jua, the gorilla who saved a young boy when he fell into her enclosure.



Ask your students to discuss how their own tendencies toward prosocial behaviour have been influenced by their family or relatives. Ask them to provide examples of behaviour they have observed in their family that was altruistic.



Ask students if they think the gender differences in helping are changing. Why or why not?



Ask students to describe the most recent situation in which they were helpful to someone in need. Which of the factors discussed in the text (guilt, sympathy, reward, a good mood, a bad mood, empathy) probably affected their behaviour?



Have students reflect on the norm of reciprocity. Do they believe that those who learn to help others, expecting others to return the favour, will be more likely to survive?



Ask students if they think their reaction to an emergency situation might be different now that they have read this chapter.

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Ask students if legislation should be passed that requires people to help when they observe an individual in need after an accident or in an emergency.

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Ask students whether altruism or the pursuit of pleasure is a more important cause of prosocial behaviour. Is their opinion any different now than before they read this chapter?

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Ask students to imagine that they are now parents. What will they do to try to raise a child who is an empathetic, altruistic person?

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Ask students if they believe that true altruism is possible—or are all acts self-serving to some degree?

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Have students reflect on the empathy-altruism hypothesis. Ask them if they believe that empathy increases the cost of not helping, and thus increases the likelihood of helping because it lowers people’s distress at seeing someone they care about suffer.

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

How might students propose getting religious people to help more nonreligious people?



Have students recall a time when their helping someone might have been motivated by a desire to get out of a bad mood. Were they aware of that egoistic motivation at the time?



Ask students under what conditions they would feel empathy when viewing an individual in obvious need (e.g., a panhandler).

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Have students propose how they might change communities around so that people living in urban environments were more inclined to help others.

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Have students describe a situation in which they may have been a victim of the bystander effect. How could this have been prevented?

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Ask students to provide an example of pluralistic ignorance. Is pluralistic ignorance simply another name for informational influence, or is there some way to differentiate the two concepts?



To what extent do students feel that the various media they consume encourage prosocial behaviour? Are there differences between platforms? Why do they think that might be the case? What could different media outlets do to encourage prosocial behaviour more?

According to your students, what form of encouragement would be most productive?



Ask students what factors influence helping in an emergency situation. How do these compare to factors that come into play in a nonemergency situation (e.g., donating to a needy family)?

What could they do to increase helping in each of these two kinds of situations?



Have students reflect on the role of values in helping. Do people’s values lead to greater helping, or do they merely lead people to feel self-righteous when they help and defensive when they don’t?

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Ask students if there are any factors that they believe are associated with prosocial behaviour that the text left out.

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Ask students what they think of “required” volunteerism from classes, service learning requirements, or mandatory fraternity/sorority service. Do students believe that these programs lead to more voluntary service in the future, less, or that they have no effect whatsoever on people’s inclination to volunteer? How could these programs be improved?

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SUGGESTED VIDEOS Successful Aging, Extended Family 1:00min

92-Year-Old Volunteer 1:59min

Pluralistic Ignorance and Emergencies 4:26min -

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11 Aggression: Why We Hurt Other People CONTENTS Learning Objectives Chapter Outline Key Terms Integrating “Try It!” Active Learning Exercises In-Class Exercises Student Projects and Research Assignments Critical Thinking Topics and Discussion Questions Suggested Videos

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES 11.1 Distinguish among evolutionary, cultural, and learning explanations of aggression.

11.2 Describe the physiological and chemical factors that may increase the probability of aggressive behaviour.

11.3 Describe situational and social causes of aggression.

11.4 Explain how observing violence increases violence.

11.5 Identify ways in which aggression can be reduced.

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CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Is Aggression Innate, Learned, or Optional?

Learning Objective: 11.1 Distinguish among evolutionary, cultural, and learning explanations of aggression.  For social psychologists, aggression is defined as intentional behaviour aimed at causing either physical or psychological pain. The intention to do harm is a necessary component of the psychological definition of aggression, and what makes aggression different from assertiveness.  It is also useful to distinguish between types of aggression: Hostile aggression is an act of aggression stemming from feelings of anger and is aimed at inflicting pain or injury. In Instrumental aggression there is an intention to hurt the other person, but the hurting takes place as a means to some goal other than causing pain.

A. The Evolutionary Approach to Aggression  Evolutionary psychologists argue that physical aggression is genetically programmed into men because it enables them to defend their group and perpetuate their genes. In cultures all over the world, male aggressiveness starts in childhood. Males are theorized to aggress for two reasons: (1) to establish dominance over other males and secure the highest possible status and (2) to ensure that their mate is not having sex with other men, thereby ensuring their own paternity. When females behave aggressively, in the evolutionary view, it is generally to protect their offspring.

1. Aggression Among Animals  Although aggressive behaviour can be modified by experience, as shown by Kuo’s (1961) experiment with cats and rats, some kinds of aggressive behaviour apparently do not need to be learned. The near universality of aggression strongly suggests that aggressiveness has evolved and has been maintained because it has survival value B. Culture and Aggression  Most social psychologists believe that aggression is an optional strategy: We humans are born with the capacity for aggressive behaviour, but how, whether, when, and where we express it is learned and depends on our circumstances and culture. We seem to have an inborn tendency to respond to certain provocative stimuli by striking out against the perpetrator, but whether we actually do so depends on a complex interplay between these innate tendencies, a variety of learned inhibitory responses, and the precise nature of the social situation.

1. Cultures of Honour  Perhaps the strongest evidence against the notion that “men are naturally aggressive because of their testosterone” comes from experiments showing how cultural norms and expectations literally “get inside” people, causing them to behave differently under similar provocation.  Studies found that both women and men from male honour Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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cultures (e.g., Brazil, southern American states) are more likely than people from non-honour cultures (e.g., northern American states) to believe that it is appropriate for a man to physically assault a woman if he thinks she is threatening his honour and reputation by being unfaithful or leaving him. Cultures of honour have higher rates of domestic violence.  When “being a man” is defined by competitiveness and strength, men will try to “prove” their masculinity and status in displays of aggression (Bosson & Vandello, 2011).  Research has also shown that homicide rates for white males in the southern American states are substantially higher than those for white northern males, especially in rural areas.

C. Gender and Aggression  Studies suggest that boys tend to resort to physical rather than relational aggression more often than girls.  There is evidence that too much testosterone, a male sex hormone, is associated with increased physical aggression. Both sexes have testosterone, but men have it in higher proportions than women.  Research conducted with lower-class 12- and 13-year-old boys in Quebec found that testosterone was not strongly related to physical aggression but was associated with social dominance (Tremblay et al., 1998).  There also is evidence that testosterone can fluctuate, depending on situational factors. For example, being in an aggressive, competitive, or sexual situation increases the production of testosterone.  Importantly, when researchers at Queen’s University conducted a metaanalysis of 45 studies, they found a weak positive correlation between testosterone and aggression; the average correlation was 0.14.

D. Learning to Behave Aggressively  Most of us take our cues from other people. We learn, almost unconsciously, what our culture’s rules are and what the norms are for men and women.

Those situations can shape, direct, encourage, or suppress people’s individual wishes to behave aggressively or peacefully.  According to social learning theory, we learn social behaviour, including aggression and altruism, in large part by observing others and imitating these behaviours—a process referred to as observational learning. This was demonstrated in a now classic “Bobo” doll experiment by Albert Bandura and colleagues.

II. Physiological and Chemical Influences on Aggression Learning Objective: 11.2 Describe the physiological and chemical factors that may increase the probability of aggressive behaviour.

A. Alcohol and Aggression  The link between alcohol and aggressive behaviour has been well documented, and it appears even among people who have not been provoked and who do not usually behave aggressively when sober.  Family violence is also often associated with alcohol use. Consider, for example, the

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following statistics: If a spouse drinks heavily, the rate of marital violence is six times higher than if a spouse drinks moderately or not at all.  Not only is violence more likely to occur when alcohol is involved, but it also tends to be more severe. This has been demonstrated in both correlational and carefully controlled experimental studies.

B. Pain, Discomfort, and Aggression  In a series of experiments, students who experienced pain as part of an experiment, by immersing their hand in very cold water, were more likely to act aggressively against other students than those who did not.  Other forms of bodily discomfort—such as air pollution, crowds, offensive odors, heat, and humidity—also lower the threshold for aggressive behaviour. For example, in the desert city of Phoenix, Arizona, drivers without air-conditioned cars are more likely to honk their horns in traffic jams than are drivers with air-conditioned cars (Kenrick & MacFarlane, 1986). And in major league baseball games, significantly more batters are hit by pitches when the temperature is above 32°C.  This relationship between discomfort and aggression has been found in both correlational and experimental studies.

C. Brain Chemistry: Does Serotonin Play a Role in Aggression?  For many years, it was thought that serotonin—a neurotransmitter in the brain that is responsible for control- ling mood, attention, sleep, and pain—played a role in aggression.  According to the serotonin deficiency hypothesis, people who are low in serotonin tend to be more aggressive.  Research investigating this hypothesis is mixed, however, and more research is needed to determine the extent to which serotonin plays a role in causing aggressive behaviour.

III. Situational and Social Causes of Aggression Learning Objective: 11.3 Describe situational and social causes of aggression.

A. Frustration as a Cause of Aggression  Frustration can be a major cause of aggression. Frustration occurs when a person is thwarted on the way to an expected goal or gratification. All of us have felt frustrated from time to time—at least three or four times a week, if not three or four times a day.

According to frustration-aggression theory, frustration— the perception that you are being prevented from obtaining a goal—will increase the probability of an aggressive response. This is especially true when the frustration is unpleasant, unwelcome, and uncontrollable.  It is important to keep in mind that frustration does not always produce aggression.

Rather, it seems to produce anger or annoyance and a readiness to aggress if other things about the situation are conducive to aggressive behaviour.

1. Relative Deprivation  What causes frustration is not deprivation, but relative deprivation, the perception that you (or your group) have less than you deserve, less than what you have been led to expect, or less than what people similar to you have.  For example, research on contemporary suicide bombers in the Middle East, including Mohamed Atta, who led the 9/11 attack on the World Trade Center,

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shows that theybombers usually have no psychopathology and are often quite educated and affluent (Krueger, 2007; Sageman, 2008; Silke, 2003). But they are motivated by anger over the perceived discrepancy between what they have and what they feel their nation and religion are entitled to.  Feeling deprived relative to others is also associated with more stress, resentment, and poorer physical and mental health, as shown by research conducted at the University of Regina.

B. Provocation and Reciprocation  Aggression frequently stems from the need to reciprocate after being provoked by aggressive behaviour from another person. Provocation and aggression are so strongly linked that they appear to overpower gender differences in aggression.  Research on provocation suggests that people’s response to provoking situations depends on whether they perceive the other person’s behaviour as intentional.

C. Social Exclusion  The experience of being excluded from a group, even when the exclusion is from a group of strangers in a laboratory, can provoke considerable levels of aggression.  However, there is some encouraging evidence that social exclusion can also motivate us to form new social bonds.

D. Weapons as Aggressive Cues  The weapons effect is an increase in aggression that can occur because of the mere presence of a gun or other weapon.  The effect is physiological as well as psychological: Male university students asked to interact with a gun for fifteen minutes show higher testosterone levels than students playing a children’s game for the same amount of time.  Similarly, the homicide rate in countries all over the world is highly correlated with the availability of handguns. In the United States, mass shootings in schools, workplaces, restaurants, and malls are nearly a daily occurrence. The weapons effect suggests that, contrary to the proposed solutions of certain political leaders, it would not help to provide teachers with training in using guns and arming them in schools.  While the weapons effect only increases aggression when the object is tied to aggression in the eyes of the beholder—research shows that hunters, for example, do not associate hunting rifles with aggression the same way they would with assault rifles—most people associate guns with violence.

E. Intimate Partner Violence  In 2017, intimate partner violence represented 30 percent of all police-reported violent crime in Canada, affecting almost 96,000 victims. In comparison, 26 percent of violent-crimes were perpetrated by strangers.  However, according to data from the 2014 General Social Survey on Canadians’ Safety (Victimization), 70 percent of victims of spousal violence and 93 percent of victims of childhood physical or sexual abuse never contact authorities.  Research gathered in university samples shows that intimate partner violence occurs in about one-third of dating relationships (Jonnson, Langille, & Walsh, 2018).  Contrary to what people might think, meta-analyses of studies conducted mostly in the United States found that when gender differences were reported (they are not always), they tended to be in the direction of women behaving more violently toward their partner than men.

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 

Taking culture into consideration, it was also found that in Western, industrialized countries such as Canada and America, women are more likely to perpetrate intimate partner violence than in countries in which women do not have status or rights.

Some gendered differences are inconclusive, however, such as which gender has the higher proportion of reports of experiencing extreme forms of intimate partner violence; Crime statistics, however, show that the most severe forms of intimate partner violence are perpetrated by men, including homicide.

IV. The Effects of Violence in the Media Learning Objective: 11.4 Explain how observing violence increases violence.

A. Violence in Television and Movies 1. Longitudinal Studies on the Effects of Media Violence  Longitudinal research finds that the more violence children watch on TV, the more violence they exhibit later as teenagers and young adults.  Longitudinal studies find another, unexpected consequence of watching a heavy dose of media violence: the magnification of danger. Adolescents and adults who watch TV for more than four hours per day are more likely than light TV viewers (who watch less than two hours per day) to have an exaggerated view of the degree of violence taking place outside their own homes, and they have a much greater fear of being personally assaulted.

B. Violence in Video Games  There is substantial evidence that exposing children to a graphically violent video game has a direct and immediate impact on their aggressive thoughts and behaviour.  The two students who went on a killing spree at Columbine High School, apparently enjoyed playing a bloody, extremely violent video game licenced by the U.S. military to train soldiers how to kill.  Violent video game playing also is positively correlated with delinquency in children.  Although there is reason to be wary of the effects of a steady dose of violent video game playing, it is unlikely that video games are primarily to blame when someone goes on a killing rampage, as the effect size is quite small.

C. Pornography and Violence  The findings from carefully conducted research over the past 30 years confirm that exposure to violent pornography is associated with greater sexism, acceptance of sexual violence toward women, and is almost certainly a factor associated with actual aggressive behaviour.  In a study, both males and females perceived pornography as a cause of sexual violence in relationships. Moreover, participants reported that it was not uncommon for them or their partners to imitate acts of sexual violence observed in pornographic movies or magazines.  Laboratory and correlational studies suggest that men who view violent pornography actually behave aggressively toward women.

D. The Numbing and Dehumanizing Effects of Media Violence  Studies show that violence seemingly desensitizes people to further acts of violence; they are not upset by an incident that by all rights should upset them.

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



Although such a reaction may psychologically protect us from getting upset, it may also have the unintended effect of increasing our indifference to victims of violence and perhaps rendering us more accepting of violence as a necessary aspect of modern life.

While many of these findings were from correlational studies, non-correlational studies suggest that watching media violence merely serves to give people who were predisposed to violence the permission to express their aggressive inclinations.

The authors of this textbook conclude that violent media does have an impact on average children and adults, but its impact is greatest on those who are already prone to violent behaviour.

V. How to Decrease Aggression Learning Objective: 11.5 Identify ways in which aggression can be reduced.

A. Does Punishing Aggression Reduce Aggression?  The use of harsh punishments to reduce aggression usually backfires; it may put a halt to a child’s aggressive behaviour in the short term, but children who are physically punished tend to become more aggressive and antisocial over time. As such, most psychologists believe it is a poor way to eliminate aggressive or other unwanted behaviour.  The criminal justice system of most cultures administers harsh punishments both as retribution and as a means of deterring violent crimes. Laboratory experiments indicate that punishment can indeed act as a deterrent, but only if two conditions are met: The punishment must be prompt and certain, and it must be unavoidable.

In the real world, these conditions are rarely met.  A study by the National Academy of Sciences (see Berkowitz, 1993) demonstrated that consistency and certainty of punishment were far more effective deterrents of violent behaviour than was severe punishment, including the death penalty.

B. Catharsis and Aggression  Catharsis is the notion that “blowing off steam”—by behaving aggressively or watching others do so—relieves built-up anger and aggressive energy and hence reduces the likelihood of further aggressive behaviour.  Studies show that when people commit acts of aggression, such acts simply increase the tendency toward future aggression, rather than reduce or satisfy it.

1. Blaming the Victim for our Aggression  Repeated aggression is a downward spiral. When you hurt another person, especially if they were an innocent victim, you experience cognitive dissonance. A good way for you to reduce dissonance is to convince yourself that hurting the person was not a bad thing to do, because he or she is a bad person who deserved to be hurt. But this also sets the stage for further aggression, because once a person has succeeded in finding reasons to dislike another, it is easier to harm that victim again.

C. What Are We Supposed to Do with Our Anger?  It is possible to control anger by actively enabling it to dissipate. Actively

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enabling means using simple tools, such as counting to 10, before expressing anger. Taking deep breaths or getting involved in a pleasant, distracting activity are active ways of enabling the anger to fade away.

1. Communication and Problem-Solving  Feeling angry is part of being human, but we have to learn the right skills to express anger or annoyance constructively and nonviolently.

In most societies, it is precisely the people who lack those social skills who are most prone to violent solutions to problems in relationships.  It is possible to express anger in a nonviolent and nondemeaning way.

You can do this (after counting to 10!) by making a clear, calm, and simple statement indicating that you are feeling angry and describing, nonjudgmentally, precisely what the other person did to bring about those feelings. It is important that you speak in a way that does not cause your listener to become defensive or counterattack (“You’re mad at me? Well, let me tell you where you’re wrong!”) but rather in a way that invites problem solving.

2. Defusing Anger through Apology  In a series of studies at York University, researchers found that people who are high in self-control are more likely to apologize for their transgressions than those who are low in self-control.  Importantly, women and men may have different ideas about when an apology is necessary. In a journaling study, men had a higher threshold for what constitutes an offensive action warranting an apology.

Moreover, when the participants were asked to evaluate actual offences they had experienced in the past or come up with imaginary ones, again the men rated them all as being less severe than did women.

3. The Modeling of Nonaggressive Behaviour  When children see a nonaggressive model before being placed in a situation in which they themselves were provoked, they showed a much lower frequency of aggressive responses than did children who were not exposed to the nonaggressive models.

4. Building Empathy  Most people find it difficult to inflict pain on a stranger unless they can find a way to justify it, and the most common way of justifying it is to dehumanize the victim. By building empathy among people, aggressive acts should be more difficult to commit.

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KEY TERMS Aggression: Intentional behaviour aimed at causing either physical or psychological pain Hostile Aggression: An act of aggression stemming from feelings of anger and aimed at inflicting pain or injury Instrumental Aggression: Aggression as a means to some goal other than causing pain Testosterone: A male sex hormone associated with aggression Social Learning Theory: The theory that we learn social behaviour (e.g., aggression) by observing others and imitating them Serotonin: A brain chemical responsible for controlling mood, attention, sleep, and pain Serotonin Deficiency Hypothesis: The theory that people who are low in serotonin tend to be more aggressive Frustration-Aggression Theory: The theory that frustration—the perception that you are being prevented from obtaining a goal—will increase the probability of an aggressive response Relative Deprivation: The perception that you have less than you deserve, less than what you have been led to expect, or less than what people similar to you have Weapons Effect: The increase in aggression that can occur because of the mere presence of a gun or other weapon Catharsis: The notion that “blowing off steam”—by performing an aggressive act, watching others engage in aggressive behaviour, or engaging in a fantasy of aggression—relieves built-up aggressive energies and hence reduces the likelihood of further aggressive behaviour

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INTEGRATING “TRY IT!” ACTIVE LEARNING EXERCISES I. Try It! Insults and Aggression (LO 11.3) This exercise, found on page 357 of the text, asks students first to think about the last time they felt insulted by another person, and then answer a number of questions. Who insulted you? For discussion ideas, see the Try It! Answer Key.

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IN-CLASS EXERCISES Exercise 11–1 Aggression: Is It or Isn’t It? As an in-class exercise, assign small groups of three to four students to prepare a list of ten aggressive behaviours. It would be a good idea to give some direction as to the type of acts you expect. Here are some examples:               

A cat kills a mouse.

A person joins a rugby team.

A farmer slaughters a turkey for Thanksgiving dinner.

A driver tailgates another driver who passed him/her on the right.

A soldier kills an enemy.

A golfer breaks their club over their knee.

A hunter kills an elk only for its antlers.

Two university students fight over a potential romantic partner.

A person passes along a rumor about another’s affair in the workplace.

A woman sprays a would-be rapist with pepper spray.

A parent spanks a child who has disobeyed.

A driver honks at someone who has cut her/him off.

A parent yells at a child who has broken a vase.

A student makes fun of the professor behind the professor’s back.

A student gives a professor low teaching evaluations after receiving a lower grade than expected.

After the students have prepared their lists, categorize the items and make a master list of the examples using the following headings: harm to living/nonliving things, duty, sport, accident/intentional, killing for food, self-defence/attacking, thrill aggression. Create a document to project on the screen in the classroom with these headings and record the examples as they are presented by each group. Have the class discuss each item and try to reach a consensus on whether it is aggression. Many items will not be argued to a consensus. Use these discussions as a lecture lead-in and examples in your lectures on aggression.

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Exercise 11–2 Aggression: Innate or Learned?

Ahead of Time: At least one class period before the debate is to take place, divide students into two groups, randomly assigning each student to one side of the debate: Aggression is learned.

OR Aggression is innate.

Ask students to prepare arguments for their position, and find illustrative examples and research studies to support their position.

In Class: You can decide on the format and the formality of the debate based on the time and environment you have to work with.

Exercise 11–3 Media Reports of Aggression Ahead of Time: One or two class sessions ahead of time, assign each class member to find a report in the press dealing with aggression. Students may search online for news articles from sources like CBC news, The National Post, or The Globe and Mail. Distribute Handout 11–3 to all students. Briefly go over the instructions with the class. After students turn in their content analyses for you to analyse, frequencies may be recorded on a document that can be projected on a screen at the front of the class (a data sheet template is included). Cross-tabulations and correlations are fairly easy for students to understand, although you will have to choose portions of the data to present to the class.

