Chapter 16 – Beyond Method

Chapter Outline

Dimensions of Research

Beginning With a Question

Limitations to Finding Answers

Our Tools

Our Shared View of the World

Our Psychological Limitations

Science as a Complex Human Process

Value in Science

Relevance

Science as a Means of Transcendence

Chapter Overview

The methods of science can be placed along three dimensions. The first dimension is the extent to which the experimenter intervenes in what is being studied. The dimension has the true experiment and naturalistic observation at its extremes. The second dimension consists of research setting and is anchored by laboratory and field research. The third dimension describes the scientist’s participation in the experiment, ranging from observation to more active participation.

Research starts with asking a question and proceeding to develop a research program that systematically develops by drawing on the work of others. However, the scientist encounters obstacles that may limit the type of questions that are asked. The limitations include the methodological tools with which we have to study, our shared conceptions and personal perceptions, and fear of what knowledge might mean for us personally. Science is a complex human endeavor and is concerned with truth, value, and relevance. Science also represents a process that allows the growth and development of individuals and of society. A growing number of scientists are interested in studying both behavior and experience.

Chapter Objectives

1. Explain the three dimensions of research approaches.

2. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of the naturalistic and the experimental method.

3. Explain the differing characteristics of laboratory and field research.

4. Discuss the scientist as an observer and the scientist as a participant.

5. What are three potential obstacles that may limit research?

6. What did Lakatos suggest as a method to advance science?

7. Distinguish between Lakatos' progressive and degenerative research programs.

8. Describe Chamberlin's two fundamental approaches to learning.

9. What is the objective of multiple working hypotheses?

10. Explain the difference between statistical significance and scientific significance.

11. Explain how scientific knowledge can be considered a superior knowledge.

Teaching Points

Many students will find the content of this chapter challenging. One reason for this is that students have not considered the personal and cultural influences on the kinds of questions that are asked in science. Tomorrow’s scientists will ask different kinds of questions because they will have different values, limitations, and tools available to them.

While science is often portrayed as unemotional and analytical, it might be a good idea to remind students that science is a human endeavor conducted by humans. Hence, scientists can be emotional, driven, and ambitious. In short, science is more complicated than just the method. The passion of scientists can be both good and bad. It can be a driving force towards discoveries, or it can cause bias in a scientist’s opinions.

Note the similarities between Chamberlin’s method of multiple working hypotheses and Platt’s method of strong inference. Point out how, in Chapter 3, scientists generate ideas for research and consider those descriptions in the context of Chapter 14.

The chapter suggests that knowledge that is acquired through science is superior to other knowledge. Remind students of the different ways of knowing presented in Chapter 1.

The challenge of maintaining objectivity in research deserves mention as well as acknowledging the influence of personal and cultural values in science. Often students assume that scientists and science are objective and not susceptible to influence. By adhering to the scientific method, these influences can be minimized, but never eliminated.

Teaching Activities

Discussion

Lead a discussion of the philosophy of science and the contrasting views of Kuhn, Popper, and Lakatos. Bring students back to Chapter 2 to review Kuhn and Popper.

Background Knowledge Probe

Create closure by reintroducing students to the concepts and principles that they’ve learned throughout this course. Use Handout 16-1 to demonstrate to students just how much they’ve learned. Compare their responses to the same activity presented in Chapter 1.

What Would They Say?

In this activity, students are asked to “create” quotes that could have been said of those theorists described in the chapter. Inform your students that they are to carefully read about the theorist first and then respond to the prompt on Handout 16-2. Next have students read their “quotes” and ask other students to guess the theorist.

Dimensions of Research

The chapter suggests reviewing some of the studies described in the textbook (e.g., Chapter 15) and determining in what quadrant they can be placed (see Figure 16.1 and Figure 16.2). An alternative is to place the study along each dimension separately.

Multiple Working Hypotheses

Present students with a simple experiment and the hypothesis that is being tested. Ask students to use Chamberlin’s method of multiple working hypotheses to generate a family of rival hypotheses. This activity can jumpstart a discussion on how this method can lead to more interesting questions about the research.

Reading Material

http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=neuroscience-meets-psychoanalysis

Brain imaging techniques allow us to study human behavior and experience that were previously beyond our limits. The article entitled “Defense Mechanisms: Neuroscience Meets Psychoanalysis” discusses how modern neuroscience has led to the reconceptualization of psychoanalytic defense mechanisms. Here is scientific evidence discrediting the belief that the dynamic unconscious, which Freud envisioned, is but a myth. Such studies show how science is limited by the current available techniques, and cautions us against confusing assumptions with directly observed facts. Discovering the neural bases of behavior brings us a step closer to finding more effective psychiatric treatments.

Internet Resources

Imre Lakatos (www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Lakatos.html)

This website presents a brief biography of Lakatos.

Values in science (www1.umn.edu/ships/ethics/values.htm)

Douglas Allchin discusses how values have influenced science and vice versa.

The method of multiple working hypothesis

(http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/AB/BC/chamberlin.html)

The website contains T. C. Chamberlin’s article (with commentary) about testing multiple hypotheses and the rationale underlying this approach to research.

Suggested Reading

Matsumoto, D. (1994). Cultural influences on research methods and statistics. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Research Activities for Students

The goals of the research activities are to: (1) relate Chapter 16 on an applied learning dimension, and (2) get you involved in research.

1. Developing Futuristic Research Questions. Develop five interesting research questions that are limited due to our lack of scientific tools, but for which we might have tools, and ultimately scientific answers, in the future.

2. Is Science Value-Free? Cross Cultural Sexuality Research. Using online references such as PsycINFO and PubMed, research how different cultures define and view homosexuality

Identify societal biases that you are aware of, both related to homosexuality, as well as some of the biases inherent in your value system. Describe the influence that these biases may have both on your thinking and your ability to research homosexuality.

3. Diverse Explanations of Aggression

What does science tells us about aggression? Use online references such as PsycINFO and PubMed to research different theories about the causes of aggression. Include social, cultural, genetic, and evolutionary perspectives.

Handout 16-1

Background Knowledge Probe

As you read each term, assess how much you know about it by using the following scale:

1 I have heard of this term

2 I have heard of this term, but I can’t really say what it means

3 I have heard of this term and I have a general idea of what it means

4 I have heard of this term and I could explain its meaning to someone

Theorist

Imre Lakatos

Handout 16-2

What Would They Say?

What is science? Do values affect science and the scientist?

Thomas Kuhn (Chapter 2)

Karl Popper (Chapter 2)