Test Bank for Exceptional Learners An Introduction to Special Education 15th Edition By Daniel, Paig

Chapter 1 Test Item File Daniel P. Hallahan

Exceptional Learners: An Introduction to Special Education Fifteenth Edition Daniel P. Hallahan Paige C. Pullen James M. Kauffman

Table of Contents Chapter 1: Exceptionality and Special Education ............................................... 1 Learning Outcome Quizzes ............................................................................ 1 Application Exercises .................................................................................... 14 Test Items ....................................................................................................... 23 Test Answer Key ............................................................................................ 34

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Chapter 1: Exceptionality and Special Education Learning Outcome Quizzes Learning Outcome 1.1: Become oriented to exceptionality, understand the definitions of exceptional learners and special education, and learn about the prevalence of exceptional learners in both high- and low-incidence categories.

[Q1] Which of the following statements about disability is true?

1. If an individual has a disability, they have a handicap.

2. A disability is an inability to do something that most of one’s same-age peers can do. [correct] 3. Scientists have identified the causes of most disabilities.

4. A disability is the inability to do a particular thing with ease.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] A handicap is a disadvantage that is imposed on an individual; a disability may or may not be a handicap.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] A person with a disability lacks a specific capacity to do something that others of roughly the same age can do.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] We know relatively little about what causes disabilities, although progress is being made in determining why many disabilities occur.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] An inability to do something with ease doesn’t automatically signify a disability; many of us can’t do things easily until we have learned and practiced, and sometimes not even then. A disability exists when the particular thing that a person can’t do is something that the majority of others in their peer group can do.

[Q2] Which question would be most helpful in determining whether an adult’s inability to read is the result of a reading disability?

1. Do they struggle despite having appropriate and effective literacy instruction? [correct] 2. Is their IQ average, above average, or below average?

3. Did they start demonstrating reading problems before they were 10 years old?

4. Do they resist reading, even for pleasure?

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[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] If a person cannot read after having effective literacy instruction, that person may have a disability. If no one has taught them how to read, they may be unable to read, but they wouldn’t be considered to have a disability.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] IQ scores and other standardized tests may provide some information about a learner’s abilities and performance, but they alone aren’t a reliable way to determine whether a person has a reading disability.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] While developmental milestones and historical information may provide information about a student’s abilities relative to those of their peers, there is no particular age of onset that would indicate that an adult had a reading disability.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Many people both with and without disabilities choose not to read, even for pleasure, so the answer to this question wouldn’t yield useful information.

[Q3] When we consider the challenges associated with the education of exceptional learners, all but which of the following statements are true?

1. It’s difficult to precisely determine the number of students with exceptionalities.

2. The rate of high-incidence disabilities has increased exponentially in the 21st century. [correct] 3. When it comes to special education, there are far more questions than answers.

4. There is tremendous variation in the characteristics and needs of exceptional learners.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Vague and frequently changing definitions as well as the role of the schools in determining exceptionality make it difficult to speak to prevalence with great accuracy and confidence.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] The rate of high-incidence disabilities has remained relatively stable in the last two decades, although there were some dramatic increases and decreases in the latter part of the 20th century. Currently, the number of students with autism, traditionally considered a low-incidence disability, has increased dramatically, so much so that it may be reclassified as a high-incidence disability.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] There are few known facts and a tremendous amount of ambiguity in special education; no single definition, criterion, or developmental theory can be applied, which makes identifying widely accepted answers difficult.

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[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Special education serves a widely varying population. The amount of variability increases the challenge of working with exceptional learners.

[Q4] Based on what you’ve read about the definitions of ability, disability, and handicap, which of the following individuals would most likely be determined to have a disability?

1. Marcus, who doesn’t like to sing because he is a perfectionist and can’t hit the notes on pitch.

2. Kenisha, who has an exceptionally high level of intelligence and always finishes her work well ahead of her peers.

3. Hazel, a six-month old, who cannot follow simple directions or stand up by herself.

4. Tyler, fourth-grader who is reading on a first grade level even though he has had excellent teachers and supplemental tutoring. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Marcus likely does not have a disability. Many people can’t hit notes with perfect pitch.

Marcus can sing even if he thinks he doesn’t do it well.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Remember that disability occurs when an individual can’t do something that their typical same-age peers can do; Kenisha may be atypical, but she isn’t having a problem doing what her classmates can do, so she does not have a disability.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Most six-month-olds can’t follow simple directions or stand up by themselves, so Hazel is not significantly different from her same-age peers. By virtue of her level of development, she does not have a disability.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] A child whose performance is significantly different from that of their same-age peers despite effective instruction and intervention is more likely to have a disability.

[Q5] What would the text authors say is the most significant lesson a future educator can learn from the accomplishments of individuals like quadriplegic artist Doug Landis?

1. Disabilities can be overcome if people work hard enough.

2. Special education is necessary for all individuals with disabilities to reach their potential.

3. Some people with disabilities will have extraordinary outcomes, and others will make less flashy but no less important progress. [correct] 4. Individuals with more severe disabilities are likely to make the most progress.

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[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Unfortunately, disabilities can’t always be overcome. However, people can make remarkable progress even in the face of disability.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] While special education can provide tremendous support for people with disabilities, it’s possible for them to succeed without direct educational intervention. Doug Landis taught himself to paint after his brother put a paintbrush in his mouth.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Outcomes like Doug Landis’s are rare, but all people with disabilities can make progress and the advances they make should be celebrated.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The severity of the disability is not the driving factor in students’ progress; early intervention, effective education, individual determination, and strong support are much more important factors.

Learning Outcome 1.2: Understand and appreciate the history and origins of special education.

[Q1] Which of the following statements best describes the educational opportunities of the majority of people with disabilities prior to the late 18th century?

1. People with disabilities were typically institutionalized or kept at home instead of being educated. [correct] 2. Young children with disabilities were provided with early intervention that taught basic skills, then, were required to sink or swim in regular classes.

3. Legislation was passed that required schools to provide students with disabilities with access to a free, appropriate, public education.

4. Students with disabilities attended private schools, such as Samuel Gridley Howe’s school for students who were blind.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] During this time period, individuals with disabilities were typically put into asylums or kept secreted at home.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Sadly, early intervention in the United States was not a focus of federal legislation until 1986.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Public Law 94-142, which guaranteed all children a free, appropriate, public education, wasn’t passed until 1975.

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[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Private schools that served people with disabilities began appearing in the early part of the 19th century. Samuel Gridley Howe created a residential school for blind students in 1829.

[Q2] Why is the case of the “Wild Boy of Aveyron” historically important?

1. It demonstrated that nature is more important than nurture in child development.

2. It demonstrated that nurture is more important than nature in child development.

3. It is considered the first recorded attempt at special education as we know it today. [correct] 4. It is the first recorded case of a child being taught sign language using only naturalistic prompts.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Experts still debate the relationship of nature and nurture in child development. Most authorities today believe that both are critical determinants of intelligence.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Experts still debate the relationship of nature and nurture in child development. Most authorities today believe that both are critical determinants of intelligence.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Itard’s work in the early 19th century set the stage for the use of systematic, educative procedures in working with students with exceptionalities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The case is important because experts typically identify it as the beginning of special education.

[Q3] Why were the American and French Revolutions important for the eventual development of special education?

1. They resulted in many soldiers with injuries such as blindness and brain damage, and once they returned home, they became strong proponents of special education.

2. They promoted the ideals of individual freedom and egalitarianism. [correct] 3. They resulted in many war orphans who needed residential special education services.

4. They resulted in an influx of money, some of which was used to mandate special education services.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1]

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While many soldiers undoubtedly did return with significant, disabling injuries, there was no resulting push for special education services.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Political reformers and leaders in medicine and education began to champion the idea that individuals with disabilities could and should be educated in ways that would allow them to become independent, productive citizens.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] War orphans did not play a significant role in the development of special education services; an increase in humanitarian sentiments and the desire for egalitarianism resulted from these wars.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Special education services were not made universally available until much later; for the United states, the law that required schools to serve the needs of all learners was not passed until 1975.

[Q4] All but which of the following actions resulted from the movement toward normalization for people with disabilities?

1. Large institutions that formerly served people with disabilities were closed.

2. There was increased interest in helping people with disabilities make connections in their communities.

3. Students with disabilities began being included in general education classrooms with their nonexceptional peers to the largest extent possible.

4. The federal government ensured that individuals with disabilities who were unhoused or had mental health disabilities received needed services. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Moving formerly institutionalized people into smaller, more supportive facilities was a direct result of increased emphasis on normalization.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Through normalization, more people with disabilities lived at home with their families and benefited from smaller-scale, community-based services.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The idea of inclusion was a direct result of the emphasis on normalization; the idea was to break down barriers to the participation of people with disabilities in normal life situations and activities.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4]

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Unfortunately, even in the 21st century, many people with disabilities are unhoused and/or are unable to get the health care they need to be able to realize their full potential.

[Q5] How is the U.S. Supreme Court ruling in the case of Brown v. Board of Education most directly relevant to special education?

1. The Brown decision guaranteed all students, regardless of ability or disability, the right to a free, appropriate public education.

2. The Brown decision established punitive outcomes for schools that fail to adequately serve students with special needs.

3. The Brown decision was a precedent for a federal law mandating that public schools had to effectively serve students with disabilities. [correct] 4. The Brown decision resulted in legislation requiring that students with disabilities be educated in general education classrooms regardless of their disability.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The Brown decision abolished the doctrine of “separate but equal” and was the catalyst for racial integration of American public schools.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The Brown decision decried racial segregation in public schools, establishing the idea that separate schools were not equal and that public schools should be integrated.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Even though Brown’s focus was on racial segregation, the case served as a cornerstone for the argument that segregating people or denying them an adequate education because of their disabilities was similarly unconstitutional.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The Brown decision did pave the way for PL 94-142 (now known as IDEA), but it did not directly result in the provision of special educational services to students who needed them.

Learning Outcome 1.3: Learn about legislation and litigation that have affected special education.

[Q1] Which of the following statements is true?

1. By law, students must receive special education services if they are unable to make satisfactory progress in the regular school program without special services. [correct] 2. Currently there are no laws mandating educational services for students with disabilities.

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3. Laws regarding eligibility for special education services were repealed in the early 2000s.

4. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act requires that all states fully fund the provision of special education services.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] All students are entitled to a free, appropriate, public education. This stipulation originated with PL 94-142 and continues today through the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (commonly referred to as IDEA).

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Laws requiring states and localities to serve all students regardless of ability or disability have existed since the passage of PL 94-142 in 1975.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] In fact, IDEA was reauthorized in 2004; the legal requirement to serve all children regardless of ability or disability has been in place since 1975.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] IDEA provides some federal funding to states to facilitate the education of students with special needs.

[Q2] PL 99-457 aligns with PL 94-142 and requires that states do which one of the following things?

1. Allocate direct supplemental funding to parents of students with special needs.

2. Provide enrichment in art, music, and movement for all students receiving special education services.

3. Pay special education teachers more than their general education counterparts because of the complexity of the job.

4. Develop early intervention programs for infants and toddlers with known disabilities or those deemed at risk. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] PL 99-457 provided services to support parent training, counseling, and home visits, but it did not allocate money for direct payment to parents.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] PL 99-457 focused on early intervention and serving students ages 3–5.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] PL 99-457 provided services for children ages 3–5 and provided financial incentives for states to offer early intervention from birth onward.

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PL 99-457 also required states to provide preschool services for children ages 3–5.

[Q3] The Americans with Disabilities Act primarily focused on 1. alternate assessments for students with special needs.

2. civil rights protections for individuals with disabilities. [correct] 3. relaxing the requirements from IDEA in how schools must serve students with severe disabilities.

4. identifying new disabilities that would qualify for services under IDEA. [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The topic of assessment of students with special needs was a focus of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) and the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESSA). The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) focused on ensuring that individuals with disabilities are not discriminated against.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] The ADA provided protections for people with disabilities, ensuring that they receive nondiscriminatory treatment in areas such as employment, transportation, and public accommodations, among others.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] If anything, the ADA bolstered the requirements for how the needs of people with severe disabilities are met; it provided civil rights protections and ensured nondiscriminatory treatment in several aspects of public life.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The ADA was not focused on categories of disabilities. Instead, it provided protections for people with disabilities, ensuring that they receive nondiscriminatory treatment in areas such as employment, transportation, and public accommodations, among others.

[Q4] Which of the following arguments most accurately describes why some people have tried to repeal some of the provisions of IDEA? 1. They believe that providing special services to students with disabilities reflects bias against children with typical development.

2. They believe that spending money to identify the nature and type of students’ disabilities is fiscally irresponsible.

3. They believe that since the states are bearing more of the financial burdens, the federal government’s influence should be limited. [correct] 4. They believe that some parents only seek special education services so their children will have an academic advantage over their peers.

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[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The most common reason that people have tried to repeal some aspects of IDEA is that while the law is a federal mandate, the U.S. government provides little funding for its implementation. This discrepancy leads to the argument that states should be able to make more decisions without federal oversight.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] While money is a factor in attempts to repeal parts of IDEA, the larger concern is that the federal government contributes limited funding for states to implement the law.

Proponents of appeal argue that since states are providing most of the funding, they should have more freedom to set their own policies and practices.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Arguments for repeal typically advocate the idea that the federal government should disinvest itself in educational matters, leaving them to the states.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Most of the desire to repeal some pieces of the legislation relates to the fact that the federal government provides limited financial support to help states implement the law but has very specific guidelines that states must follow.

[Q5] What was the significance of the case of Hudson v. Rowley (1982), a case involving the education of a deaf child?

1. It was determined that deafness should be added as a new category in the areas served under IDEA. 2. It was determined that school districts could be liable for damages if they did not serve all students in the general education classroom with their same-age peers.

3. It was determined that while a school or district has to provide an appropriate education for each child, that doesn’t mean that every possible service must be provided. [correct] 4. It was determined that all schools must hire at least one individual who is certified to teach American Sign Language (ASL).

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] In 1982, deafness was already a category of exceptionality served under IDEA. In Hudson v. Rowley, it was determined that an appropriate education for a child with a disability does not necessarily mean that education will produce the most favorable possible achievement for the student.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] IDEA requires that students with disabilities be educated in the least restrictive environment; that may or may not be in the general education classroom. Hudson v.

Rowley focused on the nature and scope of an appropriate education.

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[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] In this case, the school was not required to provide a sign language interpreter because the Court decided that the individualized program established for the child was sufficient to result in a favorable, if not optimal, outcome.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] While the question of providing an ASL interpreter for a child was at the heart of Hudson v. Rowley, the case did not focus on school hiring requirements and practices.

Learning Outcome 1.4: Consider what the future might hold for exceptional learners.

[Q1] All but which of the following statements about the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on students with disabilities are true?

1. Students with disabilities experienced a higher degree of negative effects than students without disabilities did.

2. Students with Down syndrome were particularly at risk of developing acute respiratory disease.

3. Students with autism generally demonstrated fewer behavioral problems because they didn’t have to attend school with large numbers of other people. [correct] 4. The stress of disrupted routines and the lack of access to in-person instruction negatively affected outcomes for students with disabilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Virtually everyone, with or without disabilities, were negatively affected by the COVID19 pandemic, but students with disabilities faced more negative impacts than most.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] People with Down syndrome are prone to immune system dysregulation as well as upper respiratory infections, so they contracted COVID at a higher rate and were 10 times more likely to die from it.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Changes to educational delivery disrupted routines; in many cases, students were often subjected to inconsistent behavior management. Further, for individuals with autism, the requirement to wear a face mask was particularly challenging. Behavior problems were a common response to these changes.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The lack of routine and the use of virtual learning methodology was often a poor match for students with disabilities.

[Q2]

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According to the text, advancement in research on environmental toxins is particularly relevant as we learn more about which type of disability?

1. Traumatic brain injury 2. Quadriplegia or paraplegia 3. Deafness 4. Neurologically based conditions [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Environmental toxins are more commonly associated with neurologically based disabilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Environmental toxins are more commonly associated with neurologically based disabilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Environmental toxins are more commonly associated with neurologically based disabilities.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Exposure to environmental toxins such as food contaminants and air pollutants can affect brain development early in life.

[Q3] What do evidence-based practices (EBPs) and high leverage practices (HLPs) have in common?

1. They both reflect the findings of current research about the most promising methods and strategies for teaching students with disabilities. [correct] 2. They are both required to be included in the Individualized Education Program (IEP) as part of the stipulation that each child must receive a free, appropriate, public education.

3. They both reflect scientific advancements in our understanding of the causes of some types of disabilities.

4. They both reflect practices that are common in elementary special education classrooms but uncommon in middle and high school special education classrooms.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] These methods and strategies are backed up by research that speaks to their effectiveness.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2]

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EBPs and HLPs are not required to be included in the IEP. They are research-based methods and strategies that have been shown to be best practice in working with students with disabilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] EBPs and HLPs are research-based teaching strategies and methods and are not reflective of any investigation into the causes of disabilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] EBPs and HLPs are used at all grade levels.

[Q4] All but which of the following statements about scientific advances in our understandings of disability are accurate?

1. Scientists can now grow healthy organs from stem cells and transplant them into the bodies of individuals whose organs are faulty or failing. [correct] 2. Some disabling conditions can be corrected before birth.

3. Learning the role genes play in various disabling conditions may allow those conditions to be prevented.

4. New technologies allow paralyzed users to produce words on a computer screen just by thinking about the movements used in letter formation.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] There is preliminary research in this area, but the practice is not yet advanced enough for such transplants to be utilized.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Some surgeries, done before children are born, allow doctors to prevent disabling conditions such as hydrocephalus.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Identifying the functional elements of the human genome sequence may one day lead to the reduction or elimination of many genetically based disabling conditions.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Brain-computer interface technology can enhance the communication abilities of people who are paralyzed from the neck down.

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Application Exercises Application Exercise 1.1: Abilities and Disabilities Learning Outcome 1.1: Become oriented to exceptionality, understand the definitions of exceptional learners and special education, and learn about the prevalence of exceptional learners in both high- and low-incidence categories.

Scenario: Review these sections of the text: The Importance of Abilities, Disability Versus Handicap, and Disability Versus Inability, then respond to the question.

Mr. and Mrs. Cooper have a 23-year-old daughter, Mieka. Mieka has a mild intellectual disability. This means that she has limitations in both her intellectual functioning and her adaptive behavior. Results of intelligence tests put Mieka’s IQ somewhere between 50 and 70 (though it is important to remember that IQ tests are generally accurate but not perfect). Assessments of Mieka’s adaptive behavior—her ability to function well in her daily environment—show some limitations. For instance, Mieka is not able to live separately from her parents because she sometimes forgets to observe safety behaviors like turning off the stove or locking the door. Mieka is also highly social and genuinely enjoys people, but this quality means she is overly trusting of others and has occasionally been taken advantage by other people.

Mieka and her parents are very close, something that is obvious when you see them together. They are constantly laughing and genuinely enjoy each other’s company. Mr. and Mrs. Cooper have adopted a strengths-based, high-expectation mindset for Mieka.

They taught her to embrace the personal motto, “I can do it!” They have worked hard to help her realize her potential; she has basic reading skills and can do simple computations and count money, though more complicated math like making change is beyond her capacity. Mieka successfully carries out several responsibilities at home (e.g., feeding the dog, setting the table, and following directions on how to heat food in the microwave).

Mieka has developed significant talent in creating vibrant abstract art with acrylic paints, a hobby her parents have encouraged by making sure she has regular art lessons and access to plenty of supplies. At first, Mrs. Cooper posted Mieka’s artwork on her own social media sites simply because she was proud of it; she was pleasantly surprised when her friends and followers were interested in buying Mieka’s art. Mieka got very excited that others liked her work, so Mrs. Cooper set up an Instagram account and an online store to sell Mieka’s paintings. Mieka made some simple fliers; then, Mr. Cooper took her to stores with community bulletin boards so she could post them. As a result of these efforts, the traffic at the online store grew significantly; Mieka can now sell almost any painting she creates, though she and her parents do keep some of the ones they particularly love. Mieka’s earnings are now one of the primary sources of income in the household.

After being asked to go back to her old school and show the students there how she paints, Mieka had the idea of doing more live demonstrations for people. With her parents’ help, she now has a YouTube channel with several thousand followers who 14 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

enjoy watching her paint. While she doesn’t fully understand the complexities of technology and social media, Mieka knows how to set up her camera and narrate her videos. Mr. Cooper manages her channel; Mrs. Cooper edits and captions the recordings.

Mr. and Mrs. Cooper used some of the money Mieka earned to build a separate studio space behind their house; Mieka happily paints there each day. At night, she returns to the house and sleeps in her own bedroom.

[Q1] Question: Given what you know about disabilities, handicaps, abilities, and inabilities, how would you use these terms to describe Mieka, both as a learner and as a functioning adult?

Explain your thinking.

[Q1 Model Response] Mieka has a disability—a diminished capacity to do some things that other people without disabilities can do. For instance, while she can count money, she isn’t able to do the higher math that would be involved in running her own business. However, Mieka’s abilities outshine her disability and demonstrate she is a capable learner. She is a talented artist, can read and do basic math, has a strong creative streak, and interacts well with other people. She is not self-conscious and has a sense of humor.

A handicap is a disadvantage imposed on an individual. In some situations, Mieka’s disability becomes a handicap. For instance, she can’t live on her own, because she is overly trusting and therefore vulnerable; she also isn’t always attentive to matters of safety. In terms of her independence, her disability puts her at a disadvantage, so it would be considered a handicap.

[Q2] Scenario: Review these sections of the text: The Importance of Abilities, Disability Versus Handicap, and Disability Versus Inability, then respond to the question.

Mr. and Mrs. Cooper have a 23-year-old daughter, Mieka. Mieka has a mild intellectual disability. This means that she has limitations in both her intellectual functioning and her adaptive behavior. Results of intelligence tests put Mieka’s IQ somewhere between 50 and 70 (though it is important to remember that IQ tests are generally accurate but not perfect). Assessments of Mieka’s adaptive behavior—her ability to function well in her daily environment—show some limitations. For instance, Mieka is not able to live separately from her parents because she sometimes forgets to observe safety behaviors like turning off the stove or locking the door. Mieka is also highly social and genuinely enjoys people, but this quality means she is overly trusting of others and has occasionally been taken advantage by other people.

Mieka and her parents are very close, something that is obvious when you see them together. They are constantly laughing and genuinely enjoy each other’s company. Mr. 15 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

and Mrs. Cooper have adopted a strengths-based, high-expectation mindset for Mieka.

They taught her to embrace the personal motto, “I can do it!” They have worked hard to help her realize her potential; she has basic reading skills and can do simple computations and count money, though more complicated math like making change is beyond her capacity. Mieka successfully carries out several responsibilities at home (e.g., feeding the dog, setting the table, and following directions on how to heat food in the microwave).

Mieka has developed significant talent in creating vibrant abstract art with acrylic paints, a hobby her parents have encouraged by making sure she has regular art lessons and access to plenty of supplies. At first, Mrs. Cooper posted Mieka’s artwork on her own social media sites simply because she was proud of it; she was pleasantly surprised when her friends and followers were interested in buying Mieka’s art. Mieka got very excited that others liked her work, so Mrs. Cooper set up an Instagram account and an online store to sell Mieka’s paintings. Mieka made some simple fliers; then, Mr. Cooper took her to stores with community bulletin boards so she could post them. As a result of these efforts, the traffic at the online store grew significantly; Mieka can now sell almost any painting she creates, though she and her parents do keep some of the ones they particularly love. Mieka’s earnings are now one of the primary sources of income in the household.

After being asked to go back to her old school and show the students there how she paints, Mieka had the idea of doing more live demonstrations for people. With her parents’ help, she now has a YouTube channel with several thousand followers who enjoy watching her paint. While she doesn’t fully understand the complexities of technology and social media, Mieka knows how to set up her camera and narrate her videos. Mr. Cooper manages her channel; Mrs. Cooper edits and captions the recordings.

Mr. and Mrs. Cooper used some of the money Mieka earned to build a separate studio space behind their house; Mieka happily paints there each day. At night, she returns to the house and sleeps in her own bedroom.

Question: What factors do you believe contribute to the fact that Mieka’s business is so successful? Speak to the roles of (1) external support and (2) the personality characteristics that allow Mieka to be so accomplished.

[Q2 Model Response] Several factors contribute to Mieka’s success. First, her parents have played a significant role in the development and success of her online art store; their support and advocacy have been critical to Mieka's success. Mieka’s parents and the others around her focus on her abilities rather than on his limitations. Her parents clearly hold high but attainable expectations for her and have taught her that her disability does not have to stop her from being happy and successful.

Mieka’s parents’ advocacy, however, isn’t the only factor that allows her to be successful. She has impressive artistic abilities that allow her to make significant amounts of money by selling her art. Her positivity and excitement about her art are central to the success of the business, as is her “I can do it” attitude. Mieka possesses 16 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

other important skills, too: she is creative and has good social skills. She is motivated and demonstrates a fairly high degree of independence and responsibility. She has a sense of humor, and she is a risk-taker.

[Q3] Scenario: Review these sections of the text: The Importance of Abilities, Disability Versus Handicap, and Disability Versus Inability, then respond to the question.

Mr. and Mrs. Cooper have a 23-year-old daughter, Mieka. Mieka has a mild intellectual disability. This means that she has limitations in both her intellectual functioning and her adaptive behavior. Results of intelligence tests put Mieka’s IQ somewhere between 50 and 70 (though it is important to remember that IQ tests are generally accurate but not perfect). Assessments of Mieka’s adaptive behavior—her ability to function well in her daily environment—show some limitations. For instance, Mieka is not able to live separately from her parents because she sometimes forgets to observe safety behaviors like turning off the stove or locking the door. Mieka is also highly social and genuinely enjoys people, but this quality means she is overly trusting of others and has occasionally been taken advantage by other people.

Mieka and her parents are very close, something that is obvious when you see them together. They are constantly laughing and genuinely enjoy each other’s company. Mr. and Mrs. Cooper have adopted a strengths-based, high-expectation mindset for Mieka.

They taught her to embrace the personal motto, “I can do it!” They have worked hard to help her realize her potential; she has basic reading skills and can do simple computations and count money, though more complicated math like making change is beyond her capacity. Mieka successfully carries out several responsibilities at home (e.g., feeding the dog, setting the table, and following directions on how to heat food in the microwave).