In Class: Summarize the results of the data analysis. Interesting relationships often emerge (e.g., alcohol is associated with angry aggression). Engage in a discussion of the results and relate them to the topic of aggression as discussed in the textbook.

Further Considerations: Content analyses can be used to examine newspaper articles, magazine articles, speeches, etc. Depending upon the pattern of results, the exercise may be used as a stepping stone to a class discussion of spousal abuse, rape, victimization or victims’ responses, drug abuse and aggression, etc. Students are often surprised to discover how easy it is to find articles about aggression, and the “real-world” connection makes a particularly effective learning experience.

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 11–3: REPORTS OF AGGRESSION IN THE PRESS Directions: Your task is to find a newspaper (or newsmagazine) article that details an aggressive act. Choose an article that is long enough to give some details about what led up to the aggressive act as well as its consequences. For example, you may choose an article that describes a murder, assault, beating, or rape. You might also, if details are given, choose an article that describes indirect aggression, such as destroying someone’s property. Remember that the definition of aggression involves intentional physical or psychological harm. You will be doing a simple content analysis of the article. A content analysis is a systematic, objective description of a communication. Print a copy of the article to bring in with your content analysis. Read the article carefully and then answer the questions below.

1. What type of aggression is described in the article?

Instrumental aggression (means to an end; e.g., robbery) _____ Hostile aggression (end in itself; e.g., a fight) _____

2. Was the aggressor male or female?

Male _____ Female _____

3. Was the victim male or female?

Male _____ Female _____

4. Was alcohol or drugs involved?

No _____ Yes _____ Cannot determine _____

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5. Did the victim know the aggressor?

No _____ Yes _____ Cannot determine _____

6. Did the aggressor give a reason for her/his aggression?

No _____ Yes, retaliation for someone’s provocation _____ Yes, frustration _____ Yes, arousal or excitement _____ Yes, other _____

7. Did the victim fight back?

No _____ Yes _____ Cannot determine _____

8. How severely harmed was the victim?

1 Not at all

2

3

4

5

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6

7 Extremely

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Exercise 11–3 Data Sheet Frequencies 1. What type of aggression is described in the article?

Instrumental aggression (means to an end; e.g., robbery) _____ Hostile aggression (end in itself; e.g., a fight) _____

2. Was the aggressor male or female?

Male _____ Female _____

3. Was the victim male or female?

Male _____ Female _____

4. Was alcohol or drugs involved?

No _____ Yes _____ Cannot determine _____

5. Did the victim know the aggressor?

No _____ Yes _____ Cannot determine _____

6. Did the aggressor give a reason for her/his aggression?

No _____ Yes, retaliation for someone’s provocation _____ Yes, frustration _____ Yes, arousal or excitement _____ Yes, other _____

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7. Did the victim fight back?

No _____ Yes _____ Cannot determine _____

8. How severely harmed was the victim?

Not at all 1 _____ 2 _____ 3 _____ 4 _____ 5 _____ 6 _____ 7 _____ Extremely

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Exercise 11–4 An Analysis of Aggression on Television Using Handout 11–4, assign your students to analyse a particular type of television program.

Examples include cartoons, music videos, Netflix shows, and reality TV, or you can assign different students to analyse different categories for purposes of comparison. Ask each student to watch thirty minutes of a program in the assigned category and to count each aggressive action that occurs during the program. Additionally, students should code whether each act of aggression is physical or verbal aggression, what the sexes of the victim and the perpetrator are, whether there was a weapon involved, and whether the aggression is somehow rewarded, punished, or has no consequence for the perpetrator. During discussion, students can compare their findings. Are different types of aggression prominent in children’s cartoons as opposed to shows for adults? Which category of program is the most violent? How frequently is aggression rewarded in these shows in some way? How often is it punished? What are the implications of this for what children are learning from television? What can parents do or say as they watch television with children to counter the possible negative effects of televised violence? Have the students discuss ways to lower the number of aggressive shows, and lead into a discussion of the ways to reduce/control aggression and violence.

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Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT 11–4: AN ANALYSIS OF AGGRESSION ON TELEVISION Directions: Your task is to watch thirty minutes of a program of a type assigned to you by your instructor. As you watch the program, count every instance of aggression. In addition, you will be doing a simple content analysis. A content analysis is a systematic, objective description of a communication. Code each act of aggression as to whether it is a physical act of aggression (e.g., striking someone) or a verbal act of aggression (e.g., insulting someone or making derogatory remarks). Also indicate the sex of the perpetrator of the aggression and of the victim, and indicate whether or not a weapon is involved. Finally, rate whether or not the aggression is rewarded in some way (the perpetrator gains something or is approved of by others for aggressing), whether it is punished, or whether there is no consequence to the aggression.

Program watched: ___________________________________________

Physical or verbal?

Sex of perpetrator?

Sex of victim?

Weapon involved?

Rewarded, punished, or no consequence?

Total number of aggressive acts observed: __________

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Exercise 11–5 Aggression Debate Ahead of Time: At least one class period before the debate is to take place, divide the students into two groups, randomly assigning each student to one side of the debate: Men are more aggressive than women by nature, regardless of the culture they live in.

OR Men are not more aggressive than women by nature.

Ask students to prepare arguments for their own position, and to find illustrative examples and research studies to support their position.

In Class: You can determine the format and the formality of the debate based on the amount of time you have for class and the environment that you are in for your class.

Discussion: Studies have found consistent gender differences across cultures, suggesting that genetic factors may be involved. Meta-analyses suggest that gender differences in aggression are consistent and seem to be greater for physical than for social aggression. Animal research shows clear and consistent sex differences in aggression.

However, in most of the world’s cultures, men are expected to be more aggressive than women; perhaps the expectations themselves produce consistent gender differences. Women feel more anxiety and guilt about aggression, and their greater empathy may sensitize them to the negative consequences of aggression. Research implies that women may be just as aggressive as men when the aggression is justified, when its form is covert, and when empathy-arousing factors are controlled.

Exercise 11–6 Aggression Questionnaire Administer “The Aggression Questionnaire” by Arnold H. Buss and Mark Perry (1992, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, pp. 452–459). The authors provide overall means for men and women that your students can use for comparison. Additionally, four subscale scores can be calculated: for physical aggression, verbal aggression, anger, and hostility. Buss and Perry report that males score higher than females on all subscales except anger. Is this true for your students? Why do they think that this gender difference exists?

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Exercise 11–7 Cultural Aggression Have students bring to class data they were able to find that demonstrates measures of aggression across cultures. For instance, have them gather data on violent crime rates across various countries. You can make this quick and easy by assigning each student a different country to research. Take students’ data and produce a table that can be projected to the front of the room.

Use the table to discuss cultural differences in violent behaviours and have students propose potential influencing or comorbid factors (e.g., varying GDPs, political turmoil, different cultural connotations of violence, etc.) for the differences you observe.

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STUDENT PROJECTS AND RESEARCH ASSIGNMENTS Exercise 11–8 What Causes Aggression?

Ask students to prepare outside of class a report on the instigators or causes of aggression that are most often observed in videos. Have them watch any video of their choice that includes at least one situation where aggression can be observed. Ask them to identify the cause of the aggression (e.g., frustration, insult, blocked goal, relative deprivation, etc.). Determine the causes you will look for prior to sending them out to watch their video. This can be a good review of the causes of aggression from the text. Have students bring back to class their observations from their video. Record the frequencies of the various causes of aggression in the videos as observed by your students. Discuss the trends in the data that you observe.

Exercise 11–9 Writing to Your Member of Parliament (MP) (or Newspaper) Given what students have learned in this chapter on the effects of punishment on aggression, how would they suggest to parliament that we proceed in changing the penal system? Have them write a letter to their congressional representative detailing what they believe will and will not work, providing as much support as they can muster from scientific literature.

Alternatively, have them write to their MP (or to a newspaper) about what they think we should do about the level of violence on television, in films, and in video games, again detailing as much support as they can from the social psychological literature.

Exercise 11–10 Reducing Aggression: Theory into Action In this assignment, your students are to design a violence-reduction program based on the theories and research presented in the chapter. Instruct them to design the program either for their former high school, your college or university, their fraternity, or another organization. The plan should be detailed, specific, and based on research regarding what increases aggression and what successful ways of reducing aggression are. You may want to have students work in groups and/or present their ideas to the class.

Exercise 11–11 Hormones and Aggression The text states, “Understanding the nuanced differences between the way that testosterone and estradiol relate to aggression is an active research area that seeks to understand the biological contributions to sex differences in aggression.” Because this is such an active area of research, have students prepare a one-page summary of the latest research they can find that further

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elucidates the role of these hormones in aggression. Make sure that they are using scientific evidence from peer-reviewed journal articles. Note: You may have to help students find some of this research outside of the normal social psychology journals. They may need to branch out into the neurosciences to find some of the latest research.

Exercise 11–12 Decreasing the Impact of Violence Ask students to create a trifold brochure that could be used by pediatricians to help parents understand the role of media in aggressive behaviours. Have them include in their brochures current research in this area that outlines the problem, and also have them include the research that suggests solutions or how to minimize these effects. Ask students to be creative in their layouts and to use interesting graphics to keep readers engaged and understanding the purpose of the brochure.

Exercise 11–13 Educational Training on Bullying Have students pretend that they have just been hired by the school district to design and implement a bullying prevention program. Have them put together training ideas they can present in class. Their training ideas should be based on scientific research. Have them present their ideas to their classmates for feedback. Have they effectively developed a program that targets what we already know about bullying? Did they use ideas that have a sound research basis for prevention?

Students can also be asked to specifically target cyberbullying in some of their projects.

Exercise 11–14 Classrooms Out of Control Ask students to pretend that it is the middle of a school term and they have been appointed as the substitute teacher to take over a fifth-grade class for the remainder of the term. The former teacher left as the result of a nervous breakdown induced by a classroom full of aggressive children. Form groups of three to four students and ask them to prepare a plan to bring this classroom under control. Have them detail several strategies and be prepared to present their ideas to the “PTA” (the rest of your class as a whole).

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CRITICAL THINKING TOPICS AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 

Have students think about and jot down notes on the last time they were really hurt. Have them share their responses and discuss the types of aggression they include, as well as whether women are more likely to mention relational aggression and men are more likely to mention physical aggression. Some of their examples will also not count as aggression because the harm was unintentional.

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Ask students to reflect on the differences between hostile aggression and instrumental aggression. Have them brainstorm a number of examples and then discuss the impact of intent in aggressive acts.

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Ask students to reflect on the evolutionary theory of aggression and ask them if they agree.

Are men programmed to be more aggressive? Or do we socially reinforce men for being aggressive?

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Ask students if they think viewing sporting events increases, decreases, or has no effect on subsequent aggression. Does participating in them result in more aggression than just viewing them? Ask how they have felt after watching a violent sporting event. Use this question as a way to discuss the catharsis effect, the frustration-aggression hypothesis, and social learning theory. You might also wish to tell students about a study by Batrinos (2012) suggesting that watching a sports game increases men’s testosterone levels [Batrinos, M. (2012). Testosterone and aggressive behavior in man. International Journal Of Endocrinology & Metabolism, 10(3), 563-568. doi: 10.5812/ijem.3661].

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Ask students how we, as individuals, limit the violence we view on TV. In what ways can the film industry limit it?

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Ask students what they feel is the best way to reduce levels of aggression in society.

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Have students reflect on their years in middle school and provide specific examples of “aggression” they observed in both boys and girls. Did these patterns follow the genderrelated patterns of aggression discussed in the text? Are boys more physically aggressive, and are girls more relationally aggressive?

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Have students describe the Bobo doll experiment and have them put into their own words what the Bobo doll experiment showed.

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The text debates the causes of aggression. Ask students what they feel the relative role of “nature versus nurture” is in determining aggression.

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Ask students to provide a personal example of relative deprivation. In their example, were they “absolutely” deprived as well? Ask students if they can think of an example where someone is absolutely but not relatively deprived.

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Ask students to provide an example of a situation in which drugs or alcohol made someone more aggressive. What social psychological explanations are there for why drugs or alcohol might have this effect?

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Ask students what parents can do to decrease the potential impact of media violence on their children.

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Ask students if they feel that gender really plays a part in the expression of aggression. What kind of difference does it make? Are women less physically aggressive than men but as aggressive as them in other ways, or not? Ask them about the potential impact of these gender effects. For instance, if more women were political leaders, would there be less war?

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Ask students why they believe school shootings have increased in North America. The text focuses on the Columbine shootings, but since then, several others have occurred yearly. The characteristics of these shootings seem to change, from single-victim to multiple-victim shootings, and from shootings where a particular victim was targeted to shootings where the victims were randomly selected, mass-execution-style. Additionally, the perpetrators seem to be getting younger. Ask students what they think is causing this increase, and what can be done to stop it.

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Another change that has occurred recently is the increase in aggression on the highways. Ask students why they think that road rage occurs. How can it be explained in terms of the various theories of aggression discussed in the chapter? Why has it increased in recent years—how do the various theories explain this? Ask students what they can do if they are in a situation where they are the target of another’s road rage. How can they act to decrease any tendency that they themselves feel to drive aggressively?

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Ask students to reflect on the following question: If aggressive behaviour is related to temperature, what does this suggest about the effects of global warming?

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Ask students to contemplate the relevance of the weapons effect to American gun control laws.

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SUGGESTED VIDEOS Survival Tips! Awareness of the Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis 0:56min -

Bobo Doll Experiment 1:49 min

Physical Punishment and Aggression 1:57min

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12 Prejudice Causes and Cures CONTENTS Learning Objectives Chapter Outline Key Terms Integrating “Try It!” Active Learning Exercises In-Class Exercises Student Projects and Research Assignments Critical Thinking Topics and Discussion Questions Suggested Videos

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES 12.1 Summarize the three components of prejudice.

12.2 Explain how we measure prejudices that people don’t want to reveal—or that they don’t even know they hold.

12.3 Describe the major causes of prejudice.

12.4 Describe three individual difference variables that are linked to prejudice.

12.5

Explain the ways in which prejudice affects its targets.

12.6

Summarize the conditions that can reduce prejudice.

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CHAPTER OUTLINE I. What is Prejudice?

Learning Objective: 12.1 Summarize the three components of prejudice.  Prejudice is a hostile or negative attitude toward people in a distinguishable group based solely on their membership in that group.  We are all targets or potential targets of prejudice for no other reason than our membership in an identifiable group, whether on the basis of race, ethnicity, skin colour, age, gender, gender identity, sexual orientation, religion, body size, or disability, just to name a few. However, clearly some people are more victimized than others.

A. Stereotypes: The Cognitive Component  We make sense out of our social world by grouping people according to characteristics that are important, most notably gender, age, and race.

Stereotyping goes a step beyond simple categorization. A stereotype is a generalization about a group of people in which identical characteristics are assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of actual variation among the members. It is important to point out that stereotyping does not necessarily lead to negative or harmful behaviours. Often stereotyping is merely a way to simplify how we look at the world—and we all do it to some extent. Gordon Allport (1954) described stereotyping as “the law of least effort.”

1. Stereotypes of Gender  Gender stereotypes exaggerate differences between the sexes, ignoring differences in personality traits and abilities within each gender, and oversimplify (Fine, 2010).  Peter Glick and Susan Fiske (2001, 2011) have found that around the world sexism takes two basic forms: hostile sexism and benevolent sexism. Hostile sexists hold negative stereotypes of women: Women are inferior to men because they are inherently less intelligent, less competent, less brave, less capable of math and science, and so on. Benevolent sexists hold positive stereotypes of women: Women are kinder than men, more empathic, more nurturing, and so on.  Gaucher et al. (2011) have also found that job advertisements for male-dominated occupations contain more stereotypically masculine words than job advertisements for female-dominated occupations.

B. Discrimination: The Behavioural Component  Discrimination is defined as unjustified negative or harmful action toward a member of a group solely because of his or her membership in that group.  Discrimination can affect every area of a person’s life. There is considerable evidence that people who are members of disadvantaged groups have much more difficulty finding housing because of discrimination.  Research suggests that in Canadian courts, black defendants still receive Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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harsher sentences than white defendants, despite the establishment of procedures that are intended to screen jury members for racial bias (Schuller, Kazoleas, & Kawakami, 2009). In addition, Indigenous people constitute a shocking 74 percent of adults taken into custody in Manitoba and 76 percent of those taken into custody in Saskatchewan (Malakieh, 2018).

II. Detecting Hidden Prejudices Learning Objective: 12.2 Explain how we measure prejudices that people don’t want to reveal— or that they don’t know they hold.  Modern racism is defined as acting unprejudiced outwardly but inwardly maintain prejudiced atttiudes.

A. Detecting Prejudice at the Unconscious Level: The Implicit Association Test  One method of detecting prejudice that has garnered international attention is the Implicit Association Test (IAT), which measures the speed of people’s positive and negative associations to a target group. To try out the Implicit Association Test, go to https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit.  Although the IAT is still the most widely used implicit measure, it has not been without controversy (De Houwer et al., 2009). For example, some psychologists have argued that the test is really just assessing cultural stereotypes rather than whether the person taking the test holds implicit prejudices (Arkes & Tetlock, 2004; Olson & Fazio, 2004). Even if that is the case, the fact that different people respond differently on the IAT suggests that some people hold these stereotypes more strongly than other people.

B. Detecting Hidden Prejudices using Behaviour Measures  Another way that researchers detect people’s prejudices is by observing their behaviour in different situations. A relatively recent method for identifying hidden prejudices is to send identical résumés to potential employers, varying only a name that indicates gender (e.g., John or Jennifer), implies race (e.g., membership in an African-American organization), mentions religious affiliation, or describes an applicant as obese (Acquisti & Fong, 2014; Agerström & Rooth, 2011; Rooth, 2010). Research suggests that employers show bias in responding.

C. Development of Questionnaires that Measure Prejudice in a Subtle Manner  There has also been an effort to construct questionnaires in a way that assesses prejudice more unobtrusively.  For example, researchers at the University of Saskatchewan have developed a more subtle measure called the Modern Homonegativity Scale (Morrison et al., 2009). Nowadays, students at Canadian and American universities tend to disagree with statements such as “Male homosexuality is a perversion” which appear on traditional scales that measure prejudice toward gay men and lesbians in a direct way. However, those who are prejudiced toward these groups are willing to agree with statements such as “If gay men want to be treated like everyone else, then they need to stop making such a fuss about their sexuality/culture.”

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III. What Causes Prejudice?

Learning Objective: 12.3 Describe the major causes of prejudice.

A. The Way We Think: Social Categorization  The first step in prejudice is the creation of groups—putting some people into one group based on certain characteristics and others into another group based on their different characteristics. This kind of categorization is the underlying theme of human social cognition.

1. In-Group Bias  In-group bias is the tendency to favour members of our own group and give them preference over people who belong to other groups. Conversely, out-group members are often seen as possessing negative traits and are often disliked.  This tendency to favour the in-group while denigrating the outgroup is so pervasive that people show this bias even under the most minimal conditions.

2. Why Do We Show In-Group Bias?  Social identity benefits. Belonging to a group gives us a social identity. There is some evidence that the more children and adults identify with a given group, the more positive their attitude is toward that group.  There is also evidence that threats to identity cause people to “circle their wagons” and become even more protective of the in-group. In addition, research suggests that the more strongly one identifies with one’s own group, the more likely one is to discriminate against an out-group.  Self-esteem benefits. Clearly, there is evidence that dividing the world into “us” and “them” gives us a sense of social identity.

Why is this important? According to Tajfel, it gives us a selfesteem boost if we believe that our group is superior and that other groups are inferior.

3. Implications of Social Categorization for Reducing Prejudice  How can people be encouraged to be less prejudiced when they are benefiting from it? One approach is to change people’s perceptions of “us” and “them”—either by promoting a common identity or by emphasizing the superordinate groups to which both in-group and out-group members belong.  Another approach, based on self-affirmation theory, is to have people affirm values that are important to them, which can protect their self-esteem and provide an alternative route to self-esteem so they won’t derogate others.

B. What We Believe: Stereotypes  It turns out that the relationship between stereotyping and prejudice is highly complex.

1. The Activation of Stereotypes  It doesn’t take much to activate a stereotype, and, once

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activated, the stereotype can have dire consequences for how a particular member of that out-group is perceived and treated.  For example, when participants played a video game in which they were supposed to “shoot” a man if he was holding a gun and withhold fire if he was holding a harmless object such as a cellphone, their responses showed evidence of racial biases.

Half of the targets were Black men and half were White men.

The most common mistake people made was to “shoot” a black man who was not holding a gun (see Figure 12.2). In addition, White participants were especially likely to pull the trigger when the people in the pictures were black, whether or not they were holding a gun.

Automatic versus Controlled Processing of Stereotypes  Even people who score very low on prejudice scales can have stereotypes automatically triggered under certain conditions.

Patricia Devine’s (1989) theorizing suggests that the automatic processing brings up information—in this case, stereotypes— but the controlled (or conscious) processing can refute or ignore it.

The Motivation to Control Prejudice  One factor that influences whether stereotypes are automatically activated is the motivation to control prejudice— in other words, whether we want to be non-prejudiced.

The Need to Feel Good about Ourselves  In a series of studies, Sinclair and Kunda (1999) demonstrated that we not only selectively activate stereotypes but also inhibit stereotypes in the service of self-enhancement.

In one of their studies, non-Black participants who were praised by a Black manager were less likely to activate racial stereotypes than when they were criticized by the Black manager. This provides evidence for the motivated activation of racial stereotypes.

Meta-Stereotypes  Researchers use the term metastereotype to refer to a person’s beliefs regarding the stereotype that out-group members hold about their own group. For example, in research conducted at the University of Manitoba, Vorauer and colleagues found that white Canadians believe that Aboriginal Canadians perceive them as prejudiced, unfair, selfish, arrogant, wealthy, materialistic, phony, and so on (Vorauer et al., 1998).  Additional research suggests that the way in which participants expected to be perceived by an out-group member was the most important determinant of their reactions—even more so than their own evaluation of that group.

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C. The Way We Feel: Affect and Mood  Vicky Esses and colleagues suggests that the emotions elicited by a particular group are the most important determinant of our level of prejudice—even more important than our stereotype of that group.  Corenblum and Stephan (2001) suggest emotion is also a strong predictor of the prejudice that minority groups feel toward majority groups. The more negative emotions people expect to feel while interacting with members of another group, the greater their prejudice toward that group.  There is also some evidence for the bidirectionality of this relationship. Esses and Zanna (1995) found that participants in a bad mood described ethnic groups in more negative terms. These findings suggest that if we want to reduce prejudice, it might be best to design interventions that will speak to people’s hearts rather than to their heads.

D. The Way We Assign Meaning: Attributional Biases  One reason stereotypes are so insidious and persistent is the human tendency to make dispositional (internal) attributions—that is, to leap to the conclusion that a person’s behaviour is caused by his or her personality and not the situation or the person’s life circumstances. The ultimate attribution error is our tendency to make dispositional attributions about an entire group of people.  Swim and Sanna (1996) found that over 58 experiments and 20 years, a man's success was attributed to ability, a woman's success to hard work.  Corenblum, Annis, and Young (1996) similarly found that when a white child performed well, both Native and white children made dispositional attributions for the child’s performance (e.g., being smart); when a white child performed poorly, both Native and white participants made external attributions (e.g., bad luck). Exactly the opposite pattern was observed when making attributions for the performance of a Native child.

E. Prejudice and Economic Competition: Realistic Conflict Theory  One of the most obvious sources of conflict and prejudice is competition—for scarce resources, for political power, and for social status. Realistic conflict theory is the theory that limited resources lead to conflict between groups, and result in increased prejudice and discrimination.  Palmer (1996) documented that attitudes toward immigration mirror unemployment rates. As the unemployment rates increased, so did negative attitudes toward immigration, and as they decreased, so did these negative attitudes.  Esses, Jackson and Armstrong (1998) conducted a series of experiments to see whether perceived competition for resources causes unfavourable attitudes toward immigrants. Participants who read an article that focused on the scarcity of jobs and the high rate of participation of skilled immigrants in the job market rated a fictitious group of immigrants more negatively than the participants who read an article that did not mention the job market.

1. Reducing Prejudice by Fostering Common Goals

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Mutual interdependence is a situation in which two or more groups need each other and must depend on each other in order to accomplish a goal that is important to both groups. In a classic study by Sherif (1961) boys' at a camp were put into two groups and were placed in situations designed to increase the cohesiveness of their own group. After feelings of cohesiveness developed within each group, the researchers set up a series of competitive activities in which the two groups were pitted against each other. When they were competing against each other hostility between the groups ensued.

However, when they all had to work together to save the camp through mutual interdependence, prejudice decreased.

F. Pressure to Conform: Normative Rules  As Thomas Pettigrew has noted, many people hold prejudiced attitudes and engage in discriminatory behaviour to conform to, or fit in with, the prevailing majority view of their culture. As social norms change, so does prejudice and discrimination.

1. Injunctification  Injunctification A motivated tendency to see the status quo (the ways things are) as the most desirable state of affairs (the way things should be). This is most likely to occur when people are motivated to justify the current system.

IV. Individual Differences in Prejudice Learning Objective: 12.4 Describe three individual difference variables that are linked to prejudice.

A. Right-Wing Authoritarianism  Right-wing authoritarianism is defined in terms of three clusters of attitudes: authoritarian submission (a high degree of submission to authority figures in society), authoritarian aggression (aggression directed toward groups that are seen as legitimate targets by authority figures), and conventionalism (a high degree of conformity to the rules and conventions that are established by authority figures). Extensive research has demonstrated strong positive correlations between rightwing authoritarianism and racial prejudice.

B. Religious Fundamentalism  Religious fundamentalism is defined as a belief in the absolute and literal truth of one’s religious beliefs. Researchers have found that religious fundamentalism is correlated with racial prejudice as well as with negative attitudes toward single mothers and gay and lesbian individuals.

C. Social Dominance Orientation  Individuals who are high in social dominance orientation believe that groups of people are inherently unequal and that it is acceptable for

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some groups in society to benefit more than others. They prefer to be in the advantaged group, even if it means treating other groups badly.

Research conducted in many countries, including Canada, has shown that social dominance orientation is associated with racial prejudice, sexism, and negative attitudes toward gay and lesbian people and immigrants.

V. Effects of Prejudice Learning Objective: 12.5 Explain the ways in which prejudice affects its targets.  Prejudice is dangerous. In its extreme, prejudice can lead to hatred, dehumanization, and even genocide, but even milder can be consequential, leading even the targets of prejudice to believe that they group is inferior, unattractive, or incompetent.

A. Self-Fulfilling Prophecies  The self-fulfilling prophecy is an attributional process by which we find confirmation and proof for our stereotypes by unknowingly creating stereotypical behaviour in out-group members through our treatment of them.  Word, Zanna, and Cooper (1974) conducted a set of classic experiments that demonstrates the phenomenon. In the first study, they asked White undergraduates to interview job applicants who were either White or Black. The students tended to display subtle discomfort when interviewing the Black applicants, by for example, sitting further away, stammering, and terminating the interview earlier.

In a second experiment, the researchers varied the behaviour of the interviewers so that they acted towards a new White job candidate either the way that the interviewers had acted towards White or the Black applicants in Study 1. They found that when White applicants encountered negative nonverbal behaviour that was similar to what the Black applicants encountered in Study 1, the White applicants were judged to be more nervous and less effective than applicants in a control condition.

B. Social Identity Threat  Social identity threat is the apprehension experienced by members of a minority group that they might behave in a manner that confirms an existing cultural stereotype. This extra burden of apprehension can in turn interfere with people’s ability to perform well in these threatening situations.  More than 300 studies have shown that social identity threat can affect the performance of many groups in society and affects performance in many domains. For example, University of Toronto researchers found that elderly women paired with a young female confederate did worse (recalled less information) when told they were taking a memory test than when they were told it was a reading comprehension test (Kang & Chasteen, 2009) 1. Can Social Identity Threat Be Overcome?

Attempting to suppress anxiety about negative test-taking

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stereotypes just taxes valuable cognitive resources while writing the test. However, changing people’s mindset before taking a test (e.g., by reminding them that they are good students) has been shown to reduce social identity threat. Also, there is some evidence that self-affirmation and social-belonging interventions can also be effective.

VI. Interventions for Reducing Prejudice Learning Objective: 12.6 Summarize the conditions that can reduce prejudice.

A. Changing Stereotypes  Changing stereotypes makes a lot of sense as an approach to prejudice reduce, however there is one main problem: Stereotypes are very resistant to change.  The good news is that when people are bombarded with many examples that are inconsistent with the stereotype, they do gradually modify their beliefs.  Older children (around 10 years old) who were exposed to multiple positive examples of Black people showed less implicit prejudice toward black people than children who were exposed to positive examples of white people or in the flowers (control) condition (Gonzalez, Steele, & Baron, 2017).

B. The Contact Hypothesis  In a recent experiment, it was found that during a cross-race interaction, when a European-American participant displayed anxiety, their African-American partner showed an increase in physiological reactivity, reported more discomfort, and showed more signs of tension behaviourally. Thus, the anxiety of the European participants was contagious—it had the effect of making their African-American partner more anxious and uncomfortable (West, Koslov, Page-Gould, Major, & Mendes, 2017).  According to Vorauer and Turpie (2004), the pressure of trying to appear unprejudiced may actually cause us to “choke,” with the result that we actually show less warmth and responsiveness than we otherwise would.  Thus, although it may seem obvious that the first step toward reducing prejudice would be to bring members of different groups into contact with one another, it is not always as easy as it may seem.  In his strikingly prescient masterwork The Nature of Prejudice, Gordon Allport (1954) observed that contact can reduce prejudice only when four conditions are met: (1) Both groups are of equal status; (2) they share a common goal that generates awareness of their shared interests and common humanity; (3) the contact involves intergroup cooperation; and (4) their contact is supported by law or by societal social norms. However, according to a recent meta-analysis of 515 studies on the contact hypothesis, contact can still have beneficial effects even if not all of these conditions are met (Pettigrew & Tropp,

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C.

D.

2006, 2011).  According to MacInnis and Page-Gould (2015), we should not be surprised that bringing pairs of strangers into a laboratory and requiring them to interact with each other produces stress and anxiety.

However, they argue that with ongoing interactions, we become more comfortable interacting with members of out-groups and may even develop friendships with members of those groups.

The Extended Contact Hypothesis  According to Stephen Wright at Simon Fraser University and Art Aron at Stony Brook University in New York and their colleagues, prejudice can also be reduced simply by informing people that a member of their own group has a close relationship with an out-group member. This is known as the extended contact hypothesis.  The bottom line across the 115 studies that were included in a metaanalysis was clear: Simply knowing that members of our group have friendships with another group reduces our prejudice toward that group (Zhou, Page-Gould, Aron, Moyer, & Hewstone, 2019).

Cooperation and Interdependence: The Jigsaw Classroom  A jigsaw classroom is a classroom setting designed to reduce prejudice between children by placing them in small, desegregated groups and making each child dependent on the other children in the group to learn the course material and do well in the class 1. Setting Up the Jigsaw Classroom  Students are placed in diverse six person learning groups. The day’s lesson is divided into six paragraphs, so that each student has one segment of the written material. The individual must learn his or her own section and teach it to the other members of the group, who do not have any other access to that material.  Compared with students in traditional classrooms, students in jigsaw groups showed a decrease in prejudice and stereotyping, as well as an increase in their liking for their group mates, both within and across ethnic boundaries. In addition, children in the jigsaw classrooms performed better on objective exams, liked school more, and showed a significantly greater increase in self-esteem than did children in traditional classrooms.

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KEY TERMS

Prejudice: A hostile or negative attitude toward people in a distinguishable group, based solely on their membership in that group.

Stereotype: A generalization about a group of people in which identical characteristics are assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of actual variation among the members Discrimination: Unjustified negative or harmful action toward a member of a group simply because of his or her membership in that group Modern Racism: Acting unprejudiced outwardly but inwardly maintaining prejudiced attitudes.

Social Dominance Orientation: People high in social dominance orientation believe that groups of people are unequal and that it is acceptable to step on other people to be “on top.”

Implicit Association Test (IAT): A test that measures the speed with which people can pair a target groups (e.g., Black or White, old or young, Asian or White) with positive or negative stimuli (e.g., the words “honest” or “evil”). This is a popular method of identifying unconscious (implicit) prejudice Social Identity: The part of a person’s self-concept that is based on his or her identification with a nation, religious or political group, occupation, or other social affiliation Social Identity Threat: The feelings and behaviours elicited by knowing that you are being evaluated as a member of your social group instead of as an individual; any situation in which you feel at risk to be devalued on the basis of your social identity. This has also been described as the apprehension experienced by members of a minority group that they might behave in a manner that confirms an existing cultural stereotype (this used to be termed stereotype threat) Normative Conformity: The tendency to go along with the group in order to fulfill the group’s expectations and gain acceptance In-Group Bias: The tendency to favour members of our own group and give them special preference over people who belong to other groups Meta-Stereotype: A person’s beliefs regarding the stereotype that out-group members hold about their own group Ultimate Attribution Error: Our tendency to make dispositional attributions about an entire group of people Realistic Conflict Theory: The theory that limited resources lead to conflict among groups and result in increased prejudice and discrimination Mutual Interdependence: A situation in which two or more groups need each other and must Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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depend on each other to accomplish a goal that is important to both groups Injunctification: A motivated tendency to see the status quo (the ways things are) as the most desirable state of affairs (the way things should be) Contact Hypothesis: Bringing in-group and out-group members together can reduce prejudice.

Contact situations should ideally include the following four conditions: equal status, a common goal, intergroup cooperation, and support for contact by law or social norms.

Extended Contact Hypothesis: The mere knowledge that a member of one’s own group has a close relationship with a member of another group can reduce one’s prejudice toward that group Jigsaw Classroom: A classroom setting designed to reduce prejudice between children by placing them in small, desegregated groups and making each child dependent on the other children in the group to learn the course material and do well in the class

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INTEGRATING “TRY IT!” ACTIVE LEARNING EXERCISES I. Try It! Multiculturalism: Is it Working? (LO 12.1) In this exercise, students are asked to consider Canada's policy of multiculturalism, specifically the notion of celebrating differences. For discussion ideas, please see the Try It! Answer Key. II. Try It! Stereotype Content: Where does it Come From? (LO 12.1) In this exercise, students are asked to construct a list of traits or characteristics of White Canadians, Chinese, East Indian and First Nations peoples. This research builds on research by Schaller and colleagues at UBC. The Try It! Answer Key provides some suggestions about how students’ responses can be used to inform class discussion.

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IN-CLASS EXERCISES Exercise 12–1 Individuating Information At the beginning of class, distribute pieces of paper and paper clips. Ask each student to write down four or five descriptions of themselves that individuate them, rather than stressing their group membership. It helps if the instructor does the same. Ask everyone to clip the paper to their shirt so that other people can clearly see what they wrote. Then ask everyone to take five to ten minutes to circulate around the class looking at what each person wrote. This exercise can stimulate an interesting discussion of how ready we are to categorize people when we first meet them on the basis of their race, gender, age, etc. How can we prevent this rapid categorization so that we see each other as individuals and not group members? The exercise is unrealistic, of course (in everyday life, we don’t wear our individual traits on our sleeves), but it can stimulate a discussion of ways we might try to prevent rapid categorization. Is it possible according to social identity theory? Is it always desirable to present ourselves as individuals rather than group members? Are there times when we are proud of our groups and want to flaunt the fact that we belong to them? But does this promote stereotyping?

Exercise 12–2 Advertisements and Stereotypes Have each student bring one or two advertisements to class that are from a magazine targeted at college-aged people. Ask that the advertisements present a male, a female, or both together (in other words, make sure that they bring in advertisements that present people).

1. Divide the class into several smaller groups and have them discuss if there are sex-role stereotypes apparent in the ads. Why do they think those stereotypes are used? How have advertisements changed in their portrayals of the sexes in recent years? What stereotypes seem to persist? Are there racially diverse groups represented?

2. Have each group report their findings to the class. Also discuss the differences in advertisements from different types of magazines. Ads from Cosmopolitan are likely to be very different from ads in Sports Illustrated—why is this so? Talk about how these reinforce and perpetuate the gender myths.

Sexist aspects that will most likely be observed in advertisements: Women might be physically attractive by current norms, and might be portrayed as dressing/looking beautiful for men or might be overly sexualized; they are presented as psychologically removed from social situations; they may seem mystical; they may be portrayed as dependent on men. Men might be portrayed in professional attire and scenes; they may be holding a woman, but will be positioned over her; they will appear to be in control; they will be portrayed as strong and independent.

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Exercise 12–3 Sexism in Language Put two columns on the board, one that reads “Male” and one that reads “Female.”

1. Have all the women in the class shout out words that are commonly used to refer to men, such as “guy,” “hunk,” “stud,” “bro,” and “dude.” Then have the men say words that refer to women in our society, such as “girl,” “babe,” “cougar,” and “diva.” Some words that students provide could be crude, so encourage students first to be appropriate.

2. Have each side question and take out any words describing their sex that they don’t think should belong. (Optional) 3. It is likely that the list the men come up with will be longer. Why do they think this is so?

Why do men refer to women as animals—e.g., “fox,” “chick,” and “broad” (which means a pregnant cow!)? What other categories can the words be divided into? Why?! How are men and women referred to differently? What does this say about society?

Exercise 12–4 Stereotypes It is often useful at the beginning of this section to let the students provide some examples of stereotypes. One procedure involves finding out groupings in the class—that is, putting categories on the board and asking people to raise their hands if they belong to those groups.

This procedure also helps drive home the point that we are all members of groups that are stereotyped. Some example groups are ethnic groups, religious groups, belief groups (e.g., liberals, conservatives, feminists), social groups (e.g., fraternity and sorority members), occupation/major groups (engineers, English majors), attitude groups (e.g., fans of specific types of music, vegetarians), and appearance groups (redheads, short people). Generate and list on the board far more of these groups than you will ultimately use as a way of pointing out the number of dimensions along which we can stereotype. Once you have fifteen to twenty listings, separate students into small groups of people who belong to each of the groups. Once the class is divided up, have the students in each group generate a list of stereotypes that people have of their group, and also discuss why they think those stereotypes exist. They could also generate a list of things that they hope or wish people would think about their group. You can then have group members present their ideas. How do they believe they have been positively or negatively affected by these stereotypes?

Exercise 12–5 Modern Sexism Scale Janet Swim and her colleagues devised both an old-fashioned and a modern sexism scale to parallel the old-fashioned and modern racism scales developed by McConahay (Swim, Aiken, Hall, and Hunter, 1995, “Sexism and racism: Old-fashioned and modern prejudice,” Journal of Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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Personality and Social Psychology, 68, pp. 199–214). To find the scales produced by Swim, simply search online for “old-fashioned and modern scales of sexism.” The full scales are located at the end of the article. You may wish to administer the old-fashioned and modern sexism scales to your class. Administer the scales and have students score themselves. Also note that the modern scale has three factors: denial of continuing discrimination (items 6–10), antagonism towards women’s demands (items 11–12), and resentment about special favours for women (item 13).

Ask students what the difference is between the old-fashioned and modern items. Do they score higher on the modern sexism scale than on the old-fashioned scale? How do they think their parents and grandparents would score on the scales? What are the implications of living in a society where old-fashioned sexism is largely passé while modern sexism prevails? Recent Gallup poll data shows that both men and women prefer having a man for a boss, and salary discrepancies exist between male and female managers in Fortune 500 companies who have similar levels of education and work experience. Has sexism changed since the development of these scales? What might be questions that students would write for an even more modern sexism scale?

Exercise 12–6 Word Association Assignment In Class: Divide the class into four or five groups. Read the directions on Handout 12.6. Each group will work together for fifteen minutes completing the assignment on the handout and analyzing its implications. After the groups create their lists, bring the class back together for discussion. Have each group select a spokesperson (by volunteer, draft, or elective process) to briefly share the results of the group with the class. List the findings of the groups (reported by their spokespersons) on the blackboard, with positive/negative connotations. (It is important for the class to see the discrepant outcome.) Results of the group work should be written up and turned in at the end of class. Have them write the group members’ names on the document they turn in so as to prompt group participation.

Discussion: Ask the class to discuss what this exercise demonstrates. Discuss how powerful language can be. For example, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis suggests that we know the world only in terms of our language (because language stands between us and the world, it actually shapes the reality we experience). How do primary groups influence one’s belief systems (e.g., one’s prejudices)? If someone says something prejudiced and you don’t respond, are you condoning prejudice and perhaps contributing to the problem? Is there a difference between being overtly prejudiced and being covertly prejudiced? For example, neo-Nazi groups are overtly antiSemitic. What about those who are anti-Semitic but don’t outwardly discuss or demonstrate their feelings? Is one of these more dangerous than the other?

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Name: ___________________________________________ Date: _____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _________________________

HANDOUT 12.6: WORD ASSOCIATION ASSIGNMENT Directions: This assignment requires the members of each group to list as many words, phrases, or ideas associated with the colour words “black” and “white” as possible. It also requires identification or explanation of the connotations of each entry on the list. For example, “white as snow” connotes purity (positive connotation), while “black-hearted” connotes evil (negative connotation). Each entry on the list should be identified in terms of whether the colour connotation is generally regarded as positive or negative in American culture. Each group should try to list at least fifteen entries for each colour. After completing the lists, the group should collectively construct an interpretation of the meaning of the lists. The group spokesperson will then report the group’s findings to the full class.

WHITE

BLACK

1.

1.

2.

2.

3.

3.

4.

4.

5.

5.

6.

6.

7.

7.

8.

8.

9.

9.

10.

10.

11.

11.

12.

12.

13.

13.

14.

14.

15.

15.

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Exercise 12–7 Out-Group Homogeneity Distribute Handout 12.7a and ask students to make ratings first about an in-group and second about an out-group. Some groups you might ask them to consider include:    

People in your major; people in a different, specific major Students at your college/university; students at a rival college/university Students at your college/university; “locals” Members of your own fraternity/sorority; members of a different fraternity/sorority

Have students begin by completing page 1 of Handout 12.7a, for the IN-GROUP of their choice. They should then complete page 2, for the OUT-GROUP of their choice. You should then have them compare results for in-group and out-group. Are they more likely to circle “True for only SOME members, NOT MOST members, of this group” for the out-group as opposed to the in-group? In reporting results, you might want to make it a bit more interactive by having everyone stand, then instruct them to sit down if they circled “True for only SOME members, NOT MOST members, of this group” more often for the out-group than the ingroup.

For a closing activity/assessment, ask them to indicate whether the results of your demonstration support out-group homogeneity bias (see Handout 12.7b).

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Name: ___________________________________________ Date: _____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _________________________

HANDOUT 12.7a: CHARACTERISTICS OF IN-GROUPS AND OUT-GROUPS Directions, Part 1: Select an in-group for yourself, along with a corresponding out-group. Then, for each characteristic listed below, circle the best answer for your IN-GROUP. 1. FRIENDLY TRUE for all or most all NOT TRUE for all or most all members of this group members of this group 2. SMART TRUE for all or most all NOT TRUE for all or most all members of this group members of this group 3. SOCIALLY SKILLED TRUE for all or most all NOT TRUE for all or most all members of this group members of this group 4. PHYSICALLY ATTRACTIVE TRUE for all or most all NOT TRUE for all or most all members of this group members of this group 5. SHY TRUE for all or most all NOT TRUE for all or most all members of this group members of this group 6. LIBERAL TRUE for all or most all NOT TRUE for all or most all members of this group members of this group 7. LIKES TO PARTY TRUE for all or most all NOT TRUE for all or most all members of this group members of this group 8. HARD-WORKING TRUE for all or most all NOT TRUE for all or most all members of this group members of this group 9. ATHLETIC TRUE for all or most all NOT TRUE for all or most all members of this group members of this group 10. TRUSTWORTHY TRUE for all or most all NOT TRUE for all or most all members of this group members of this group 11. WELL-ROUNDED INTERESTS TRUE for all or most all NOT TRUE for all or most all members of this group members of this group 12. GENEROUS TRUE for all or most all NOT TRUE for all or most all members of this group members of this group

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True for only SOME members, NOT MOST members, of this group True for only SOME members, NOT MOST members, of this group True for only SOME members, NOT MOST members, of this group True for only SOME members, NOT MOST members, of this group True for only SOME members, NOT MOST members, of this group True for only SOME members, NOT MOST members, of this group True for only SOME members, NOT MOST members, of this group True for only SOME members, NOT MOST members, of this group True for only SOME members, NOT MOST members, of this group True for only SOME members, NOT MOST members, of this group True for only SOME members, NOT MOST members, of this group True for only SOME members, NOT MOST members, of this group

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Directions, Part 2: For each characteristic listed below, circle the best answer for your OUTGROUP.