Mieka has developed significant talent in creating vibrant abstract art with acrylic paints, a hobby her parents have encouraged by making sure she has regular art lessons and access to plenty of supplies. At first, Mrs. Cooper posted Mieka’s artwork on her own social media sites simply because she was proud of it; she was pleasantly surprised when her friends and followers were interested in buying Mieka’s art. Mieka got very excited that others liked her work, so Mrs. Cooper set up an Instagram account and an online store to sell Mieka’s paintings. Mieka made some simple fliers; then, Mr. Cooper took her to stores with community bulletin boards so she could post them. As a result of these efforts, the traffic at the online store grew significantly; Mieka can now sell almost any painting she creates, though she and her parents do keep some of the ones they particularly love. Mieka’s earnings are now one of the primary sources of income in the household.

After being asked to go back to her old school and show the students there how she paints, Mieka had the idea of doing more live demonstrations for people. With her parents’ help, she now has a YouTube channel with several thousand followers who enjoy watching her paint. While she doesn’t fully understand the complexities of technology and social media, Mieka knows how to set up her camera and narrate her 17 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

videos. Mr. Cooper manages her channel; Mrs. Cooper edits and captions the recordings.

Mr. and Mrs. Cooper used some of the money Mieka earned to build a separate studio space behind their house; Mieka happily paints there each day. At night, she returns to the house and sleeps in her own bedroom.

Question: Mieka’s parents taught her the phrase “I can do it!” and have encouraged her to pursue her passions while still ensuring that she fulfills her responsibilities at home.

Why is adopting a strengths-based mindset of critical importance for teachers of students with disabilities?

[Q3 Model Response] Sometimes people make stereotypical assumptions about what a given person can and can’t do, and those assumptions may lead them to underestimate the capabilities of people with disabilities. Teachers, in particular, must fight against this tendency; if a teacher gives up on a student, or has low expectations for them, they limit that student’s potential and can profoundly affect the student’s outcomes. When teachers commit to seeing what’s possible for students, they can provide the students with outstanding opportunities to learn and grow.

Application Exercise 1.2: Changing Beliefs and Values Learning Outcome 1.2: Understand and appreciate the history and origins of special education.

[Q1] Review Pearson eText Video Example 1.7, then, respond to the question.

Question: What values and beliefs about children with disabilities are shared in the video on full inclusion? Consider (a) the values and beliefs the video reflects about children with disabilities in general, and (b) the values and beliefs it reflects about how children with disabilities should be educated.

[Q1 Model Response] In terms of values and beliefs about children in general, the video reflects the hope that all children are having meaningful educational experiences in the environment that is most enabling for them. In other words, the video asserts that it is important to educate all children in ways that help them feel competent, confident, and accepted as they make progress toward their goals.

With regard to how children with disabilities should be educated, the video reflects the belief that students’ educational placements must be consistent with the legal expectations regarding least restrictive environment. That is, if full-time placement in the regular classroom is the best fit for the student; then, that is where they should be placed. However, if a student’s specific needs are better met by providing them with services that take them out of the regular classroom for some or all of the day; then, that placement is most enabling for them—it is their Least Restrictive Environment.

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[Q2] Review Pearson eText Video Example 1.7 as well as the text section called People and Ideas.

Question: What values and beliefs about children with disabilities were put forth by the originators of special education, Europeans like Jean-Marc-Gaspard Itard, Édouard Séguin, and their successors? Consider (a) the values and beliefs these individuals held about children with disabilities in general, and (b) the values and beliefs they held about how children with disabilities should be educated.

[Q2 Model Response] The beliefs and values of the pioneers in the education of children with disabilities reflected their intention to treat people humanely. This intention was significant because it shifted common thinking about people with disabilities—that they were “insane” and needed to be institutionalized—to recognizing that they had significant potential for learning. These originators of special education espoused the belief that every child should be educated to the greatest extent possible because every child could learn and improve to some degree.

With regard to how children with disabilities should be educated, Itard, Séguin, and others developed innovative and revolutionary ideas for the time period, including the need to provide individualized instruction, a carefully sequenced curriculum, a structured environment, sensory stimulation, tutoring in functional skills, and immediate reward for performance.

[Q3] Review Pearson eText Video Example 1.7 as well as the text sections called People and Ideas and Normalization, Deinstitutionalization, and Inclusion, then respond to the question.

Question: What values and beliefs about children with disabilities were put forth during the normalization and deinstitutionalization movements in the last century in America?

Consider (a) values and beliefs about children with disabilities in general, and (b) values and beliefs about how children with disabilities should be educated.

[Q3 Model Response] In the last century in America, values and beliefs about children with disabilities reflected a growing desire to normalize the fact that some people had disabilities and to be more inclusive of those who had them. Recognizing and breaking down barriers was an area of focus, as was simply improving the quality of life for people with disabilities.

With regard to how children with disabilities should be educated, the 20th century reflected our country’s growing commitment to providing all students with a free, appropriate, public education in their least restrictive environment. Residential facilities, formerly a de facto educational placement for most people with intellectual disabilities, began to close; people with disabilities were better integrated into their home communities. The passage of PL 94-142 in 1975 was a landmark change in how 19 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

children with disabilities were educated. In the late 20th century, the emphasis became educating children with disabilities alongside their same-age peers without disabilities, an idea that has been hotly debated well into the 21st century.

[Q4] Review Pearson eText Video Example 1.7 as well as the text sections called People and Ideas and Normalization, Deinstitutionalization, and Inclusion, then respond to the question.

Question: What values and beliefs about children with disabilities were put forth during the normalization do you personally hold? Consider (a) values and beliefs about children with disabilities in general, and (b) values and beliefs about how children with disabilities should be educated.

[Q4 Model Response] While answers to this question will vary from individual to individual, it is common for people living in the 21st century to recognize the value of every person, regardless of ability or disability. Most people also accept the idea that a disability is not the defining aspect of a person. Finally, current initiatives focus on providing education that meets individual needs and reducing barriers that prevent people with disabilities from living life to their fullest potential.

Application Exercise 1.3: The Provisions of IDEA Learning Outcome 1.3: Learn about legislation and litigation that have affected special education.

[Q1] Review the Focus On box called The Major Provisions of IDEA; then, answer the question.

Scenario: Jewell is a third-grader who is very strong in mathematics but has begun to struggle with reading. Over the last few months, her teacher, Mr. Sandoval, has been working with other educators in the school, implementing different strategies to address the areas of challenge. Sadly Jewell’s reading ability isn’t showing any improvement, and she is falling further and further behind her same-age peers. With the reluctant permission of Jewell’s parents, Jewell undergoes a full-scale evaluation and is identified as having a learning disability in reading. When the team meets with her parents to develop her individualized education program, and determine her placement, Mr. Sandoval recommends that Jewell be removed from his class and placed in a special education classroom for the full school day so she can receive systematic, intensive instruction in reading.

Question: Consider what you know about the provision of IDEA regarding Least Restrictive Environment (LRE). Would moving Jewell full time to a special education classroom be consistent with the legal expectations about educational placement? Why or why not?

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[Q1 Model Response] IDEA’s stipulation about LRE indicates that students should be educated in the environment where their needs can best be met. At the same time, it specifies that students with disabilities should be educated with their same-age peers without disabilities to the extent that doing so meets their needs. Jewell’s disability is in reading; she is excelling in grade-level math. Therefore, there’s no need for her to miss the math instruction taking place in Mr. Sandoval’s class; while she may need to be pulled into a resource room to receive intensive reading instruction, she can undoubtedly be successful in the regular education classroom for at least part of the day.

[Q2] Review the Focus On box called The Major Provisions of IDEA; then, answer the question.

Scenario: Fifteen-year-old Osvaldo and his family moved to the United States from Mexico last year. They speak Spanish exclusively at home; Osvaldo has picked up some English, but he does not yet have the ability to express himself clearly and in depth, particularly in instances of academic learning. His English reading and writing skills are minimal, though he can both read and write Spanish fluently on grade level.

Osvaldo is quick to make friends and is excelling in his mathematics and symphonic band classes.

Osvaldo’s first-period history teacher, Ms. Nix, does not speak Spanish. She finds it difficult to engage Osvaldo in class. She feels that he is unprepared for class and that his inability to speak English is a significant impediment to his success. She is at a loss as to how to help him. She suggests that he should be evaluated for special education based on the low quality of his writing. She also points to the results of a diagnostic reading test she gave him where he was unable to answer questions about a passage written in English.

Question: Consider what you know about the major provisions of IDEA; then, evaluate the situation described in this scenario. Is Ms. Nix’s request to have Osvaldo evaluated for special education reasonable? Why or why not?

[Q2 Model Response] Ms. Nix’s request to have Osvaldo evaluated for special education is not reasonable.

Given that Osvaldo is able to read and write fluently in Spanish, there is no evidence that he has a disability. Instead, his struggles in Ms. Nix’s class are likely to be a function of his difficulties in learning history content when he is only in the beginning stages of learning English. Also of note is the fact that IDEA stipulates that when students are evaluated for special education placement, the decisions must be based on nondiscriminatory evaluation—in other words, an evaluation team would not accept assessments administered in English as evidence that Osvaldo might have a disability.

[Q3] Review the Focus On box called The Major Provisions of IDEA; then, read the scenario and answer the question.

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Ms. Williams is a substitute teacher in a middle school special education classroom that serves students with learning disabilities and students with mild intellectual disabilities.

She will be stepping in for a teacher who will be out on maternity leave for several weeks. On her first day subbing, Ms. Williams says, “Okay, everybody, to help me know how to teach you best, I’d like people with learning disabilities in reading to sit on the right side of the classroom. If your disability is in a different area, please sit on the left side of the classroom. Then, we can begin instruction.”

Question: Ms. Williams’ intention is to group students in ways that allow her to better educate them. Evaluate her decision in light of the legal requirements of IDEA. Has she made a good choice? Why or why not?

[Q3 Model Response] Ms. Williams has made a terrible decision—one that is in violation of the confidentiality stipulation of IDEA. IDEA mandates that the results of evaluation and placement are kept confidential. Having students self-identify their disabilities, no matter how well intentioned, is illegal. Beyond the fact that she has violated her students’ confidentiality, Ms. Williams’ decision is incredibly poor—it reflects a complete disregard for the dignity of the students.

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Test Items 1.1 Multiple-Choice Questions 1. Which of the following statements about exceptional learners is true? a. Exceptional learners differ from the average or typical in some way. b. Exceptional learners have little in common with their typical peers. c. Exceptional learners cannot learn in the same ways their peers do. d. Exceptional learners are defined by the fact that they have problems learning.

2. At least of school-age children in the United States are considered “exceptional” in that they are identified for special education services. a. 25% b. 20% c. 15% d. 10% 3. The disability that used to be called mental retardation is currently called a. intellectual dysfunction. b. disordered reasoning. c. intellectual disability. d. functional disability.

4. Most exceptional learners a. have physical limitations. b. are more different from their nondisabled peers than they are like them. c. are average in more ways than they are not. d. have more problems in motivation than in learning.

5. Which one of the following descriptions distinguishes best between a disability and a handicap? a. Disabilities are functional impairments, while handicaps are disadvantages imposed on an individual. b. Disabilities are more severe than handicaps. c. Handicaps are caused by disabilities. d. There is no difference between the two; the terms are interchangeable.

6. Doug Landis, an artist who is paralyzed from the neck down, uses a pencil attached to a mouth stick to draw. This illustrates how the focus on persons with disabilities should be a. on what they can do.

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b. on how they are limited. c. on their impressive achievements. d. on what others can do to help them.

7. Annette is a high school student who reads at the level of a typical third grader. She wants to get her driver’s license, but is unable to read the driver’s manual or the questions on the driving test. For purposes of driver training, Annette would be considered to have a. a disability. b. a handicap. c. a disability and a handicap. d. neither a disability nor a handicap.

8. A six-month-old child who cannot walk or talk would best be described as having a(n) a. disability. b. age-appropriate disability. c. age-appropriate inability. d. instructional inability.

9. Although no two students are alike, to be legally considered “exceptional” for purposes of their school program, students must a. have a disability related to their academic progress. b. be handicapped. c. require special educational services to achieve. d. have a history of school failure.

10. When special education works as it should, the outcome for students is a. the ability to hide their disabilities. b. the eradication of their disabilities. c. instruction in a special class. d. improved achievement and behavior.

11. Which one of the following students most resembles the “typical” student who receives special education services? a. Jamar, a high school student with a physical disability b. Lisa, an elementary school student with significant intellectual disabilities c. Edie, a middle school student who is deaf and blind d. Sam, an elementary school student with a learning disability

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12. By federal law, an exceptional student is eligible for special education when a. a teacher recommends it. b. careful assessment indicates he or she is unable to make satisfactory progress in the regular school program. c. a parent requests it. d. a teacher has recorded observations of behavior and assessment of academic performance for at least two months.

13. Prevalence refers to a. the number of individuals having a particular exceptionality. b. the probability of having a child with a particular exceptionality. c. the percentage of a population having a particular exceptionality. d. the distribution of exceptionalities across different segments of the population.

14. Compared to the general population, exceptional children are a. a more homogeneous group. b. more likely to be from wealthy families. c. more diverse with respect to a number of characteristics. d. more likely to be female.

15. At present, about how many students in the United States receive special education? a. about 1 million b. about 3 million c. about 4 million d. over 6 million 16. The number of students identified as having a learning disability a. has more than doubled since the mid-1970s. b. now makes up about one-third of the number of students receiving special education. c. has remained fairly stable during the past 30 years. d. is impossible to estimate.

17. The majority of students who receive special education services fall within which age range? a. 3–12 b. 6–17 c. 9–18 25 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

d. 12–21 18. Dramatic increases in prevalence figures since 1995 have been recorded for children identified as having a. learning disabilities. b. intellectual disabilities. c. physical disabilities. d. autism or traumatic brain injury.

19. Which one of the following provides the best description of special education? a. Special education uses special equipment and materials. b. Special education meets individual needs of exceptional students. c. Special education is delivered by trained paraprofessionals. d. Special education provides greater structure and smaller classes.

20. Which of the following statements about the prevalence of students with disabilities is false? a. Students with learning disabilities make up about half of the population of students receiving special education services. b. Preschoolers and youths age 18–21 are being identified with increasing frequency as having disabilities. c. The labels used to identify different types of disabilities have little effect on prevalence data. d. In the last decade, the number of students diagnosed with autism has increased significantly.

21. The historical roots of special education are found primarily in the a. early 1700s. b. early 1800s. c. late 1800s. d. late 1900s.

22. In the prerevolutionary era in Europe and America, what goal predominated in the actions of society toward people with disabilities? a. protection b. inclusion c. prevention d. adaptation 23. Most historians trace the beginning of special education as we know it today to a. Philippe Pinel.

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b. Édouard Séguin. c. Jean-Marc-Gaspard Itard. d. Thomas Gallaudet.

24. Most of the earliest special educators were trained as a. ministers or priests. b. physicians. c. regular classroom teachers. d. social workers.

25. Itard is best known for his work with a. Victor, the "wild boy of Aveyron." b. students who were deaf. c. Laura Bridgman, a girl who was both deaf and blind. d. students with physical disabilities.

26. The first special educators provided many of the ideas that form the foundation for special education practice today. They include all of the following except a. individualized instruction. b. structured arrangement of the learning environment. c. placement in the least restrictive environment. d. emphasis on functional/life skills.

27. With respect to parents and Individualized Education Program (IEP) meetings, which of the following is true? a. Parents do not need to be invited, but they must be allowed to attend if they make such a request. b. Parents of students in preschool and elementary school must be invited. The parents of secondary students do not need to be invited, but the student must be invited. c. Parents must be invited, and they (or their designee) must attend; if they don’t attend, the school has the right not to meet. d. Parents must be invited to the meeting and efforts must be made to enable them to attend.

28. All of the following practices promote integration of students with disabilities with nondisabled students except a. normalization. b. institutionalization. c. full inclusion.

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d. mainstreaming.

29. Which one of the following provides the best description of normalization? a. the theory that disabilities are a matter of social perceptions and values b. the belief that people with disabilities should have experiences as similar as possible to those of people without disabilities c. the principle that schools should educate all students in the regular classroom regardless of the nature of their disabilities d. the philosophy that students with disabilities should be educated in the environment that will allow them to achieve their maximum potential as adults 30. Which of the following disabilities has increased the most in prevalence in the last few years? a. learning disabilities b. blindness c. clinical depression d. autism spectrum disorder 31. When did deinstitutionalization begin? a. 1900s b. 1950s c. 1960s d. 1980s 32. Deinstitutionalization refers to the movement away from a. placement in large residential facilities. b. government responsibility for providing services for people with disabilities. c. placement in small, community facilities. d. parental responsibility for the care of children with disabilities.

33. With respect to the nature-nurture controversy, authorities now a. believe that nature and nurture are of equal importance. b. believe that nature is somewhat more important than nurture. c. believe that nurture is somewhat more important than nature. d. recommend breaking down the false dichotomy between genes and the environment.

34. What was one of Elizabeth Farrell’s contributions to special education? a. founded the Special Olympics b. organized a parent lobby for children with disabilities 28 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

c. founded the Council for Exceptional Children d. developed a technique for teaching children who were both blind and deaf 35. The founder of the Special Olympics was a. Elizabeth Farrell. b. Eunice Kennedy Shriver. c. John F. Kennedy. d. Thomas Gallaudet.

36. Parent organizations have served all of these functions except a. providing information about services and resources. b. providing the structure for obtaining needed services form their children. c. providing an informal group for parents who understand one another’s problems and needs and help one another deal with anxieties and frustrations. d. evaluating special education programs.

37. Effective national parent organizations have existed in the United States since the a. 1800s. b. 1920s. c. 1950s. d. 1990s.

38. Which of the following statements about parent involvement in special education is false? a. Parents used the Brown v. Board of Education case as an argument for educating all children, including those with disabilities, in public school. b. Parents of children with disabilities often join groups that allow them to share experiences and insights, access information, and obtain support. c. Parents of children with disabilities are near-universal in their belief that their children should be taught in the regular education classroom. d. Parent advocacy groups have significantly influenced the development of legislation aimed at requiring schools to better serve students with disabilities.

39. Which federal provision requires that children with disabilities be provided with a free, appropriate public education? a. Fourteenth Amendment b. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) c. Americans with Disabilities Act d. Civil Rights Act

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40. Which one of the following accomplishments is associated with the Americans with Disabilities Act? a. mandate for early childhood special education b. requirement that public transportation be made accessible to people with disabilities c. provision of transition services to facilitate movement from school to work for people with disabilities d. funding to provide technological assistance (e.g., computers, wheelchairs) to people with disabilities 41. Which of the following stipulations is associated with IDEA? a. requirement that schools provide individualized education programs in the least restrictive environment for all students with disabilities b. provision of free educational services to children with disabilities and their siblings from birth to age 21 c. prohibition of discrimination against people with disabilities in schools, businesses, or recreational facilities d. requirement that schools provide a free, appropriate public education for all exceptional students, including those with gifts and talents 42. P.L. 99-457 and IDEA mandate a free, appropriate public education for people ages three to twenty-one. In addition, P.L. 99-457 a. requires employers to provide special programs for people with disabilities. b. requires schools to provide transitional programs for people with disabilities who are between the ages of 18 and 25. c. provides incentives for states to develop early intervention programs. d. requires schools to develop programs for students who are gifted.

43. Under IDEA, each state and locality must have a plan to ensure all of the following except a. screening all students for possible disabilities. b. protecting parents’ rights to informed consent. c. providing services to equal numbers of males and females. d. providing training for personnel in meeting the needs of students with disabilities.

44. Which federal act requires most students with disabilities to take standard tests of academic achievement and to achieve at a level equal to that of students without disabilities? a. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act b. No Child Left Behind Act

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c. Americans with Disabilities Act d. Education for all Handicapped Children Act 45. What is the distinction between litigation and legislation? a. Legislation provides guidelines, whereas litigation specifies penalties for violating the guidelines. b. Legislation involves passing a law, whereas litigation interprets the meaning of the law. c. Legislation is mandatory and litigation is permissive. d. Legislation can be changed but litigation is permanent.

46. In the case of Endrew F. v. Douglas County School District, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that a. an IEP is legal if it is calculated to provide an education that results in some benefit to the student. b. an IEP is not a legal document so schools cannot be sued for not following the provisions contained in the IEP. c. an IEP is legal if it is reasonably calculated to enable a child to make progress appropriate in light of the child’s circumstances. d. an IEP is legal if it is calculated to enable the child to reach his or her potential.

47. All of the following are provisions of IDEA except a. Least Restrictive Environment (LRE). b. Individualized Education Program (IEP). c. Confidentiality. d. Nondiscrimination in the workplace.

48. This law provides protections of civil rights in the specific areas of employment, transportation, public accommodations, state and local government, and telecommunications: a. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) b. Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) c. Affordable Care Act (ACA) d. Inclusive Differentiated Instruction Act (IDIA) 49. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the courts typically found that disruptive children or those with intellectual disabilities a. could be excluded from school for the sake of preserving order. b. could be taken off the streets and placed with families who were willing to raise them. c. were a menace to society and their families could be fined.

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d. were eligible for food stamps.

50. Litigation in special education a. has been brought primarily by parents whose children with disabilities are being denied appropriate special education services. b. has ended up having little or no effect on the lives of students with disabilities. c. has led to bankruptcy in several school divisions, especially those in rural areas. d. supports full inclusion of all children with disabilities in general education.

1.2 True/False Questions 1. We know considerably more today about how to educate exceptional learners than we did 10 years ago.

2. Because of the widely accepted theory of normal development, quite a few definite statements can be made about exceptional learners.

3. In the majority of cases, we are unable to identify the exact reason why a child is exceptional.

4. A disability is always a handicap.

5. By definition, exceptional children require special education or related services to realize their full human potential.

6. The law does not require provision of special education services simply because a student has been shown to have a disability.

7. Cultural considerations play a role in special education evaluation.

8. Special education legislation has become increasingly permissive rather than mandatory.

9. Public schools may choose not to provide education for some children with disabilities.

10. Litigation is now focused on ensuring that every child receives an education appropriate for his or her individual needs.

1.3 Short Answer Questions 1. Describe the differences between “disability,” “handicap,” and “inability.” Use one example to illustrate each term.

2. Describe two reasons for why it is so difficult to determine an exact figure for the prevalence of exceptional children.

3. Identify and briefly describe the contributions of individuals pertinent to the history and growth of special education.

4. What is the relationship between normalization, deinstitutionalization, and inclusion?

Define each term.

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5. Describe the role that parent organizations have played in meeting the needs of exceptional children and their families.

6. Compare and contrast two major laws that affect individuals with disabilities: IDEA and ADA. In doing so, describe the unique contribution of each and briefly discuss the ways in which the two laws are similar.

7. Discuss reasons for which legal suits (for or against special education) might be filed.

8. Discuss the relationship between Hudson v. Rowley and Endrew F. v. Douglas County School District.

9. Discuss the impact that the COVID-19 pandemic has had on people with disabilities.

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Test Answer Key 1.1 Multiple Choice Questions 1. A 2. D 3. C 4. C 5. A 6. A 7. C 8. C 9. C 10. D 11. D 12. B 13. C 14. C 15. D 16. A 17. B 18. D 19. B 20. C 21. B 22. A 23. C 24. B 25. A 26. C 27. D 28. B 29. B 30. D 34 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

31. C 32. A 33. D 34. C 35. B 36. D 37. C 38. C 39. B 40. B 41. A 42. C 43. C 44. B 45. B 46. C 47. D 48. B 49. A 50. A 1.2 True/False Questions 1. True 2. False 3. True 4. False 5. True 6. True 7. True 8. False 9. False 10. True 1.3 Short Answer Questions 35 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

1. A disability is an inability to do something, while a handicap is a disadvantage imposed on an individual. More appropriately, a disability is a subset of inability because a disability is an inability to do something that most people, with typical maturation and instruction can do. A disability might or might not be a handicap, depending on the circumstances. An example might resemble: A person who is blind has a disability (blindness) that can result in an inability to do certain things (such as reading street signs), but is not always a handicap (as when in a dark room).

2. The definitions that are used to classify exceptionalities are rather vague and there have been frequent changes in those definitions over time. The skills and knowledge of teachers and others involved in determining exceptionalities vary. The attitudes and beliefs of schools and society change over time, affecting prevalence figures for a number of exceptionalities (e.g., it may be more socially acceptable to have a "learning disability" than "mental retardation").

3. Jean-Marc-Gaspard Itard: French physician who was an authority on education of students who were deaf. Associated with the beginning of special education as we know it today. Used special education techniques to dramatically improve the behavior of a child found roaming naked and wild in the forests of France. Édouard Séguin: A student of Itard who became famous for educating children whom others thought were unable to learn anything of significance. His ideas, along with Itard’s, form the basis of present-day special education. Samuel Gridley Howe: An American physician, educator, and political and social reformer. Helped in founding the Perkins School for the Blind and taught students who were deaf and blind. Also helped organize a school for children with mental retardation. Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet: A minister who established the first American residential school for students who were deaf. Elizabeth Farrell: A teacher in New York City who helped develop special education as a profession and worked with other special educators nationwide to found the Council for Exceptional Children.

4. "Normalization" is a philosophical movement associated with the belief that society should break down barriers to participation of people with disabilities in normal life.

"Deinstitutionalization" and "inclusion" are specific practices related to that philosophy. Deinstitutionalization involves the movement of people with disabilities out of residential institutions into more diverse and less restrictive living situations.

Inclusion involves moving students with disabilities out of exclusively segregated schools or classrooms into more integrated settings, including general education classrooms, to the greatest degree possible.

5. They provide an informal group for parents who understand one another’s problems and needs, and help one another deal with anxieties and frustrations; provide information regarding services and potential resources; and provide the structure for obtaining needed services for their children (e.g., disseminate and explain information about laws and regulations).

6. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act ensures that all children and youths with disabilities have the right to a free, appropriate public education. The Americans with Disabilities Act ensures the right of individuals with disabilities to nondiscriminatory treatment in other aspects of their lives (employment, 36 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

transportation, public accommodations, state and local government, and telecommunications). Both require reasonable accommodations that will allow those with disabilities to participate to the fullest extent possible in all activities of daily living that those without disabilities take for granted. Both were considered to be revolutionary laws—one for education and the other for business.

7. Litigation may involve legal suits filed for either of two reasons: because special education services are not being provided for students whose parents want them or because students are being assigned to special education when their parents believe that they should not be. Most often, suits are filed by parents whose children are being denied services, or who are receiving poor services. Parents of children with mild or questionable disabilities may fight against the potentially stigmatizing and discriminatory effects of their children being identified for special education services.

8. In 1982, the U.S. Supreme Court made its first interpretation of PL 94-142 (now IDEA) in Hudson v. Rowley, a case involving Amy Rowley, a child who was deaf (Board of Education of Hendrick Hudson v. Rowley, 1982). The Court’s decision was that appropriate education for a deaf child with a disability does not necessarily mean education that will produce the maximum possible achievement.

In the case of Endrew F. v. Douglas County School District (2017), the District used the Rowley language to argue that Endrew F. was receiving some benefit from the IEP, which met the letter of the law. The U.S. Supreme Court decided in favor of Endrew F., stating in its opinion: "When all is said and done, a student offered an educational program providing ’merely more than de minimis’ progress from year to year can hardly be said to have been offered an education at all.... The IDEA demands more. It requires an educational program reasonably calculated to enable a child to make progress appropriate in light of the child’s circumstances." (580 U.S.—No. 15-827. Argued January 11, 2017—Decided March 22, 2017, p. 15) 9. COVID-19 has had widespread social, economic, psychological, and educational consequences; people with disabilities have been particularly affected. Many are/were at greater risk of contracting COVID-19 and of having severe cases with poor outcomes; people with Down syndrome were 10 times more likely to die of COVID than people without Down syndrome.

COVID-19 also led to psychological and behavioral challenges for people with disabilities; levels of anxiety, depression, suicidal ideation, and substance abuse increased sharply. Adapting to changes in routine and to restrictions like maskwearing and quarantines caused behavioral challenges for many, particularly those with reduced cognitive capacities or tactile sensitivity.

Online learning was problematic for many students, depriving them of the systematic, explicit, in-person modeling and instruction that helps them learn best; initial data on student progress show that student outcomes were negatively affected. Scheduling challenges sometimes made it difficult to hold I E P meetings, and social distancing requirements made it difficult to conduct many of the 37 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

assessments needed to evaluate students for special education eligibility and continuation.

School staff members and group home workers were among those experiencing significant stress from all the changes during the pandemic. The families of those people who live in group homes or hospital settings were often unable to see their loved ones, which added to the stress and anxiety of everyone involved.

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Chapter 2 Test Item File Daniel P. Hallahan

Exceptional Learners: An Introduction to Special Education Fifteenth Edition Daniel P. Hallahan, University of Virginia Paige C. Pullen, University of Florida James M. Kauffman, University of Virginia Prepared by Karen M. Cole, University of North Carolina Asheville

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Table of Contents

Chapter 2: Current Practices for Meeting the Needs of Exceptional Learners . 1 Learning Outcome Quizzes ................................................................... 1 Application Exercises ........................................................................... 14 Test Items ............................................................................................ 21 Test Answer Key .................................................................................. 29

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Chapter 2: Current Practices for Meeting the Needs of Exceptional Learners Learning Outcome Quizzes Learning Outcome 2.1: Understand how students are evaluated and identified for special education services, including the use of response to intervention (R TI) and multitiered systems of support (MTSS).

[Q1] Which of the following statements about the effectiveness of R TI as a model for identifying students with learning disabilities is true?

1. Research has shown that RTI provides an effective method of identifying students who have disabilities.

2. A small number of studies show that RTI is effective in identifying students with disabilities in reading but not in other curricular areas.

3. Because of its extremely precise definition and the specificity of its operational procedures, RTI is too restrictive to be useful as an identification model.

4. Many educators believe that while it is ineffective for identification purposes, RTI should be used as a model for instruction and prevention of disabilities. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Research indicates that RTI’s effectiveness in identification is mixed; several researchers assert that it should only be used as a model for the instruction and prevention of disabilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Limited-scale implementation of the RTI model has shown positive outcomes in reading, math, writing, cognitive strategy instruction, content areas, and social behavior.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] There is not a widely accepted definition of RTI, nor are there widely agreed-upon procedures for implementation. For these reasons and others, RTI has not been proven to be widely useful as an identification model.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Technical issues and standardization call RTI’s effectiveness at identifying students with learning disabilities into question, but it has significant potential regarding instruction and prevention.

[Q2] Which of the following is an element of effectively-implemented response to intervention (RTI)?

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1. The teacher’s anecdotal reports of student performance are used to determine the needed level of service.

2. Professionals monitor students’ performance on standardized tests at different levels of support.

3. The teacher’s instruction is examined to determine its quality and whether it is research based. [correct] 4. Students usually receive one to two hours of closely monitored support in a resource room.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Anecdotal records alone are too subjective to rely on to determine a student’s needed level of service.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Standardized tests are of limited value in designing an intervention because the information they provide is not specific.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Ensuring that students receive effective, evidence-based instruction is a hallmark of the RTI model.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] In RTI, several steps, such as monitoring performance in a general education classroom, are implemented before a student might be placed in a resource room.

[Q3] Which of the following statements most accurately describes the purpose of prereferral interventions?

1. To make sure that students receive evidence-based instruction before they are evaluated for special education services [correct] 2. To compensate for ineffective education that may have disadvantaged a student 3. To reduce the school’s liability in case parents disagree with the results of a fullscale evaluation 4. To make sure that no single teacher is making a decision about whether or not a child needs to be evaluated for special education [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] A multidisciplinary team identifies research-based instructional strategies to be implemented by the student’s teacher(s), and the student’s progress is monitored.

Students who still struggle after these strategies are implemented with fidelity are typically referred for a full-scale evaluation.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The primary purpose of prereferral interventions is to make sure that students are not 2 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

erroneously referred for special education evaluations.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The primary purpose of prereferral interventions is to make sure that students are not erroneously referred for special education evaluations.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] While prereferral interventions are typically created by teams of educators, the primary purpose for their use is to make sure that students are not being needlessly referred for special education evaluation.

[Q4] Frequent measures that provide information on whether a student is learning as expected are referred to as 1. progress monitoring assessments. [correct] 2. screening assessments.

3. norm-referenced assessments.

4. placement assessments.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Progress monitoring assessments are frequent, quick-and-easy measures that teachers administer at regular intervals to determine whether a student is learning as expected.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Screening assessments are used to identify students who may be at increased risk of school failure.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Norm-referenced assessments compare a student’s performance to that of others in their peer group.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Quick, frequent assessments that are used to provide information on whether a student is learning as expected are called progress monitoring assessments.

[Q5] Which of the following interventions would you be most likely to see at the Tier 2 level?

1. Screening every student to identify those at risk of school failure 2. Need-based small group instruction conducted for 6–8 weeks [correct] 3. Intensive intervention provided by a special educator 4. Research-based instructional strategies used with all students in a class [Feedback for Answer Choice 1]

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Universal screening is a Tier 1 activity.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Teachers use research-based instructional strategies with small groups of students 3–4 times a week to determine whether changing the instructional methodology positively affects students’ learning.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Special education services reflect Tier 3 interventions.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] If evidence-based strategies are used with all students in a class, they are Tier 1 interventions. Tier 2 interventions also use research-based strategies but they are delivered to small groups of students 3–4 times a week for 6–8 weeks.

Learning Outcome 2.2: Learn about the intent of special education law as it pertains to individualized education programs (I EPs), individualized family service plans (IEPs), and transition plans for adolescents with disabilities.

[Q1] What do the text authors mean when they say that schools must provide an individualized educational program (IEP) for each student who receives special education services?

1. Each student must receive instruction on a one-to-one basis.

2. One individual must be responsible for each student’s education.

3. A separate educational plan must be written for each student. [correct] 4. The portion of the program that is individualized must be delivered by a teacher who is certified in special education.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Actually, one-on-one instruction is necessary for very few students with disabilities.

Most can be educated in small groups or in the general education classroom.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The law does not say anything about how many professionals are needed to educate students with disabilities. Often, besides a special educator, other professionals, such as a general education teacher, psychologist, or speech therapist, are involved.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] The document ensures that the student receives instruction that will help them succeed to the greatest extent possible.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The law does not require that a special educator be the main deliverer of instruction specified by the IEP. Instruction could, for instance, be provided by a general education teacher with consultation from a special educator.

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[Q2] Which of the following components is not a required element of an individualized educational program (IEP)?

1. Measurable annual goals, both academic and functional 2. An evaluation of the student’s preferred learning style [correct] 3. Information about related services to be provided 4. A summary of the student’s present levels of performance.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Annual goals must be included in an IEP, as must a description of how they will be measured.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Annual goals, related services to be provided, and instructional objectives must be included in an IEP; the evaluation of learning styles is not a required element.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] IEPs must include information about related services (e.g., physical therapy, speech/language pathology, and audiology), specifying where, when, and how often services will be provided.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] An IEP must reflect the student’s present levels of academic and functional performance.

[Q3] What was the major accomplishment of I DEA and other federal laws with respect to services received by older (16+) students with disabilities?

1. They provided funding for postsecondary programs.

2. They extended the age range served by special education to include students up to age 26.

3. They mandated that school districts pay for postsecondary schooling (including college tuition) for students under the age of 21 with disabilities.

4. They required schools to integrate transition plans into IEPs for students with disabilities. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] No funding was provided for postsecondary programs.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The age range served by special education extends to age 21.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3]

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School districts are not required to pay for postsecondary education for students with disabilities.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] When students turn 16 and henceforth, they must have a transition plan that specifies goals and the services needed to help students meet those goals.

[Q4] Which of the following people would you not expect to see on an IEP team?

1. A parent or guardian 2. An attorney representing the school system [correct] 3. A special educator 4. A general education teacher [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Parents or guardians play an important role on IEP teams.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] IEP meetings do not typically require the school system to secure legal representation.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The special education teacher is instrumental in IEP development.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The child’s general education teacher can provide important information and insight as the IEP is developed.

[Q5] Which of the following represents the legally correct sequence of IEP development?

1. Evaluation, placement, and development of IEP 2. Evaluation, development of IEP, and placement [correct] 3. Development of IEP, placement, and evaluation 4. Placement, development of IEP, and evaluation [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Because the student’s needs are a consideration in determining the least restrictive environment, the student’s placement should be identified as a result of the IEP meeting rather than before it.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] The development of the IEP guides the student’s placement.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3]

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Creating an IEP before a student has been deemed eligible for services would be significantly out of compliance with the law.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Placing a student should happen only after they have been fully evaluated, determined to be eligible for services, and had an IEP developed.

Learning Outcome 2.3: Learn about the various placement options and how they relate to least restrictive environment (L RE), inclusion of students with disabilities, and implementing inclusive teaching practices.

[Q1] Which of the following statements most accurately reflects why self-contained special education classes are controversial?

1. Students in self-contained classes spend most or all of the school day separated from their nondisabled peers. [correct] 2. Special education teachers who teach in self-contained classrooms receive the same pay as general education teachers but serve far fewer students.

3. Special educators typically do not possess the skills that allow them to teach students with widely varying needs effectively.

4. Paying both a general education teacher and a special educator to work with a small group of students is taxes the school system’s budget.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] The idea of Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) is that students with disabilities are educated with their nondisabled peers to the greatest extent possible. Self-contained classes reduce or eliminate interaction between students with disabilities and their same-age peers.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Special education teachers usually do serve smaller groups of students, but it is generally expected that they will individualize instruction for every student in the class.

The nature of the job makes it a complex balancing act; thus, their compensation is typically equivalent to that of other teachers.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Special educators generally are well educated about how to teach students with widely varying needs; the smaller class size allows them to apply their knowledge and skill as they individualize instruction.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Self-contained classes are taught by special educators; general education teachers are not involved in daily instruction.

[Q2]

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Mrs. Cain is a regular third-grade teacher who teaches most subjects to all of her students. However, Mrs. Hamilton, a special educator, provides reading and math instruction to exceptional students within the general education classroom setting. She also teaches organizational and study skills to all the students. What type of intervention is modeled by these teachers?

1. Co-teaching [correct] 2. Consultation 3. Itinerant services 4. Resource services [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Co-teaching can be approached in several ways; this is one of the most common things.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Consultation includes little, if any, teaching by the special education teacher.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Itinerant teaching involves the special education teacher traveling to classes in different localities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Resource services involve the special education student leaving the general education classroom to be taught by a special educator for part of the day and/or a few times a week.

[Q3] Leslie is enrolled in a regular classroom, but works with a special education teacher in a special education classroom for an hour a day. What type of special education services does Leslie receive?

1. Diagnostic prescriptive services 2. Itinerant services 3. Consultative services 4. Resource services [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] When students leave the general education classroom to receive special education services for part of the school day, they are receiving resource services.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Itinerant services are provided by teachers who travel between school sites to serve students with disabilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] In consultative services, the special educator acts as a coach for the general education 8 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

teacher.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] In a resource room, special educators typically work with individuals or small groups of students.

[Q4] For students with more significant disabilities, what is the objective of partial participation?

1. The opportunity to improve social skills and received increased vocational training 2. The opportunity to be exposed to activities experienced by all students [correct] 3. The opportunity to improve behavior and enhance self-esteem 4. The opportunity to master functional academics and improve self-help skills [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Vocational training would not apply to many of the students. Although modeling might take place, the main goal is exposure to activities experienced by all students.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Partial participation questions the assumption that including students with severe intellectual or physical limitations is a waste of time because they cannot benefit from the activities in the same way as nondisabled students.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Partial participation might improve behavior and self-esteem for some students, but the main goal of this practice is exposure to activities experienced by all students.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Although mastery of functional academics and improved self-help skills might take place, the main goal of partial participation is exposure to activities experienced by all students.

[Q5] Nationwide, what percentage of students with disabilities are educated primarily in general education classrooms for the majority of the school day?

1. Less than 5% 2. Between 35 and 50% 3. More than 50% [correct] 4. Almost 90% [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] About 64% of students with disabilities are served in the general education classroom for most of the day.

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[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] About 64% of students with disabilities are served in the general education classroom for most of the day.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] About 64% of students with disabilities are served in the general education classroom for most of the day.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] About 64% of students with disabilities are served in the general education classroom for most of the day.

Learning Outcome 2.4: Learn about the roles of general education teachers and special education teachers and how they complement each other.

[Q1] Which term refers to considering the needs of all potential users, including those with disabilities, when planning?

1. Inclusive technology 2. Variant planning 3. Universal design [correct] 4. Individualized instruction [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Planning with the needs of all possible users in mind is called universal design.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Planning with the needs of all possible users in mind is called universal design.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Universal design derives from architectural principles and strives to make learning more accessible to students in more inclusionary programs.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Planning with the needs of all possible users in mind is called universal design.

[Q2] Both general and special education teachers are expected to do all but which of the following?

1. Make maximum effort to accommodate each individual student’s needs 2. Evaluate academic strengths and weaknesses 3. Participate in writing I EPs 4. Know special education law [correct] 10 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] All general education teachers must be prepared to participate in the R TI process, making an effort to meet the needs of individuals who might differ in some way from the average or typical student.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Teachers must be able to report specifically and precisely how students can and cannot perform in all academic areas for which they are responsible as part of the RTI process.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Writing an IEP is a collaborative activity involving special educators, general education teachers, parents, and others.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] While it would be handy for general education teachers to have some familiarity with special education law, they are not expected to know it at a deep level.

[Q3] Which one of the following statements about the role of special education teachers is false?

1. Special education teachers must master a set of instructional processes that are significantly different from those used by general education teachers. [correct] 2. Special education teachers are responsible not only for delivering academic instruction but also for managing serious behavior problems.

3. Special education teachers must be able to discern the advantages and disadvantages of advances in educational and assistive technology.

4. Special education teachers must be well-informed advocates for students with disabilities.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] The instructional processes used by special educators are frequently the same as those used by general education teachers. However, special education teachers must modify processes in ways that support the learning of students with special needs (e.g., pace, intensity, clarity).

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Special education teachers often work with students whose learning is affected by difficulties in other areas, including poor behavior. A student’s I EP may require a teacher to make both behavioral and instructional modifications and adjustments.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Special education teachers are expected to be aware of available technologies and their advantages and disadvantages.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] 11 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Special education teachers must learn a significant amount of information regarding what actions are and are not legal in all aspects of educational referral, evaluation, planning, and delivery. They must operate within legal guidelines as they work to ensure that each student’s needs are being met.

[Q4] Which of the following examples most accurately reflects a special education teacher modifying a typical dimension of instruction to meet the needs of a student with a disability?

1. Mr. Cable challenges the students with appropriately difficult but engaging activities designed to further their knowledge and understanding.

2. Ms. Blackburn provides more frequent reinforcers, both tangible and intangible, as students exhibit the desired behavior. [correct] 3. Ms. Jimenez assesses her students’ progress at least twice a week by reviewing their work and providing feedback on what they have done correctly and incorrectly.

4. Mr. Walters provides clear, distinct, unambiguous instruction when he is introducing new concepts or guiding students’ practice and independent work.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] All teachers should plan lessons that are appropriately challenging and purposeful but also motivating for students.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] While all teachers provide reinforcement to students, it is common for special education teachers to do so more frequently, often pairing verbal praise with tangible reinforcers.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] All teachers are responsible for assessment and feedback, but special education teachers typically engage in assessment (progress monitoring) and corrective feedback more frequently than their general education peers.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Both special education and general education teachers should strive for clarity in instruction. Special education teachers, however, typically provide more explanations and modeling to support their students’ learning.

[Q5] Which of the following statements about how teachers should use technology to support individuals with disabilities is false?

1. Special education teachers must identify and schools must provide whatever technologies might improve the lives of students with disabilities. [correct] 2. If a special education teacher determines that a new technology would allow a student to do something new or better but at the same time might impose new limitations, the teacher may opt not to recommend its use.

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3. Special education teachers should be familiar with technologies that can expand the opportunities for people with disabilities to access information, communicate, and accomplish many other everyday tasks.

4. Special education teachers should be aware that one downside to technology use is the potential for individuals with disabilities to become over-reliant on it.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Schools are expected to provide reasonable technological interventions in support of students with disabilities, but they are not required to provide the highest possible level of intervention (e.g., a cochlear implant).

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] If new limitations are imposed by technology, teachers must carefully weigh the benefits and detriments of its use.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Technologies have made it possible for people with disabilities to experience things they otherwise might not; the more familiarity special education teachers have with such technologies, the better equipped they are to make recommendations in support of students.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Special education teachers must understand that sometimes the use of technology may not be the best possible intervention because it might result in a situation where a student stops trying to further develop their own abilities.

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Application Exercises Application Exercise 2.1: Eligibility Determinations and I EP Teams Learning Outcome 2.2: Learn about the intent of special education law as it pertains to individualized education programs (IEPs), individualized family service plans (I FSPs), and transition plans for adolescents with disabilities.

[Q1] Review Pearson eText Video Example 2.2, Table 2.1, and Figure 2.2.

Scenario: Rogerio is a fourth grader whose evaluation results identify him as having a mild intellectual disability. He also has some issues with verbal expression and finemotor skills and will benefit from intervention by a speech-language pathologist and an occupational therapist. Rogerio is achieving significantly below grade level in reading and math.

It is time to discuss Rogerio’s eligibility determination and make plans for providing Rogerio with special education services, so the school has set up a meeting of important people. Three individuals have arrived at the meeting early: Rogerio’s regular education teacher, Ms. Brubaker; the special education teacher, Mr. Contreras, and the assistant principal, Ms. Cain.

Question: Imagine that you are an observer at this meeting. Although the official meeting time hasn’t arrived, you recognize that some important people are not there yet. Who else should be present in this meeting in order to make sure the meeting is in compliance with special education law? What important expertise and knowledge might each of these people bring to the table?

[Q1 Model Response] The law stipulates the makeup of the IEP team. In addition to the people already in the room (regular teacher, special education teacher, and representative of the school system), we would expect the IEP team to include at least one of Rogerio’s parents; other individuals who might be providing services to Rogerio (e.g., speech-language pathologist or occupational therapist); and anyone else who has knowledge or special expertise about Rogerio. Finally, the law stipulates that someone must be present who can interpret the evaluation results; if Ms. Brubaker, Mr. Contreras, or Ms. Cain are not well-versed in doing so, then a psychometrist or other assessment specialist would need to be included.

The regular education teacher can speak to Rogerio’s present levels of performance.

The special education teacher will be able to talk about how special education services are delivered at school and what instruction might look like for Rogerio; he will also be the primary point of contact for Rogerio’s parents if they have questions. As a representative for the school, Ms. Cain, the assistant principal, can communicate about how special education fits into the larger school context. Of course, Rogerio’s parents bring their expertise about their child and will make recommendations and decisions about how he can best be served; they will likely also have a number of important questions during the meeting. The speech-language pathologist and the occupational 14 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

therapist can talk about the areas of focus they’ll work on with Rogerio and when and how those services are to be delivered. If the teachers and the principal aren’t comfortable interpreting the evaluative data, then a psychometrist or other evaluation specialist should be present to explain the basis for the eligibility decision and what the data mean. All members of the group will have a voice in determining the goals for Rogerio, how those goals will be measured, and what his educational placement will be.

[Q2] Review Pearson eText Video Example 2.2, Table 2.1, and Figure 2.2.

Scenario: Rogerio is a fourth grader whose evaluation results identify him as having a mild intellectual disability. He also has some issues with verbal expression and finemotor skills and will benefit from intervention by a speech-language pathologist and an occupational therapist. Rogerio is achieving significantly below grade level in reading and math.

It is time to discuss Rogerio’s eligibility determination and make plans for providing Rogerio with special education services, so the school has set up a meeting of important people.

Additional Information: The meeting starts promptly as scheduled. Present are Rogerio’s regular education teacher, Ms. Brubaker; the special education teacher, Mr. Contreras, and the assistant principal, Ms. Cain. Also present are the school psychometrist, Ms. Bell, the speechlanguage pathologist, Ms. Striefel, and the occupational therapist, Mr. Gwaltney.

Ms. Cain asks Mr. Contreras if he knows why Rogerio’s parents aren’t present. Mr. Contreras replies by saying, “We didn’t invite them because we know that they couldn't make it. They both work daytime jobs and their supervisors will not let them leave work unless it is an emergency. We can go ahead and meet and then fill them in on the outcomes later.”

Question: Given what you know about special education law, evaluate the decision not to invite Rogerio’s parents to the meeting.

[Q2 Model Response] Mr. Contreras’s strategy means that the school is out of compliance with special education law. Parents must be invited to any meetings that concern the special education of their children. The school can’t proceed with making a placement for Rogerio without inviting his parents to participate; it’s possible that Rogerio’s parents would not want him to receive special education services, that they would disagree with the evaluation results, or that they would want to have a voice in and share ideas about the type of education Rogerio should receive. It is critical for parents to be invited, for the school to make every effort to accommodate their schedules, and for the educators present to ensure that information is provided in a comprehensible fashion.

[Q3] Review Pearson eText Video Example 2.2, Table 2.1, and Figure 2.2.

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Scenario: Rogerio is a fourth grader whose evaluation results identify him as having a mild intellectual disability. He also has some issues with verbal expression and finemotor skills and will benefit from intervention by a speech-language pathologist and an occupational therapist. Rogerio is achieving significantly below grade level in reading and math. It is time to discuss Rogerio’s eligibility determination and make plans for providing Rogerio with special education services, so the school has set up a meeting.

Additional Information: After rescheduling the meeting so that Rogerio’s parents could attend, Mr. Contreras calls the group to order. Present are Rogerio’s parents, his regular education teacher, Ms. Brubaker; the special education teacher, Mr. Contreras, and the assistant principal, Ms. Cain. Also present are the school psychometrist, Ms. Bell, the speech-language pathologist, Ms. Striefel, and the occupational therapist, Mr. Gwaltney.

Mr. Contreras begins the meeting by saying to Rogerio’s parents, “Thank you for coming in. We are so pleased that you were able to be here for this important meeting.

After consulting all the evaluation materials and identifying what we think will work best, we have agreed that the least restrictive environment for Rogerio would be for him to remain in his regular education classroom for most of the day, but should go to a resource room for reading and math. Our goal today is to write an I EP for Rogerio that specifies his current levels of performance and sets goals for his continued learning.”

Question: Evaluate Mr. Contreras’s introductory statement. What makes it effective or ineffective?

[Q3 Model Response] While Mr. Contreras’s statement is welcoming, it reflects three fundamental problems.

First, Rogerio’s parents must be invited to participate in all aspects of this conversation, including whether or not Rogerio will use special education services at all. Second, according to the law, a placement decision is to be made after the IEP has been written.

Third, the information presented must be presented in a way that is free of educational jargon and understandable to parents.

If the parents agree with Rogerio’s determination of eligibility and waive their right to consider their decision for ten days, the meeting can proceed and the IEP can be developed. The group should first discuss Rogerio’s present levels of performance, annual goals (both functional and academic), how goals will be measured, any needed accommodations, and any related services he will receive (e.g., speech therapy; occupational therapy). Only then should the group determine Rogerio’s least restrictive environment and settle on a placement for him.

School representatives need to be sure that the information they’re providing to parents is clear and understandable. Parents might not have any idea what the terms least restrictive environment and IEP mean.

Application Exercise 2.2: Least Restrictive Environment Learning Outcome 2.3: Learn about the various placement options and how they relate to least restrictive environment (L RE), inclusion of students with disabilities, and implementing inclusive teaching practices.

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[Q1] Use Pearson e-Text Video Example 2.6, read the passage in the text regarding the Least Restrictive Environment, and refer to Figure 2.3. Describe a situation in which a student would be better enabled to acquire reading skills in a placement outside of the general education classroom. Next, describe a situation in which the child is better enabled to make reading gains in the general education classroom. Defend your response.