1. FRIENDLY TRUE for all or most all NOT TRUE for all or most all members of this group members of this group 2. SMART TRUE for all or most all NOT TRUE for all or most all members of this group members of this group 3. SOCIALLY SKILLED TRUE for all or most all NOT TRUE for all or most all members of this group members of this group 4. PHYSICALLY ATTRACTIVE TRUE for all or most all NOT TRUE for all or most all members of this group members of this group 5. SHY TRUE for all or most all NOT TRUE for all or most all members of this group members of this group 6. LIBERAL TRUE for all or most all NOT TRUE for all or most all members of this group members of this group 7. LIKES TO PARTY TRUE for all or most all NOT TRUE for all or most all members of this group members of this group 8. HARD-WORKING TRUE for all or most all NOT TRUE for all or most all members of this group members of this group 9. ATHLETIC TRUE for all or most all NOT TRUE for all or most all members of this group members of this group 10. TRUSTWORTHY TRUE for all or most all NOT TRUE for all or most all members of this group members of this group 11. WELL-ROUNDED INTERESTS TRUE for all or most all NOT TRUE for all or most all members of this group members of this group 12. GENEROUS TRUE for all or most all NOT TRUE for all or most all members of this group members of this group

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True for only SOME members, NOT MOST members, of this group True for only SOME members, NOT MOST members, of this group True for only SOME members, NOT MOST members, of this group True for only SOME members, NOT MOST members, of this group True for only SOME members, NOT MOST members, of this group True for only SOME members, NOT MOST members, of this group True for only SOME members, NOT MOST members, of this group True for only SOME members, NOT MOST members, of this group True for only SOME members, NOT MOST members, of this group True for only SOME members, NOT MOST members, of this group True for only SOME members, NOT MOST members, of this group True for only SOME members, NOT MOST members, of this group

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Name: ___________________________________________ Date: _____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _________________________

HANDOUT 12.7b: ASSESSMENT OF OUT-GROUP HOMOGENEITY Directions: In this assessment, you will demonstrate your knowledge of out-group homogeneity.

Please answer the following questions and explain your answers in detail.

1. Describe and explain out-group homogeneity in your own words. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

2. What were the results of our in-class study? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

3. Did our results support out-group homogeneity? Explain why or why not. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

4. What questions do you have about out-group homogeneity? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

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Exercise 12–8 Hidden Biases The text introduces the idea that many people demonstrate hidden biases. The text suggests some ways to measure hidden biases. In class, break students into groups of four or five and ask each group to design an experiment to uncover hidden biases in various populations (e.g., teachers, doctors/nurses, or restaurant servers). Using Handout 12.8, have them record their design, hypothesis, and methodology for completing their experiment.

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Name: ___________________________________________ Date: _____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _________________________

HANDOUT 12.8: HIDDEN BIAS EXPERIMENTS 1. Describe what the text says about measuring hidden biases. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

2. What will be the hypothesis of your study? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

3. What methods will you use to measure hidden bias? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

4. What will be the design of your study? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

5. Describe how you will conduct your study. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

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Exercise 12–9 Minimal Group Experience One way to create in-group bias is to divide groups into minimal groups and have them describe the behaviour of the out-group. For instance, break up the class into those who are wearing gym shoes and those who are not. Ask each group to then list aloud the many reasons why the out-group members are or are not wearing gym shoes. As this continues, the comments will get increasingly derogatory, demonstrating an in-group bias.

Exercise 12–10 Morality and Microaggressions Begin this exercise by reminding students that college is a time for them to hone their moral and ethical selves, to discover who they are and who they want to be. Tell them that you are going to pose an ethical question about their own identities. Then ask them if they personally believe that individuals are responsible for their intentions or the effects of their actions on others. This question can also connect to other topics from the course (e.g., aggression, prosocial behaviour).

Most students will probably say that you are responsible for harming others even if it is inadvertent. Introduce the idea of microaggressions, and how they are frequently committed without malice and yet harm those who hear them. Have students think about what constitutes microaggressions, how they can avoid engaging in them, and what they should do ethically if they inadvertently commit microaggressions. In larger classes, students should discuss these questions first in small groups before discussing them with the entire class.

To help students get started, you may want to give them the handout that can be found by searching online for “NFA microaggressions.”

Exercise 12–11 Reflecting on Prejudice Ask your students to consider a time when they felt they were the victim of prejudice or discrimination based on their race, sex, religion, socioeconomic status, or other group membership. This task may be especially challenging for the majority of students, so you might provide some examples. Ask them to write for a few minutes in class about the experience, detailing what happened and how they were feeling at the time. You might also ask them to consider whether the experience made them more or less likely to approach that person again.

What about another person from that person’s group? You can then choose to ask students to share some of their responses or merely use this as a way to help students understand some of the feelings a target of prejudice might feel.

Exercise 12-12 How stereotypes affect us This exercise is based on an experiment by Kunda, Sinclair, and Griffin (1997). Ask students to imagine a very aggressive construction worker and a very aggressive lawyer and to detail how

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each of the two express aggression. Typically, people imagine the construction worker expressing aggression physically and the lawyer expressing it verbally. Thus, the meaning of “aggression” varies depending on who is imagined as expressing it.

Exercise 12–13 The Socialization of Stereotypes This exercise was suggested by Joan Spade of Lehigh University. The goals are to point out how gender socialization starts out at a very young age and to demonstrate how we encounter gender stereotypes everyday.

Have a student read out loud a children's fairy tale or book and show the class the illustrations. a) Have the class examine how female and male characters (or characters from different racial groups) are portrayed differently and the underlying values that are being stressed (i.e., the importance of marriage and physical attractiveness for females and the need for males to be strong and in control). [Some things to look for in Cinderella: the goal for the women is to look pretty and marry rich; the only way Cinderella gets anywhere is my looking physically beautiful; Cinderella is sweet, petite, pretty, domestic, and forgiving of her sisters.] b) If any students comment that it is only a fairy tale (and even if they don't, you might want to mention this), discuss how subtle and powerful the written images can be. c) Ask for ways that the story could be made less sexist (or racist).

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STUDENT PROJECTS AND RESEARCH ASSIGNMENTS Exercise 12–14 Getting to Know You For this project, students are asked to contact the leader of a local advocacy group. The group may be on campus or off campus. Possible groups include LGBT+ organizations and organizations of particular racial and ethnic groups. Ask your students to interview the leader and ask about local and campus issues from the perspective of their organization. What does the organization hope to accomplish? What are their strategies and current initiatives? What do they want the local community to know, understand, and appreciate? Again, you may ask your students to respond in oral or written fashion, depending on the size of your class and consequent time constraints.

Exercise 12–15 Children’s Stereotypes For a student project, ask students to interview children (with their parents’ permission) about the characteristics of different groups, and then report their findings in either written or oral form. Some questions to consider include: What are old people like? What are young people like? What are women like? What are men like? What are girls like? What are boys like? What are city people like? What are country people like? Children will often rely heavily on stereotypes, and this can be particularly true of younger children (aged 3-6 years). You might help students in your class to anticipate this and suggest that students be prepared to share their thoughts about stereotypes with children. After asking these questions, students can be encouraged to remind children that everyone is an individual and to open up an age-appropriate conversation about stereotypes and prejudice, integrating some of what has been learned from this chapter.

Exercise 12–16 In Their Shoes Ask students to think about how their life might be different if they had been born as the opposite sex. Have them reflect on how the activities they have done and the educational opportunities they have had might be different. Have them think about what extracurricular activities they might have been involved in and what their time with their dad or their mom might look like.

Have students write a brief response paper describing their thoughts.

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Exercise 12–17 Designing a Jigsaw As a group project, ask students to design a jigsaw activity for use in one of their groups outside class. Students involved in a team, fraternal organization, club, or study group for another class can design a jigsaw project and then prepare a response paper in which they detail how they used the jigsaw technique and how it worked, as well as explain the relationship between the jigsaw technique and the contact hypothesis.

Exercise 12–18 Confronting Prejudice Ask students to think about a time when they were present and someone said something racist, sexist, or otherwise prejudiced, but they did not speak up. Ask them to think about why it was hard for them to speak up, even though they did not agree. What conditions made it difficult in that situation? Finally, move toward a social psychological analysis of the event. What social psychological principles were at work? Have them write up their reflections in a one-page paper.

Exercise 12–19 Media and Early Learning Have students reflect on the role they think the media plays in the development of prejudicial attitudes and beliefs in young children. What other factors do they feel are significant in shaping these attitudes? Have students watch a TV show or read a book intended for young children.

Have the students look specifically for “teaching moments” on prejudice and discrimination.

What did their TV show or book get right? What did it get wrong? Ask them to present their information to the class.

Exercise 12–20 Educating the Young About Prejudice Ask students to pretend that they have just been hired by a school district to bring an education program to young children in their preschool and kindergarten that teaches them that everyone is truly created equal. Have students design the program and provide you with an outline of the training they would use in these classrooms. They might look at recent research with adults by Patricia Devine.

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CRITICAL THINKING TOPICS AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS •

Ask students what impact Black leaders, like former President Barack Obama or current vice president Kamala Harris have had on stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination in North America. What do students think the impact will be on people who are young children now, as they grow up?

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Have students illustrate how prejudice, discrimination, and stereotyping are still with us today. Have students, for a few extra credit points, bring in illustrations and present them to the class.

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Ask students if they have ever been a “victim” of a positive stereotype that may have placed undue pressure on them.

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Ask students if they have ever experienced social identity threat. Have they ever worried about “throwing like a girl” or being “insensitive like a boy”? Ask students to provide some good examples.

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According to students, in the culture at large, prejudice against which groups is generally frowned upon? In their opinion, are there any groups for which the culture generally condones prejudice?

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Demographic factors such as age, education level, and residence predict prejudice of an individual better than other factors. Ask students why they think this is so.

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Ask students in what general ways they think men and women differ. Might someone else consider their views stereotypes? Why or why not?

•

Have students identify their in-groups. What are the out-groups implied by each of these?

Ask students what kinds of situations make each in-group salient to them?

•

Ask students if there is any accuracy in stereotypes. Have them consider the role of selffulfilling prophecies and social identity threat.

•

Ask students in what ways the racial- and gender-based attitudes of the college students they interact with differ from the views that were prevalent in their high school.

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Have students pretend they are in charge of a school inclusiveness program that honours children of all races. What steps would they take to reduce levels of racial prejudice that may exist in the student body?

•

Ask students to reflect on the kinds of subtle, possibly nonconscious ways they have witnessed prejudice expressed.

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Ask students to provide a personal example of (a) a situation in which they were the target of Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

a prejudicial statement or a discriminatory action; (b) a situation in which they formed a stereotype of a person based solely on his/her physical appearance; and/or (c) an event in which they were pressured by their “in-group” to perform a prejudiced act.

•

Ask students if they have ever been part of a larger group and felt the need to conform to a prejudice expressed by the group. Have them provide examples if they are comfortable doing so.

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Ask students for examples of times when they have seen the media or others in their lives blame the victim of prejudice and discrimination.

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Ask students why they feel we have stereotypes. If they occur because of our tendencies towards being cognitive misers, what are the implications? Going back to the principles taught in Chapter 3, how can we, as a culture, induce people to use more systematic processing when interacting with members of out-groups?

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Ask students to reflect on the conditions presented in the text for reducing prejudice. Ask them to think of specific situations existing in society today where those methods could be applied and a benefit observed.

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Ask students if they feel that any members of their family are racist. If so, ask the students if they know why that prejudice exists. How do the students respond when their family member displays their racism?

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Ask students if they have received messages about who they should or should not marry from friends or family members. What is the rationale behind these messages? Is this an example of prejudice?

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Ask students what they think the role of realistic conflict was in any recent incidents of discrimination they have heard of.

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Ask students to think of their high school experience. What were the stereotypes associated with local rival high schools? Were students at those schools believed to possess certain characteristics? Were the students at other schools seen as being more homogeneous than students at their own high school? What would happen when the two schools met in competition? Would these stereotypes dissipate? Conversely, have they ever shared a workplace with someone from a rival high school? Did this serve to reduce prejudice regarding students from a rival high school?

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Ask students how they think that college campuses combat the negative effects of social identity threat on the academic performance of some students?

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You might consider opening a lecture by asking students to recall their grade school and high school experiences. For those with older siblings, ask them to think about a time when they felt that a new teacher formed an opinion about them based on the teacher’s experience with the sibling. Ask them to consider how such treatment made them feel. Did they tend to seek Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

or avoid contact with this teacher? Did the teacher’s actions bring about a self-fulfilling prophecy? A self-defeating prophecy?

•

Ask students to complete an Implicit Association Test online at https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit. Ask students to answer the following questions about the Implicit Association Test they just completed: (1) What were you told about any biases identified by your test performance? (2) Do you find this feedback about your own implicit associations convincing? (3) What, if anything, surprised you about the experience of taking an IAT?

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

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Minimal Groups 4:04min

The Jigsaw Classroom 0:40min

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

SPA 1 Using Social Psychology to Achieve a Sustainable Future CONTENTS Learning Objectives Chapter Outline Key Terms Integrating “Try It!” Active Learning Exercises In-Class Exercises Student Projects and Research Assignments Critical Thinking Topics and Discussion Questions Suggested Videos

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SPA 1- 1

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1.1

Explain the benefits of using a social psychological approach to address environmental issues.

1.2

Describe the various ways in which social psychology research encourages proenvironmental behaviours.

1.3

Describe some of the benefits of engaging in environmentally sustainable behaviours.

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SPA 1- 2

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Applied Research in Social Psychology Learning Objective: SPA 1.1 Explain the benefits of using a social psychological approach to address environmental issues.  Since its inception, the field of social psychology has been interested in applying what it knows to solve practical problems. Kurt Lewin (1946), generally recognized as the founder of empirical social psychology, made three key points: (1) Social psychological questions are best tested with the experimental method. (2) These studies can be used to understand basic psychological processes and to develop theories about social influence. And (3) social psychological theories and methods can be used to address pressing social problems.  The beauty of social psychology is that, by its very nature, it addresses both basic research, which is concerned primarily with theoretical issues, and applied research, which is concerned primarily with addressing specific real-world problems.  Social psychologists are better equipped than many other academics to study applied problems, such as reducing energy consumption. First, the field of social psychology is a rich source of theories about human behaviour that people can draw upon to devise solutions to problems. Second, and of equal importance, social psychologists know how to perform rigorous experimental tests of these solutions to see if they work.  Only by conducting experiments (as opposed to observational or correlational studies) can we hope to discover which solutions will work the best.  Most people understand that in other domains, such as medical research, testing needs to be strict and thorough. We have laxer standards, however, when it comes to testing psychological and social “treatments,” even though it is difficult to assess the effectiveness of an intervention without a randomly assigned control group—and failing to conduct such tests can have serious consequences.  In an attempt to persuade people to use less energy, researchers gave them information on how much energy the average member of their community uses (social comparison information). People did, indeed, change their energy usage to conform to the norms of their community. Those who used a lot of energy reduced their consumption; however, this had a boomerang effect on those who were already using low amounts of energy, they increased their consumption instead. Social psychologists hypothesized that low energy users might keep up the good work if they were given positive feedback about their low energy consumption. By giving the consumers who used less energy a “smiley” face, while giving those who used more energy a sad face, along with the social comparison information, this boomerang effect was eliminated.

II. Using Social Psychology to Promote Pro-Environmental Behaviours Learning Objective: SPA 1.2 Describe the various ways in which social psychology research encourages pro-environmental behaviours.

A. Resolving Social Dilemmas  Energy conservation is a type of social dilemma called a commons dilemma, a situation in which everyone takes from a common pool of goods that will replenish itself if used in moderation but will disappear if overused. It is in any individual’s interest to consume as much as possible; but, if everyone acts that way, everyone loses and there Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

are no resources left.  Social psychologists have studied the conditions under which people are most likely to act for the common good. Research suggests that communication can be effective.

When people communicate, they are more likely to establish a sense of group identity or solidarity, which makes them more likely to act for the good of the group. Another way to increase cooperation is for one person to set an example by cooperating consistently and without exception. When people observe someone else acting in such a selfless manner, they contribute more to the group as a result. Finally, researchers have found that teaching and activating strong pro-environmental values is another way of promoting sustainable behaviours in commons dilemmas.

B. Conveying and Changing Social Norms  One approach to getting people to behave more environmentally responsibly is to remind them of social norms, the rules a group has for the acceptable behaviours, values, and beliefs of its members.  People follow two kinds of norms: injunctive norms (their perceptions of what behaviours are approved of or disapproved of by others) and descriptive norms (their perceptions of how people actually behave). If people believe a certain kind of behaviour is strongly frowned upon by their social group and they observe that others are obeying the norm, they are likely to follow the norm as well.  Some descriptive norms, especially those among high-school and university-aged students, harm the environment, such as the need to constantly refresh one’s wardrobe, usually by shopping online; although it might seem that online shopping would be better for the environment than shopping in store, recent research shows that online shopping actually has a higher carbon cost, in part because consumer demand for fast shipping options.

C. Making It Easy to Keep Track of Energy Consumption  With some types of consumption, it is not easy for people to keep track of how much of a resource they are using (e.g., gas, electricity, or water). During a drought, people may be asked to conserve water, but it is hard to monitor how much you are using.

Research has found, though, that when water meters were placed on houses in one community, people consumed less water.  What if we got people to keep track of the energy they were saving rather than the energy they were consuming? For example, what if we asked drivers to keep track of the kilometers they avoided driving, by walking, riding a bike, or taking public transportation? Researchers have found that making people more mindful of opportunities to avoid driving does make them more willing to leave their car at home.

D. Introducing a Little Competitiveness  Other researchers have demonstrated that a little competitiveness helps people conserve energy in the workplace. At a factory in the Netherlands, employees in two units were urged to engage in energy-saving behaviours. For one unit, this resulted in modest improvements. For the other unit, though, it resulted in much greater improvements.

Everything about the second unit’s program was the same, except that the group got to see how the other unit was doing (see Figure SPA 1.1, p. 437).

E. Using Intrinsic Motivation and Implementation Plans  People who are internally motivated to preserve the environment engage in more sustainable behaviours. Internal motivation can be encouraged by making people aware Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

of issues, encouraging them to come up with solutions in a positive way and make an implementation plan: specific plans about where, when, and how they will fulfill a goal, such as the goal to recycle.

F. Inducing Hypocrisy  In many areas of the world, fresh water is becoming an increasingly scarce resource. It is thus important to find ways to encourage people to conserve water, especially under drought conditions. The “hypocrisy procedure” can be very effective.  To address such a problem at a university, researchers first made participants mindful of how they sometimes wasted water themselves. Then, in the crucial “hypocrisy” condition, they were asked to make a public commitment, exhorting others to conserve water. In short, they were made aware that they were preaching behaviour they were not practicing. Participants who were made to feel like hypocrites changed their behaviour so that they could feel good about themselves. The hypocrisy procedure has been found to increase other environmentally sound practices as well, such as recycling.

G. Removing Small Barriers to Achieve Big Changes  Sometimes the best way to change people’s behaviour is to make it easy for them to do so. Consider recycling. Many cities encourage residents to recycle, and we all know recycling reduces waste—but it can be inconvenient to do so. There have been two general approaches to this problem. First, some psychologists have focused on changing people’s attitudes (in a pro-environment direction); but sometimes we fail to act consistently with our attitudes. Kurt Lewin (1947) made the observation that big social changes can sometimes occur by removing small barriers from people’s environments. When it comes to recycling, it might be better simply to make it hasslefree (e.g., by instituting curbside recycling) than to try to change people’s attitudes toward the environment. And a number of studies have found this to be true.

III. Personal Benefits of Engaging in Environmentally Sustainable Behaviours Learning Objective: SPA 1.3 Describe some of the benefits of engaging in environmentally sustainable behaviours.  Although many pro-environmental behaviours are costly in terms of time, energy, and money, research shows that people who engage in these behaviours are actually more satisfied with their lives than people who do not. Furthermore, even though people think that material acquisitions will make them happy, it is actually their experiences (e.g., spending time with friends and family) that make people the happiest. This is good news, because experiences do not typically take the kind of toll on the environment that consumerism does.

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SPA 1- 5

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

KEY TERMS

Commons Dilemma: A situation in which everyone takes from a common pool of goods that will replenish itself if used in moderation but will disappear if overused.

Injunctive Norms: People’s perceptions of the behaviour that is approved or disapproved of by others Descriptive Norms: People’s perceptions of how other people actually behave in a given situation, regardless of whether the behaviour is approved or disapproved of by others Implementation Plan: People’s specific plans about where, when, and how they will fulfill a goal

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SPA 1- 6

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

INTEGRATING “TRY IT!” ACTIVE LEARNING EXERCISES I.

Try It! Reducing Littering by Using Injunctive Norms (LO SPA 1.2)

In this exercise, students are encouraged to try picking up some strategically placed litter to see if this will decrease the likelihood that others will litter. See the Try It! Answer Key for suggestions on how to integrate this into class discussion.

II.

Try It! Changing Environmentally Damaging Behaviour (LO SPA 1.2)

In this Try It! exercise, students are encouraged to target a behaviour that they want to change to help the environment, choose a technique from the chapter that could help to change this behaviour, and then measure the success of their intervention. You can find suggestions for how to discuss this in class in the Try It! Answer Key.

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

IN-CLASS EXERCISES Exercise SPA 1–1 Encouraging Sustainability The text presents a number of ways to promote sustainability. Have students form small groups and assign each group an issue related to sustainability (water shortage, emissions, fossil fuel usage, etc.) and have them propose methods, based on the material in this chapter and/or textbook, to address this issue.

Exercise SPA 1–2 Barriers to Sustainability Have students identify an area of their life in which they could do better in building a sustainable future (recycling, limiting driving, composting, etc.). Have them then reflect on the types of things that serve as barriers to their being fully environmentally friendly. Once they have identified an area where they can improve and what the barrier is to their participating, have them meet in small groups of three and discuss strategies to overcome their barriers. Have the groups form accountability partners and have them institute a plan for changing their behaviours. Have the accountability group meet periodically to report their challenges or successes and have them prepare a report that can be turned in at the end of the semester.

Exercise SPA 1–3 Future Full of Happiness?

Before having them read or learn about the research on happiness, ask your students to briefly write about what they hope to be their “life after university.” What do they want that life to be like? Ask them to write silently for several minutes, and then have them code their responses into categories of relationships, financial success/wealth, happiness, etc. Have them count the number of statements related to each category, and then present the research on happiness and wealth. You may then ask students to reconsider and rewrite their statements for homework or for discussion at the next class.

Exercise SPA 1–4 Helping and Happiness Before having them read or learn about the research on happiness, divide students into two groups.

Have one of the groups do something nice for others (e.g., have students pair off and come up with a plan to help their partner study more effectively or help them solve a minor frustration in their life). Have the other group serve as the control group (e.g., have students pair off and come up with presents they would like to receive for their next birthday and share them with their partner).

Immediately afterwards, administer a brief test of mood (e.g., the PANAS, readily available online) and see which group of students has higher mean happiness scores.

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SPA 1- 8

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

STUDENT PROJECTS AND RESEARCH ASSIGNMENTS Exercise SPA 1–5 Monitoring Environmentally Damaging Behaviour The text discusses evidence that one barrier to pro-environmental behaviour is that this behaviour is difficult to monitor. Search for an “emissions calculator” online to help make this easier. The emissions calculator translates figures you input (e.g., kilometers driven, size of your electric and gas bill, etc.) into a figure that tells you how much energy you consumed during the past month.

Many of the calculators provide national comparisons and the ability to log in, so that you can compare your energy usage from month to month. While the monthly time frame does not make this feasible for the basis of a class project on changing behaviours, students might find it interesting to see how their and their family’s energy usage compares to national norms. Students can be asked to monitor their behaviour in one of these ways and then write a paper on how they could reduce their environmental impact.

Exercise SPA 1–6 Designing Environmental Interventions Following work on this chapter, have your students design an environmental intervention for their dorm, sorority/fraternity house, or other place of residence. Have them write a paper detailing the problem as they see it and offering the best solutions to the problem based on their understanding of the social psychological research. You may wish to have them implement the intervention and assess its success.

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

CRITICAL THINKING TOPICS AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 

Ask students why it is important to use the scientific method to determine the causes of events and to track the potential benefits of a new intervention.



Ask students to reflect on what norms for recycling and litter prevention exist on campus. Are these descriptive or injunctive norms? What could students do to increase adherence to them?



Ask students about the most wasteful behaviours that they see on campus. What barriers could be removed to make such behaviours more environmentally friendly?



One critical tenet of environmental science is the equation I = PAT, which stands for (environmental) impact is a function of population, affluence (consumption), and technology [Milbraith, 1996, Learning to Think Environmentally (While There Is Still Time), State University of New York Press]. Of these factors, social psychology has the most to say about reducing consumption. Why has consumption increased? (See Myers, 2000, The American Paradox: Spiritual Hunger in an Age of Plenty, for one social psychologist’s answers.) Ask students if our culture promotes the view that money or objects can promote happiness. What theories in social psychology are relevant to understanding why we are motivated to consume?

How can students use this knowledge to try to promote reduced consumption?



Ask students to describe how drawing people’s attention to both injunctive and descriptive norms can help in getting them to act in a more environmentally responsible way.



Ask students for examples of hypocrisy related to environmental issues that they see in everyday life. How can they use this hypocrisy to shape others’ (or their own) behaviour in more pro-environmental ways?

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SPA 1- 10

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

Suggested Videos The Great Pacific Garbage Patch 0:45min

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SPA 1- 11

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

SPA 2 Social Psychology and Health CONTENTS Learning Objectives Chapter Outline Key Terms Integrating “Try It!” Active Learning Exercises In-Class Exercises Student Projects and Research Assignments Critical Thinking Topics and Discussion Questions Suggested Videos

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SPA 2-1

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 2.1

Define stress, and describe what effect it has on our health.

2.2

Explain how people can cope with and recover from a stressful experience.

2.3

Describe how we can apply social psychology to help people live healthier lives.

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SPA 2-2

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Stress and Human Health Learning Objective: SPA 2.1 Define stress, and describe what effect it has on our health.  There is more to health than germs and disease; we also need to consider the amount of stress in our lives and how we deal with that stress. For example, the cruelty and abuse that many First Nations children suffered from in residential schools during the 20th century continue to have traumatic effects on survivors. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission travelled across Canada to residential school survivors to describe the effects of their residential school experiences.  In a study by the First Nations Information Governance Centre (2018), it was found that more than 40% of respondents who had attended residential schools reported that they were sexually abused, 70% reported that they had suffered physical and verbal abuse.

Residential school survivors were also more likely to have considered suicide.  Furthermore, these negative effects have trickled down to descendants: children and grandchildren of people who went to residential schools report poorer health, more suicidal tendencies, and more substance abuse.

A. Effects of Negative Life Events  Among the pioneers in stress research is Hans Selye (1956, 1976), who defined stress as the body’s physiological response to threatening events. Selye focused on how the human body adapts to threats from the environment, regardless of the source—be it a psychological or physiological trauma. Later researchers have examined what it is about a life event that makes it threatening.  It may seem obvious that the more stress people are experiencing, the more likely they are to feel anxious and get sick. But the findings are not that straightforward, in part because most studies in this area use correlational, not experimental designs.

Additionally, many scales focus on stressors experienced by the middle class and underrepresent stressors experienced by the poor or members of minority groups.  Variables such as poverty and racism are potent causes of stress. Research suggests that the more racism a minority group experiences, the worse their health. In addition, majority groups who express the most racist attitudes also experience negative health outcomes. There is evidence that hostility and aggression (associated with racism) are related to health problems such as coronary heart disease.

B. Perceived Stress and Health  Some situational variables are hazardous to our health regardless of how we interpret them, but others are open to interpretation and seem to have negative effects only on people who construe these events in negative ways. As recognized by Richard Lazarus (1966, 2000) in his pioneering work on stress, it is subjective, not objective, stress that causes problems. An event is stressful for people only if they interpret it as stressful; thus, we can define stress as the negative feelings and beliefs that occur whenever people feel unable to cope with demands from their environment.  The stress caused by negative interpretations of events can affect our immune systems making us more susceptible to health problems.

C. Feeling in Charge: The Importance of Perceived Control  Perceived control—the belief that we can influence our environment in ways that Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

determine whether we experience positive or negative outcomes—is associated with good physical and mental health. When people feel like they are in control, they engage in healthier behaviours (e.g., exercising and eating well) and report better health.

1. Increasing Perceived Control in Nursing Homes  Some of the most dramatic effects of perceived control have been found in studies of older people in nursing homes, where residents often feel they have lost control of their lives.  Studies that have been conducted in the decades since then confirm there are clear benefits of perceived control for older adults when it comes to physical, mental, and psychological well-being (Mallers, Claver, & Lares, 2014), but it is important to keep in mind that it is not helpful to give people control then take it away (Walton, 2014).

2. Disease, Control, and Well-Being  Research shows that the relationship between perceived control and distress is more important in Western cultures than in Asian cultures.  For people living with serious illness, maintaining some form of control has benefits, even when their health is failing.

D. Knowing You Can Do It: Self-Efficacy  Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s ability to carry out specific actions that produce desired outcomes. It is not just a general sense of control that predicts engaging in healthy behaviour, but also the confidence that one can perform the specific behaviour in question. People’s level of self-efficacy has been found to predict a number of important health behaviours.  Self-efficacy increases the likelihood that people will engage in a desired behaviour in two ways. First, it influences people’s persistence and effort at a task. People with low self-efficacy tend to give up easily, whereas people high in self-efficacy set higher goals, try harder, and persist more in the face of failure—thereby increasing the likelihood that they will succeed. Second, self-efficacy influences the way our bodies react while we are working toward our goals. For example, people with high selfefficacy experience less anxiety while working on a difficult task, and their immune system functions more optimally. Research suggests that specific interventions can increase people’s self-efficacy, which can then increase the desired health-related behaviour (e.g., quitting smoking).

E. Explaining Negative Events: Learned Helplessness  Learned helplessness is pessimism that results from attributing a negative event to stable, internal, and global factors.  If we think that a negative event has a stable cause, we have made a stable attribution: We believe that the event was caused by things that will not change over time (e.g., our innate intelligence) as opposed to factors that can change over time (e.g., the amount of effort we put into a task).  Explaining a negative event as stemming from an internal cause—that is, making an internal attribution—means we believe that something about us caused the event (e.g., our own ability or effort) as opposed to factors that are external to us (e.g., the difficulty of a test).

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SPA 2-4

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition



Finally, explaining an event as the result of a global or widespread cause—that is, making a global attribution—is the belief that the event is caused by factors that apply in a large number of situations (e.g., our general intelligence, which will influence our performance in many areas) rather than factors that are specific and apply in only a limited number of situations (e.g., how good we are at math, which will affect our performance in math courses but not in other courses). As Figure SPA 2.4 on page 459 shows, according to learned helplessness theory, making stable, internal, and global attributions for negative events leads to hopelessness, depression, reduced effort, and difficulty in learning.

II. Coping with Stress Learning Objective: SPA 2.2 Explain how people can cope with and recover from a stressful experience.  No one always feels in control, of course, and sometimes it is difficult to avoid being pessimistic after something bad happens. Considerable research indicates that people exhibit various reactions, or coping styles, in the face of such events.

A. Gender Differences in Coping with Stress  The fight-or-flight response is defined as responding to stress by either attacking the source of the stress or fleeing from it.  Shelley Taylor and her colleagues pointed out that most research on the fight-or-flight response has been conducted with male participants. Taylor and her colleagues suggested that a different way of responding to stress has evolved in women, the tend-andbefriend response. Instead of fighting or fleeing, women respond to stress with nurturing activities designed to protect oneself and one’s offspring (tending), and with creating social networks that provide protection from threats (befriending). Although both men and women exhibit the tend-and-befriend response, it is particularly prevalent among women.

B. Social Support: Getting Help from Others  Social support is perceiving that others are responsive and receptive to one’s needs.  There is evidence that social support helps people physically as well as emotionally, and this type of support also seems to prolong the lives of healthy people.

C. Personality and Coping Style  Some people are more likely to seek help from others or are more likely to react in adaptive ways when under stress. There are individual differences that researchers have identified in coping styles.

1. Optimism  There is evidence that optimistic people react better to stress and are generally healthier than pessimists.  There is evidence that most people are unrealistically optimistic about their lives.

We tend to expect that good events are more likely to happen to us than to our peers and that negative events are less likely to happen to us than to our peers.  Expecting that one’s health would decline (termed realistic pessimism, because health does decline with age) was correlated with fewer depressive symptoms.

Having optimistic, but still realistic, expectations was also associated with fewer depressive symptoms.

2. Hardiness

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SPA 2-5

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition



Other personality traits are also related to stress and coping. Hardiness is a combination of self-esteem and a sense of control that helps people interpret and deal with stressful events in a positive, effective manner.  There is evidence that discrimination is correlated with psychological stress—but only for those who have low hardiness. People with hardy personalities who report just as much discrimination report much less stress.  Hardiness is associated with fewer health symptoms, greater work satisfaction, and general life satisfaction.  There is also evidence to show that hardy people treat discrimination as an isolated event and not as an ongoing issue. This is opposed to less hardy people who are more likely to describe disrimination as an unspecific, ongoing, global issue.

3. Resilience  Resilience is defined as the ability to recover from negative experiences and adapt to the demands of life.  High resilience is associated with higher life satisfaction, greater optimism, more positive emotions, and less depression than those who are low in resilience.  Resilience is also positively correlated with social support and social functioning.  There is evidence to show that resilience is the norm not the exception. For example, although the terrorist attacks on 9/11 impacted millions of people, many studies found that a few short years later, the majority of people were able to “bounce back”.

D. Reframing: Finding Meaning in Traumatic Events  Opening up about traumatic events leads to better health. People who write about negative events construct a more meaningful narrative that reframes the event.

Pennebaker (1997) analysed the hundreds of pages of writing his participants provided and found that those who improved the most began with rather incoherent, disorganized descriptions of their problem and ended with coherent, organized stories that explained the event and gave it meaning.  Subsequent research has shown that reframing is especially likely to occur when people take a step back and write about a negative life event like an observer would, rather than immersing themselves in the event and trying to relive it.

III. Using Psychological Interventions to Promote Healthier Behaviour Learning Objective: SPA 2.3 Describe how we can apply social psychology to help people live healthier lives.  According to the World Health Organization, more than half of the deaths worldwide are due to preventable chronic diseases. The second leading cause is obesity.  Health problems resulting from pleasurable activities (e.g., unprotected sex, eating, drinking alcohol, and smoking) are prevalent. It is challenging to find ways to change people’s attitudes and behaviours in ways that lead to better health habits.  The number of obese Canadian adults and children has increased substantially over the past 40 years. According to the Obesity in Canada report released in 2011, obesity rates doubled between 1981 and 2007–2009.  There is also widespread concern about the increase in obesity among children. As one expert stated, “for the first time in recorded history, our younger generations are expected to live shorter lives than their parents due to obesity.”

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition



People who are at risk for getting infected with HIV or other sexually transmitted infections are not taking as many precautions as they should. A Canada-wide health survey found that condom use had increased somewhat over a seven-year period, but it was still the case that more than 30 percent of young adults reported not using a condom the last time they had sex.  Graphic photographs of the effects of poor health practices (like smoking) have been used by the Canadian government to decrease the frequency of these behaviours. These photographs are effective as long as the level of fear is not so threatening that people tune out the message.

A. Message Framing: Stressing Gains versus Losses  Attitude change also depends on the way in which persuasive messages are framed.

Framing messages in terms of losses versus gains can make a big difference.  When trying to get people to engage in behaviour that will prevent disease, it is best to use a “gain frame,” emphasizing what they have to gain by engaging in this behaviour.  When trying to get people to detect the presence of a disease, it is best to use a “loss frame,” emphasizing what they have to lose by avoiding this behaviour. A loss frame focuses our attention on the possibility that we might have a problem that can be dealt with by performing detection behaviours (e.g., examining our skin for cancer). A gain frame focuses our attention on the fact that we are in a good state of health, so to stay that way we should perform preventive behaviours (e.g., using sunscreen when exposed to the sun and condoms when having sex).

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SPA 2-7

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

KEY TERMS Stress: The negative feelings and beliefs that arise whenever people feel unable to cope with demands from their environment Perceived Control: The belief that we can influence our environment in ways that determine whether we experience positive or negative outcomes Self-Efficacy: The belief in one’s ability to carry out specific actions that produce desired outcomes Learned Helplessness: Pessimism that results from attributing a negative event to stable, internal, and global factors Stable Attribution: The belief that the cause of an event is a result of factors that will not change over time, as opposed to unstable factors that will change over time Internal Attribution: The inference that a person is behaving in a certain way because of something about him or her, such as his or her attitude, character, or personality Global Attribution: The belief that the cause of an event is a result of factors that apply in a large number of situations, as opposed to the belief that the cause is specific and applies in only a limited number of situations Coping Styles: The ways in which people react to threatening events Engagement Coping: Active coping, planning, and positive reinterpretation of events Disengagment Coping: This type of coping typically includes denial, distration, and self-blame.

Fight-or-Flight Response: Responding to stress by either attacking the source of the stress or fleeing from it Tend-and-Befriend Response: Responding to stress with nurturing activities designed to protect oneself and one’s offspring (tending) and creating social networks that provide protection from threats (befriending) Social Support: The perception that others are responsive and receptive to one’s needs Hardiness: A personality trait defined as a combination of self-esteem and a sense of control Resilience: The ability to recover from negative experiences and adapt to the demands of life

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SPA 2-8

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

INTEGRATING “TRY IT!” ACTIVE LEARNING EXERCISES I. Try it! The College Life Stress Inventory (LO SPA 2.1)

Renner and Mackin (1998) constructed a long list of potential stressors and had university students rate how often they experienced them and how stressful they were. In this exercise, students are invited to complete an abridged version of this scale. It is important to be aware that some of these questions might be triggering for students. Ideas for how to discuss these results are provided in the Try It! Answer Key. II. Try It! Social Support (LO SPA 2.2) In this exercise, students are asked to complete Cohen et al.’s (1985) social support scale. This could be a stressful exercise for students who have limited social support. Suggestions for how to discuss these results are provided in the Try It! Answer Key. III. Try It! The Life Orientation Test (LO SPA 2.2) Students are asked to complete a ten-item Life Orientation Test that has been used in studies with students to examine levels of dispositional optimism (Scheier, Carver, & Bridges, 1994). To score this measure, students will first need to reverse score their answers to items 3, 7, and 9 (changing 0 to 4, 1 to 3, 3 to 1, and 4 to 0). They should then sum these 3 reversed scored items with their responses to items 1, 4, and 10, ignoring items 2, 5, 6, and 8, that are filler items.

Scores can range from 0 to 24 (6 items times a maximum score of 4 for each item). Higher scores indicate greater dispositional optimism. See the Try It! Answer Key for ways to discuss these results in class.

IV. Try It! Changing Your Health Habits (LO SPA 2.3) In this exercise, students are encouraged to select a health habit and try to improve it using the principles discussed in this chapter. This can be more challenging than it sounds, and it is suggested that they start with small with a limited goal and specific suggestions are provided, including increasing feelings of self-efficacy, making sure to avoid damaging patterns of attributions following set-backs, and seeking social support to change a well-ingrained unhealthy habit.

Suggestions for discussion are provided in the Try It! Answer Key.

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SPA 2-9

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

IN-CLASS EXERCISES Exercise SPA 2–1 Temperament Survey Administer a measure of restrained personality to your students. One sample measure, based on some items from the Watson and Clark General Temperament Survey, is printed in Pennebaker’s (1990) Opening Up: The Healing Power of Confiding in Others. Restrained people are allegedly well-behaved and are less likely to complain to others and to disclose their deepest thoughts and feelings. While this trait is generally admired by society, it can potentially lead to health problems when a person experiences a traumatic event but cannot “open up” about it.

Pennebaker recommends that these people start by writing about their traumas, trying to force themselves to confront painful thoughts and feelings, and practice expressing themselves to people they trust (p. 468).

Students, regardless of their “inhibitor” status, might want to try Pennebaker’s exercise of writing down their deepest thoughts and feelings, especially about any traumatic events they have experienced, spending fifteen minutes a night on this exercise. As the textbook indicates, this practice helped the students in Pennebaker’s studies increase their resistance to illness.

Exercise SPA 2–2 Manage That Stress!

Have students participate in a reflective exercise to identify the things they find most stressful in their lives. Give them an assignment to reflect on their stress each evening for a week, and have them record the events or perceptions that have led to the greatest amount of stress. Once students have identified their primary stressors, have them investigate potential ways to better manage their stress. For example, coping strategies such as exercise, relaxation, and meditation can reverse some of the negative effects of stress. Have them implement that management strategy for a week and then reflect on how they feel. Students can be asked to compose a onepage reaction to incorporating a stress management strategy in their life, in which they reflect on whether or not they will keep that strategy, try others, or drop any attempt to manage their stress.

Exercise SPA 2–3 The Happiness Lab Share or assign a podcost from Yale university professor, Dr. Lori Santos (e.g., Working your way to happiness:https://www.happinesslab.fm/season-2-episodes/episode-4-working-your-wayto-happiness or How to kick bad habits (and start good ones): https://www.happinesslab.fm/season-2-episodes/episode-7-how-to-kick-bad-habits-and-startgood-ones) or youtube video of Dr. Santos speaking about happines lessons. In class, discuss whether the suggestions in these podcasts or videos align with what has been taught. Are there new tips and suggestions that could bring greater happiness to students’ lives?

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SPA 2-10

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

STUDENT PROJECTS AND RESEARCH ASSIGNMENTS Exercise SPA 2–4 Public Service Announcement Assign students to small groups of three or four students, and task them with researching how to design and implement a public service announcement. Ask them to develop a public service announcement about the negative effects of stress and the importance of learning how to manage stress. Have students share their public service announcements with the rest of the class.

Exercise SPA 2–5 Coping Brochure Have students develop a trifold brochure that might be used in a doctor’s office to educate patients on the many coping methods that can be used to help mitigate the negative effects of stress on our health. Have students develop an informative brochure that explains the options available for coping with stress and that gives patients the information they need to employ those coping strategies in their own lives. Make sure they include enticing and informative graphics that make it appealing to the patients.

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SPA 2-11

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

CRITICAL THINKING TOPICS AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 

Ask students to provide a personal example of a situation that some people may perceive as stressful but others may not. What makes the difference?



Ask students what impacts whether or not they perceive an event in their life as stressful.

Can events be reframed to reduce their effects on our health?

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Ask students to reflect on what they believe contributes to resilience. What can they do to improve their resilience?

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Ask students what kinds of control we can have over our lives. What are the costs of not having enough control? Of believing that one has more control than one really has? Under what circumstances is having an illusion of control as beneficial as really having it?