[Q1 Model Response] A student who is reading significantly below grade level and needs individualized instruction in reading to acquire grade level reading skills would be better served in an intensive program outside of the general education classroom. Because the student needs individualized instruction, the student is not likely to be “most enabled” in a general education setting and needs specialized reading instruction. On the other hand, a student with a math disability who is reading on grade level should be included for reading instruction in the general education classroom. For this student, the least restrictive environment for reading instruction is the general education classroom, but may need to be pulled out for intensive math instruction. A student should receive instruction in the setting that is going to be most enabling. The intensity of instruction may not be possible in the general education classroom, and it may differ for a student across different content areas.

[Q2] Scenario: Tony, ADH D Tony is an 11th grade student with A DHD. He has also been identified as gifted. His verbal skills are considerably above average; his mathematics skills are average to slightly above average. Tony has difficulty completing assignments, navigating the learning management system (L MS), and attending to verbal instructions. As a result, Tony’s grades are not as high as expected. In the multidisciplinary team meeting, the group decided that Tony needs accommodations such as written instructions for assignments, early access to writing assignments, and preferential seating in his classes.

Question: Use Pearson e-Text Video Example 2.6, read the passage in the text regarding the Least Restrictive Environment and refer to Figure 2.3. Where should Tony receive services? In other words, what is his least restrictive environment? Choose one of the following and then support your answer.

General Education Classroom for all instructions General Education for most instruction with pull out services for reading General Education for most instruction with pull out services for reading and math instruction Special education self-contained classroom [Q2 Model Response] 17 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Tony should receive all of his instructions in the general education classroom. Although his grades are not as high as expected, he does not demonstrate a need for specialized instruction. The accommodation that the multidisciplinary team recommended can all be implemented in the general education classroom, and thus that is his least restrictive environment.

[Q3] Scenario: Lizette, ID Lizette is a student with an intellectual disability. She is working approximately 2.0 years below grade level in both reading and mathematics. The multidisciplinary team determined that she needed specialized instruction in both reading and mathematics.

Specifically, they recommended a reading curriculum that is explicit, systematic, and intensive, requiring that it be implemented by an individual trained in the program. The mathematics curriculum they suggested focuses on functional skills such as counting money and making change, budgeting, and understanding time.

Question: Use Pearson e-Text Video Example 2.6, read the passage in the text regrading the Least Restrictive Environment and refer to Figure 2.3. Where should Lizette receive services? In other words, what is her least restrictive environment?

Support your answer.

General Education Classroom for all instructions General Education for most instruction with pull out services for reading General Education for most instruction with pull out services for reading and math instruction Special education self-contained classroom [Q3 Model Response] Lizette should receive her instruction in a resource room for reading and mathematics instruction. To provide Lizette with the individualized instruction she needs to be successful, she will need to be pulled out of the general education classroom for a portion of the day.

Application Exercise 2.3: Academic Accommodations Learning Outcome 2.3: Learn about the various placement options and how they relate to least restrictive environment (L RE), inclusion of students with disabilities, and implementing inclusive teaching practices.

[Q1] Scenario: Jessica is a 10th grade student with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, a chronic condition that causes swelling and loss of motions in her joints. As a result of her condition, Jessica has decreased motion in her hips, shoulders, elbows, and hands; she also experiences significant pain, particularly in the morning. Given her health challenges, Jessica is a candidate for academic accommodations that will enable her to navigate school more readily.

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Question: Refer to the text box Focus On: Instructional and Assessment Accommodations to Increase Academic Equity, the table of academic accommodations, and the list of common assessment accommodations. Then select one academic accommodation and one assessment accommodation that would likely be helpful for Jessica. Explain your choices.

[Q1 Model Response] An appropriate academic accommodation would be to provide her with early registration and priority scheduling. Allowing Jessica to register early and with course choice priority will allow her to select and register for courses offered midday or afternoons rather than early mornings.

A scheduling accommodation for assessments is also appropriate. Jessica should be allowed to take assessments at a time of day that coincides with her lower pain levels.

Another option for a testing accommodation would be to take frequent breaks to avoid having to write or type answers or bubble responses for long periods of time.

[Q2] Scenario: Tia is a fifth grader with dysgraphia, a specific learning disability in the area of written expression. Although her language comprehension and reading abilities are high, she has difficulty expressing herself in writing; she also struggles with spelling and handwriting. When asked to complete a task that involves writing, Tia becomes frustrated easily, particularly when the task has a set deadline.

Question: Refer to the text box Focus On: Instructional and Assessment Accommodations to Increase Academic Equity, the table of academic accommodations, and the list of common assessment accommodations. Then select at least two appropriate academic accommodations that would likely be helpful for Tia. Explain your choices.

[Q2 Model Response] Tia would benefit from receiving early access to assignments and/or additional time to complete them. The additional time would level the playing field for Tia as she and her peers without dysgraphia complete their writing assignments. In addition, speech-to-text software would be an appropriate accommodation for Tia, allowing her to focus on content rather than on spelling and handwriting.

[Q3] Scenario: Ms. Dotson, the principal at Marlow Middle School, is leading a school-wide initiative to increase educational equity and access for all students. She and the teachers reviewed their academic programming and the supports available to accommodate students with disabilities. As a result of the review, and in her commitment to ensuring equity and fairness, Ms. Dotson has told the faculty that they should make all instructional and assessment accommodations available to every student in the school, whether or not they have disabilities.

Question: Refer to the text box Focus On: Instructional and Assessment 19 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Accommodations to Increase Academic Equity, the table of academic accommodations, and the list of common assessment accommodations. Reflect on the ideas of one-size-fits-all accommodations and matching accommodations to learner characteristics. Explain whether the entire list of accommodations should be made available to all students with disabilities. Support your answer.

[Q3 Model Response] While the Marlow Middle School staff’s commitment to equity and fairness is commendable, offering instructional and assessment accommodations to every student in the school is not a wise decision. The intent of academic and instructional accommodations is that they be matched to the particular needs of individual students to allow those students to access the general curriculum, demonstrate their knowledge and skills, and experience academic and social success. Making all accommodations universally available would mean that individual needs and characteristics were no longer the focus of the accommodations.

While making some of the listed accommodations (e.g., early access to a course syllabus) available to all students would be easy to implement and would not unfairly advantage some students over others, Ms. Dotson’s suggestion that all students be able to access all accommodations is impractical. Logistically, offering testing in separate spaces or test readers for all students is unsustainable. Further, some accommodations, such as allowing early registration or priority scheduling, could not be offered to all students, because if everyone has priority or early registration, then the “accommodation” is no longer meaningful.

Practical considerations aside, it is important to remember that equitable access and fairness are not necessarily synonymous and that the intent of academic and instructional accommodations is to level the playing field for students with disabilities.

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Test Items 2.1 Multiple-Choice Questions 1. Which of the following statements about people with disabilities is true? a. Research has established that inclusion is more effective than education in special classes. b. Professionals are in agreement about the extent to which technology can and should be used to support students with disabilities. c. Research on the use of RTI for identification of student disabilities shows mixed results. d. States are not required to identify and evaluate children who may have a disability unless those children attend public schools.

2. Response to intervention (RTI) is a prereferral model most often used in determining whether a child has a specific learning disability. In this model, a. the teacher’s general insights into student performance are used to determine when a child needs to be moved into Tier 3 instruction. b. it is important that the general education teacher’s instruction is evidence-based and of high quality. c. professionals monitor students’ performance on standardized tests at different levels of support. d. all students usually receive one to two hours of closely monitored support in a resource room.

3. Response to intervention (RTI) a. has implications only for those with special gifts and talents. b. is based on students’ scores on standardized assessments c. can be applied to social behavior and academic learning. d. is limited to students suspected of having learning disabilities.

4. Prereferral intervention teams a. are intended to increase the number of students who are eligible for special education. b. have been proven to increase the academic achievement of students with and without disabilities. c. are intended to ensure that students receive evidence-based instruction before they are evaluated for special education. d. are used when a student who is eligible for special education services is not meeting annual I EP goals.

5. Which of the following statements about RTI is true?

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a. When implemented with fidelity on a limited scale, RTI can result in positive outcomes. b. RTI results in positive outcomes only in reading and mathematics. c. National research points to high levels of effectiveness in identifying students with disabilities. d. IDEA requires the use of RTI because it helps to standardize students’ educational experiences.

6. Frequent measures that provide information on whether a student is learning as expected are a. outcome measures. b. standardized assessments. c. measures of student achievement. d. progress monitoring assessments.

7. Schools must provide an individualized program for each student who requires special education services. This means that a. each student must receive instruction on a one-to-one basis. b. an educational program must be written for each student who requires special education services. c. one individual must be responsible for each student’s education. d. the portion of the program that is individualized must be delivered by a teacher who is certified in special education.

8. Each of the following components must be included on an individualized education program (IEP) except a. the student’s IQ score. b. annual goals. c. related services to be provided. d. instructional objectives.

9. Which of the following represents the legally correct sequence of IEP development within planning of special education services? a. placement, development of IEP, evaluation b. development of IEP, evaluation, placement c. evaluation, development of IEP, placement d. evaluation, placement, development of IEP 10. Which one of the following best describes an individual family service plan (I FSP)? a. a supplement to the IEP that specifies services that will be provided to the family of a student with disabilities 22 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

b. a supplement to the IEP that identifies the role of family members in supporting the school’s program for a student with disabilities c. an extension of the IEP that is used for secondary students who are making the transition from school to work d. a type of IEP created for preschool children with disabilities 11. Each of the following people is typically on an IEP team except a. a parent or guardian. b. a provider of special education. c. the child’s general education teacher. d. a special education lawyer.

12. The concept of transition involves more than just employment. It has a broad emphasis to include a. movement from general education to special education. b. more parental responsibility for meeting transition goals. c. concern for outcomes such as independent living and community adjustment. d. greater emphasis on vocational issues.

13. What was the major accomplishment of I DEA and other federal laws with respect to transition? a. They provided funding for postsecondary programs. b. They extended the age range served by special education to include students up to age 26. c. They mandated that school districts pay for postsecondary schooling (including college tuition) for students under the age of 21 with disabilities. d. They required IEPs to contain a statement of needed transition services for students with disabilities 16 years or older.

14. The special education intervention that requires the least specialized environment is a. instruction by a regular classroom teacher. b. consultation by a special educator. c. instruction by an itinerant teacher. d. instruction in a resource room.

15. Mrs. Cain is a third-grade general education teacher. She teaches most subjects to all of her students; however, Mrs. Cleveland, a special educator, provides reading and math instruction to exceptional students in the class. She also teaches organizational and study skills to all the students. What type of intervention is modeled by these teachers? a. co-teaching 23 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

b. consultation c. itinerant services d. resource services 16. Maria is enrolled in a general education classroom but is taught by a special education teacher in a special education classroom for an hour a day. What type of special education services does Leslie receive? a. She receives itinerant services. b. She receives resource services. c. She receives consultation services. d. She receives diagnostic-prescriptive services.

17. Of the following, the special education intervention that represents the highest level of intensive instruction is a. instruction in a small-group format led by the general education teacher. b. instruction in the general education classroom. c. instruction in a resource room. d. instruction in a self-contained special education classroom.

18. Homebound instruction is most often used for students who have a. visual impairments. b. physical disabilities. c. intellectual disabilities. d. hearing impairments.

19. Estella has a learning disability. Her primary placement is most likely a a. self-contained special education class. b. resource room. c. regular classroom. d. special day school.

20. Jasper is a 10-year-old student with intellectual disabilities. According to I DEA, if he is placed in the least restrictive environment possible, he will receive instruction in a. his own home. b. a general education classroom with co-teaching by a general education teacher and a special educator. c. both a general education classroom and a resource room. d. a general education classroom for the whole day.

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21. Some educators have suggested that the phrase “least restrictive environment” is not appropriate for describing the placement of students. Which term do they suggest as more accurate? a. most enabling environment b. most specialized environment c. least isolated environment d. most dedicated environment 22. Nationwide, how many students with disabilities are educated primarily in general education classrooms? a. less than 5% b. nearly 18% c. about 50% d. more than 60% 23. Each of the following is a basic strategy for helping students with disabilities to participate in the general education classroom except a. homogeneous grouping. b. accommodations and adaptations. c. collaborative consultation. d. curriculum and instruction modifications.

24. In collaborative consultation, the special education teacher a. teaches students with disabilities in the general education classroom. b. acts as an expert in providing advice to the general education teacher. c. shares daily decisions about programming with the regular education teacher equally. d. pulls out students with disabilities for special instruction in a resource room.

25. In co-teaching, a. students take turns assuming the role of teacher. b. general and special educators teach together in the same classroom. c. general and special educators provide in-service training for each other. d. teachers and students take turns assuming the role of teacher.

26. In cooperative learning, a. students without disabilities provide individual tutoring for those with disabilities. b. students without disabilities tutor those with disabilities in small groups.

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c. students with and without disabilities work together in small groups to solve problems or practice responses. d. students work toward a common goal in small homogeneous groups.

27. For students with disabilities, the objective of partial participation is a. exposing them to activities experienced by all students. b. providing them with an incentive to work hard so they can participate more fully with their age peers. c. maximizing their time on task and enhancing their self-esteem. d. fostering mastery of functional academics and improving their self-help skills.

28. Bill is a student with low vision. His teacher provides his handouts in an enlarged font. This is an example of a/an a. modification. b. accommodation. c. adaptation. d. tiered intervention.

29. When teachers allow students to choose among activities of varying levels of difficulty addressing a single topic, they are using a. reduced-requirements curricula. b. accommodations. c. partial participation. d. tiered assignments.

30. According to Zigmond (2007), general education and special education teachers should work together but have distinctive roles. This point of view suggests that a. general education teachers are content specialists who should be trained by a special education coach but who can’t replace special education teachers. b. with proper training and support, general education teachers can gradually take the place of special education teachers. c. special educators have no more specialized expertise in teaching individualized curricula than do general educators. d. the popular co-teaching model of collaboration provides the required kind of intensive instruction needed by students with disabilities.

31. All teachers should expect to participate in educating students with disabilities.

Which one of the following responsibilities is a general education classroom teacher LEAST likely to have? a. evaluating academic abilities b. managing serious behavior problems 26 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

c. participating in writing individualized educational programs d. collaborating with other professionals 32. Ms. Lopez, a second-grade teacher, has concerns about Delroy’s progress in math.

Before she makes a referral for special education, she should a. discuss her concerns with Delroy. b. administer an intelligence test. c. discuss her concerns with Delroy’s parents. d. develop an individualized educational plan.

33. Before making a referral for special education, a general education classroom teacher should do all of the following except a. modify or adapt the student’s instructional program. b. communicate concerns to parents. c. give the student a trial run in a resource classroom. d. assess the effectiveness of instruction.

34. Special education teachers must attain special expertise in a. delivering large-group instruction to students in the general education classroom. b. evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of technological advances. c. fostering students’ ability to engage effectively in cooperative learning. d. counseling students who struggle with mental health problems.

35. Considering the needs of all potential users when developing accessibility, programming, or technology is referred to as a. inclusive technology. b. universal design. c. intuitive planning. d. intuitive design.

2.2 True/False Questions 1. Research evidence suggests that response to intervention is more effective than prereferral teams at reducing the number of students referred for special education.

2. Large-scale implementation and research on the effectiveness of R TI as an identification model have not been conducted.

3. The individualized education program (I EP) is not required to be a written statement; however, the parents must agree to the teacher’s plans before the student is enrolled.

4. The least restrictive environment (L RE) is not always the general education classroom.

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5. Most students with disabilities spend the majority of their school day in selfcontained special education classrooms.

6. Partial participation refers to the practice of having students with disabilities integrated for part of the school day and in a special class for the remainder of the day.

7. Public school systems must make extensive efforts to screen and identify all children and youths of school age who have disabilities.

8. Students with disabilities are not excluded from participation in standardized assessment procedures.

9. Virtually all early childhood educators agree that young children with disabilities and those considered “at risk” should be in inclusive programs.

10. Schools are not required to provide employment-related services to students with disabilities.

2.3 Short Answer Questions 1. Describe the Response to Intervention model and explain why it is used.

2. Indicate the purpose of an individualized education program (IEP) and explain why it is not appropriate to make a placement decision for a student before an IEP has been written for that student. Provide an example to clarify your explanation.

3. Discuss the effect of recent legislation on early identification and transition.

4. What does the term “least restrictive environment” mean when applied to education for exceptional children? Provide an example to support your explanation.

5. Describe three practices that contribute to the integration of students with disabilities into the general education classroom. Comment on research support for each practice.

6. Discuss the controversy surrounding the relationship between special and general education and describe reasons behind reform proposals.

7. Compare and contrast the roles of special educators and general educators.

8. Describe the relationship between the concept of universal design for learning (U DL) and the pros and cons of using available technology in an effort to allow people with disabilities to function more like those without disabilities.

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Test Answer Key 2.1 Multiple-Choice Questions 1. c 2. b 3. c 4. c 5. a 6. d 7. b 8. a 9. c 10. d 11. d 12. c 13. d 14. a 15. a 16. b 17. d 18. b 19. c 20. d 21. a 22. d 23. a 24. b 25. b 26. c 27. a 28. a 29. d 30. a 29 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

31. b 32. c 33. c 34. b 35. b 2.2 True/False Questions 1. False 2. True 3. False 4. True 5. False 6. False 7. True 8. True 9. False 10. False 2.3 Short Answer Questions 1. Response to Intervention seeks to reduce the number of students identified for special education services, but its use for the purpose of identification has been questioned in the research. As one model of R TI, the three-tiered approach seeks to improve this situation. In this approach, all students are screened to determine if they are at risk for school failure and are given research-based instruction with frequent monitoring (tier 1). Students who show problems in learning go on to receive more intensive instruction with different formats (like small group) and continue to be monitored (tier 2) while the other students continue with tier 1 methods. If students in tier 2 improve, they may return to tier 1, or may remain in tier 2. For students who do not respond to tier 2, a multidisciplinary team convenes to conduct a full evaluation and plan an I EP. In tier 3, students receive special education services in the most appropriate setting for their needs.

2. Perhaps the most important tool used to implement I DEA, it is a written statement that spells out what teachers plan to do to meet an exceptional student’s needs, and it must be approved by the students’ parents or guardian. What the student needs is supposed to be determined first so that a decision can be made about placement in the least restrictive environment in which the needed services can be provided. For example, if a student has been evaluated and identified as having a learning disability, he or she could be placed in a school’s existing “learning disabilities program” and have an IEP written to match the services available in that program.

More appropriately and legally correct, the IEP should be written for the student 30 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

immediately after evaluation and identification. It could be that the services needed by the student could all be provided in the regular classroom, or that some entirely new services need to be developed in any other existing placements. There should be no “programs” specific to a disability category; the programs should be specific to individuals.

3. Federal laws require that services be available to infants and toddlers who are identified as having disabilities and that an individualized family service plan (IFSP be developed (similar to an IEP). Regulations stipulate that the family be involved in the development of the I FSP. Federal laws, including IDEA require that transition plans be included within older students’ IEPs. The legislation recognizes that transition involves more than just employment. Such legislation has led to improved services, sometimes first-ever services, for a huge number of individuals, expanding the ages of people eligible to receive services from birth to age 21.

4. Although some people argue that the L RE is always the regular classroom for all students regardless of exceptionality or special needs, the legal intent of LRE is that a student should be separated from classmates without disabilities, home, family, and community as little as possible. Intervention should be consistent with individual needs and not interfere with individual freedom any more than is necessary. This does not preclude the established continuum of placements. For example, a student whose special needs can be met in the regular classroom should not be placed in a more restrictive environment; likewise, a student whose needs are not being met in the regular classroom should not be kept in that setting if his or her needs could more effectively be met in another, more physically (though not necessarily more psychologically) restrictive environment.

5. Answers will vary with elaboration on the following choices: prereferral teams and response to intervention (may improve early intervention, but questionable as a means for identifying disabilities), collaborative consultation, cooperative teaching, cooperative learning, curricula and instructional strategies, or instructional accommodations and adaptations.

6. Some radical educational reformers believe that special education should be eliminated as a separate part of education. They call for a unified system in which all students are viewed as special and entitled to the same quality of education. In this system, all teachers would receive the same training and be expected to perform the same role. Supporters of special education as a separate system argue that the needs of students with exceptionalities historically were not met in the regular classroom and are not likely to be so in a completely merged system. They believe that some students require special, sometimes separate interventions to be successful. One reason behind reform proposals is concern for pupils who are considered at risk. Should special education be expanded to meet the needs of these students? Or could a merged system (that retains the financial resources of special education) make regular education better able to respond to these students?

7. All educators are expected to make maximum effort to accommodate individual students’ needs through flexibility, adaptations, and accommodations. They must all be able to report specifically and precisely how students can and cannot perform in 31 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

the areas for which they are responsible. They must be knowledgeable about and skillful with prereferral and referral practices. They must be willing and able to work with others by participating in eligibility conferences, helping to write IEPs, communicating with parents or guardians, and collaborating with others to help meet students’ needs. They must also be able to offer useful information at due process hearings. Special educators must attain expertise in other areas as well. They must be skilled in academic instructional strategies that are effective with students who have learning problems. They must master behavior management techniques and write positive behavior intervention plans for students who have serious behavior problems. They must be able to evaluate the potential effectiveness of available technologies (especially for use with students who have sensory or physical disabilities). And, they need to be familiar with laws and provisions if they are to be successful advocates for students with disabilities.

8. The concept of UDL often involves the development of new technologies to make learning accessible to more students. Inventors and designers try to account for every potential use and problem, but at some point, the technology has to be developed and marketed, and it may not, in fact, be useful to some groups of people. There is a danger in taking the term “universal” too literally: technology and new techniques will still need to be individualized or “customized” for some people.

Sometimes technology imposes new limitations on people with disabilities: it may allow them to go into new areas (physical or mental) without supports that may be needed. It results in controversial issues (Should disabilities be corrected before birth?). Use of new technology does not always produce better learning. Another issue is the prohibitive cost of new technology.

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Chapter 3 Test Item File Daniel P. Hallahan

Exceptional Learners: An Introduction to Special Education Fifteenth Edition Daniel P. Hallahan, University of Virginia Paige C. Pullen, University of Florida James M. Kauffman, University of Virginia Prepared by Karen M. Cole, University of North Carolina Asheville

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Table of Contents

Chapter 3: Justice, Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion in Special Education ....... 1 Learning Outcome Quizzes ................................................................... 1 Application Exercises ........................................................................... 14 Test Items ............................................................................................ 20 Test Answer Key .................................................................................. 28

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Chapter 3: Justice, Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion in Special Education Learning Outcome Quizzes Learning Outcome 3.1: Understand the major issues related to justice, diversity, equity, and inclusion (JEDI) and JEDI’s connection to multicultural education.

[Q1] All but which of the following are included in most definitions of the word multiculturalism?

1. Psychological well-being [correct] 2. Values and typical behavior 3. Languages or dialects 4. Nonverbal communication [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Psychological well-being is certainly an important construct, but it is not currently considered part of the definition of multiculturalism in a significant way.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Consideration of a cultural group’s values and typical behaviors is one aspect of multiculturalism.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Languages and dialects are aspects of multiculturalism.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The ways cultural groups communicate nonverbally are aspects of multiculturalism.

[Q2] Which one of the following best describes the most significant purpose of multicultural education?

1. To teach children in various subcultures about their ancestry and countries of family origin 2. To provide bilingual education for non-English speakers and instruction in A SL for members of the deaf community 3. To reassure parents that their children’s individuality and cultures are significant.

4. To teach acceptance of and respect for those whose culture differs from one’s own [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1]

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Teaching children from different ethnic minorities about their ancestors is one relatively small aspect of multicultural education.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] While attention to languages and communication styles is a facet of multicultural education, providing bilingual education for non-English speakers, and ASL instruction for members of the deaf community does not reflect its overarching purpose.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Certainly schools should strive to communicate to parents that children’s individuality and culture are seen, valued, and responded to, but this is not the most significant purpose of multicultural education.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Multicultural education is critically important but not easily accomplished.

[Q3] Diversity presents particular challenges for educators in all but which of the following instances?

1. The need to be viewed as politically correct [correct] 2. The need to assess abilities and disabilities 3. The need to provide appropriate instruction 4. The need to encourage socialization and social skill development [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Focusing on political correctness (or crusading excessively against it) undermines important JEDI work.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Assessing accurately and equitably has long been an issue in educational circles.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Providing appropriate instruction—meeting the needs of all learners in ways that demonstrate respect for them as individuals and as members of cultural groups—is challenging.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Encouraging socialization and social skill development can be challenging because of the myriad ways that individuals and subcultures socialize.

[Q4] When LGBTQ students attend a school where careful attention is paid to inclusivity and equity, which of the following outcomes are they most likely to encounter?

1. Teasing, harassment, or bullying

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2. Reduced substance abuse problems [correct] 3. Depression or other mental health disorders 4. Violent victimization [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Teasing, bullying, and harassment would be more common in schools that do not emphasize equity and inclusivity.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] In schools where inclusivity, diversity, justice, and equity receive focus, LGBTQ students are less likely to develop problematic substance use or addiction.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] In schools where inclusivity, diversity, justice, and equity receive focus, LGBTQ students would be less likely to exhibit depression or other mental health disorders.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] In schools where careful attention is paid to inclusivity and equity, LGBTQ students would be less likely to be the victims of violence and physical abuse.

[Q5] Which of the following actions would be least associated with the idea of culturally responsive teaching?

1. Considering and valuing all students’ identities when making planning, management, and assessment decisions 2. Making the curriculum as relevant and meaningful as possible to students in all subcultures 3. Fostering positive attitudes toward cultural diversity among students, faculty, and staff 4. Using student’ cultural identities to explain academic achievement or lack thereof [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Considering the uniqueness of individuals is an action one would expect to see from a culturally responsive teacher.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Students are more motivated and engaged when the curriculum is relevant to their lived experiences.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] In culturally responsive schools and classrooms, there is an intentional and positive focus on inclusivity, diversity, justice, and equity.

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Making stereotypical assumptions about students’ performance should be avoided at all costs.

Learning Outcome 3.2: Understand the implications of ethnicity and diversity for special education.

[Q1] All but which of the following are factors in the high prevalence rate of Black and Brown students in special education?