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Ask students what the benefits of social support are. How does social support help? Are there any downsides to support? Is social support always supportive?

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Ask students how they can provide social support to others. In what ways can they elicit better social support from others when they need it?

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Ask students if stress is always bad for them. Are there any ways in which it can be good?

If so, how could students maintain stress at an optimal level?

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Do students believe stress levels in Canada are higher today than they were a generation ago? If so, why do they think this might be?

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University can be a stressful experience. Validate this and ask students what they think they can do to decrease stress. How do students currently cope? Have they learned some new tips from this chapter? Have them reflect on some strategies they can use to reduce stress in their life.

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SPA 2-12

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

Suggested Videos Optimism and Resilience 1:01min -

Do Women and Men Cope with Stress Differently? 0:29min

Go to youtube.com and search for “What psychological science says about happiness” to watch the video by Laurie Santos Go to youtube.com and search for “Dr. Laurie Santos’ 5 Favorite Coping Tips” to watch the video

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SPA 2-13

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

SPA 3 Social Psychology and the Law CONTENTS Learning Objectives Chapter Outline Key Terms Integrating “Try It!” Active Learning Exercises In-Class Exercises Student Projects and Research Assignments Critical Thinking Topics and Discussion Questions Suggested Videos

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SPA 3-1

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 3.1 Explain what psychological research tells us about the accuracy of eyewitness testimony.

3.2 Describe other kinds of evidence that courts rely on in determining the innocence or guilt of suspects.

3.3. Describe how social psychology helps explain how juries make decisions.

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SPA 3-2

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Eyewitness Testimony Learning Objective: SPA 3.1 Explain what psychological research tells us about the accuracy of eyewitness testimony.  One of the most common causes of an innocent person being convicted of a crime is an erroneous eyewitness. In countries such as Canada, the legal system assigns a great deal of significance to eyewitness testimony.  Systematic experiments have confirmed that jurors rely heavily on eyewitness testimony when they are deciding whether someone is guilty. Unfortunately, research conducted in the United States and Canada shows that jurors also tend to overestimate the accuracy of eyewitnesses.

A. Why Are Eyewitnesses Often Wrong?  To be an accurate eyewitness, a person must successfully complete three stages of memory processing: Encoding is the process by which people notice and pay attention to information in their environment, transforming sensory data into some sort of mental representation. Because people cannot perceive everything that is happening around them, they encode only a subset of the information. Storage is the process by which people store in memory information they have acquired from the environment. Retrieval refers to the process by which people recall information stored in their memories (see Figure 3.2, p. 479). Eyewitnesses can be inaccurate because of difficulties that arise at any of these three stages.

1. Encoding  The amount of information that people take in at the encoding stage is limited by several factors, such as how much time they have to watch an event and the nature of the viewing conditions.

As obvious as this may sound, people sometimes overlook how these factors can limit eyewitness reports of crimes, which usually occur under the very conditions that make encoding difficult: quickly, unexpectedly, under poor viewing conditions (e.g., at night), and under stress.  Eyewitnesses who are victims of a crime are usually terribly afraid, which can make it difficult to take in everything that is happening.

The more stress people are under, the worse their memory is for the details of a crime and the people involved.  People also tend to focus their attention on any weapon they see and less on the suspect’s features.  The information that people notice and pay attention to is also influenced by what they expect to see. Given that crimes are almost always highly unexpected events, it is no surprise that people often fail to notice key details in the crime scene.  Even if we notice a person or event, we might not remember it very well if we are unfamiliar with it. For example, people are better at recognizing faces that are of the same race as they are, a Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

SPA 3-3

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

phenomenon known as own-race bias (or sometimes the crossrace effect). Studies have found similar effects with gender and age.  Own-race bias can occur because people have more contact with members of their own race, which gives them the opportunity to learn how to distinguish one individual from another. Also, when examining same-race faces, they may pay close attention to individuating features that distinguish the face from others (e.g., height of cheekbones or contour of forehead). However, when people examine different-race faces, they are drawn to features that distinguish that face from their own race, rather than focusing on individuating features (Kawakami et al., 2014; 2018).

2. Storage  Many people think that memory is like a collection of photographs, however research suggests that this is not quite accurate. Memories fade with age and, once stored, memories can be altered or retouched, with details added or subtracted. People can become confused about where they heard or saw something and memories from one time or situation can get confused with memories from another. As a result, people can have quite inaccurate recall about what they saw. This is the conclusion reached after years of research on reconstructive memory, the distortion of memories of an event by information encountered after the event occurred.  Classic research by Elizabeth Loftus has demonstrated that misleading questions can change people’s minds about how fast a car was going, whether broken glass was at the scene of an accident, whether a traffic light was green or red, or whether a robber had a moustache. Thus, the way in which police and lawyers question witnesses can change their reports about what they saw. Misleading questions can cause a problem with source monitoring, the process people use to try to identify the basis for their memories.

3. Retrieval  There are a number of things other than the image of a person stored in memory that can influence whether eyewitnesses pick someone out of a lineup. For example, witnesses often choose the person in a lineup who most resembles the criminal, which isa major problem if the actual perpetrator isn’t in the lineup. In short, eyewitnesses approach lineups in much the same way as students take multiple-choice tests: they use a process of elimination.  To help avoid such problems, psychologists have made several recommendations about how the police should conduct lineups (see Table 3.1, p. 485).

B. Judging Whether Eyewitnesses Are Mistaken  Numerous studies have shown that witnesses’ confidence is not strongly related to their accuracy; however, jurors are more likely to believe confident

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

rather than unconfident witnesses.  Research has also shown that familiarity with the crime scene or the suspect increases the likelihood that the jurors believe the testimony of an eyewitness; however, other factors (e.g., the confidence of the eyewitness) seems to play a more important role.

1. Signs of Accurate Testimony  In a research experiment, accurate witnesses tended to say that they didn’t really know how they recognized the perpetrator—that his face just “popped out.” Inaccurate witnesses tended to say that they used a process of elimination whereby they deliberately compared one face with another.  Subsequent research has shown that taking more time and thinking more carefully about the pictures was associated with making more mistakes. Similarly, people are most accurate when they make their judgement quickly: in 10 seconds or less.

2. The Problem with Verbalization  It would seem that another way to improve accuracy of eyewitness identification would be to tell people to write down a description of the suspect as soon as they can, to help them remember what they saw. However, research suggests that trying to put an image of a face into words can make people’s memory worse.

C. Judging Whether Eyewitnesses are Lying  Even if witnesses have very accurate memories of what they saw, they might deliberately lie when on the witness stand. Research has shown that it is difficult to discriminate accurately and consistently between true and false stories, and this is true even when it is children who are providing true and false stories of victimization.  Accuracy rates are lower when people try to detect deception in members of other ethnic groups.  Those who were high in emotional intelligence tended to “tune in” to the distress of the person pleading for help and felt sorry for the person. This sympathy tended to interfere with their ability to judge who was lying and who was telling the truth.  Interestingly, people with a lot of experience dealing with liars (e.g., officers, detectives, judges) are no more accurate at detecting deception than are university students.

D. The Recovered Memory Debate  In the 1980s and 1990s, some psychotherapists came to believe that people who were sexually abused often repress these traumas so that they have absolutely no memory of them.  Recovered memories are recollections of an event, such as sexual abuse, that has been forgotten or repressed. Psychological scientists’ empirical research on recovered memories has found that many assumptions about them are simply wrong. Traumas are not usually repressed—on the contrary, most sufferers have difficulty forgetting them—while memories are not stored perfectly in the brain, but are subject to confabulation, distortion, and social

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SPA 3-5

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

influence.  This research led to the notion of false memory syndrome: people recalling past traumatic experiences that are objectively false but that they believe to be true. In addition to numerous laboratory demonstrations of false memories, evidence from everyday life also indicates that memories of abuse or other traumas can be false.  Research has shown that descriptions of fabricated traumatic events contained fewer specific details about time and place than did descriptions of actual traumas and were rated as less believable by coders (who didn’t know which accounts were real and which were fabricated). When asked about their reactions to these events, participants reported stronger emotional reactions to the fabricated traumas than to the actual traumas—even though when describing these events, fabricated accounts actually were less emotional than accounts of actual traumas. This tendency to “go over the top” when reporting on reactions to fabricated traumas was also reflected in participants’ reports of how much they thought about the event, their level of traumatic stress, and their experience of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms—all of these reactions were reported more strongly when describing a fake, rather than a real, traumatic event.

II. Other Kinds of Evidence Learning Objective: SPA 3.2 Describe other kinds of evidence that courts rely on in determining the innocence or guilt of suspects.

A. Expert Testimony  Research from York University shows that jurors may not always understand judges’ instructions about the kinds of evidence that are permissible from an expert witness and the kinds of evidence that should be disregarded (Schuller & Paglia, 1999; Schuller & Yarmey, 2001).  Research also suggests that expert testimony has an influence on jurors’ verdicts.  In Canada, the courts have shown a tendency to move away from expert testimony or at least impose more stringent criteria for using it. This is because some judges believe that much of what experts—in particular, psychological experts—have to offer is common sense.  Psychologists argue that they have important skills to offer the legal system.

Given that wrongful convictions are generally a result of mistaken eyewitness identification, experts can provide the kind of information that would enable jurors to properly evaluate such evidence.  Research has shown that it is not only jurors who would benefit from being informed about research on errors and biases in eyewitness testimony, but judges too.

B. Physical Evidence  In recent years, DNA testing has become much more accurate, and courts increasingly rely on this kind of evidence; however, research shows that jurors may be quick to convict based on DNA evidence, without fully understanding its limitations. Other kinds of physical evidence tend not to be very persuasive.

C. Statistical Evidence  Research has shown that judges are no more likely than university students to

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SPA 3-6

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

assign guilt based on statistical evidence alone.  Subsequent research has found that when considering different kinds of evidence, juries and judges tend to be persuaded by the kind of evidence that is most likely to be unreliable, such as the reports of other people (e.g., eyewitnesses). Physical evidence and especially statistical evidence are apparently not very persuasive.

III. Juries: Group Processes in Action Learning Objective: SPA 3.3 Describe how social psychology helps explain how juries make decisions.

A. How Jurors Process Information During the Trial  As was noted in Chapter 3, people often construct theories and make use of schemas to interpret the world around them, and the same is true of jurors. Some psychologists have proposed a story model for jury decision-making: As jurors hear the evidence, they decide on one story that best explains everything they hear. They then try to fit this story to the possible verdicts they are allowed to render, and if one of those verdicts fits well with their preferred story, they are likely to vote to convict on that charge. This model has important implications for how lawyers present their case.  Lawyers typically present the evidence in one of two ways: In the first, called the story order, they present the evidence in the sequence in which events occurred, corresponding as closely as possible to the story they want the jurors to believe. In the second, called witness order, they present witnesses in the sequence they think will have the greatest impact, even if this means that events are described out of order (e.g., best witness saved for last for memorable end).  As predicted by the story model, research has shown that the story order strategy is more effective in gaining the jury’s vote. One reason the conviction rate in criminal trials might be so high (approximately 80 percent in the United States) is that in real trials, prosecutors usually present evidence in story order, whereas defence attorneys usually use witness order.

B. Confessions: Are They Always What They Seem?  The police interrogation process can go wrong in ways that elicit false confessions, even to the point where innocent suspects come to believe that they actually committed the crime. Police investigators are often convinced that the suspect is guilty, and this belief biases how they conduct the interrogation. They ask leading questions, isolate suspects, put suspects under considerable stress, and sometimes make false promises. One solution to the problem of false confessions is requiring that interrogations be videotaped.

C. Deliberations in the Jury Room  In most jury deliberations, the initial majority ultimately determines the verdict.

Thus, just as we saw when exploring the topic of conformity, majority opinion usually carries the day in a group.  Requiring jurors to deliberate and reach a unanimous verdict makes them consider the evidence more carefully, rather than simply assuming that their initial impressions of the case were correct. And even if the jury minority seldom succeeds in persuading the majority to change their minds about guilt or innocence, sometimes it does change people’s minds about the degree to which a person is guilty, or the specific count on which to convict.

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SPA 3-7

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

KEY TERMS

Encoding: The process by which people attend to information in their environment and transform this sensory data into a mental representation Storage: The process by which people store information they have encoded from the environment into their memory Retrieval: The process by which people recall information stored in their memory Own-Race Bias: The tendency for people to be better at recognizing faces of their own race than those of other races Reconstructive Memory: The process by which memories of an event become distorted by information encountered after the event has occurred Source Monitoring: The process by which people try to identify the source of their memories Recovered Memories: Recollections of an event, such as sexual abuse, that have been forgotten or repressed False Memory Syndrome: Remembering a past traumatic experience that is objectively false but is nevertheless accepted as true Story Model: The theory that as jurors hear evidence on a case, they decide on one story that best explains everything they hear, then they try to fit this story to the possible verdicts they are allowed to render. If one of those verdicts fits well with their preferred story, they are likely to vote to convict on that charge (Hastie, 2008; Hastie & Pennington, 2000) Story order: Lawyers present the evidence in the sequence in which events occurred, corresponding as closely as possible to the story they want the jurors to believe Witness order: Lawyers present witnesses in the sequence they think will have the greatest impact, even if this means that events are described out of order (e.g., best witness saved for last for memorable end)

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SPA 3-8

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

INTEGRATING “TRY IT!” ACTIVE LEARNING EXERCISES I. Try It! Are You Aware of the Penalties for Crimes? (LO SPA 3.1) If people are unaware that a crime has a severe penalty, those penalties cannot act as a deterrent.

In this exercise students are asked whether they are aware of the penalties for specific crimes as outlined in the Criminal Code of Canada. You can encourage students to guess the answers and then search online for the response by searching “penalty for x criminal code of Canada”.

Answers, and suggestions for discussion, are provided in the Try It! Answer Key.

II. Try It! The Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony (LO SPA 3.1) In this Try It! exercise, students are asked to stage an incident. They should arrange to be in their dorm room or apartment with some friends and should ask a different friend (unknown to the other friends) to come into the room, act in a strange way, and then leave. The student can then ask the friends to write down everything they remember about the encounter. After everyone has written down their memory for the incident, they should share them with the group to see how consistent and accurate people were in their reports. They can invite the new friend into the room to join in the discussion. See the Try It! Answer Key for suggestions about how to integrate this exercise into class discussion.

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SPA 3-9

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

IN-CLASS EXERCISES Exercise SPA 3–1 Eyewitness Testimony 1 Ahead of Time: Obtain the cooperation of a confederate of any gender (a former student, a graduate assistant, or a friend). Provide the confederate with dark-coloured clothing and a mask.

In Class: At a predetermined time in the middle of a lecture, the confederate will run into the classroom, run by the lectern, and steal your computer or phone while saying, “This should help me with my success.” The whole episode should last only a few seconds. You might also want to post a teaching assistant at the door that the confederate with use to enter and exit the room – and you might want to make sure that this door is close to the professor (and does not require the confederate to run up stairs past all of the students). Occasionally you might have an aspiring police officer in the room who might decide to try to stop the perpetrator!

Tell students that they are witnesses to a crime and should not talk to each other. Distribute the “Eyewitness Questionnaire” and ask students to recall the event.

Display the correct information. Collect the questionnaires and select a few to use as illustrations in discussion. Students may be amazed to realize how inaccurate the information typically is. There are usually wide disparities in the descriptions of what the perpetrator said and looked like. Witnesses also typically overestimate the length of time for which they observed the perpetrator.

You may wish to continue the discussion by asking students what the criminal justice system might do about the high error rate in eyewitness testimony. Suggest two things: (1) Improve procedures for obtaining identifications and (2) educate judges and jury members about problems with eyewitness evidence.

Discussion: Many students believe that eyewitness testimony is powerful and valuable. Yet the research evidence (and many judges and lawyers) suggests the opposite.

Three stages seem to be involved in perceiving and remembering a crime. The acquisition phase involves the conditions during the time when the event occurred (e.g., lighting, the witness’s state of mind, distractions). This stage is quite relevant to the present exercise; you can point out that the lighting was good, most of the witnesses were alert, there were few distractions, etc. Perhaps the most important condition was the speed with which the crime occurred: only a few seconds.

The second stage, retention interval, is not very important in the present exercise, because its length was only a few moments. In some cases, the retention interval can be several months or even years.

The third stage, retrieval, occurs when the witness searches his/her memory about the perpetrator.

Another issue you may want to discuss is “weapon focus,” in which a witness pays very close attention to a perpetrator’s weapon, rather than his or her face. Weapon focus makes retrieval even more difficult.

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SPA 3-10

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT SPA 3–1: EYEWITNESS QUESTIONNAIRE Directions: Describe the perpetrator as accurately as possible.

Sex _____ Age _____ Height _____ Weight _____ Race _____ Hair colour _____ Eye colour _____ Glasses: No _____ Yes _____ If yes, describe ____________ Scars or marks _______________________ Facial hair: No _____ Yes _____ If yes, describe ____________ Right- or left-handed? _______ Clothing (describe): ________________________________________________________ For how long did you observe the perpetrator? _________ What did the perpetrator say? _________ Did you notice anything else? ________________________________________________ What did the perpetrator do? _________________________________________________

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SPA 3-11

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

Exercise SPA 3–2 Eyewitness Testimony 2: The Lineup Ahead of Time: The initial preparation for this exercise is identical to that of the previous exercise (SPA 3–1). Enlist the cooperation of a confederate who will stage a crime in your class using a brightly coloured water pistol.

However, in this exercise, you will prepare a photographic “lineup.” Take a picture of the confederate and several other people of the same race and gender. Make sure that all the photographs are similar in style so that the confederate is not distinctive in any way. If you have a large class, it’s a good idea to prepare a duplicate lineup to save time. Number the photographs.

In Class: Lay out the photo lineup on a table, desk, or lectern. Ask students to file by, one at a time, to examine the lineup. Or you can ask that they work independently, and you can post these on your slides. Ask students to write the number of their identification (or the words “I don’t know”) on a 3x5 card (or using in-class software), hand it to you, and return to their seat. By the time the students finish, you will have been able to create a frequency distribution using the categories below:   

Right (“Hit”) Wrong (“False alarm”) Don’t know (“Miss”)

Record the frequency distribution on the board or a data sheet that can be projected on a screen at the front of the room. Discuss it as an analogue of real “lineup” identifications. It drives home the point of the inaccuracy of eyewitness testimony.

Discussion: This exercise is most closely related to the retrieval stage of perceiving and remembering a crime. Important factors in this stage include the fairness of the identification procedures and any suggestive cues or pressures on the witness to identify one particular person.

In your discussions, present several “real-life” examples of how incorrect lineup identifications have sent the wrong people to jail.

You may also wish to discuss criteria for assessing the fairness of a lineup. In some cases, the suspect’s appearance may be distinctive compared to other members of the lineup (e.g., the only one with a suntan, a uniform of a different colour, etc.). Research suggests the rate of false identification might be reduced by using a sequential lineup, in which the witness sees one picture at a time and makes a yes/no decision for each one.

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SPA 3-12

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Exercise SPA 3–2 Data Sheet

Student Responses Right

Wrong

Don’t know

“Hit”

“False alarm”

“Miss”

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SPA 3-13

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

Exercise SPA 3–3 Mock Juries Ahead of Time: The two handouts, SPA 3–3a and 3–3b, present trial evidence that is identical except for one witness in 3–3a (who makes the defendant appear more guilty). Prepare the handouts in appropriate numbers so that you can create either six-person or twelve-person juries whose members will all receive identical copies.

In Class: Divide the class into either six-person or twelve-person juries. Distribute handouts to class members. Ask them to read the trial descriptions carefully and make individual judgments about the guilt or innocence of the accused. Instruct the juries to select a foreperson and to deliberate until they reach a unanimous verdict. Allow about fifteen or twenty minutes for the deliberation.

Ask the foreperson of each group to report the decision. You may “ham it up” by acting as the judge, intoning: “Foreperson of the jury, have you reached a verdict?” Compare the verdicts of the juries with the trial description in SPA 3–3a and 3–3b. According to the evidence presented, the defendant appears more likely to be guilty in 3–3a, although the witness is of dubious credibility. Are the verdicts consistent with this difference in the evidence presented?

Discussion: Lead a class discussion about the process of deliberation. It may include any or all of the following issues:     

How was the foreperson chosen? Was he or she especially influential?

How do majorities try to persuade minorities (e.g., by calling for open rather than secret ballots)?

Does deliberation promote leniency?

In what way did individual judgments made before deliberation affect the process of reaching a unanimous verdict?

Did the story model of decision-making lead to different verdicts for students with handout 3–3a vs 3–3b? Why or why not?

With regard to selection of a foreperson, the person who sits at the “head” of a table, or the person who speaks first in the jury room, often is selected. Males are much more likely to be chosen than females, as are persons high in socioeconomic status. The conformity literature is especially relevant in jury decision-making. Asch’s research showed that a single dissenter has a much harder time resisting group pressure than two or more dissenters, regardless of the size of the opposing majority. Open ballots make it easier for the majority to exert its pressure. Research also indicates that the strongest predictor of the eventual verdict is the distribution of viewpoints at the beginning of the deliberation. An analysis of real trials found that hung juries almost never resulted if an initial minority was composed of three persons or less on a twelve-person jury.

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SPA 3-14

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT SPA 3–3a: BACKGROUND On the night of January 18, at 10:30 p.m., James Johnson was walking home from the neighbourhood bar. As he turned onto a dark Elm Street, he was jumped from behind. James Johnson had time only to catch a glimpse of his assailant’s face before he was struck on the head with a heavy club. The assailant began to search the pockets of James Johnson’s coat. At this time, Harold Cook turned onto Elm Street. The assailant, seeing him, fled without James Johnson’s wallet. Harold Cook called the police and the ambulance. James Johnson was taken to the hospital, where he was treated for a gaping head wound.

The police, combing the neighbourhood of the assault, picked up a suspect, Steven Brown.

The next day, a bandaged James Johnson identified Steven Brown in a police lineup. Steven Brown was charged with felonious assault and battery and attempted robbery and released on bail. Six months later, he was brought before a county court.