1. They are more likely to be raised in poverty.

2. They are more likely to attend underfunded schools.

3. They are less likely to have been breastfed. [correct] 4. They are evaluated using culturally biased assessments.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Research has identified poverty and the resulting child, family, and school factors as a direct contributor to the high numbers of Black and Brown students in special education classes.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Black and Brown students are more likely to live in poverty, and schools in low-wealth areas are more likely to be poorly funded, reducing opportunities for the students who attend them.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Some child health factors (e.g., birth weight, nutrition) correlate with disability and the overrepresentation of students of color in special education, but breast-feeding isn’t specifically mentioned in the research.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Some assessments used to determine eligibility for special education services have been found to be culturally biased, affecting Black and Brown students’ results and thus increasing their presence in special education placements.

[Q2] Which of the following actions is least likely to reduce the disproportionate representation of students of color in special education?

1. Providing strong academic programs that foster success for all students 2. Reducing the level of home-school interaction [correct] 3. Implementing effective procedures for referral, assessment, eligibility, classification, placement, and reevaluation 4. Capitalizing on diverse community resources [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] 4 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Ensuring that all students, regardless of their academic achievement level or socioeconomic status, experience excellent teaching is a factor in reducing inequity in special education placement.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Building strong bonds among schools, the families they serve, and the larger community is an important way to improve students’ success in school.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] When processes are fair, just, equitable, and unbiased, we are more able to trust decisions about which students should receive special education services.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Linking students and their schools to the larger community is one way to increase support; the more support students and teachers receive, the less likely it is that determinations about which students need special education services will be disproportionate.

[Q3] Ethnic groups typically share all but which of the following characteristics?

1. Common historic origins 2. Specific areas of academic weakness [correct] 3. Similar traditions 4. Similar values orientations [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Ethnic groups commonly share not only historic origins but also identity, heritage, and traditions.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Individuals within ethnic groups vary in their academic strengths and weaknesses.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Ethnic groups not only share common traditions but also historic origins, identity, language, and heritage.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Ethnic groups commonly do share values orientations, behavior patterns, and political/economic interests.

[Q4] In order to be just, equitable, and inclusive of diverse populations, special education must do all but which of the following things?

1. Increase understanding of the subculture of exceptionality/disability and its relationship to other cultures 5 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

2. Ensure that ethnicity is not mistaken for exceptionality/disability 3. Ensure that ethnicity does not inadvertently exclude individuals from accessing special education services to which they are entitled 4. Decrease the number of Black and Brown students determined to be eligible for special education services [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Fostering understanding and appreciation of difference should be a goal, not just of special educators, but of all people who engage with students with disabilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Providing excellent teaching and effective assessment is one way to reduce the chance that a student’s ethnicity might play a significant role in their special education eligibility and placement decisions.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] We must be sure that, in our zeal not to disproportionately overrepresent students from various ethnic groups in special education, we don’t inadvertently deprive someone who is eligible for services.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Decreasing the number of Black and Brown students is not, in and of itself, a laudable goal. In fact, some researchers assert that Black and Brown students are underrepresented in special education settings. The actual goal is to ensure that every student who needs special education gets it and that any student who doesn’t need it isn’t inadvertently placed in it.

[Q5] Black students are most at risk for identification as having high-incidence disabilities.

Which of the following statements reflects a likely explanation for this disproportionality?

1. High-incidence disabilities are heavily reliant on professional judgment for identification. [correct] 2. High-incidence disabilities count more in special education funding formulas.

3. High-incidence disabilities are easily identified using genetic mapping.

4. High-incidence disabilities are common among more socioeconomically advantaged populations.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Black students are at least 1.5 times more likely to be diagnosed with intellectual disabilities, emotional disturbances, or learning disabilities than their White peers, likely because these determinations are more subjective in nature than they are for lowerincidence disabilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2]

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Black students’ likelihood of being identified with a high-incidence disability correlates with the fact that these diagnoses require subjective judgment on the part of the assessor.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Genetic mapping plays a less central role in decisions about high-incidence disabilities; many high-incidence diagnoses require subjective judgment on the part of the assessor, so bias can be a factor.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] In fact, students from higher-wealth backgrounds are less likely to be identified as having a disability.

Learning Outcome 3.3: Understand the major issues in assessment as it pertains to culturally diverse populations.

[Q1] Standardized tests may be biased for all but which of the following reasons?

1. Most test items draw on specific experiences that students from some subcultures may not have had 2. Language used may be unfamiliar to members of some subcultures 3. Because of heredity, people of color are more likely to score lower on achievement tests [correct] 4. Tests may be administered in ways that penalize students with impaired ability to answer in a standardized way [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Tests may be biased in favor of European-American, middle-class students.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Tests may use wording that doesn’t reflect the language patterns common to a particular subculture.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] There is no evidence that people of color inherit any characteristics that would make them score lower on achievement tests.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Tests given without necessary accommodations may affect student outcomes.

[Q2] Which of the following statements about testing accommodations for students with limited English proficiency and or disabilities is false?

1. They should advantage English language learners so they are on an even playing field with native speakers. [correct] 7 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

2. They should reduce language barriers that may interfere with assessment results.

3. They should include administration accommodations and the use of bilingual dictionaries.

4. They should include translation of tests to the student’s native language or provision of a bilingual version of the test.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] To knowingly provide an advantage to one group of students over another would be unfair and illegal.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Reducing language barriers means that assessment results are more likely to accurately reflect a student’s abilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Allowing for testing accommodations and bilingual dictionaries levels the playing field for English language learners and students with disabilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Testing in a student’s native language ensures that the student’s results are not based on unfamiliarity with English.

[Q3] Although response to intervention (RTI) has not been validated for English language learners, why do educators assert that the method has positive implications for culturally diverse students?

1. It stipulates that the student’s first language must be used for both assessment and instruction.

2. It requires that students who are bilingual or multilingual remain in the general education classroom for all instruction.

3. It uses standardized assessment procedures to identify the students’ strengths and weaknesses.

4. It relies on quality instruction prior to identification and may prevent some of these students from being identified for special education services. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The stipulation that a child must be assessed in their native language is part of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, formerly PL 94-142. There is no legal requirement that instruction be delivered in a student’s native language.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] RTI does not make this stipulation. Student placements should reflect careful attention to the setting(s) that best meet their needs.

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RTI focuses on curriculum-based assessments and frequent monitoring of student progress.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] It relies on quality instruction prior to identification and may prevent some English language learners from being identified for special education services.

[Q4] Which of the following statements best explains why the use of informal measures to assess student progress is beneficial to students from diverse populations?

1. These measures are standardized across all cultural and language groups, so a student’s performance can easily be compared to that of others.

2. Progress monitoring assessments are typically less biased than traditional standardized tests. [correct] 3. Informal measures are easy to develop and are more reliable than formal measures.

4. Informal assessments cost more than standardized ones, so schools receive more funding to serve each eligible student.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Informal measures are not standardized. Further, the goal is not to compare one student’s performance to that of others; it is to determine the individual student’s progress.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] The fact that they focus on individual students, regardless of ethnicity or native language, may make informal assessments less biased.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] While they may be easy to develop, curriculum-based assessments are not typically assessed for validity and reliability.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The use of informal assessments is cost-effective and does not result in any increased funding for schools.

[Q5] Which of the following statements about how schools identify and serve students with special gifts and talents is true?

1. Identification of students with gifts and talents is less challenging than identification of students with disabilities.

2. Teachers nominate equivalent numbers of white students and students of color for gifted programs, but biased testing leads to disproportionate representation of nonWhite students.

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3. The criteria used to determine eligibility for gifted and talented programs are well articulated, so there is less bias in the identification process.

4. Programs for gifted and talented students often fail to include culturally diverse students. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The same issues of equity and fairness that plague identification of students with disabilities arise in identifying students with special gifts and talents.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Teachers and peers nominate students of color for gifted programs less often, likely because of conscious or unconscious bias.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The criteria for eligibility vary widely among programs; a precise definition of what it means to be gifted and talented is elusive.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] For some of the same reasons that culturally diverse students are overrepresented in special education programs, they are underrepresented in programs for the gifted and talented.

Learning Outcome 3.4: Understand the importance of instructional equity in special education.

[Q1] Which of the following actions would best help teachers work effectively with culturally diverse students?

1. Ignoring cultural differences 2. Helping students learn how to view themselves and others from different cultural perspectives. [correct] 3. Helping students assimilate into the dominant school culture 4. Delivering lessons in multiple languages to make learning accessible to more students [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] When teachers fail to recognize, appreciate, and respond to cultural differences, they are less likely to effectively teach a diverse student population.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Teaching students to consider cultural differences from multiple perspectives can build connection and understanding.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3]

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Asking students to set aside the cultural qualities that define them as individuals and members of the school community is not an effective choice.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Delivering every lesson in multiple languages is not realistic or feasible for the great majority of teachers; even if teachers were multilingual, there is not enough time in the school day to teach the same lesson multiple times in different languages.

[Q2] Research tells us that all but which of the following instructional approaches allow teachers to provide culturally sensitive instruction to all members of a diverse group at one time?

1. Ability-based grouping [correct] 2. Cooperative learning 3. Direct instruction 4. Classwide peer tutoring [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Ability-based grouping has not been shown to be an effective way of meeting the needs of diverse groups of students simultaneously.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Cooperative learning has been shown to be an effective strategy for providing culturally responsive instruction to all students at the same time.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Direct, explicit instruction allows teachers to provide culturally sensitive instruction to all members of a diverse group at once.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Classwide peer tutoring has proven to be an effective strategy for allowing teachers to meet the needs of a diverse student population efficiently and effectively.

[Q3] Effective individualization for students who are struggling or who have been identified for special education includes all but which of the following?

1. Frequent, systematic, and explicit instruction 2. Commercially prepared multicultural curricula [correct] 3. Reinforcement and corrective feedback 4. Appropriate pacing [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Clarity, intensity, and frequency are critical aspects of effective instruction.

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[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] It is unrealistic to think that any prepackaged curriculum would be effective with all students in all settings.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Providing reinforcement and specific feedback is central to helping students master and retain new knowledge and skills.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Paying careful attention to the rate of instruction is one way of individualizing effectively.

[Q4] Which of the following factors is least likely to be a consideration in a teacher’s management of classroom behavior?

1. The match between the behavior management styles of the teacher and those of the students’ parents or guardians 2. The teacher’s sensitivity to cultural differences in response to discipline 3. The current research about human behavior 4. The particular disciplinary preferences of the students [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Teachers often have to navigate differences in their expectations and disciplinary practices and those of the students’ parents or guardians.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Whether or not a teacher is sensitive to cultural differences regarding discipline is a key element of behavior management.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Research on behavior and effective classroom management should guide teacher’s decisions.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] While most teachers would like the idea of using behavior management strategies that match their students’ particular preferences, this factor plays a minimal role in disciplinary decisions when compared to the other factors listed.

[Q5] Which of the following teaching actions is most aligned with what we know about research-based reading instruction?

1. Ms. Black has her students’ complete graphic organizers to map a story’s events.

2. Mr. Mathes reads aloud to his students at the beginning of each class period.

3. Ms. Reyna teaches students to decode words quickly and accurately. [correct] 12 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

4. Ms. Fletcher has her students read texts orally each day.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] While graphic organizers can be part of an effective literacy program, this response focuses on an isolated skill. More comprehensive attention to reading instruction, particularly in the area of decoding, is better aligned with the research on learning to read.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Reading aloud to students can be a fun and effective activity, but in isolation, it is not as robust action as delivering explicit instruction in decoding is.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Current research indicates that teaching students to quickly and easily decode text will have the broadest and most positive impact on their reading development.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Oral reading is a viable instructional strategy, particularly if the goal of the reading is to develop fluency. However, it is an isolated activity and thus is not as robust action as teaching automaticity in decoding is.

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Application Exercises Application Exercise 3.1: Disproportionality, Equity, and Special Education Learning Outcome 3.2: Understand the implications of ethnicity and diversity for special education.

Learning Object: Focus on “What Causes Disproportionate Representation of Black and Brown Students in Special Education?” and Table 3.1 [Q1] Review the text section on Ethnicity and Exceptionality along with Table 3.1, which shows that Black and Brown children are overrepresented in special education programs based on the relative population. Read the Focus On Feature What Causes Disproportionate Representation of Black and Brown Students in Special Education.

To what degree are the values of justice, equity, diversity, and inclusion present for these overrepresented populations in the current identification processes for special education services? Justify your response.

[Q1 Model Response] (Answers will vary) Based on the data presented on the percentage of Black and Brown students in special education relative to the population, combined with the Morgan data, the values of justice, equity, diversity, and inclusion are not being realized through the current identification process. Some students of color are being placed in special education who may not need to be there (overrepresentation), while others are being denied services they deserve (Morgan data demonstrating underrepresentation in some cases).

Whether it is the identification process itself, or the application of the process is unclear; however, all students should be provided equitable access to education that helps them be successful in school and in life.

[Q2] Review the text section on Ethnicity and Exceptionality along with Table 3.1, which shows that Black and Brown children are overrepresented in special education programs based on the relative population. Read the Focus On Feature What Causes Disproportionate Representation of Black and Brown Students in Special Education.

Do you agree or disagree with the analysis done by Morgan and his colleagues on the disproportionate representation issue in Special Education? Justify your response.

[Q2 Model Response] Possible points to make in an opinion response: 1. The data from Morgan and colleagues support valid claims for reasons other than ethnicity for the disproportionality in special education.

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2. School factors and poverty are still related to racial inequities. Therefore, the overrepresentation of Brown and Black students is still concerning. Systemic inequities affect Brown and Black students disproportionately.

3. Equity means that all students receive the instructions they need, including special education services if they meet the requirements under Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA).

4. Medical factors such as low birth weight are out of the control of educators. The disproportionality in special education should be addressed in societal factors including health care, early childhood education, and other systems that perpetuate inequities.

[Q3] Review the section on Ethnicity versus Exceptionality along with Table 3.1. Identify the categories of disability where students who are Black have the highest risk ratio for special education identification. Suggest reasons for the higher risk ratio. [Hint: you may also want to look back at the Focus feature on disproportionality.]

[Q3 Model Response] Developmental Delay (1.6) Emotional Disturbance (1.9) Intellectual Disabilities (2.2) Specific Learning Disabilities (1.5) We find disproportionate representation of Black or African American students among the high-incidence categories of disability that rely on clinical judgment for identification.

When eligibility decisions rely on subjective judgement rather than objective measures, it is more likely that cultural differences may be mistakenly confused with disability. In addition, students who are Black are more likely to live in poverty, attend schools that are underfunded and understaffed, and that tests are often culturally biased. Child, family, and school factors all contribute to educational outcomes for children.

Minority populations are also more likely to experience factors that lead to disability: lack of nutrition, low birth weight, poverty; less exposure to language in the home, less frequent health care visits.

[Q4] In examining Table 3.1, what ethnic group has the highest risk ratio for disproportionate representation in special education? Why might this group receive less attention than African American/Black overrepresentation in special education?

[Q4 Model Response] (Note: Students may have opinions beyond what is stated in the text. Instructors should consider this as a reflection question that asks students to use the text to support their answers.)

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Students who are American Indian or Alaskan Native are the group that is most likely to be overrepresented in Special Education. Students from this group are 1.6 times more likely to receive services for special education. This group represents a small percentage of the population and therefore doesn’t receive the attention that African American overrepresentation receives. Furthermore, the Civil Rights movement focused on Black Americans, due to the history of slavery in the United States.

Application Exercise 3.2: Assessing English Language Learners Learning Outcome 3.3: Understand the major issues in assessment as it pertains to culturally diverse populations.

[Q1] Review the text section on Assessing Minority Students and view Pearson e-Text Video Example 3.5.

Question: In the video, what challenges does Dr. Milian raise in identifying whether an English language learner has a learning disability? What strategies does she suggest be used to meet these challenges? Why? [Q1 Model Response] Dr. Milian points out the complexity of identifying mild disabilities among students who are learning English as a second language and simultaneously exhibiting learning or behavioral challenges. She explains that many of the same characteristics shown by students with mild disabilities are also common among students who are learning a second language. She indicates that time is a factor in being able to separate language difficulties from learning difficulties, as is the level of English fluency a child needs for educators to be able to figure out the student’s specific challenges.

Dr. Milian suggests observing students in different environments and talking to parents to see if they are noticing the same characteristics and behaviors in their children at home. She also suggests comparing the child to other children who are going through the same process and who belong to the same socioeconomic group. She is a strong advocate of providing carefully chosen instructional and teaching to the child’s specific needs whether or not a disability has been identified, noting that sometimes knowing the nature of the disability does not particularly help teachers serve the student.

It is important for educators to understand the intersection of second language acquisition and disability so they can (a) provide instruction to meet the needs of all students and (b) avoid errors in determining whether or not a student has a disability.

[Q2] Review the text section on Assessing Minority Students and review Pearson e-Text Video Example 3.5.

What potential do curriculum-based assessments, standardized assessments, and Response to Intervention (RTI) have in meeting some of the challenges that Dr. Milian discusses in the video concerning the identification of English language learners for special education services?

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[Q2 Model Response] Dr. Milian speaks about the need to provide students with education that matches their particular needs. One way to ensure that teachers are meeting this goal is to use assessment effectively. Standardized tests and curriculum-based measurement (CBM) are both used to assess students academic progress; each type of assessment provides teachers with different information about student achievement.

Standardized tests can be used to assess students ’progress in meeting their annual goals. Outcomes on standardized tests, however, must be used cautiously because the tests themselves have been shown to provide advantages to White, middle class students and students who have had the benefit of certain experiences and opportunities. Standardized test results have limited practical use for teachers; while they do allow a teacher to see how a student is performing relative to their peers, they don’t provide much information about what, specifically, a teacher should do next to help a student.

Monitoring students ’progress is a key component of RTI; the practice allows teachers to gather data about what instructional strategies are and are not helping students move forward. CBM is used to identify which specific concepts and skills students have and haven’t mastered; the information gathered is useful for teachers because it can be used to inform their instructional planning. As Dr. Milian states in the video, it is critical to provide instruction that meets students ’needs, and CBM helps teachers identify what those particular needs are.

Application Exercise 3.3: Improving Instruction for English Learners Learning Outcome 3.4: Understand the importance of instructional equity in special education.

[Q1] Review the text section called Improving Instruction for Language-Minority Students and view Pearson e-Text Video Example 3.8.

Question: What challenges does Dr. Milian identify among students who are learning a new language at the same time they are learning academic content and skills? Why do teachers need to be particularly aware of these challenges? Explain your thinking.

[Q1 Model Response] Dr. Milian points out that it is very challenging for students to learn a new language at the same time they are learning new academic content and skills. The cognitive demands placed on students are significant and high-stakes—if they do not master the content and skills because they haven’t yet built facility with the new language, there are problematic academic consequences. At the same time, students are learning to navigate social relationships in the new language; they are essentially starting over with regard to developing a sense of belonging in their classroom and school community.

Teachers must be sensitive to these three areas of challenge because each of them has implications for students ’academic progress, social acceptance, and emotional 17 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

well-being. Students who are learning a new language need consistent support and encouragement, and teachers are well-positioned not only to provide such support and encouragement, but also to foster students ’sense of belonging.

[Q2] Review the text section called Improving Instruction for Language-Minority Students, and Pearson e-Text Video Example 3.8.

Question: Describe the approaches our text identifies as commonly used to serve language-minority students. Which of these approaches do you personally favor? Why? Use information from the text and video to support your answer.

[Q2 Model Response] The text authors point to (a) an approach where students are taught for most of the day in their native language then make the transition to English and (b) an approach where students receive instruction in English that is sheltered—constantly modified to allow students to comprehend the content and skills they are learning.

Answers about preferred approaches will vary, but students should be able to make a strong case using information from the text, videos, and personal experience.

[Q3] Review the text section called Improving Instruction for Language-Minority Students and view Pearson e-Text Video Example 3.7.

Question: Think about the challenges faced by students who are learning a second language and about the approaches the text recommends for teaching English language learners. As you consider the video, what evidence do you see that the teacher has considered these challenges and approaches as she delivers instruction?

Do you believe the teacher is demonstrating effective practice? Why do you say so?

[Q3 Model Response] The teacher is delivering instruction in English (as opposed to using a native-language approach) and speaks specifically about how she groups the students, mixing ELLs among native speakers. This instructional decision suggests that she values cooperative learning; the notion that she uses collaborative learning is reinforced when she discusses differentiating content for students by using different games and activities where, we assume, students work together to accomplish specific tasks.

In the interview portion of the video, the teacher speaks about valuing her students ’ cultures, an important element of teaching linguistically diverse learners. She also discusses the ways she front-loads every lesson in support of those students who are not yet fluent in English. She emphasizes academic vocabulary and augments the spoken language with visuals to help make the content accessible. These instructional strategies are highly effective in meeting the challenges faced by students who are learning a new language and new academic content simultaneously.

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The teacher further demonstrates effectiveness by using a number of strategies to support her English language learners during this lesson. She speaks clearly and is smiling and positive—very important to keep students engaged and motivated and to build a supportive community. She uses gestures (e.g., pointing to her head, finger on her lips) to emphasize what she wants the students to do. She repeats the gestures for the benefit of the student who doesn’t speak English, then, when he is ready, she calls on him and acknowledges that his answer is correct in a very enthusiastic tone of voice.

[Q4] Review the text section called Improving Instruction for Language-Minority Students and view Pearson e-Text Video Example 3.8.

Question: Imagine being a student with a disability who is also trying to learn a new language. What challenges would you likely encounter beyond those experienced by anyone learning a new language and content? What behaviors would you, as a student, want to see from your teachers as you moved through your school experience? Why? [Q4 Model Response] Second language learners who have disabilities face an additional challenge—that of navigating the ways their disability intersects with their learning of language, content, and skills and with their interpersonal relationships. It is logical to assume that there is significant potential for such a student to experience frustration, demotivation, and isolation.

With regard to desirable teacher behaviors, most learners would want teachers who are(a) patient and compassionate; (b) knowledgeable about disabilities; (c) skilled at delivering explicit, systematic, high-impact instruction; (d) committed to building positive relationships with and among students; (e) can foster a sense of belonging; and (f) view the student as a whole and valuable person. Teachers who exhibit these characteristics are more likely to attend to the student’s individual needs, to motivate them and make them feel welcome, and to carefully select instructional strategies, content, and skills to match their needs.

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Test Items 3.1 Multiple-Choice Questions 1. Which of the following statements about multicultural and bilingual aspects of special education is true? a. Social justice education and multicultural education are mutually exclusive. b. It’s not possible to assess minority students because assessments are biased. c. Educators must make sure that students understand the language of school, not just informal conversation. d. Disproportionate representation of minorities in special education is no longer a problem.

2. Which one of the following is not a one of the primary purposes of J EDI in special education? a. ensuring that ethnicity is not mistaken for exceptionality b. ensuring that ethnicity does not inadvertently exclude individuals from receiving services to which they are entitled c. increasing understanding of the subculture of exceptionality/disability and its relationship to other cultures d. establishing a set of standards to which all members of the educational community are held 3. Cultural diversity presents the challenges for special educators in all of these areas except a. instruction. b. assessment. c. immersion. d. socialization.

4. In considering cultural differences in the context of education, one should a. realize that the influence of culture on education is a myth. b. advocate for separate special education for minorities. c. be cautious not to stereotype. d. consider charter schools as a viable solution.

5. Which of the following elements is not typically included in multicultural definitions? a. genetics b. values and typical behavior c. nonverbal communication d. world views or general perspectives 20 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

6. Which of the following statements about students who are L GBTQ is false? a. They often experience bullying, verbal abuse, and physical abuse in school. b. Bias is often fostered by peers and adults. c. Increasing diversity education and activities in school can reduce bullying in some cases. d. They demonstrate mental health issues with lower-than-average frequency.

7. A culture that is associated with or part of a larger culture, but which is not necessarily small, is a a. subculture. b. macroculture. c. microculture. d. clique.

8. Each of the following is a general purpose of multicultural education except a. to promote pride in positive aspects of one's own cultural heritage. b. to demonstrate educational effectiveness to government administrators. c. to foster positive attitudes toward cultural diversity. d. to ensure equal educational opportunities for all students.

9. Which of the following statements best reflects two issues that particularly complicate teaching about cultures and engendering acceptance of cultural diversity? a. the money and time we have for curriculum changes b. deciding which cultures should be represented and the predominate religious beliefs within a school system c. deciding which cultures best illustrate the concepts of universality of cultural pride and shame d. deciding which cultures should be included and how to teach about them 10. Assuming that a cultural identity is sufficient to explain academic achievement or economic success is a form of a. prognostication. b. ethnicity. c. cultural relativism. d. stereotyping.

11. A group that shares a historic origin, culture, heritage, and traditions, and that has its own political and economic interests is called a(n) a. microcultural group.

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b. ethnic group. c. exceptionality group. d. macrocultural group.

12. A group sharing a set of specific abilities or disabilities that are especially valued or that require special accommodation within a given subculture is called a(n) a. microcultural group. b. ethnic group. c. exceptionality group. d. macrocultural group.

13. An example of a culturally linked behavior that might be confused with exceptionality is a. handedness. b. eye contact. c. skin color. d. leisure activities.

14. Which of the following actions is least likely to reduce the disproportionate representation of ethnic minority students in special education? a. encouraging the parents of ethnic minority students to decline special education evaluation for their children because of bias in the process b. working to reduce or eliminate teacher and programmatic bias c. providing strong academic programs that foster success for all students regardless of their achievement d. implementing effective procedures for referral, assessment, eligibility, classification, placement, and reevaluation 15. An example of an exceptionality group with a highly organized subculture is a. people with intellectual disabilities. b. people with autism spectrum disorder. c. people who are deaf. d. people who have epilepsy.

16. Quick measurements to determine who may need further assessment are a. outcome measures. b. progress monitoring measures. c. prescriptive diagnoses. d. screening measures.

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17. All of the following are common criticisms of standardized tests except a. failing to take cultural diversity into account. b. focusing on deficits of the individual. c. underestimating abilities of students from the majority culture. d. failing to provide information useful in teaching.

18. Response to intervention relies a. on the IQ-achievement discrepancy formula. b. more on curriculum-based measurement. c. more on testing accommodations. d. more on standardized tests.

19. The increase in the use of informal measures to assess student progress is beneficial to students from diverse populations because a. teachers can use ready-made assessment tests. b. informal measures are easy to develop and are more reliable than formal measures. c. progress monitoring assessments are typically less biased than traditional standardized tests. d. such assessments cost more, so schools get more federal money for each bilingual student.

20. Which one of the following provides the best description of curriculum-based measurement? a. testing that reflects student performance on curricular tasks b. evaluation of experimental educational programs c. examination of the effectiveness of a program's scope and sequence d. evaluation of student performance on achievement tests 21. Which of the following statements does not reflect a reason standardized tests are often considered to be biased? a. Most test items draw on specific experiences that students from some subcultures may not have had. b. Language used may be unfamiliar to members of some subcultures. c. Tests may be administered in ways that penalize students with impaired ability to answer in a standardized way. d. Minority group members are inherently more likely to score lower on any achievement test.

22. Which of the following statements about testing accommodations for students with limited English proficiency and/or disabilities is false?

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a. They should be given an advantage by providing them with opportunities that provide a better chance of demonstrating their knowledge and skills. b. They should reduce the language barriers that may interfere with assessment results. c. They should include administration accommodations and the use of bilingual dictionaries. d. They should, as needed, include translation of tests to the student's native language or provision of a bilingual version of the test.

23. Most authorities agree that in accepting and fostering cultural diversity, schools should a. also provide instruction in skills needed to survive and prosper in the larger context of American culture. b. not require students to learn English if they live in a community that is predominantly non-English speaking. c. identify multiple sets of performance standards so that all students can succeed. d. act as “gatekeepers,” requiring that students graduating from high school meet standards of both the dominant culture and the subculture.

24. In the pursuit of equality and fairness, educational reformers are working toward all of the following except a. teaching tolerance and appreciation of difference. b. finding ways to work without involving families who seem reluctant to help. c. improving instruction of language-minority students. d. adopting effective teaching practices.

25. An approach to teaching language-minority students for most of the day in their native languages and later helping them make the transition to English is a. sheltered-English approach. b. ESL. c. native-language emphasis. d. sheltered-native language approach.

26. Research indicates that a. some instructional approaches, such classwide peer tutoring, allow teachers to provide culturally sensitive instruction to all members of a diverse group at once. b. students with different cultural backgrounds need to be taught differently. c. certain aspects of cultural heritage determine to a significant extent how students learn best. d. African American boys learn best through project-based, hands-on instruction.

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27. Which of the following does not reflect a reason that there is disproportional identification of ethnic minorities in special education? a. Many of the tests used to identify students with disabilities are culturally biased. b. Some ethnic groups are visual learners, and public schools put a heavy emphasis on auditory learning. c. Minority children are more likely to attend schools that are underfunded and understaffed. d. Poverty puts children at risk for having disabilities and some ethnic minorities (e.g., African Americans, Latinos/Hispanics, Native Americans) have higher rates of poverty.

28. Which of the following ethnic groups do some researchers assert to be underidentified with respect to how many should be identified for special education? a. Whites b. Latino/Hispanic c. American Indians or Alaska natives d. African Americans 29. Instruction that is explicit, systematic, intensive, frequent, with an appropriate level of pacing, corrective feedback, and reinforcement and often delivered in small groups a. leads to rote responses. b. is by nature at conflict with culturally responsive teaching. c. allows teachers to individualize instruction. d. is effective with elementary school children but ineffective with middle and high school students.

30. Teachers can create classroom environments that support academic success for English language learners by each of the following except a. grouping English language learning students together for content-area instruction. b. selecting materials relevant to students’ experiences. c. establishing classroom interactions that are comfortable to the students. d. using effective instructional strategies that promote vocabulary and development.

31. With respect to culturally and linguistically diverse learners, the use of response to intervention (RTI) a. has been shown to be only marginally effective with Spanish-speaking students. b. has been shown be ineffective at reducing referrals to special education. c. relies heavily on curriculum-based measurement and less on standardized tests. d. will ideally result in more students of color being identified for special education.

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32. A viable multicultural curriculum cannot be created and handed out to teachers because a. most want to exercise their right to select their own curriculum based on their own beliefs and are resistant to being told what to teach. b. the government has passed legislation banning the teaching of multicultural issues within an integrated curriculum. c. they must be involved in the process because their values, perspectives, and teaching styles affect what is taught and how it is taught. d. there is not enough money to create such a curriculum nationwide.

33. Which of the following statements about multicultural education is false? a. Successful multicultural education is simply a matter of becoming sensitized to differences. b. It requires helping students learn how to view themselves and others from different perspectives. c. Progress in constructing multicultural education has been slow. d. It provides the opportunity to develop an appreciation of our individual and shared cultural treasures.

34. Educators are often ethnocentric with respect to discipline. This means they a. do not share the same beliefs about discipline as parents do. b. believe that their views are correct and others' views are wrong. c. adopt different approaches to discipline depending on the cultural values of the students that they teach. d. use whatever strategy makes classroom management easier for them regardless of the characteristics and reactions of their students.

35. Which of the following reflects the most significant reason for the inequitable identification of students who have special gifts and talents? a. Universal screening cannot be relied upon to accurately identify students who are gifted and talented. b. Students in minority groups generally score poorly on standardized tests because of bias in the instruments. c. The use of multiple measures dilutes the significance of student identification data. d. Students must typically be nominated or recommended for participation in programs for students with special gifts and talents.

3.2 True/False Questions 1. One reason for the lack of widespread familiarity with Black culture reflects the failure of schools to present the Black experience accurately, if at all.

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2. Ethnicity can be a point of controversy when it is defined too broadly.

3. An individual can be a member of many subcultures.

4. Most professionals agree that multicultural education should consider only subcultures identified by ethnicity, not those identified by gender, sexual preference, or disability.

5. Some ethnic minorities are overrepresented in special education.

6. The preferred method of identifying students with learning disabilities is to use an I Qachievement discrepancy formula.

7. Curriculum-based measurement is thought to decrease the likelihood of cultural bias.

8. Adolescents of color are more likely to be identified with disruptive behavior disorders than their Caucasian peers.

9. Professionals generally agree that bilingual students should be taught using the sheltered-English approach.

10. All ethnic minority groups are overrepresented in special education.

3.3 Short Answer Questions 1. Discuss the authors' view that multicultural education gives us the opportunity to “engender acceptance, if not love, of all differences that are not destructive of the human experience.”

2. Identify the three general purposes of multicultural education.

3. Describe three reasons why cultural diversity is a concern for special educators.

4. List four types of assessment and describe their purposes.

5. Why are testing accommodations provided to students with disabilities and students with limited English proficiency? Describe three testing accommodations that might be used.

6. Compare and contrast the native language emphasis and the sheltered-English approach to teaching English as a second language.

7. Explain why socialization is described as “one of two primary purposes [along with academic instruction] of education.”

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Test Answer Key 3.1 Multiple Choice Questions 1. c 2. d 3. c 4. c 5. a 6. d 7. a 8. b 9. d 10. d 11. b 12. c 13. b 14. a 15. c 16. d 17. c 18. b 19. c 20. a 21. d 22. a 23. a 24. b 25. c 26. a 27. b 28. d 29. c 30. a

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31. c 32. c 33. a 34. b 35. d 3.2 True/False Questions 1. True 2. True 3. True 4. False 5. True 6. False 7. True 8. True 9. False 10. False 3.3 Short Answer Questions 1. It would be trite to suggest that we can love and accept all humans even if we find their actions to be deplorable. And, it would be morally wrong to accept the actions of people when they do physical or psychological harm to others. However, beyond those restraints, we should be able to accept the fact that people from different places with different life experiences than our own are different, and that difference does not suggest a hierarchy of moral or intellectual superiority. We should at least be able to get along with people who are different from us, as long as that difference is not about them harming others.

2. To promote pride in one's own cultural heritage and understanding of subcultures different from one's own, to foster positive attitudes toward cultural diversity, and to ensure equal educational opportunities for all students.

3. It presents particular challenges in assessment of abilities and disabilities, instruction, and socialization. In the area of assessment, special educators are concerned that traditional tests are biased and often useless: they do not take cultural diversity into account, they focus only on deficits in the individual, and they do not provide information useful in teaching. In the area of instruction, special educators are concerned with how to teach tolerance and appreciation of difference, how to work with families, improving instruction for language-minority students, and adopting effective teaching practices. In the area of socialization, teachers are concerned with improving students' understanding and acceptance of differences,

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helping students develop pride in the cultural identities, and managing classroom behavior in culturally sensitive ways.

4. Answers will vary, but will come from the following list: Screenings are quick measures to determine who needs further assessment. Diagnoses are measures to identify specific problems. Progress monitoring is use of frequent measures to help guide instruction. Evaluating outcomes focuses on determining the effectiveness of educational programming. Response to intervention examines the effectiveness of interventions and a student's response to those interventions. Curriculum-based measurement uses actual instructional materials and entails direct and frequent samples of performance from the curriculum. Standardized tests help determine a student's eligibility for services.

5. Accommodations are provided with the purpose of assessing student knowledge on an equal basis with students without disabilities and for whom English is the first language. They give these students an equal opportunity to demonstrate knowledge and skills. Accommodations include: administration modifications like extended time and small-group or individual administration; translation of tests to the student's native language; bilingual versions of tests; and use of an English dictionary.

6. In the native-language emphasis approach, all academic instruction is initially provided in each student's native language, and English is taught as a separate subject. When the student has demonstrated fluency in English, he or she makes the transition in instruction in English in all academic subjects. In the shelteredEnglish approach, all content-area instruction is in English from the beginning of the student's schooling but at a level that is “sheltered,” or constantly modified to make sure the student understands it.

7. Answers will vary. Socialization helps students understand the world and their interactions with others, and helps them learn how to work for desirable social change. It enables them to live harmoniously and productively in a culturally diverse world. This ensures a happier, safer life for us all

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Chapter 4 Test Item File Daniel P. Hallahan

Exceptional Learners: An Introduction to Special Education Fifteenth Edition Daniel P. Hallahan, University of Virginia Paige C. Pullen, University of Florida James M. Kauffman, University of Virginia prepared by Karen M. Cole, University of North Carolina Asheville

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Table of Contents

Chapter 4: Parents and Families........................................................................... 1 Learning Outcome Quizzes ................................................................... 1 Application Exercises ........................................................................... 14 Test Items ............................................................................................ 22 Test Answer Key .................................................................................. 30

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Chapter 4: Parents and Families Learning Outcome Quizzes Learning Outcome 4.1: Learn how nor families have evolved.

[Q1] Which of the following statements best describes the current thinking on the purpose of early intervention?

1. It provides an opportunity to support the natural parent-child relationship. [correct] 2. It provides an opportunity to train parents to teach their children effectively.

3. It provides an opportunity to teach therapeutic techniques to parents.

4. It provides an opportunity to support parents who may struggle with having a child with a disability.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] In the past, interactions with parents and family members were viewed as opportunities to “train” parents to assume quasi-professional roles with their children. The focus now is on developing and supporting family relationships.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] While parents may, as part of early intervention, learn strategies that enhance their child’s learning, the current view of early intervention focuses on supporting positive parent-child relationships.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Early intervention professionals have changed their stance over the years and now do not focus on teaching parents how to be quasi-therapists. Instead, they focus on supporting positive parent-child relationships.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] While early intervention actions may provide support to parents as they adjust to life with a child who has a disability, current beliefs about the purpose of early intervention reflect the intent to support positive parent-child relationships.

[Q2] Which of the following statements most accurately describes what knowledgeable professionals mean when they refer to the families of children with disabilities?

1. A child’s family consists of anyone who plays a role identical to or similar to those of family members. [correct] 2. A child’s family includes the parents, grandparents, and stepparents, since these are the people with the greatest responsibility to the child.

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3. A child’s family includes their parents, their siblings, and anyone else who lives with the child.

4. A child’s family includes blood relatives, doctors, and special education/early intervention professionals.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Family is now defined in a very broad sense and can include blood relatives, in-laws, stepparents, and close friends.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Membership in a family is not constrained by biological or marital relationships, nor is it limited only to people who are older than the child.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This definition is limited in that it does not capture other individuals who may play the role of a family member (e.g., close friends, people who care for but don ’t live with the child, grandparents).

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] While we sometimes hear that doctors and special educators are “like family,” they are not typically included when the question of a child’s family is considered.

[Q3] Which of the following statements would a current education professional be most likely to say about parents of children with disabilities?

1. Parents are often reluctant to take professionals’ advice about their children.

2. Parents can provide insights that are helpful as professionals provide services to the child. [correct] 3. Parents are usually unaware of their rights under IDEA 4. Parents are often the cause of their child’s disability.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] While some parents may be reluctant to take professional advice about their child, most professionals would focus on the ways parental information and insight can help identify needed services.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Professionals now recognize that parents have important information and insight about their children and that this information can help determine how best to meet the child ’s needs.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] While some parents undoubtedly are unaware of their rights under IDEA, this response does not reflect current broad thinking about the role parents play in serving students with disabilities.

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[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Considering the parents as a potential cause of a child ’s disability is unproductive and reflects limited understanding of the complexity of disability.

[Q4] Which of the following statements about interactions between parents and infants is true?

1. These relationships are unidirectional. A parent’s behavior affects a child’s behavior, but not vice versa.

2. These relationships are unidirectional. A child’s behavior can influence a parent’s behavior, but not vice versa.

3. These relationships are reciprocal. A parent’s behavior affects a child’s behavior and vice versa. [correct] 4. These relationships follow no particular pattern in terms of how interactions affect behavior.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This response reflects historical thinking about parent/child relationships and behavior.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This response fails to capture the reciprocal roles of parent and child relationships.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Historically, professionals focused exclusively on the way parental behavior influenced child behavior, but recently have determined that the direction of causation is a two-way street.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] In fact, parent behavior influences child behavior and vice versa.

[Q5] Which of the following statements about parental involvement in the education of students with disabilities is false?

1. Parents often feel undervalued or unheard in their children’s IEP meetings.

2. Parents must be invited to be involved in developing IEPs but not IFSPs. [correct] 3. Parents and teachers can both reinforce the child’s behavior or skills.

4. Parents of students from ethnic minorities often feel particularly disconnected from schools and special education professionals.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Unfortunately, this statement is true. Educators sometimes use jargon, don ’t explain things clearly, and don’t take time to understand the parents ’insights and opinions.

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[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Schools and other educational entities are required by law to reach out to the parents of a child with a disability and to invite them to participate in actions and decisions that affect their child, including both I EPs and IFSPs. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Strong parent-educator relationships can enhance positive outcomes for children with disabilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Unfortunately, this statement is true. Cultural differences related to parenting expectations, communication styles, and familiarity with the special educational system can lead to misunderstandings and feelings of alienation.

Learning Outcome 4.2: Learn about the effects of having a child with a disability on the family.

[Q1] Which of the following statements about how families view the experience of having a child with a disability is true?

1. Blended families are more likely than nuclear families to see having a child with a disability as a positive experience.

2. Single-parent families are more likely than dual-parent families to see having a child with a disability as a positive experience.

3. Larger families are more likely than smaller families to see having a child with a disability as a positive experience.

4. Latino families are more likely than Anglo families to see having a child with a disability as a positive experience. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Research indicates that Latino families are more likely to view having a child with a disability as a positive experience, perhaps because of their strong cultural emphasis on family and the strong social supports that strong family ties can provide.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Research indicates that Latino families are more likely to view having a child with a disability as a positive experience, perhaps because of their strong cultural emphasis on family and the strong social supports that strong family ties can provide.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Research indicates that Latino families are more likely to view having a child with a disability as a positive experience, perhaps because of their strong cultural emphasis on family and the strong social supports that strong family ties can provide.

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Members of the Latino culture often show a strong commitment to their families; strong family ties and available family supports may account for the more positive reactions of Latino families.

[Q2] The impact of having a child with a disability has been most closely likened to which of the following?

1. Religious conversions 2. Near-death experiences 3. Out-of-body experiences 4. Posttraumatic syndrome disorder [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] For many families, the birth of a child with a disability requires profound change and adaptation and has been likened to posttraumatic syndrome disorder (P TSD).

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] For many families, the birth of a child with a disability requires profound change and adaptation and has been likened to posttraumatic syndrome disorder (P TSD).

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] For many families, the birth of a child with a disability requires profound change and adaptation and has been likened to posttraumatic syndrome disorder (P TSD).

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] The birth of a child with a disability is, for many families, the catalyst for profound change, adaptation, and stress. Like P TSD, the experience can evoke feelings such as shock, fear, frustration, and anger.

[Q3] Roughly what percent of mothers of children with disabilities experience depression?

1. 15% 2. 30% [correct] 3. 50% 4. 70% [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] About 30% of mothers of children with disabilities experience depression.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] 70% of mothers do not experience depression as a result of the birth of a child with a disability.

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About 30% of mothers of children with disabilities experience depression.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] About 30% of mothers of children with disabilities experience depression.

[Q4] Which factors are the most predictive of how parents of children with disabilities will cope with stress?

1. Degree of wealth and quality/degree of informal support from others 2. Psychological makeup, marital happiness, and quality/degree of informal support from others [correct] 3. Marital happiness, general intelligence, level of education, and quality/degree of informal support from others 4. Size of family, degree of wealth, and quality/degree of informal support from others [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] While these factors may play a role in how parents of children with disabilities will cope with stress, they are not as predictive as psychological makeup, marital happiness, and quality/degree of informal support from others.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] These factors appear to be the most predictive of how parents will cope with stress.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] While these factors may play a role in how parents of children with disabilities will cope with stress, they are not as predictive as psychological makeup, marital happiness, and quality/degree of informal support from others.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] While these factors may play a role in how parents of children with disabilities will cope with stress, they are not as predictive as psychological makeup, marital happiness, and quality/degree of informal support from others.

[Q5] According to research, which of the following mothers is least likely to exhibit depression following the birth of a child with a disability?

1. Marta, whose partner Renaldo provides financial support and is actively involved in raising their child [correct] 2. Ornella, a single mother whose financial and housing situation are precarious 3. Denise, whose partner is a long-distance trucker and whose son has severe developmental disabilities 4. Ivy, a teacher’s aide whose child shows little response when interacting with caregivers 6 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Mothers with partners who are regularly involved in childcare activities and who provide financial support are less prone to developing depression after the birth of a child with a disability.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Mothers with partners who are regularly involved in childcare activities and who provide financial support are less prone to developing depression after the birth of a child with a disability.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Mothers with partners who are regularly involved in childcare activities and who provide financial support are less prone to developing depression after the birth of a child with a disability. Although Denise’s husband provides financial support, his long absences from home could negatively affect her mental health.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Mothers with partners who are regularly involved in childcare activities and provide financial support are less prone to developing depression after the birth of a child with a disability.

Learning Outcome 4.3: Understand Family Systems Theory, families ’involvement in social supports, interventions, behavioral supports, collaboration with school professionals, and parent advocacy.

[Q1] Which of the following statements regarding current family-centered models of early intervention is true?

1. Professionals are seen as working for the family. [correct] 2. Professionals have the expertise, so families are reliant on them to function.

3. Professionals make the decisions and assist families as they work with their children.

4. Professionals help families make their own decisions, but the families themselves identify and use formal and informal supports.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] A family-centered approach is collaborative and leads to positive outcomes for families.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This response reflects an outdated view.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] In current family-centered models, professionals not only support families as they make their own decisions but also mobilize resources and supports that will help families meet their goals.

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[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] In current family-centered models, professionals not only support families as they make their own decisions but also mobilize resources and supports that will help families meet their goals.

[Q2] Which of the following supports is least likely to be part of a wraparound service system?

1. Financial counseling services [correct] 2. Social welfare services 3. Juvenile justice services 4. Mental health services [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Services tend to focus on the specific needs of the family as they relate to serving the child. Financial counseling is typically beyond the scope of services provided.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Helping families access and navigate social services is a typical service in a wraparound system.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Helping families access and navigate the juvenile justice system is a typical service in a wraparound system.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Helping families access and navigate the mental healthcare system is a typical service in a wraparound system.

[Q3] Which of the following statements about the role of family characteristics is false?

1. Poverty or single-parent status can make families of children with disabilities particularly vulnerable to stress.

2. Families from diverse cultural groups vary in their approaches to interact with teachers and other professionals.

3. When parents have jobs with inflexible or difficult working conditions, their children are more likely to experience behavioral or emotional problems.

4. Families where a parent is in the military are less likely to experience stress because of the extensive support resources provided to them during a deployment. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Lack of resources and support contribute to family stress.

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[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Teachers and other professionals should be particularly aware that not everyone interacts or processes things the same way.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Employment circumstances can directly affect family stress. The more inflexible the work situation, the higher the potential for stress.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Stress in military families, particularly when the mother is the soldier, tends to be very high. Sadly, there are typically not adequate supports to mitigate the complications a deployment brings.

[Q4] Which of the following statements most accurately reflects the Turnbulls’ Family System Theory?

1. Healthy families have high degrees of acceptance and compassion.

2. Healthy families have moderate degrees of cohesion and adaptability. [correct] 3. Healthy families have low degrees of cohesion but high degrees of adaptability.

4. Healthy families have high degrees of acceptance and moderate degrees of adaptability.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] In general, families are healthier if they have moderate degrees of cohesion and adaptability.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Ideally, family members will strike the right balance between support and protectiveness, and they are neither too flexible nor too rigid.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Families are healthiest when they have moderate degrees of both cohesion and adaptability.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Healthy families tend to have moderate degrees of cohesion and adaptability.

[Q5] Mr. Turnbaugh is frustrated because Eloise’s parents are largely passive when it comes to their child’s education. In IEP meetings, they offer few ideas and defer to the educators and other professionals who are present. He comes to you to complain, saying that it’s a shame that Eloise’s parents aren’t more interested and involved. Which response would be the best to make in this situation?

1. “I agree with you. Eloise’s parents should be actively engaged with her education.”

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2. “Be glad that they’re not as involved; parents who are highly engaged with their children’s education are typically overbearing and demanding.”

3. “It’s important that we respect their choices with regard to how involved they are in Eloise’s education. [correct] 4. “They’re likely to disengage because they are angry or embarrassed that Eloise is eligible for special education services.”

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] While this response indicates something that most educators would like to see, it does not reflect the need for teachers to respect parental choices about how to participate in their child’s education.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] While some parents who are highly engaged may be overbearing or demanding, this is certainly not the case for all parents.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] It is important to remember that many factors and demands affect the level to which parents can or will engage with their children’s teachers and other educational professionals. Passivity doesn’t necessarily mean disinterest.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] While some parents do undoubtedly disengage because of their own emotions, that is certainly not the case in all situations. It is important to remember that many factors and demands affect the level to which parents can or will engage with their children ’s teachers and other educational professionals.

Learning Outcome 4.4: Learn about interventions for parents and families including behavioral parent training, mindfulness, and positive behavior support.

[Q1] All but which of the following statements accurately describe Behavioral Parent Training (BPT)?

1. BPT is an intervention that can reduce family stress.

2. In BPT, parents learn how to apply behavioral principles to manage their child ’s problematic behavior.

3. Modifying students’ problematic behavior in family activity settings is an important aspect of BPT. 4. BPT provides a detailed blueprint for how parents should intervene when their child’s behavior is problematic. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] BPT can help reduce the sorts of problematic behaviors that cause parents and families to be stressed out.

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[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Professionals teach behavioral principles and then work with parents to help them apply their new knowledge.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The focus is often on improving the child’s behavior in situations like mealtimes, parties and celebrations, and activities in the community.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] BPT relies on teaching parents to apply behavioral principles, but these principles are not presented in a one-size-fits-all manner.

[Q2] How does mindfulness training help reduce family stress?

1. It increases metabolism, deepens breathing, reduces muscle tension, and constricts blood vessels, all of which reduce stress. [correct] 2. It teaches family members to be mindful of events or situations that trigger their child’s problematic behavior.

3. It takes the place of religious traditions and faith-based approaches to stress reduction.

4. It teaches the entire family to gather and meditate or do yoga.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Mindfulness training can have positive physiological effects leading to reduced stress and anxiety.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Mindfulness training teaches family members to counteract their own fight or flight response, leading to reduced stress.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] There is no evidence that mindfulness training is intended or able to supplant any religious traditions or beliefs.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] While family meditation or yoga may be one way mindfulness is implemented, there are myriad other ways individuals, or family groups can use mindfulness to reduce stress.

[Q3] What is the basic premise behind the idea of positive behavioral supports (PSC)?

1. Parents and family members should only respond to their child’s problematic behavior if they can take a positive approach.

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2. Parents and family members should consider why a behavior is happening, and what is reinforcing it, then implement a positive approach to behavior change. [correct] 3. Parents and family members should maintain a peaceful atmosphere by ignoring their child’s problematic behaviors unless they are unsafe.

4. Parents and families should seek professional assistance from mental health practitioners so they can learn to manage behavior positively.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] While it is often preferable to approach problematic behavior from a positive stance, it will not always be possible to use P BS strategies.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] PBS helps parents and family members understand why a behavior is occurring and to respond in ways that are not coercive or punishing.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Sometimes ignoring problematic behavior is appropriate, but this is not always the case.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The implementation of P BS can, but does not have to, involve consultation with mental health or behavioral professionals.

[Q4] Which of the following statements about parent-teacher communication is false?

1. Parent communication should start early and should reflect recognition of positive student behaviors, not just negative ones.

2. Teachers should ask parents for information as well as provide information to them.

3. A teacher should only share negative feedback with parents if the teacher is confident they can do so diplomatically. [correct] 4. When communicating with a parent about their child, a teacher should make it clear that they see the child as a unique individual with particular strengths and areas of challenge.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] When parents hear positive feedback about their child’s behavior and accomplishments, they are more likely to respond favorably when a teacher contacts them to ask questions, or discuss issues.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Parents are more likely to engage positively with teachers if the teachers recognize the parents’ expertise with regard to their own child.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3]

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Diplomacy is an important and helpful skill when communicating with parents, but a teacher’s lack of confidence in their ability to be diplomatic isn’t a reason to avoid communicating important information, positive or negative, to parents.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Parents are much more likely to respond positively if they get the sense that the teacher is making a genuine attempt to consider their child as an individual.

[Q5] Which of the following statements about parent advocacy is false?