This is a test case. Please consider yourself a juror at the trial of Steven Brown and attempt to come to a conclusion about his innocence or guilt. *

*

*

Case No. 634823 THE PEOPLE VS. STEVEN BROWN The trial of Steven Brown was called to order. After opening statements by the prosecution and defence, the prosecutor called his first two witnesses: the arresting officer and James Johnson.

The officer testified that Steven Brown had been arrested three blocks from the scene of the crime. He had in his possession at the time a billy club. He was taken into custody and held overnight. James Johnson picked him out of a lineup the next day.

James Johnson testified that he had been struck on the night of January 18, resulting in a wound that required twelve stitches. He stated that the assailant had not stolen any money from him, although an attempt had been made. James Johnson also testified that he had seen his assailant’s face, and identified the defendant, Steven Brown, as said assailant.

The defence then called witnesses. The first witness was Patricia Smith, manager of the department store where Steven Brown was employed. She testified that Steven Brown was a conscientious worker. He had always handled the store’s financial matters honestly and skillfully. Patricia Smith further testified that she had known the defendant and his family for twenty-five years and believed him incapable of such a crime.

The second defence witness was Thomas Davis, long-time banker of the accused. Mr. Davis testified that Steven Brown had no motive for the crime. Steven Brown’s financial affairs were in order, and he had no pressing need for money that would cause him to resort to robbery.

The third defence witness was William Evers, a retired policeman and friend of the accused.

He testified that Steven Brown had been a guest in his house on the night of January 18. Steven Brown had been examining his collection of antique police equipment and had not left the

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SPA 3-15

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

Evers’s house until approximately 11:00 p.m. He had borrowed an old billy club because he was giving a presentation to his collector’s club on the subject of police equipment. Crossexamination on the part of the prosecution was unable to shake William Evers’s testimony.

The prosecution then called a final witness, Lucille Brown, divorced wife of the accused.

Mrs. Brown stated that she had been driving on Elm Street on the night of January 18, at 10:40 p.m. She testified that she had seen her ex-husband, Steven Brown, running down Elm Street with a club in his hand. She stated that he looked agitated. She further testified that Steven Brown had a grudge against James Johnson because of a bad business deal in the past. Crossexamination by the lawyer for the defence was unable to change her testimony.

The lawyers for the defence and the prosecution presented their summations of the evidence.

The judge instructed and charged the jury members. The jury retired to deliberate and determine a verdict.

The defendant, Steven Brown, should be found: Not guilty _______

Guilty _______

How certain are you in your decision of guilt or innocence?

Not certain at all

1

2

3

4

5

6

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Absolutely certain

SPA 3-16

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

Name: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Social Psychology

Course Number and Section: _____________________

HANDOUT SPA 3–3b: BACKGROUND On the night of January 18, at 10:30 p.m., James Johnson was walking home from the neighbourhood bar. As he turned onto a dark Elm Street, he was jumped from behind. James Johnson had time only to catch a glimpse of his assailant’s face before he was struck on the head with a heavy club. The assailant began to search the pockets of James Johnson’s coat. At this time, Harold Cook turned onto Elm Street. The assailant, seeing him, fled without James Johnson’s wallet. Harold Cook called the police and the ambulance. James Johnson was taken to the hospital, where he was treated for a gaping head wound.

The police, combing the neighbourhood of the assault, picked up a suspect, Steven Brown.

The next day, a bandaged James Johnson identified Steven Brown in a police lineup. Steven Brown was charged with felonious assault and battery and attempted robbery and released on bail. Six months later, he was brought before a county court.

This is a test case. Please consider yourself a juror at the trial of Steven Brown and attempt to come to a conclusion about his innocence or guilt. *

*

*

Case No. 634823 THE PEOPLE VS. STEVEN BROWN The trial of Steven Brown was called to order. After opening statements by the prosecution and defence, the prosecutor called his first two witnesses: the arresting officer and James Johnson.

The officer testified that Steven Brown had been arrested three blocks from the scene of the crime. He had in his possession at the time a billy club. He was taken into custody and held overnight. James Johnson picked him out of a lineup the next day.

James Johnson testified that he had been struck on the night of January 18, resulting in a wound that required twelve stitches. He stated that the assailant had not stolen any money from him, although an attempt had been made. James Johnson also testified that he had seen his assailant’s face, and identified the defendant, Steven Brown, as said assailant.

The defence then called witnesses. The first witness was Patricia Smith, manager of the department store where Steven Brown was employed. She testified that Steven Brown was a conscientious worker. He had always handled the store’s financial matters honestly and skillfully. Patricia Smith further testified that she had known the defendant and his family for twenty-five years and believed him incapable of such a crime.

The second defence witness was Thomas Davis, long-time banker of the accused. Mr. Davis testified that Steven Brown had no motive for the crime. Steven Brown’s financial affairs were in order, and he had no pressing need for money that would cause him to resort to robbery.

The third defence witness was William Evers, a retired policeman and friend of the accused. He testified that Steven Brown had been a guest in his house on the night of January 18. Steven Brown had been examining his collection of antique police equipment and had not left the

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SPA 3-17

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

Evers’s house until approximately 11:00 p.m. He had borrowed an old billy club because he was giving a presentation to his collector’s club on the subject of police equipment. Crossexamination on the part of the prosecution was unable to shake William Evers’s testimony.

The lawyers for the defence and the prosecution presented their summations of the evidence.

The judge instructed and charged the jury members. The jury retired to deliberate and determine a verdict.

The defendant, Steven Brown, should be found: Not guilty _______

Guilty _______

How certain are you in your decision of guilt or innocence?

Not certain at all

1

2

3

4

5

6

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Absolutely certain

SPA 3-18

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

Exercise SPA 3–4 Get the “Real Thing”: A Judge Invite a local judge to address your class. This may have to be scheduled for an evening session, but the effort will be worth it. Have the judge scheduled for the last meeting after your lectures on the legal system and social psychology, and after the students have completed all the readings. Usually, right before a test is a good time. The judge will probably have a few opening remarks and then turn the period over for questions. It is a good idea to make sure that your students have sufficient and interesting questions to ask.

Although the original interactions may be slow, which can be bolstered by your input, generally the interactions will soon become very interesting and self-sustaining. This is well worth the effort.

Exercise SPA 3–5 Juror Bias Scale Kassin and Wrightsman (1983, “The construction and validation of a juror bias scale,” Journal of Research in Personality, 17, pp. 423–442) have developed a juror bias scale that provides “reasonable doubt” and “probability of commission” scores. The items reflect pretrial expectancies that defendants, in general, commit the crimes with which they are charged, as well as the values attached to conviction and punishment, and allow people to be identified as “prosecution-biased” or “defence-biased.” To make the exercise more meaningful, you can select a current publicized trial that students are likely to be familiar with. Ask students to provide a verdict for this trial, and determine whether people indeed voted in line with their pre-existing bias.

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SPA 3-19

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

STUDENT PROJECTS AND RESEARCH ASSIGNMENTS Exercise SPA 3–6 Analysing a Trial At least once or twice a year a criminal case attracts national attention. Of course, one notable case was the O. J. Simpson trial in the nineties, which mesmerized the American public for nine months. More recently, there have been high-profile televised trials involving killings by police officers. If one of these widely publicized trials is going on while you teach the course, you might have students write a paper analysing it in terms of the material presented in this chapter, considering the likely accuracy of eyewitness testimony, the order that prosecution and defence attorneys use to present their evidence, jury selection, and any information that is leaked to the press about the process of jury deliberation.

Exercise SPA 3–7 Attending a Jury Selection Jury selection proceedings are open to the public. You can find out when they are scheduled by calling the local courthouse. Students can observe and report back on what the case was about, what kinds of questions the prosecution and defence attorneys asked prospective jurors, and whether students had any hypotheses about what criteria the attorneys were using to accept or decline different jurors.

Exercise SPA 3–8 Rethinking Controversial Cases Have your students review a recent controversial case (easily found by searching online) and discuss what could have been changed to improve the way the case proceeded. They can then present the case and their proposed changes in a brief paper or in a presentation to the class.

Exercise SPA 3–9 Debate the Jury Process The text presents some of the arguments for and against using juries for criminal cases. Allow students to use this information as a starting place for their preparation of a debate. Divide groups of students into debate teams and assign each group one side of the debate. Conduct a standard debate in class and have student observers give feedback to the debate teams.

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SPA 3-20

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

CRITICAL THINKING TOPICS AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 

Ask students to reflect on the factors that seem to be most related to eyewitness accuracy and inaccuracy.



When individuals have jury duty, the judge asks them if they can reasonably decide the verdict of the case based on the facts presented, without being swayed by any personal biases they have. To what extent do students think people are actually able to do this? What types of evidence should count as facts and what types should not?



Ask students if they think the testimony of adults who “remember” being victimized more than ten years after the fact during therapy should be admissible in court as evidence. Why or why not?



Ask students to reflect on what cues they use to tell when their best friend is lying. What cues would they use to decide whether a salesperson was lying?



Ask students how change blindness might play a role in a jury trial.



What do students think is the best way for the minority on a jury to sway the majority?



According to Elizabeth Loftus, how a question is asked can impact the answer given by the witness. Have students describe some ways this fact may impact a trial and the evidence presented at that trial.



Have students summarize the recommendations for improving accuracy in lineups.



Have students describe how a lawyer can present cases differently. Describe story order and witness order and describe the pros and cons of both. Have students reflect on how having this knowledge might impact their participation on a jury.



Students may enjoy a further discussion of the false memory syndrome briefly discussed in the textbook. Two good sources of additional information are Wassil-Grimm’s Diagnosis for Disaster: The Devastating Truth About False Memory Syndrome and Its Impact on Accusers and Families (1995; Overlook Press) and Loftus and Ketcham’s The Myth of Repressed Memory: False Memories and Allegations of Sexual Abuse (1994; St. Martin’s).

Some discussion questions for students include: How reliable do they generally feel their memory is? How reliable does the false memory effect indicate that it can be? How are false memories created? What causes people to feel so strongly that these false memories are true?



Ask students if they were given the option of a trial by jury or a bench trial, in which the judge decides the verdict, which they would choose. Why?

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SPA 3-21

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition



Ask students for examples of two (or more) lineup strategies that the legal system can make so that mistaken eyewitness identification is less likely.

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SPA 3-22

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

SUGGESTED VIDEOS Inattentional Blindness 0:56min

Leading Questions and Memory 1:58min -

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SPA 3-23

Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

Try It! Answer Key The majority of the Try It! exercises do not have clear answers, however many of these can be used as a basis for class demonstrations and/or discussion. Suggestions for how to integrate these exercises into the class are provided below. The original questions can be found in the text and some additional information is also provided in the relevant chapters of the Instructor’s Resource Manual.

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Chapter 1 I.

Try It! Social Situations and Behaviour (LO 1.2)

This exercise provides a good opportunity to discuss the fundamental attribution error as one potential reason why we tend to favour internal attributions (e.g. personality) when explaining others’ behavioural tendencies such as shyness over situational factors (e.g. being uninterested in the conversation, being among strangers, feeling at risk of rejection or negative social evaluation, etc). Are we as likely to favour internal attributions (e.g. personality) for behaviours that are more celebrated in our culture, such as extraversion?

Why or why not?

This exercise also provides a good opportunity to discuss the interaction between personality and situation. Ask the class to what degree they think that certain situational settings (e.g. a classroom, a nightclub, or a funeral) bring out similar kinds of behaviour in everyone, regardless of individual and/or cultural differences. Discuss the types of situations that tend to streamline behaviours more strongly than others, and why this might be the case.

The goal here is to get students to reflect on the fact that a typically shy person might appear quite outgoing in specific situations and a typically outgoing (or extroverted) person might appear quite shy in other situations. But typically we look to the behaviour and we make attributions about the person (e.g., shy or outgoing) not the situation or even the person by situation interaction (e.g., that a person who is shy in one context might seem quite outgoing in another; and the reverse pattern might be seen for someone else).

For example, a person who is very outgoing with their family might be quite shy when they are with strangers; another person, who doesn’t have a strong relationship with their family, might be very quiet with their family but might love talking to strangers or new acquaintances.

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Chapter 2 I.

Try It! Social Psychology Quiz (LO 2.1)

The goal of this exercise is to demonstrate the hindsight bias by asking students to guess the sometime counterintuitive findings from classic studies.

1. In studies conducted by Stanley Milgram (1974), up to 65 percent of participants administered what they thought were near-lethal shocks to another subject. (In fact, no real shocks were administered; see Chapter 8.)

2. (c) Rewarding people for doing something they enjoy will typically make them like that activity less in the future (see Chapter 5).

3. (b) False; groups often make worse decisions than individuals (see Chapter 8).

4. (a) Under most circumstances, repeated exposure increases liking for a stimulus (see Chapter 9).

5. (a) The person who does the favour for you will probably like you more. (See Jecker, J., & Landy, D. (1969). Liking a person as a function of doing him a favour. Human Relations, 22(4), 371–378) 6. (b) The person in a neutral mood is most likely to help. There is some research to suggest that being in a good mood or a bad mood can decrease helping behaviours.

7. (a) Research in Canada (Walsh, Hickey, & Duffy, 1999) and in the United States (Spencer, Steele, & Quinn, 1997; Steele, 1997) has found that when women think there are sex differences on a test, they do worse because of stereotype threat—the fear that they might confirm a negative stereotype about their gender. When women are told that there are no gender differences in performance on the test, they do as well as men.

8. (b) There is no evidence that subliminal messages in advertising have any effect, whereas there is substantial evidence that normal, everyday advertising is quite effective (Chaiken, Wood, & Eagly, 1996; Merikle, 1988; Weir, 1984; Wilson, Houston, & Meyers, 1998).

9. (a) Studies have found an association between violent media including videogames and increased hostility and aggression and decreased prosociality, while newer research tentatively supports a moderate, causal relationship. In 2015, the APA Task Force on Violent Media concluded that violent videogames do have an effect on aggression which takes the form increased aggressive behaviour and cognitions, and desensitization to aggression

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10. (b) In an initial study, people given the heavy clipboard thought that student opinion should be weighed the most (Jostmann, Lakens, & Schubert, 2009).

II.

Try It! Archival Analysis: Body Image and the Media (LO 2.2)

Typically, the body types of women and men in news magazines will reflect a large range of body types, because these images are of people in the community. By contrast, female models and those selected for Glamour tend to be very thin or very thin and fit whereas male models tend to be very muscular. Sometimes these images are even photoshopped, making their appearance particularly unattainable. These body types are often not attainable for the average man or woman. In addition, when very thin female models are used, these are not even portraying a healthy norm. The ideal weight portrayed for women is often well below the average and the muscle-to-fat ration is higher. Typically, we see that men’s shoulder to waist ratio is higher than average.

You may wish to relate these discussions to Instagram and/or face-altering Snapchat filters.

These pages also point out confirmed and non-confirmed expensive (and sometimes lifethreatening) plastic surgeries that celebrities may have had in order to achieve their unattainable appearances. Note: When discussing the idealized measurements of celebrated figures in the media, it is good to be cognizant of the impressionability and vulnerability of students. It is not recommended that students look up specific heights, weights, and measurements of celebrities, as this may be triggering for students who struggle with body image and/or eating disorders. It is important emphasize the amount of image, health, and surgical consultants involved in the production of each model and celebrity’s image, as well as the increasingly widespread and extensive use of digital retouching performed on most, if not all, images of celebrities (and increasingly the images of Instagram models), both online and in print.

III.

Try It! Correlation Does Not Equal Causation (LO 2.2)

1. The politician ignored possible third variables that could cause both Scouts membership and crime, such as socioeconomic class. Traditionally, Scouting has been most popular in small towns and suburbs among middle-class youngsters; it has never been very attractive or even available to youths growing up in densely populated, urban, high-crime areas. In addition, it is possible that people with a dedicated, involved parent are both more likely to join scouts and less likely to commit crime. Here, it is having a devoted parent that has led to both being a Scout and not committing crimes.

2. We are not able to make causal claims here. In this case, it seems equally likely that the relationship goes in the other direction – that is, children who are not doing as well at school have parents who keep close track of them. Another possibility is Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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that children who are facing more personal or academic challenges at school both get lower grades and have parents who are keeping closer track of their child. In this case it is the challenges that are leading both to lower grades and to more involvement from their parents.

3. Did tattoos cause motorcycle accidents? Or, for that matter, did motorcycle accidents cause tattoos? The researchers suggested that a third (unmeasured) variable was in fact the cause of both: A tendency to take risks and to be involved in flamboyant personal displays led to tattooing one’s body and to driving a motorcycle recklessly.

4. Not necessarily. People who do not eat breakfast might differ from people who do in any number of ways that influence longevity—for example, in how obese they are, in how hard-driving and high-strung they are, or even in how late they sleep in the morning. Again, many factors could lead to this relationship include life stress (that decreases the probability of eating breakfast and increases the probability of dying at a younger age) and access to food.

5. It is possible that religion makes people more likely to obey the law. It is equally possible, however, that some other variable increases the likelihood that people will be religious and follow the rules—such as having parents who are religious.

6. Since this is a correlational study, this is not a valid conclusion. Milk drinking may have little to do with weight gain. Children who drink a lot of milk might be more likely to eat cookies or other high-calorie foods. As another example, people who have regular access to milk might also have access to more fattening foods and it might be the fattening foods. Also, the study did not find this specifically for an overweight population and this is a key point to highlight for students. We do not know that this relationship exists for “children who need to control their weight”.

Even if we did, this conclusion would be problematic since we don’t know that it is the milk consumption specifically that is leading to weight gain, since children presumably consumed many other foods during that time. To draw this conclusion, we would need an experiment (the main point for each of these examples).

7. The press will too often take a correlational study and create a headline in which causation is suggested or even stated. This is a good point to highlight for students.

It is possible that these hyper-texting teens are high in sensation seeking tendencies which is one of many possible moderating variables. It is possible that hypertexting makes people want to have more sex or binge-drink. It is equally possible, however, that some third variable, such as health or education or sensation seeking, influences both texting preferences and sexual behaviour. It is even possible that having sex makes people want to text more. Based on the correlational nature of this research, there is no way of telling which (if any) of these explanations is true.

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I.

Try It! Reasoning Quiz (LO 3.2)

1. The correct answer is (b), the third letter. Tversky and Kahneman (1974) found that most people thought that the answer was (a), the first letter. Why do people make this mistake? Because, say Tversky and Kahneman, they find it easier to think of examples of words that begin with R. By using the availability heuristic, they assume that the ease with which they can bring examples to mind means that such words are more common.

2. The correct answer is (b). According to Statistics Canada information, deaths resulting from cerebrovascular disease (stroke is a major component) are nearly twice as likely as accidental deaths (14 626 cases versus 8986 cases in 2004; Canada, 2007). Slovic, Fischhoff, and Lichtenstein (1976) found that most people think that (a) is correct (accidental deaths). Why do people make this error? Again, it’s the availability heuristic. Accidental deaths are more likely to be reported by the media; consequently, people find it easier to bring to mind examples of such deaths than they do deaths from strokes.

3. The correct answer is (c). Both outcomes are equally likely, given that the outcomes of coin flips are random events. Tversky and Kahneman (1974) argue that due to the representativeness heuristic, people expect a sequence of random events to “look” random. That is, they expect events to be representative of their conception of randomness. Thus, many people choose H T T H T H, because this sequence is more representative of people’s idea of randomness than H H H T T T. In fact, the chance that either sequence will occur is 1 out of 2, 6 times, or 1 in 64 (.5 x 6). As another illustration of this point, if you were to buy a lottery ticket with four numbers, would you rather have the number 6957 or 1111? Many people prefer the former number, because it seems more “random” and therefore more likely to be picked. In fact, both numbers have a 1 in 1000 chance of being picked.

4. The correct answer is (b). Many people choose (c) because they think that after five tails in a row, heads is more likely “to even things out.” This is called the gambler’s fallacy, which is the belief that prior random events (e.g., five tails in a row) have an influence on subsequent random events. Assuming that the coin is fair, prior tosses have no influence on future ones. Tversky and Kahneman (1974) suggest that the gambler’s fallacy derives in part from the representativeness heuristic. Five tails and one head seem more representative of a chance outcome than do six tails in a row.

II.

Try It! Can You Predict Your (or Your Friend’s) Future? (LO 3.4)

These questions are based on ones used by Pronin and Kugler (2010), who found that people tend to believe they have more free will than other people. In their study, the researchers asked Princeton undergraduates to predict what would happen in the year after graduation, either to them or to a friend of their choosing. When the students answered the Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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questions about themselves, they circled “both are possible” 52 % of the time, whereas when they answered the questions about a friend, they circled “both are possible” only 36 % of the time. In other words, the students seemed to think their friends’ actions were more predetermined than were their own.

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Aronson, Wilson, Fehr, Sommers, Social Psychology, Seventh Canadian Edition

Chapter 4 I.

Try It! How Many Universal Facial Expressions of Emotion Are There?

(LO 4.1)

To allow students to consider how many universal facial expression of emotions there are, you can ask students to pair up in class. One student in each pair should try to reflect one of the emotions listed on p. 84 with only a facial expression. Have the student note what it is they are doing with their face to create the different effects. Then see if the other student can guess the intended emotion. Discuss what was confusing in cases where the intended emotion was not correctly identified. These facial expressions are based on various researchers’ contributions to the growing list of facial expressions thought to be universal across cultures.

II.

Try It! Listen as People Make Attributions (LO 4.4)

It might be interesting to present one such improbable event (perhaps select a real situation from the news or from history) to the class before they have read this chapter and ask them to indicate, with a show of hands, whether they would attribute this unlikely occurrence to chance or fate. There should be some hands voting for either side, but this exercise should produce interesting results even if it is not an even split. Follow up by asking each group of students who raised their hands if they identify with any particular religion and/or traditionally collectivistic cultural group and this can lead into a discuss about how our culture or religious beliefs can influence our attributions.