1. Parent advocacy does not need to be confrontational.

2. A common way for parents to advocate for their child is to be actively engaged in I E P meetings.

3. Teachers should encourage parent advocacy but respect parents’ right not to engage.

4. Parents do not have any legal recourse when it comes to advocating for their children. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Many parents successfully advocate for their students in ways that don ’t result in disputes.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] In IEP meetings, parents are encouraged to express their opinions and ideas about how to best meet their child’s needs.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Teachers should understand that not every parent will want to or be able to engage in advocacy on behalf of their child.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Family members can request a due process hearing if they are concerned about an unresolved issue regarding their child’s education.

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Application Exercises Application Exercise 4.1: What can we learn from families?

Learning Outcome 4.1: Learn how professionals' views of parents and families have evolved.

[Q1] Review the text section Professionals ’Changing Views of Parents and Families, where you read the following statement: “Professionals used to think that working with families of children with disabilities was a one-way street—professionals training parents to achieve a positive effect on their children. Now, however, the prevailing philosophy dictates that whenever possible, professionals should seek the special insights that parents can offer.” Review Pearson e-Text Video Example 4.2, where Kelly, a mother of an adult child with Down Syndrome, discusses her daughter's post-high school experiences. In particular, Kelly talks about the importance of selecting a job coach for Lauralee.

Question: How can teachers and others in the educational community use the information Kelly shared to help prepare other parents to select a job coach?

[Q1 Model Response] Kelly teaches us the importance of having a job coach before exiting the post-high program and that you should consider interview questions in advance. Kelly's thoroughness resulted in Lauralee's placement with a job coach and a job that was, above all, safe, as well as meaningful, for Lauralee. Kelly is particularly skilled in her advocacy. A special educator can help other parents benefit from Kelly’s advocacy in the following ways: 1. Explain the importance of identifying a job coach early in the transition process; 2. Work with the parents to identify their goals for the transition plan; and 3. Develop a set of questions to consider asking a potential job coach and share the questions with parents.

[Q2] Review the text section Professionals’Changing Views of Parents and Families and Pearson e-Text Video Example 4.2.

Question: Kelly addresses critical concerns for Lauralee as she transitions into the workforce. What can job coaches learn from Kelly?

[Q2 Model Response] The importance of talking with the family about the transition goals to integrate into a job setting cannot be understated. We learn from Kelly that her number one concern is Lauralee's safety. A job coach may be thinking that parents simply want their children to gain employment in a place where they can be successful and fulfilled. They may 14 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

inadvertently overlook the critical concerns of the parents if the parents are not included in the conversation. Job coaches should ask directly what goals the parent has for their child; the job coach should include the child in conversations about their goals as well.

[Q3] Review the text section Professionals ’Changing Views of Parents and Families and Pearson e-Text Video Example 4.2.

Question: Kelly has unique advocacy skills and as a result, her daughter, Lauralee, has experienced success that she may not otherwise have experienced. What characteristics and actions do you see in Kelly that have contributed to Lauralee’s success?

[Q3 Model Response] As a reflection question, answers may vary. Characteristics may include: 1. Kelly views Lauralee as capable and has high, but realistic expectations for her.

2. Kelly helps others realize that Lauralee is more like them than she is different.

3. Kelly knows what Lauralee needs and works collaboratively with teachers and other providers to secure appropriate services.

4. Unlike some parents of children with disabilities, Kelly is accepting of the disability and doesn’t seem to blame herself or others for the disability.

5. Despite being a mother of six, she is very active in Lauralee’s life but also allows her as much independence as possible.

Application Exercise 4.2: Providing Appropriate Supports to Parents Learning Outcome 4.3: Understand Family Systems Theory, families' involvement in social supports, interventions, behavioral supports, collaboration with school professionals, and parent advocacy.

[Q1] Read the text section Mindfulness Specifically for Parents of Children with Disabilities.

Then review Pearson e-Text Video Example 4.9, where a parent of a child with autism discusses some of the challenges she faces.

Question: Apply what you learned about mindfulness and positive behavior support systems and discuss how this system may be helpful to the parent in the video.

[Q1 Model Response] In the video, the parent describes the challenges she faces having a child with autism, particularly when the child has behavioral outbursts in public. Mindfulness has been shown to help parents of children with disabilities respond to challenging situations by regulating their reactions rather than reacting emotionally. Researchers have also found that combining mindfulness training with Positive Behavior Supports reduces the occurrence of problem behaviors. The parent in the video is experiencing stress 15 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

because of the child's behaviors, a lack of support from extended family, and negative or judgmental reactions from the public. Because the combination of Mindfulness and PBS has been found effective for parents of children with autism, it would be reasonable to suggest this intervention for the parent.

[Q2] Read the text section Mindfulness Specifically for Parents of Children with Disabilities.

Then review Pearson e-Text Video Example 4.9, where a parent of a child with autism faces challenges from a lack of family and community support. Consider your role as a special education teacher. What supports could you, with the help of your school, provide to parents? [Hint: View the links and resources at the end of the chapter.]

[Q2 Model Response] The parent in the video describes how other parents and the school community are her primary resources for support. Special educators and schools can provide parents with information about the community resources available. For example, receiving simple one-page information sheets listing local resources (e.g., support groups and Internet resources) may be helpful to parents. Given that the school is a primary source of support, school personnel could consider holding sessions that allow parents to connect. Additionally, parents may benefit from resources regarding mindfulness.

[Q3] Read the text section Mindfulness Specifically for Parents of Children with Disabilities.

Then review Pearson e-Text Video Example 4.9. What could you tell this parent about mindfulness as a way to cope with her stress?

[Q3 Model Response] •

Mindfulness often includes meditation and has roots in Buddhism.

•

One of its first applications in Western society was introduced by a cardiologist who found it to have benefits on blood pressure.

•

Mindfulness is the opposite of the “fight or flight response.”

•

Mindfulness is now accepted as an effective practice in much of Western medicine, in fact, courses in it exist in some medical schools.

•

Researchers are now finding it effective for parents of children with A SD, ADHD, and profound disabilities.

•

With respect to the parent in Pearson e-Text Video example 4.9 and her grocery store story, it helps regulate one’s reactions rather than automatically emotionally responding to children’s annoying behavior. The mother is already practicing some of the mindfulness strategies.

•

Research is now showing that a combination of mindfulness and PBS can be effective for parents and their children with ASD. Specifically, a study found

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mindfulness and PBS each effective, but a combination of the two was most effective.

Application Exercise 4.3: Enhancing communication between parents and professionals Learning Outcome 4.4. Learn about interventions for parents and families, including behavioral parent training, mindfulness, and positive behavior support.

[Q1] Read the text section Communication between Parents and Professionals and review Table 4.1. Then read the scenario and answer the question.

Scenario: Brookhaven Elementary School serves a population of about 400 students; a small minority of students speak a language other than English at home. Among the staff, there is firm resolve to communicate transparently and effectively with all students’ parents and guardians. At the start of each school year, students and parents receive an email invitation to attend Meet the Teacher Night. During these sessions, teachers and administrators welcome the children and engage them in a fun activity while their parents meet with the teachers. The teachers provide information to parents and go over it; they also have parents complete a survey that asks them about their goals for their child and anything the parents think the teachers should know. Parents who are unable to attend Meet the Teacher Night receive the information in a packet sent home with their child.

The school has set up a website for each teacher/class; these websites are used to make announcements, describe what students are learning, and post homework assignments. The teachers are expected to maintain their websites, updating them at least three times a week. The teachers also use a classroom management app that notifies parents in real time when their child is recognized for their behavior, positive or negative. When a student’s learning or behavior is a concern, the teacher calls the parent to discuss the situation and ask for their input.

Parents who have particular knowledge or skill in an area students are studying are often invited to school to lead lessons or help with projects; at other times, all parents are invited to the school for lunch or to watch a class or school-wide program.

Because of the nature of their jobs, the special education teachers at Brookhaven, in particular, are in frequent contact with the parents of the children they serve. In addition to notifying each student’s parents by email when it’s time to set up a meeting or if there is a concern, they use scheduling software that will text parents to remind them of the upcoming appointment and follow up with a satisfaction survey once the meeting has been held. Appointments are offered at a range of times throughout the day, including before school starts and after students have been dismissed to go home. Meetings are held in a comfortable space in the school building.

The teachers at Brookhaven have appointed a delegate to attend the meetings of the school’s parent-teacher association (P TA). The assistant principal also leads a teacher committee that specifically considers parent issues that have arisen and works to develop solutions to problems and challenges.

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Question: Given what you know about effective communication between parents and professionals, describe some things the school is doing well.

[Q1 Model Response] 1. The school is parent-friendly. Parents are welcomed in a variety of ways. Their knowledge and expertise about their children is valued and their input is solicited.

2. The school makes information accessible to parents, not just about their children’s behavior, but also about what they’re studying and the activities in which they are engaged.

3. The websites serve as homework hubs so parents can monitor their child ’s progress on assignment completion.

4. Appointments are offered at various times throughout the day in order to accommodate parents’ schedules.

5. The classroom management app allows parents to get an idea of how their child ’s day is going and how well or poorly they are behaving in class.

6. A delegate attends P TA meetings and there is a committee that specifically addresses issues raised by parents.

[Q2] Read the text section Communication between Parents and Professionals and review Table 4.1. Then read the scenario and answer the question.

Scenario: Brookhaven Elementary School serves a population of about 400 students; a small minority of students speak a language other than English at home. Among the staff, there is firm resolve to communicate transparently and effectively with all students’ parents and guardians. At the start of each school year, students and parents receive an email invitation to attend Meet the Teacher Night. During these sessions, teachers and administrators welcome the children and engage them in a fun activity while their parents meet with the teachers. The teachers provide information to parents and go over it; they also have parents complete a survey that asks them about their goals for their child and anything the parents think the teachers should know. Parents who are unable to attend Meet the Teacher Night receive the information in a packet sent home with their child.

The school has set up a website for each teacher/class; these websites are used to make announcements, describe what students are learning, and post homework assignments. The teachers are expected to maintain their websites, updating them at least three times a week. The teachers also use a classroom management app that notifies parents in real time when their child is recognized for their behavior, positive or negative. When a student’s learning or behavior is a concern, the teacher calls the parent to discuss the situation and ask for their input.

Parents who have particular knowledge or skill in an area students are studying are often invited to school to lead lessons or help with projects; at other times, all parents are invited to the school for lunch or to watch a class or school-wide program.

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Because of the nature of their jobs, the special education teachers at Brookhaven, in particular, are in frequent contact with the parents of the children they serve. In addition to notifying each student’s parents by email when it’s time to set up a meeting or if there is a concern, they use scheduling software that will text parents to remind them of the upcoming appointment and follow up with a satisfaction survey once the meeting has been held. Appointments are offered at a range of times throughout the day, including before school starts and after students have been dismissed to go home. Meetings are held in a comfortable space in the school building.

The teachers at Brookhaven have appointed a delegate to attend the meetings of the school’s parent-teacher association (P TA). The assistant principal also leads a teacher committee that specifically considers parent issues that have arisen and works to develop solutions to problems and challenges.

Question: Given what you know about effective communication between parents and professionals, how could the school improve?

[Q2 Model Response] 1. The school isn’t making much provision for parents who do not have access to computers and cell phones. Some parents are no doubt missing out on important information because it is not offered in multiple modalities. The parent survey could ask what parents’ preferred communication mode is and the school could respond by committing to communicating via phone, paper, video conference, etc.

2. There should be an alternative way to schedule meetings with the special education teachers; again, lack of access to technology may limit some parents’ ability to set up appointments. Appointments could be held virtually if the school uses programs that allow electronic signatures.

3. There is no specific mention of making information accessible to parents and family members who speak a language other than English or who have hearing impairments. The school could ensure that print materials are translated and that there are people or technologies present at meetings to facilitate interpretation.

4. Parents who are unable to attend Meet the Teacher Night do not receive a verbal overview of the information. Providing a virtual option would be a good idea, or, if time and available personnel allow, following up with these parents by email or phone would be a good idea.

5. The scenario mentions that teachers call parents when there is a problem with student behavior; parents would undoubtedly appreciate phone calls that share positive information about their children. This action builds community and reassures parents that their child is seen holistically, not just as a student with a disability or a student with learning/behavior problems.

6. Parents whose schedules don’t allow them to participate in activities during the school day would likely appreciate the opportunity to engage in ways that are responsive to their time demands. The school could provide programming at varied times rather than just during the school day; further, parents who can’t come to the building during the day can be asked to help with school-related activities during 19 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

their available time (e.g., creating materials, locating informational resources).

Videoconferencing is also a way of allowing parents to engage with their children’s educational experience; even if they can’t leave work, they could potentially attend virtually during breaks or on their lunch hours.

7. The assistant principal’s committee should invite one or more parent representatives to join.

[Q3] Read the text section Communication between Parents and Professionals and review Table 4.1. Then read the scenario and answer the question.

Scenario: Brookhaven Elementary School serves a population of about 400 students; a small minority of students speak a language other than English at home. Among the staff, there is firm resolve to communicate transparently and effectively with all students’ parents and guardians. At the start of each school year, students and parents receive an email invitation to attend Meet the Teacher Night. During these sessions, teachers and administrators welcome the children and engage them in a fun activity while their parents meet with the teachers. The teachers provide information to parents and go over it; they also have parents complete a survey that asks them about their goals for their child and anything the parents think the teachers should know. Parents who are unable to attend Meet the Teacher Night receive the information in a packet sent home with their child.

The school has set up a website for each teacher/class; these websites are used to make announcements, describe what students are learning, and post homework assignments. The teachers are expected to maintain their websites, updating them at least three times a week. The teachers also use a classroom management app that notifies parents in real time when their child is recognized for their behavior, positive or negative. When a student’s learning or behavior is a concern, the teacher calls the parent to discuss the situation and ask for their input.

Parents who have particular knowledge or skill in an area students are studying are often invited to school to lead lessons or help with projects; at other times, all parents are invited to the school for lunch or to watch a class or school-wide program.

Because of the nature of their jobs, the special education teachers at Brookhaven, in particular, are in frequent contact with the parents of the children they serve. In addition to notifying each student’s parents by email when it’s time to set up a meeting or if there is a concern, they use scheduling software that will text parents to remind them of the upcoming appointment and follow up with a satisfaction survey once the meeting has been held. Appointments are offered at a range of times throughout the day, including before school starts and after students have been dismissed to go home. Meetings are held in a comfortable space in the school building.

The teachers at Brookhaven have appointed a delegate to attend the meetings of the school’s parent-teacher association (P TA). The assistant principal also leads a teacher committee that specifically considers parent issues that have arisen and works to develop solutions to problems and challenges.

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Question: What are your top three take-aways from this content? What will be important for you to do when you become a teacher?

[Q3 Response] Answers may vary, but could include some of these elements: •

Be welcoming. Consider what actions on your part will facilitate positive relationships and communications.

•

Arrange for multiple ways of communicating with parents. Make information accessible in multiple modes and languages.

•

Communicate positive news about students, not just negative news.

•

Be flexible with scheduling to accommodate parents’ time constraints.

•

Give parents a voice in addressing concerns at both the individual and school level.

•

Recognize parents’ expertise regarding their children.

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Test Items 4.1 Multiple-Choice Questions 1. In the not-too-distant past, many professionals tended to believe that parents of children with disabilities were a. virtually faultless with respect to their child's problems. b. to blame for many of their child's problems. c. unable to adapt to reality unless they had processed the strong emotions associated with having a child with a disability. d. prone to struggle to cope if the child with the disability was the first-born child.

2. Which one of the following best describes current views on the direction of causation between child and adult behavior? a. one-way street: adult behavior causes child behavior b. one-way street: child behavior causes adult behavior c. two-way street: behavior is reciprocal d. dead end: having a child with a disability results in frustration and unhappiness for both parents and child 3. Unlike in the past, many professionals now view early intervention as an opportunity to a. train parents to be effective therapists. b. teach parents how to teach their child. c. support the natural parent–child relationship. d. provide counseling for parents.

4. An IFSP refers to an a. informal family service plan. b. individualized family service plan. c. initial family service program. d. interchangeable family service program.

5. According to one survey, what percentage of families reported that one or more family members adjusted their employment situation upon having a child with a disability in the family? a. about 5% b. less than 10% c. about 20% d. over 50% 22 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

6. Which of the following is not a reason stage theories of parental reaction to having a child with a disability have been questioned? a. many parents do not engage in denial b. parents do not go through stages in an identical and predictable way c. parents are often the first to suspect a problem d. only the parents of children with moderate to severe disabilities experience changes in emotions 7. The high prevalence of feelings of guilt for parents who have a child with a disability is probably due to a. the fact that the cause of so many disabilities is unknown. b. parents' knowledge that they caused their child's disability. c. strangers' stares and comments. d. the lack of support for families of children with disabilities.

8. When dealing with the public, one of the most difficult things that parents are likely to face is a. the inappropriate responses of their children to others. b. the poor report cards they may get from school. c. feeling guilty because they might be receiving special treatment, such as special education services. d. inappropriate responses of others to their children with disabilities.

9. In dealing with the feelings of a child with a disability, parents should a. respond honestly to specific questions asked by the child. b. assure them that they are no different from others and their disability doesn't matter. c. speak about their disability in general rather than specific ways. d. wait until the child is an adolescent so they are better able to understand.

10. Which of the following statements about parental adjustment and stress is false? a. There is abundant evidence that parents of children with disabilities undergo more than the average amount of stress. b. Mothers of children with disabilities are at an increased risk of experiencing depression. c. The more severe the disability, the greater the stress. d. Parents who were happily married before the birth of a child with a disability have a better chance of coping well with the situation.

11. In families where a child has a disability, parental stress is usually the result of

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a. daily burdens related to child care. b. the child's medical involvement. c. demands placed on the family by the school system. d. catastrophic events.

12. Which one of the following is regarded by some parents as a positive effect of having a child with a disability? a. entitles the family to financial benefits b. causes family members to be more tolerant of others c. reduces parents' concerns about social issues d. puts an end to unstable marital relationships 13. Evidence suggests that Latino families are more likely than Anglo families to view having a child with a disability as a positive experience because of a. resignation to the fact that bad things happen in life. b. their religious views. c. the importance of the family and the social supports it provides. d. the importance of following advice from authority figures.

14. Families that exhibit resiliency after having a child with a disability are characterized by all of the following, except a. they learn from negative experiences. b. they like to take things as they come rather than attempting to establish routines. c. they take advantage of social supports. d. they balance the needs of the family and the needs of the child.

15. Young siblings of a child with a disability are likely to a. have the opposite reaction to the sibling than their parents do. b. deny that the child with a disability is different. c. avoid seeking information from others about the disability. d. have an equally or even more difficult time coping with their feelings than their parents do.

16. Charla and Michael have three children, one of whom has a disability. Several professionals work for them, encouraging the family to make its own decisions and get professional and informal support. This approach to intervention is consistent with which model? a. professional-centered b. family-centered c. center-based 24 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

d. ideologically-driven 17. Wraparound service refers to a. a system of using educational services and community services to meet the needs of children and their families. b. a delivery model in which one service provider (e.g., psychological or speech services) takes the lead in coordinating all services. c. services that are provided individually rather than in coordinated fashion. d. services where providers alternate in leading service coordination.

18. Family systems theory a. emphasizes behavioral principles, such as reinforcement and punishment. b. emphasizes understanding interactions among family members. c. emphasizes that family functioning follows the same systemic behavioral interactions no matter the age of the child. d. is outdated because it ignores multicultural factors.

19. Which of the following statements about the U.S. military is false? a. More low-income women are joining the service than ever before. b. The military is the largest employer of single parents. c. More than 80% of service people are married with children. d. The military provides a flexible workplace for single parents.

20. The degree to which an individual family member is free to act independently of other family members is a. acceptance. b. adaptability. c. cohesion. d. compassion.

21. The degree to which families are able to change their modes of interaction when they encounter unusual or stressful situations refers to a. acceptance. b. cohesion. c. adaptability. d. compassion.

22. Which of the following behaviors is not typically associated with mindful parenting? a. ignoring the child’s strong emotions b. regulating one’s own emotional reactions 25 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

c. recognizing and accepting negative feelings d. working to minimize the detrimental effects of negative feelings 23. Which of the following is the most likely reason that some parents are passively involved in educational decision making on behalf of their children? a. They do not value education. b. They are neglectful. c. They are balancing other important commitments. d. They have little to contribute.

24. A life-cycle perspective on the impact on the family of having a child with a disability a. emphasizes that if the family has not accepted the child by adolescence, it is doubtful that they ever will. b. draws on psychoanalytic principles for its foundation. c. has failed largely because it has ignored multicultural values. d. considers how the impact changes over time.

25. Families of a child with a disability tend to experience the most stress during a. infancy to age five. b. adolescence. c. transitions between life cycle stages. d. adulthood.

26. One person having the authority, granted by the courts, to make decisions for another person is a. wardenship. b. guardianship. c. proxy. d. paternalism.

27. Transitions between stages in the life of a child with disabilities are difficult because a. the next stage always brings on overwhelming challenges. b. parents tend to think the next stage will lead to resolutions to many of their current problems. c. parents of children with disabilities tend to be in denial about the fact that their child is getting older. d. each new phase presents uncertainty to the family.

28. Social support includes each of the following except a. emotional support.

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b. support from professionals. c. support from neighbors. d. support from family members.

29. A frequent complaint made by parents about communication with teachers is that a. they are not notified about meetings until the last minute. b. teachers interrupt them at work to ask questions about their child's routine. c. they only hear from school personnel when their child has misbehaved. d. teachers do not treat information about their child sensitively and confidentially.

30. Parent–teacher conferences can benefit the teacher primarily because a. the teacher can learn more about the student from the parents' viewpoint. b. conferences are easier to arrange than other forms of communication. c. conferences provide an opportunity for the teacher to visit the home. d. the teacher does not have to be as diplomatic as in written communication.

31. Which area is often a source of misunderstanding and conflict for the home–school relationship, especially for students with disabilities? a. tests b. homework c. extracurricular activities d. recess 32. The key to a successful parent–teacher conference is a. maintaining an air of confidence. b. ensuring that the parents are confident in the teacher’s level of knowledge. c. letting the parents lead the discussion. d. planning and being prepared.

33. Ms. Chico, a sixth-grade teacher, arranges a parent–teacher conference with Mr. and Mrs. Yuba to discuss a problem she is having with their son Brett, who has learning disabilities. Most authorities would recommend that Ms. Chico a. describe positive things about Brett along with any concerns she has. b. end the conference by summarizing Brett's deficit areas. c. start with business first rather than informal social conversation. d. use technical language so that the Yubas will view her as a professional.

34. The primary purpose of a home-note program from one of the child's teachers is to a. let the teacher know what is going on at home.

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b. enable parents to provide reinforcement for behavior at school. c. allow parents to communicate with all the professionals who deal with their child. d. document, for legal purposes, communication that has occurred between home and school.

35. Under IDEA, one form of advocacy to which parents are entitled is a. weekly meetings. b. reciprocity. c. due process. d. parent training.

4.2 True/False Questions 1. A primary goal of early intervention is to train parents to work in a therapeutic role with their child.

2. Parents of children with disabilities generally go through a series of emotional reactions in a predictable and sequential fashion.

3. In general, families and teachers have a symbiotic relationship.

4. Family stress is typically most influenced by the severity of the child's disability.

5. There are numerous anecdotal accounts of parents who report that having a child with a disability has some positive results.

6. The feelings that siblings experience about a child with a disability are quite different from their parents' feelings.

7. Parents often feel vulnerable to criticism from others about how they parent their child with disabilities.

8. An IFSP specifies which services the family needs to enhance the child’s development.

9. Mindfulness practices can help parents’ feelings of well-being and result in positive behavioral changes in their children.

10. When fathers of children with disabilities engage in child-care activities, mothers are more likely to experience depression.

4.3 Short Answer Questions 1. Discuss the theory that the direction of causation between child and adult behavior is a two-way street.

2. Describe the symbiotic relationship between teachers and parents, providing two examples of the importance of families to teachers and two of the importance of teachers to families.

3. What issues are related to parental reactions to having a child with a disability, and what factors appear to be most predictive of how couples will cope with the stress 28 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

associated with having a child with a disability? In your response, address the role of stages in parental reactions.

4. Describe the family systems approach to intervention.

5. Discuss the advantages and (possible) disadvantages of three home–school communication strategies: Parent–teacher conferences, home-note program, and traveling notebooks.

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Test Answer Key 4.1 Multiple Choice Questions 1. b 2. c 3. c 4. b 5. d 6. d 7. a 8. d 9. a 10. c 11. a 12. b 13. c 14. b 15. d 16. b 17. a 18. b 19. d 20. c 21. c 22. a 23. c 24. d 25. c 26. b 27. d 28. b 29. c 30. a 30 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

31. b 32. d 33. a 34. b 35. c 4.2 True/False Questions 1. False 2. False 3. True 4. False 5. True 6. False 7. True 8. True 9. True 10. False 4.3 Short Answer Questions 1. Sometimes the parent changes the behavior of the child or infant; sometimes the reverse is true. With regard to children with disabilities, some researchers point out that, even as infants some possess difficult temperaments, which influence how parents respond to them. For example, an infant with a disability may be relatively unresponsive to stimulation from their parents, making it more difficult to interact with them (i.e., if the infant does not respond and reinforce the parents attempts at interaction, the parents will likely stop trying to interact as much). Understanding this reciprocal parent–child interaction, we are more likely to sympathize with the anger and frustration that may be exhibited by parents toward their children.

2. Professionals have recognized the potentially positive influence of family in the educational process. They know that parents may have as much, or more, to offer than professionals regarding suggestions for the treatment of their children. Answers will vary to include examples of this symbiotic relationship in Table 4.1.

3. Some parents may go through a series of stages, but not necessarily in a particular order, after learning they have a child with a disability (such as shock, denial, sadness, anxiety, anger, and adaptation). They often feel guilty, as though they were responsible. They can feel vulnerable to criticism from and treatment by the public.

They face the difficult task of talking with their children about the disability. Prior psychological makeup and marital happiness, and the degree of informal support they receive from others affect their ability to cope with stress.