Examples of real-life improbable events you may wish to present include: (a) Violet Jessop, dubbed “miss Unsinkable” for surviving two sinking ships and one crash, including the Titanic; (b) in 2002, Mike McDermott won the lottery twice—with the same exact five numbers, (c) on March 1, 1950, the West Side Baptist Church in Nebraska exploded during a scheduled choir practice, but none of the 15 choir members were injured since all of them were running late that day; and (d) Roy Sullivan, who between 1942 and 1977, was struck by lightning at least seven times.

III.

Try It! Self-Serving Attributions in the Sports Pages (LO 4.4)

This provides a good opportunity for student athletes to reflect on their own attributions and this can be the focus of the class discuss. Do their attributions fit with this previous research – and do they depend on the type of sport (solo or team) that they play?

You could also consider, as a class, when might external attributions for losses be adaptive?

When might they be unhelpful or even harmful to individuals or to relationships? Do

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students believe there are cultural differences in the use of self-serving attributions between holistic vs. analytic cultures?

It may be interesting to consider the case of Olympic hammer thrower, Betty Heidler, from Germany (an individualistic country), after she was upgraded from bronze to silver due to a cheating competitor. She and her community largely made internal attributions for her success and this can be contrasted with the external attributions of the 2008 Japanese men’s relay team after they, too, were upgraded from bronze to silver.

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Chapter 5 I.

Try It! A Measure of Self-Concept Clarity (LO 5.1)

Students are provided with instructions to score their responses to the Self-Concept Clarity Scale; they can then compare their score with the average that is stated in the footnote. The average score is between 38-43 for Canadian students and 35 for a sample of Japanese students.

Instructors can also make a tally on the board of students’ self-concept clarity scores by age group in order to test whether self-concept clarity increases over time, as was preliminarily found by researchers at York University and the University of Manitoba. Regardless of the distribution of ages in your class, this exercise might also provide an appropriate opportunity to discuss issues associated with convenience sampling for research, as it often leads to a sample comprised primarily of W.E.I.R.D. participants (participants from Westernized, educated, industrialized, rich and democratic Countries).

II.

Try It! A Measure of Relational Interdependence (LO 5.2)

After students complete the measure of relational interdependence, you can discuss whether there are any groups that score relatively equally on both relational independence and interdependence. Daphna Oyserman’s work (e.g., “The lens of personhood: Viewing the self and others in a multicultural society,” Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 65, pp. 993–1009) suggests that among certain cultural groups (e.g., Arab and Jewish people in Israel; Asian Americans and African Americans in the United States), both the individualist and the collectivist worldview are emphasized simultaneously.

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Chapter 6 I.

Try It! Affective and Cognitive Bases of Attitudes (LO 6.1)

This exercise is located on page 149 of the text. The scales were developed by Crites, Fabrigar, and Petty (1994) to measure the affective and cognitive components of attitudes. Students are asked to fill out these scales with reference to the attitude object of snakes (typically an affectively based attitude) versus vaccuum cleaners (typically a cognitively based attitude).

Scoring instructions are presented in the text. In the text they suggest that students create a difference score and note that, when rating snakes, the affective component of their attitude should be further from zero than the cognitive component. By contrast, when rating vaccuum cleaner, the cognitive component of their attitudes should be further from zero than the affective component.

II.

Try It! Advertising and Mind Control (LO 6.4)

This exercise is designed to examine people’s beliefs about the power of advertising. Given that there is limited evidence that subliminal advertising is effective and that people are more likely to be influenced by the advertisements that they consciously perceive and encounter in everyday life, some additional relevant findings to consider include: 1.

Wilson, Gilbert, and Wheatley (1998) found that 80 percent of university students preferred not to receive a subliminal message because it might influence them in an undesirable way.

2.

Wilson, Gilbert, and Wheatley (1998) found that only 28 percent of university students preferred not to receive a regular, everyday television ad because it might influence them in an undesirable way.

3.

When Wilson, Houston, and Meyers (1998) asked university students to choose to listen to the type of speech they thought would influence them the least, 69 percent chose the regular speech and 31 percent chose the subliminal speech. Ironically, it was the regular speech that changed people’s minds the most.

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Chapter 7 I.

Try It! Fashion: Normative Social Influence in Action (LO 7.3)

This exercise invites students to take note of the normative fashion “rules” observable in their own friend group, to observe variations in observable fashion “rules” between social groups, and to try deviating from the fashion “rules” of their own normative group to test people’s reactions.

You can use students’ reflections to lead a discussion on conformity – do students believe that their or others’ fashion choices reflect a pressure to conform? Did they discover fashion “rules”?

Are there some groups that dress differently than others and do students think that they would be given a hard time by their friends if they started dressing very differently? Gender roles can be considered in the context. What happens if men start wearing dresses or skirts? These can all be examples of social influences on behaviour.

II.

Try It! Body Image and the Media (LO 7.3)

In this exercise, students are asked to look through beauty and/or fitness magazines to compare how each magazine depicts the ideal male and female body image. Students will most likely observe a predominance of underweight and/or overly muscular models in these media sources (just as they might on Instagram or other social media applications). The authors of this textbook encourages students to have a healthy skepticism about basing one’s happiness or self-worth on the ability to achieve these body ideals.

In class, you can remind students that for someone whose primary career is being physically fit (e.g. an athlete, influencer, or actor in a Marvel superhero film), this standard may be more common since their career depends on their ability to maintain it. Similarly, behind every celebrity promoting an unrealistic standard, there is often an entire team of people working tirelessly behind the scenes, micromanaging them at every turn, from what they eat to their many hours at the gym, to photoshopping and producing their image in order to ensure that they will continue being looked up to by the rest of society.

You may wish to ask students whether they feel similar norms are being propagated by sponsored social media influencers, or whether viral movements started by subcommunities of body-positive activists on social media (such as with the #EffYourBeautyStandards or #DropThePlus hashtags) have successfully begun to shift the balance of norm-setting power in consumers’ favour.

You can also ask students to reflect on whether and what brands might change under normative influence, for example, when consumers are more willing to “invest” in brands that reflect the ethics and norms of the current day (such as being inclusive of more diverse body-types and gender expressions). You may wish to ask students whether knowing a corporation may rebrand itself to “survive”, affects their belief in “ethical consumerism”. You can follow-up by asking students how they would judge a supposedly ethical brand if they found out it had a rather hypocritical past (such as Sports illustrated or Victoria’s Secret suddenly employing plus-size and/or transgender supermodels after decades of promoting inflexible and unrealistic standards).

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Chapter 8 I.

Try It! What Happens When You Violate a Role? (LO 8.1)

Students are invited to deliberately violate a gender role in their culture, first on their own and then with the help of several same sex friends, and to journal how others react each time. The textbook hints that there is safety in numbers and that negative judgment may lessen if one’s role-violating behaviour is within the norms of their given group, rather than an indication of that person’s antisocial tendencies.

After this exercise, students can discuss personal experiences in which they were part of a roleviolating subgroup. Students may also wish to discuss why people are generally more accepting of people who violate various social roles under certain conditions (e.g. actor Robin Williams dressed up as a woman in Mrs. Doubtfire (1993), actress Amanda Bynes dressed as a male in She’s the Man (2005), or a group dressed in gender-violating costumes for Halloween), whereas in other conditions, many people strongly oppose similar role-violating behaviour (as evidenced by the ostracism of and/or violence against transgender people, drag artists, and non-binary people, regardless of whether or not they belong to a similar group).

II.

Try It! Choice Dilemmas Questionnaire (LO 8.3)

A Choice Dilemmas Questionnaire is presented on page 252. Students should ask four or five friends to fill it out first individually, and in private, before asking those friends to come together and discuss the dilemma and arrive at a consensus about which option they would like to choose as a group. Students should take note of whether group polarization and/or groupthink takes place, and, if so, whether groups or individuals made riskier decisions.

According to the text, groups tend to push or “polarize” decisions in a more extreme direction, and whether that decision will me more or less risky depends the direction that the group is already leaning. In class, you can ask students whether they tried this exercise and what they found. Alternatively, you can assign it to the class and take it up in the next class. This provides a good opportunity to see whether students’ find support for the ideas presented in this chapter.

III.

Try It! The Prisoner’s Dilemma (LO 8.4)

A Prisoner’s Dilemma game for students to play with their friends is presented in the textbook.

Students should play for ten trials and observe whether they fall into a pattern of cooperation or competition. If you have students play this in class before they read the text, you can then compare those scores with ones from after they have read the text and learned about the tit-fortat strategy. Students can also play with multiple partners and observe their patterns with each.

What factors are especially likely to lead to cooperation?

If you have access to a computer laboratory, students can play a version of the PDG against the computer online. Simply search for “prisoner’s dilemma game online.”

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You can also lead a discuss about how people felt while playing the game and specifically how they felt if their partner cooperated and they didn’t – or when they cooperated and their partner didn’t. Make sure that the game is played silently but be sure to give people an opportunity to talk through their choices after and remind everyone that this is all in good fun. It is also good to consider whether people who were friends ended up with more (or less) money than stranger that played, if you ask them to play with someone who happens to be sitting next to them.

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Chapter 9 I.

Try It! Mapping the Effect of Propinquity in Your Life (LO 9.1)

In this exercise, students are encouraged to map out propinquity (i.e., the more we see others the more likely they are to become our friends) effects in their life. Specifically, they are asked to think of a location (e.g., dorm, apartment building, workplace) and mark down where closest friends (1), friends with who they are less close (2), and acquaintances (3) live. They are asked to reflect both on proximity and on functional distance (i.e., paths that they would cross often).

In class, it is worth discussing whether students find support for the topics discussed in this chapter. Do they have more closer friends who live or work physically closer to them within the building? See how many students find this effect (most should) and have a discussion of what factors might lead to one person not to show this. Maybe someone belongs to a school team and spends most of their time with the team. In that case, most of their friends might be from their sports team and not from their dorm. This would still reflect the propinquity effect, as these are the people that they are seeing most frequently.

II.

Try It! The Passionate Love Scale (LO 9.3)

Hatfield and Sprecher’s (1986) Passionate Love Scale can be found on page 284 of the text.

Scoring instructions are provided as well. In class, you could discuss the role of physiological arousal in passionate love versus companionate love. You can also connect their responses to work on the misattribution of arousal (e.g., Dutton and Aron, 1974) – if this is a new attraction, was a connection made during an exciting activity? You might also keep in mind that it is possible that not everyone is a passionate love situation right now and it is worth reminding students that this is okay. In the exercise suggestions are made for those who are not currently passionately in love.

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Chapter 10 I.

Try It! Does the Reciprocity Norm Increase Helping? (LO 10.1)

This exercise on page 314 invites students to consider times when they felt pressure to help a friend and/or contribute to a charitable cause after being given a small gift of some sort, an example of the norm of reciprocity and its pressures. This might be an opportunity to discuss how this norm might be used to increase giving behaviours towards under supported charitable initiatives. Ask students if the reciprocity norm might apply in situations where the “gift” was neither asked for nor wanted (e.g. street musicians, buskers, and people who wash others’ cars at stoplights without permission, expecting to be paid afterwards). Do students believe that these situations make the recipients of these uninvited services likely to feel obligated by the norm of reciprocity, or, conversely, resentful and/or negatively inclined to “reciprocate”? It seems that there are likely situations in which this norm will be evoked, and other situations where it will not be, and this is something that students can reflect on and discuss.

II.

Try It! The Lost Letter Technique (LO 10.4)

Students are invited to leave stamped letters around to see whether others will pick them up and mail them in a helpful act of in this exercise on page 338. Students are advised to address all letters to the same address but to vary the envelopes in creative ways: they might alter the description of the recipient, to imply different purposes for this letter (e.g. implying it is addressed either to a doctor, or to the Guiness Book of World Records), or to vary the ethnicity of the recipient’s name on the envelope to see which groups are more likely to be “helped”. This procedure was first tested by Stanley Milgram in 1969; his findings suggested that people tended to mail letters more when they felt the letter’s contents aligned with their own values (i.e. when they were addressed to “Medical Research Associates” as opposed to “Friends of the Nazi Party”). If students do not feel comfortable putting their own home addresses on the envelopes, the class could run this study collectively, using one address. Before initiating this field study, ask students to make a list of their hypotheses on the board based on the groups of envelope types decided upon and then look to see how many of the letters are returned. Also check with your ethics board to find out whether ethics approval is needed in advance of running this experiment.

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Chapter 11 I.

Try It! Insults and Aggression (LO 11.3)

In this exercise, found on page 357 of the text, students are asked to think about the last time they felt insulted by another person, and then answer a number of questions. Having students reflect on this in class might provide a good opportunity to discuss the circumstances around initiating and reciprocating aggression in everyday settings. What factors were common across settings in which aggression was initiated in response to an insult? And when was it reciprocated? Building on material from the chapter, the students can be asked to reflect on how they might have responded differently, for example, walking away from the insulting situation.

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Chapter 12 I.

Try It! Multiculturalism: Is it Working? (LO 12.1)

This exercise is designed to raise “some interesting issues about the merits of multiculturalism”.

For example, this section describes a study by Vorauer and colleagues conducted at the University of Manitoba where the effect of exposure to a multicultural message was different depending on whether participants were low or high in prejudice. This study can be presented and discussed in class and students can be asked to reflect on why high prejudice participants were actually less warm to a purported Aboriginal student after reading a message outlining the benefits of multiculturalism. It seems possible that not everyone agrees that differences should be celebrated, and this can lead to a good classroom discussion about prejudice and how their own biases might have been challenged by reading this chapter.

II.

Try It! Stereotype Content: Where does it Come From? (LO 12.1)

This exercise is based on research by Schaller and colleagues at UBC. Students are asked to construct a list of traits or characteristics of White Canadians, Chinese, East Indian and First Nations peoples. The traits or characteristics are then compared to a list of stereotypes identified in a survey of students at the University of British Columbia. A discussion of the persistence of positive and negative traits can follow based on Schaller' s research. It is important during this discussion that stereotypes be challenged and that students focus on what they have learned in the chapter about how to combat negative stereotypes. There can also be a discussion of possible downsides when one faces positive stereotypes – there can be pressure to live up to the expectations of the stereotypes. However, it is clear from extensive research that facing negative stereotypes can be far more damaging and can be a precursor to systemic racism.

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SPA 1 I.

Try It! Reducing Littering by Using Injunctive Norms? (LO SPA 1.2)

For this exercise, students are encouraged to use a technique by Reno, Cialdini, and Kallgren (1993) decrease littering. This exercise builds on injunctive norms, defined as people’s perceptions of the behaviour that is approved or disapproved of by others. The student is asked to find an environment in which people are likely to litter and to place a conspicuous piece of litter in a location where people are sure to see it. The first time, the student can pick up and throw away this piece of litter so that another person sees this seemingly selfless act. A second time, again in front of another person, the student can walk past the trash, glance at it, and continue on their way without picking it up. The observer should watch to see whether people litter or not.

Reno and colleagues (1993) found that when people saw someone pick up another person’s litter, they were much less likely to litter themselves. You can have students discuss the results of this mini experiment. Before they try it, have students discuss their hypotheses. Some limitations to the study might be the sample size (possible n = 1 in each condition for each student) and people might litter so infrequently that they might not catch someone in the act of littering in either condition. It is also interesting to hear whether anyone saw others pick up litter following this short demonstration of the norm that if you see litter, you should pick it up.

II.

Try It! Changing Environmentally Damaging Behaviour (LO SPA 1.2)

In this Try It! students are encouraged to try applying the information that they have learned in this chapter to change behaviour in ways that help the environment. Students are encouraged to choose (1) a behaviour they would like to change and (2) a technique they will use to change the behaviour (for example, the comparative feedback technique used by Frans Siero and colleagues in 1996). Finally, have students measure the success of their intervention. Behaviour should be assessed before and after the intervention and, if possible, students should include a control group of people who do not receive the intervention (randomly assigned). In class, students can share success experiences that they had. Was there one approach that was particularly effective?

As suggested in this exercise, you can encourage students to try more than one technique and can be sure to review specific techniques that they might try. You can also discuss what to do when behavioural interventions fail, backfire, or lead to unforeseen negative compensatory behaviours.

Why might this happen and what is the best way to adjust an intervention if we see that it is not being very effective?

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SPA 2 I.

Try It! The College Life Stress Inventory (LO SPA 2.1)

An abridged version of the Renner and Mackin (1998) list of potential stressors is provided on page 448. You can ask students to complete this, keeping in mind that this should be done in private and some events that are asked about could be triggering for students. You might also want to provide information about on campus support at the end of class and/or have this on hand. Students can be reminded that they do not need to write out their responses, but instead can keep a tally of their score as they go through each item. In class, you can discuss what some of the major stressors are for students and how they might be addressed. You can also see whether, as noted in the textbook, some frequent stressors for university students are missing from this scale. Are there stressors that international students are feeling that are not captured? Finally, you might consider introducing some teaching and research by Dr. Lori Santos at Yale University. She runs a podcast called the Happiness Lab and there are multiple youtube videos where she outlines things that students can do to feel happier.

II.

Try It! Social Support (LO SPA 2.2)

In this exercise, students are asked to complete Cohen et al.’s (1985) appraised social support scale can be found on page 465 of the text. Cohen et al. found differences between the physical symptoms experienced by high and low scorers on the scale when people were under stress.

Research also suggests that women score reliably higher on the scale than men. In class, you can ask students why they think this is the case. Are women more encouraged in society to develop social supports? Is it more socially acceptable for women to reach out to others for help? You can also make suggestions for how people might make new connections in their life or how they might reach out for additional social support. You might encourage them to make the commitment to text, call, or connect with a family member or friend who has been a source of support in the past but who they haven’t connected with for some time.

III.

Try It! The Life Orientation Test (LO SPA 2.2)

Students are asked to complete a ten-item Life Orientation Test that has been used in studies with students to examine levels of dispositional optimism (Scheier, Carver, & Bridges, 1994). To score this measure, students will first need to reverse score their answers to items 3, 7, and 9 (changing 0 to 4, 1 to 3, 3 to 1, and 4 to 0). They should then sum these 3 reversed scored items with their responses to items 1, 4, and 10, ignoring items 2, 5, 6, and 8, that are filler items.

Scores can range from 0 to 24 (6 items times a maximum score of 4 for each item). Higher scores indicate greater dispositional optimism.

According to Scheier et al. (1994), the higher your score, the more optimistic your approach to life. They found that the average score for university students in their study was 14.3, with no significant differences between women and men. Several studies have found that optimistic people cope better with stress and are healthier than their pessimistic counterparts. Before having students complete this scale, you could ask them to reflect on whether they consider themselves to be an optimistic or pessimistic person. Does it depend on the circumstance – that is, are they Copyright © 2022 Pearson Canada Inc.

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optimistic about their personal life, but pessimistic about their career prospects? Or vice versa?

Or do they believe this is more stable across areas of their life? Does their score on this scale match their self-perception? Do people believe that they can become more optimistic or pessimistic over time? What might affect any possible change (e.g., life events? learning about the benefits of optimism? cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT)?).

IV.

Try It! Changing Your Health Habits (LO SPA 2.3)

In this exercise, students are encouraged to select a health habit and try to improve it using the principles discussed in this chapter. In advance of trying improve a health habit, you can ask students to reflect on how challenging they think it will be to make change. What might interfere with their goals? Since changing habits can be more challenging than we expect, students are encouraged in this Try It! to start small and to try increasing feelings of selfefficacy, making sure to avoid damaging patterns of attributions following set-backs, and seeking social support. You can see whether people who were most successful took all of these approaches or just one. What were some of the challenges that students who were not as successful faced?

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SPA 3 I.

Try It! Are You Aware of the Penalties for Crimes?

If people are unaware that a crime has a severe penalty, those penalties cannot act as a deterrent.

In this exercise students are asked whether they are aware of the penalties for specific crimes as outlined in the Criminal Code of Canada. You can encourage students to guess the answers and then search online for the response by searching “penalty for x criminal code of Canada”. Some possible answers based on online searches are provided below.

These answers are based on Criminal Code (R.S.C., 1985, c. C-46) and Criminal Code, (RSC 1989, c C-46, s. 259): 1. First-degree murder: Imprisonment for life s.235(1).

2. Second-degree murder: Imprisonment for life s.235(1).

3. Manslaughter: Imprisonment for life s.234 4. Communication for prostitution: Imprisonment for a term not exceeding ten years. s.212(4); 5 years if prosecuted on indictment; 18 months if prosecuted by summary conviction.

5. Break and enter: If the location was a house, 10 years to imprisonment for life; if the location was not a private dwelling, then imprisonment for a term not exceeding ten years s.348(1) – and some indication the maximum could be 18 months jail or $5,000 fine.

6. Drug trafficking: Imprisonment for 18 months to 10 years 7. Impaired driving: For a first offence, a $2000 fine and a 12-month prohibition on driving is the minimum sentence; second offence, the minimum sentence is 30 days of imprisonment and maximum of 10 years imprisonment; third or later offense, the minimum sentence is 120 days imprisonment.255(2).

8. False pretence (e.g., forging a cheque): Imprisonment for 2-14 years s. 380(1)(a).

9. Assisting suicide: Imprisonment for a term of not more than 14 years s.241(1).

10. Sexual assault: Imprisonment for 10-14 years (although other sources indicate 18 months to two years), depending on whether the complainant was over the age of 16 s.271(a).

II.

Try It! The Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony (LO SPA 3.1)

In this Try It! exercise, students are asked to stage an incident in order to test out eyewitness testimony. Each student is asked to stage an incident in their dorm room or apartment in which a different friend (unknown to the other friends) comes into the room, acts in a strange way, and then leaves. Students are given a number of questions that their friends can write down answer to. After everyone has written down their memory for the incident, they should share them with the group to see how consistent and accurate people were in their reports. Depending on the variations of the incident, the findings from this exercise may provide a good opportunity to discuss not only eyewitness testimony in general, but also own-race bias and change blindness.

Did students have fun doing this? How accurate were their friends? Did people notice small details? Did anyone miss major details of the person or event?

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Instructor’s Manual Linda Lockwood Jennifer R. Steele

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Seventh Canadian Edition Elliot Aronson Timothy D. Wilson Beverley Fehr Samuel R. Sommers