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4. The family systems approach emphasizes the individual's behavior being understood in the context of the family and the family's behavior being understood in the context of other social systems. It assumes that the more treatment and educational programs take into account the relationships and interactions among family members, the more likely they will be successful. A model developed specifically with persons with disabilities in mind includes four components: family characteristics, family interaction, family functions, and family life cycle. Family characteristics provide basic information related to the family and help determine how family members interact with themselves and with others outside the family.

Family interaction examines the variety of functional and dysfunctional ways that family members relate to one another. In general, families are healthier if they have moderate degrees of cohesion (the degree to which an individual family member is free to act independently of other family members) and adaptability (the degree to which families are able to change their modes of interaction when they encounter unusual or stressful situations). Family functions are the numerous routines in which families engage to meet their many and diverse needs, and education is only one of many functions in which families are immersed. Family life cycle addresses how the impact of a child with a disability on the family changes over time, considering four distinct stages in the lives of families (early childhood, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood) and the transitions between those stages, which can be particularly stressful because of the uncertainty that each new stage presents.

5. Parent–teacher conferences can be an effective way for teachers and parents to share information about a student. However, conferences require careful planning and good person-to-person communication skills. They may be difficult to schedule at times that work for both parents (or even one). Home-note programs can be a good way of communicating on an ongoing basis and involving the parent(s) by having them reinforce behavior that occurs at school. Parents usually have a greater number of reinforcers at their disposal than do teachers. The system requires a great deal of close communication between teachers and parents and philosophical agreement with the behavioral approach of using reinforcement to shape behavior.

Traveling notebooks are less formal than home-notes and are especially useful with students who see multiple professionals. It goes back and forth between home and school so everyone can share information, observations, and ideas. It is only as useful as participants are willing to make it. Care must be taken that it does not get misplaced.

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Chapter 5 Test Item File Daniel P.Hallahan

Exceptional Learners: An Introduction to Special Education Fifteenth Edition Daniel P. Hallahan, University of Virginia Paige C. Pullen, University of Florida James M. Kauffman, University of Virginia Prepared by Karen M. Cole, University of North Carolina Asheville

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Table of Contents

Chapter 5: Learners with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities .............. 1 Learning Outcome Quizzes ................................................................... 1 Application Exercises ........................................................................... 16 Test Items ............................................................................................ 20 Test Answer Key .................................................................................. 28

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Chapter 5: Learners with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Learning Outcome Quizzes Learning Outcome 5.1: Understand why the term intellectual disabilities is used rather than mental retardation, how professionals define intellectual disabilities, and the prevalence of intellectual disabilities.

[Q1] All but which of the following statements describe individuals with issues in the area of adaptive behavior?

1. Ava’s IQ score on the WISC-IV is more than two standard deviations below the mean. [correct] 2. Darius has difficulty knowing which combination of bills and coins are needed when he’s paying for something.

3. Anil’s mother has to take him to his job because he keeps taking the wrong subway line.

4. Zelda often gives money to anyone who asks for it, even if she doesn’t know them.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Adaptive behavior is separate from intellectual functioning, which is most often represented by IQ scores. A person with limitations in adaptive behavior would have difficulty navigating problem-solving situations in their day-to-day lives.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Darius is exhibiting a limitation in what many authorities consider to be practical intelligence, an aspect of adaptive behavior.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Having difficulty navigating problem-solving situations in everyday life is an example of a limitation in adaptive behavior, particularly with regard to practical intelligence.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Zelda is showing a limitation in social behavior, which is one element of adaptive behavior.

[Q2] All but which of the following statements describe a reason that the prevalence rate for students with intellectual disabilities is lower than would be expected by statistical analysis?

1. More schools are considering both adaptive behavior and intellectual functioning before identifying a student as having an intellectual disability.

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2. Through genetic mapping, scientists and medical professionals have been able to eliminate intellectual disabilities. [correct] 3. Students with IQs in the 70s are more frequently identified as having learning disabilities.

4. Individuals that might have been diagnosed with an intellectual disability are now frequently identified with autism spectrum disorder (A SD).

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] When schools consider both intelligence and adaptive behavior, fewer students are identified as having intellectual disabilities.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Scientists are making progress with determining the roles of genes and chromosomes, but they have not eliminated intellectual disabilities altogether.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] In general, the term learning disability is less stigmatizing than intellectual disability.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Recent increases in autism awareness mean that many students who formerly would have been identified with intellectual disabilities are identified as having A SD instead.

[Q3] Which one of the following statements about human genome mapping projects is false?

1. Genetic mapping may eventually allow scientists to prevent some types of intellectual disabilities.

2. Some people argue that a focus on preventing intellectual disabilities devalues people who have them.

3. People generally agree that using genetic mapping to prevent intellectual disabilities is a moral and ethical imperative. [correct] 4. There are moral and ethical considerations about renouncing the use of genetic information to prevent disabilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] There are potential scientific breakthroughs on the horizon that may allow scientists and medical professionals to more readily diagnose, treat, and prevent intellectual disabilities and autism.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] They argue that in trying to eliminate intellectual disabilities, we send a message that people who have them are less worthy of existence.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3]

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There is significant controversy over the moral and ethical implications of using genetic mapping to reduce or eliminate disabilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Although some argue that genetic information should not be used, others argue that if scientists can eliminate severe or profound disabilities, particularly those that cause pain or self-injurious behavior, it is a moral and an ethical imperative to do so.

[Q4] With regard to the terminology used to describe people with significant limitations in both intelligence and adaptive behavior, which of the following statements is false?

1. Some people argue that the term mental retardation should be replaced because the word mental is often used to refer to emotions, as in the term mental illness.

2. In many instances, the federal government has legally required the term mental retardation to be replaced with intellectual disability.

3. Terms like idiot, imbecile, and moron were once used clinically to reflect varying levels of intellectual disability.

4. The AAIDD’s decision to change the label mental retardation to intellectual disability was almost universally accepted as an effective means of reducing stigma. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This statement is true. People assert that the term intellectual disability is preferable because it reduces the likelihood that a person with a disability will be assumed to have a mental illness.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement is true. In fact, the term mental retardation is only used in three states.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement is true. These terms were used to reflect variations in the severity of intellectual disabilities.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Some argued that while the term retard is widely accepted as a slur, mental retardation does not have the same pejorative impact.

[Q5] According to current estimates, what is the prevalence rate for students identified with intellectual disabilities?

1. 5% 2. 3.5% 3. 2.27% 4. 1% [correct] 3 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] About 1% of students are identified as having intellectual disabilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] About 1% of students are identified as having intellectual disabilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Statistically, we would expect the prevalence rate to be about 2.27%, but in reality, about 1% of students are identified as having intellectual disabilities.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] The number of students identified with intellectual disabilities is smaller than one would expect based on a normal curve.

Learning Outcome 5.2: Learn the causes of intellectual disabilities.

[Q1] Through the Human Genome Project and the ENCODE Project, we can now identify the causes of about what percent of intellectual disabilities?

1. 2.27% 2. 15% 3. 25% 4. 50% [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] We can identify the causes of about 50% of intellectual disabilities; the other 50% are ones for which we can’t pinpoint a cause.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] We can identify the causes of about 50% of intellectual disabilities; the other 50% are ones for which we can’t pinpoint a cause.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] We can identify the causes of about 50% of intellectual disabilities; the other 50% are ones for which we can’t pinpoint a cause.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Not all intellectual disabilities are genetic in nature, nor are all traceable to biological causes.

[Q2] Claudia is a third grader with intellectual disabilities. She has thick epicanthal folds in the corner of her eyes, small stature, decreased muscle tone, speckling of the iris of the eye, a small oral cavity, and short, broad hands with a single palmar crease. Of which disability are these characteristics most typical?

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1. Down syndrome [correct] 2. Fetal alcohol syndrome 3. Fragile X syndrome 4. Prader-Willi syndrome [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Individuals with Down syndrome, which is caused by a chromosomal abnormality, also often have heart defects and are prone to upper respiratory infections.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] These characteristics are classic signs of Down syndrome.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] These characteristics are classic signs of Down syndrome.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] These characteristics are classic signs of Down syndrome.

[Q3] Prenatal causes of intellectual disabilities include all but which of the following?

1. Inborn errors of metabolism 2. Anoxia [correct] 3. Environmental influences 4. Chromosomal abnormalities [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Inborn errors of metabolism like phenylketonuria are prenatal causes of intellectual disabilities.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Anoxia (deprivation of oxygen during birth) is a perinatal cause of intellectual disabilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Maternal malnutrition and/or alcohol use, among other causes, can result, prenatally, in intellectual disabilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Chromosomal abnormalities occur during fetal development and result in conditions like Down syndrome, Prader-Willi syndrome, and Williams syndrome.

[Q4] Which of the following statements about postnatal causes of intellectual disabilities is false?

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1. Dizygotic twins are at higher risk of intellectual disabilities than monozygotic twins. [correct] 2. Exposure to lead can result in intellectual disabilities.

3. Children whose postnatal environment is under stimulating are at risk of developing intellectual disabilities.

4. Children born to teenage mothers with less than 12 years of education are at increased risk for mild and moderate intellectual disabilities.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] The degree of similarity with regard to mild intellectual disabilities is higher in identical (monozygotic) twins than in fraternal (dizygotic) twins.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Consumption of lead, which is often found in old paint, can cause intellectual disabilities; high levels can result in death.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Children who do not have stimulating adult–child interactions are at higher risk for intellectual disabilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This statement is true. The age and educational level of single mothers correlates with the development of intellectual disabilities.

[Q5] Alzheimer’s disease has been linked to which cause of intellectual disabilities?

1. Down syndrome [correct] 2. Fragile X syndrome 3. Hydrocephalus 4. Fetal alcohol syndrome [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] More and more evidence is accumulating that Down syndrome and Alzheimer’s disease share similarities in brain abnormalities. For example, virtually all people with Down syndrome at the age of 35 have brain abnormalities very similar to those of persons with Alzheimer’s disease. Researchers are optimistic about uncovering the genetic underpinnings of both conditions.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The brains of people with Alzheimer’s and people with Down syndrome share similar abnormalities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The brains of people with Alzheimer’s and people with Down syndrome share similar 6 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

abnormalities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The brains of people with Alzheimer’s and people with Down syndrome share similar abnormalities.

Learning Outcome 5.3: Learn about assessments used to identify intellectual disabilities and some of the psychological and behavioral characteristics of learners with intellectual disabilities.

[Q1] Joe, a 15-year-old boy, performs about as well on an intelligence test as an average sixyear-old. Using the calculation described in the text, what would we estimate his I Q to be?

1. About 25 2. About 40 [correct] 3. About 65 4. About 90 [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Roughly, one divides the age at which Joe scored, often referred to as Mental Age (i.e., 6) by his Chronological Age (i.e., 15) and multiplies by 100. 6 divided by 15 = 0.40  100 = 40.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] While not all IQ tests call for this method of calculation, it does give a rough approximation of a person's I Q score.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Roughly, one divides the age at which Joe scored, often referred to as Mental Age (i.e., 6) by his Chronological Age (i.e., 15) and multiplies by 100. 6 divided by 15 = 0.40  100 = 40.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Roughly, one divides the age at which Joe scored, often referred to as Mental Age (i.e., 6) by his Chronological Age (i.e., 15) and multiplies by 100. 6 divided by 15 = 0.40  100 = 40.

[Q2] How is adaptive behavior typically assessed?

1. Parents, teachers, and/or professionals answer questions about the student’s behavior across a wide range of activities. [correct] 2. A psychologist observes the student in the classroom and makes anecdotal observations.

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3. A psychometrician asks the student to perform a series of tasks.

4. An examiner asks the student to describe how he or she would solve a series of real-life scenarios.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Interviews are the most typical way of assessing adaptive behavior.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Observation in the classroom can be important, but does not provide information about adaptive behavior in other environments. Interviews with people who know the child typically provide more robust information.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Determining a student’s ability to complete a series of tasks can be part of an adaptive behavior assessment, but by itself, this would provide limited information. Interviews with people who know the child typically provide more robust information.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Asking a student to engage in active problem-solving can be part of an assessment, but by itself provides limited information. Interviews with people who know the child typically provide more robust information.

[Q3] Which of the following characteristics would you least expect an individual with an intellectual disability to display?

1. Challenges with working memory 2. Challenges with physical agility [correct] 3. Challenges with self-regulation 4. Challenges with mental health [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Individuals with intellectual disabilities often struggle to keep information in mind while simultaneously doing another cognitive task.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Although some individuals with intellectual disabilities may also have challenges with their physical agility, they are more likely to face challenges related to working memory, self-regulation, and mental health.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Individuals with intellectual disabilities often struggle with self-regulation and metacognition.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Unfortunately, there is a higher prevalence of psychiatric disorders among people with 8 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

intellectual disabilities.

[Q4] Which behavior has been most closely associated with litigation at the Supreme Court level?

1. Metacognition 2. Self-regulation 3. Gullibility [correct] 4. Social anxiety and withdrawal [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] People with intellectual disabilities are prone to gullibility, which often leads to negative outcomes for them (e.g., making false confessions, being tricked into committing crimes, being scammed).

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] People with intellectual disabilities are prone to gullibility, which often leads to negative outcomes for them (e.g., making false confessions, being tricked into committing crimes, being scammed).

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] In 2002, the Supreme Court ruled against the death penalty for persons with intellectual disabilities, in part because the Court recognized that gulliability is a common trait that often leads to poor outcomes.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] People with intellectual disabilities are prone to gullibility, which often leads to negative outcomes for them (e.g., making false confessions, being tricked into committing crimes, being scammed).

[Q5] Research about behavioral phenotypes asserts all but which of the following?

1. People who share a genetic syndrome tend to share certain patterns of behavior.

2. Individuals with Down syndrome typically have significant impairments in language and grammar.

3. People with Williams syndrome typically have difficulty connecting and communicating with other people. [correct] 4. Individuals with Fragile X syndrome are prone to repetitive speech patterns.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] It is common for certain behavioral traits to be shared by individuals who share a certain type of disability.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] 9 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

This statement is true. While individuals with Down syndrome are typically stronger in visual-spatial skills and visual memory, they often have a relative weakness in receptive and expressive language.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] In fact, people with Williams syndrome are relatively strong in their ability to tell stories, imitate emotional responses, and modulate their voices.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] People with Fragile X syndrome tend to exhibit repetitive speech patterns; they often also have difficulty with short-term memory and sequential processing.

Learning Outcome 5.4: Understand some of the educational considerations for people with intellectual disabilities and how professionals assess progress in academics and adaptive behavior.

[Q1] According to research, which of the following outcomes most accurately describes what happens when students receive positive reinforcement for correct responses?

1. They exhibit more behavior problems because they bypass punishment.

2. Their intrinsic motivation is reduced.

3. They learn at a faster rate. [correct] 4. They become dependent on reinforcement.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Punishment is unlikely to enhance student learning. Research tells us that students who are positively reinforced for correct responses learn faster.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] While some educators are concerned that extrinsic reinforcement may undermine student motivation, research tells us that students who are positively reinforced for correct responses learn faster.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] For students with intellectual disabilities, in particular, the more immediate the reinforcement, the more effective it is.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] While some educators are concerned that students will become dependent on extrinsic reinforcement, research tells us that students who are positively reinforced for correct responses learn faster.

[Q2] What is meant by the term explicit instruction?

1. Teaching foundational skills before teaching more advanced behaviors 10 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

2. Monitoring student performance and using that information to make changes to instruction 3. Being as direct, clear, and precise as possible when teaching [correct] 4. Selecting well-defined target behaviors [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Teaching foundational skills before teaching more advanced ones is a facet of systematic instruction.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Monitoring student performance and using that information to make changes to instruction is a facet of systematic instruction.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] When paired with systematic instruction, direct instruction leads to more robust student outcomes.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Selecting well-defined target behaviors is a facet of systematic instruction.

[Q3] Which of the following examples most clearly illustrates the idea of functional academics?

1. Josie is in the general education classroom for lunch and read-aloud time.

2. Braden reads a recipe, so he can make brownies. [correct] 3. Patrice is placed in a self-contained classroom with other students with intellectual disabilities.

4. Mei Lin’s adaptive behavior is assessed using a test in her native language.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Josie’s placement may reflect access to the general education classroom, but it doesn’t reflect a focus on functional academics.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Practicing reading in the context of everyday life skills is a good example of functional academics.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] A self-contained placement may or may not focus on functional academics, which blend academics and daily living skills.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Functional academics blend academic instruction with instruction in daily living skills.

[Q4] 11 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Which of the following statements about service delivery models for students with disabilities is false?

1. Classwide peer tutoring has been shown to be an effective technique for integrating students with intellectual disabilities into the general education classroom.

2. Prior to PL 94-142, schools could refuse to serve students with intellectual disabilities.

3. Putting a student with an intellectual disability in a residential school can be an appropriate placement.

4. Almost 60% of students with intellectual disabilities are served in the regular classroom for 80% or more of the class day. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] CWPT involves the use of peers to provide instruction and feedback in reciprocal format and has been shown to be effective in inclusive settings.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Only at the passing of PL 94-142 were schools required to serve all students regardless of disability.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Depending on the individual student’s needs, placements can range from spending full days in the general education classroom to being served in a residential facility.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Only about 17% of students with intellectual disabilities are served in the regular classroom for the majority of the school day.

[Q5] Some students with intellectual disabilities are eligible for alternate assessments. Which of the following is not an example of an alternative assessment?

1. Direct observation of specific behaviors 2. A rating scale of a student’s functional literacy 3. A curriculum-based assessment 4. Increased time to take a standardized test [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Alternative assessments are typically used with students who participate in a life skills or vocational skills curriculum. Direct observation is one type of alternative assessment.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The use of a rating scale to assess a student’s functional literacy skills is one type of alternative assessment.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] 12 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Using curriculum-based measures rather than standardized assessments is a form of alternative assessment.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] The provision of extra time is a testing accommodation rather than an alternative assessment. In this case, the student is taking the same standardized test as their typical same-age peers.

Learning Outcome 5.5: Learn about issues that should be considered with respect to early intervention and transition to adulthood for learners with intellectual disabilities.

[Q1] Which of the following is the most compelling rationale for serving children at risk for mild intellectual disabilities in early intervention programs?

1. To prevent intellectual disabilities [correct] 2. To improve parents’ teaching skills 3. To provide parents with training that allows them to work in special education classrooms 4. To improve the quality of the child’s health care [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Research has found that most programs for infants and preschoolers, particularly those programs focused on families in poverty, have been found to be highly effective for children and parents alike.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The biggest benefit of early intervention programs for infants and preschoolers is that they can help prevent intellectual disabilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The biggest benefit of early intervention programs for infants and preschoolers is that they can help prevent intellectual disabilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The biggest benefit of early intervention programs for infants and preschoolers is that they can help prevent intellectual disabilities.

[Q2] When should instruction focused on transition to adulthood for students with intellectual disabilities begin?

1. In preschool 2. In elementary school [correct] 3. At the beginning of high school

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4. When a student shows interest in setting employment goals [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Preschool is too early to begin focusing on transition to adulthood; with infants and toddlers, it’s more appropriate to focus on fundamental skills.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Although it’s common for schools to focus on transitions only as students near high school, experts recommend that transition programming begin in elementary school.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] It’s common for transition planning to begin when students reach secondary school, but because adult goals are relatively complex, it’s better to lay a foundation in elementary school for transition to adulthood.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Waiting for the first signs of interest runs the risk of delaying too long in transition planning. A better plan is to begin the process during elementary school.

[Q3] Which of the following individuals is demonstrating a domestic skill as opposed to a community skill?

1. Chloe can make her own doctor’s appointment.

2. Britt can take the bus to the grocery store and buy what he needs.

3. Martel can do his own laundry. [correct] 4. Dymond volunteers at an animal rescue.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Procuring health care is considered a community skill.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Shopping and using public transportation are considered community skills.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Domestic skills also include cooking, managing a budget, and washing dishes.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Volunteering is a community skill.

[Q4] Which of the following skills is least likely to be included in a student’s transition plan?

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4. Learning how to make friends [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Skills that allow students to live independently often receive high priority in transition plans.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Skills that allow students to live independently often receive high priority in transition plans.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Skills that allow students to secure employment often receive high priority in transition plans.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] The other skills here relate directly to helping the student become as independent as possible; while socialization might receive some emphasis in a transition plan, procedurally oriented skills are more commonly included.

[Q5] Which of the following employment models is most likely to involve job coaching for an individual working at a place where most of the workers do not have disabilities?

1. Sheltered workshop 2. Customized employment 3. Self-employment 4. Supported competitive employment [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] At a sheltered workshop, individuals with intellectual disabilities receive training and work with other workers who have disabilities. Typically, the work involves relatively low skill demands.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] When workers with disabilities are employed, with the support of a job coach, alongside workers without disabilities, they are engaging in supported competitive employment.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] When workers with disabilities are employed, with the support of a job coach, alongside workers without disabilities, they are engaging in supported competitive employment.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Research seems to indicate that when well-implemented, supported competitive employment leads to better employment outcomes. This practice is in keeping with the philosophy of self-determination.

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Application Exercises Application Exercise 5.1: Considering Instructional Effectiveness Learning Outcome 5.4: Understand some of the educational considerations for people with intellectual disabilities and how professionals assess progress in academics and adaptive behavior.

[Q1] Review the section of the chapter called Educational Considerations and view Pearson e-Text Video Example 5.5. Then respond to the question below.

Question: What elements of explicit and systematic instruction did the teacher in the video implement in his lessons? Comment on the teacher’s effectiveness.

[Q1 Model Response] This teacher effectively implemented explicit, systematic instruction. In the video, it was clear that this teacher had a well-defined target behavior (students will give evidence to explain certain scenarios). His instruction was implemented consistently and with appropriate cues; each interaction involved clear communication (e.g., facts and questions) and he snapped his fingers to guide cadence and to encourage engagement.

He said “Ready?” frequently—another cue. The teacher monitored carefully to be sure that his students were paying attention, and when they weren't, he used a management strategy to refocus them on the task. He assisted the students as they learned by providing verbal prompts and repetition. When students provided incorrect answers, he restated the facts and then asked the question again, affirming them when they got it correct.

[Q2] Review the section of the chapter called Educational Considerations and view Pearson e-Text Video Example 5.5. Then respond to the question below.

Question: What impact did this lesson have on the students? How did they benefit from this way of teaching? Provide examples.

[Q2 Model Response] His students were able to use the structure of the lesson and the repetition it provided to practice answering cause and effect questions. He used the same format for each interaction, giving the students a structure that helped them understand the expectations. He acknowledged that the work was tough and affirmed them for doing a good job, both teacher behaviors serve as motivators for students. The teacher spoke slowly and clearly, repeating phrases and questions as necessary, which furthers students’ ability to listen and retain information. He told them very clearly what they should do (“You guys are going to tell me why she had a reading lamp in her room.”) so they knew what they were expected to accomplish. Students responded in unison, increasing their engagement and allowing them to use other students’ responses as cues. The students learned that it’s okay to make a mistake—when they got an answer 16 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

wrong, the teacher just went back over the fact and the question, then affirmed them when they got the right answer.

[Q3] Review the section of the chapter called Educational Considerations and view Pearson e-Text Video Example 5.5. Then respond to the question below.

Question: How did the teacher monitor his students’ performance and use the information to make changes?

[Q3 Model Response] The teacher’s use of positive reinforcement (students "taking points” to earn free minutes) and verbal praise indicate that he was paying attention to whether or not his students were focusing on the lesson. He consistently scanned the room to discern student engagement and understanding. When it seemed that a student’s mind might be wandering, he called the student’s name in a positive, inviting fashion; this action served to bring their attention back to the lesson. Further, as students recited their responses in unison, he monitored for accuracy. When he heard incorrect answers, he took the students back through the lesson content, restating the fact and then asking the question. The teacher moved on if all students got the correct answer; he repeated the question until all students were able to supply it. This behavior tells us that he is basing the lesson’s content, pace, and sequence on the students’ responses.

Application Exercise 5.2: Academic and Functional Skills Instruction Learning Outcome 5.4: Understand some of the educational considerations for people with intellectual disabilities and how professionals assess progress in academics and adaptive behavior.

[Q1] Review the section of the chapter called Functional Programming and view Pearson eText Video Example 5.6. Then respond to the question below.

Question: How does this teacher combine functional and academic skills in the lesson?

Provide examples of both skill types.

[Q1 Model Response] In having her students follow a recipe, this teacher reinforced both academic and functional skills. Academic skills addressed in the lesson included reading, sequencing, measurement, and vocabulary knowledge. Functional skills included identifying ingredients, using a blender, and engaging with others to accomplish a task. Teaching functional and academic skills simultaneously deepens students’ ability to understand and apply their new learning.

[Q2] Review the section of the chapter called Functional Programming and view Pearson eText Video Example 5.6. Then respond to the question below.

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Question: How did the teacher in the video set the students up for success? Provide evidence to support your thinking.

[Q2 Model Response] The teacher established clear behavioral expectations by having the students go over the rules they should follow during the lesson prior to beginning the activity itself.

Reminders like this can help prevent unproductive behavior as the lesson progresses.

The teacher also provided both text and picture cues for students, and she coached them on what they should do both when engaging with others (“show everybody your picture”) and as they follow the recipe (“read the next step”). She prompted the student which button to use on the blender without simply pointing to it and saying, “Push this button.” She affirmed students as they engage throughout the lesson.

[Q3] Review the section of the chapter called Functional Programming and view Pearson eText Video Example 5.6. Then respond to the question below.

Question: Reflect on the effectiveness of this lesson. What impact did it have on the students?

[Q3 Model Response] This lesson was effective because it taught academic and functional skills within the context of an activity that the students were motivated to do—making fruit smoothies.

Students benefited from this lesson by practicing their reading and vocabulary skills, working to follow directions, and interacting with others to accomplish a task.

Application Exercise 5.3: Classwide Peer Tutoring (CWPT) Learning Outcome 5.4: Understand some of the educational considerations for people with intellectual disabilities and how professionals assess progress in academics and adaptive behavior.

[Q1] Review the text feature called Responsive Instruction: Meeting the Needs of Students with Intellectual Disabilities and view Pearson e-Text Video Example 5.7, where a student with intellectual disabilities is paired with a student with no disabilities for the purpose of reviewing science vocabulary.

Question: Identify the elements of peer tutoring depicted in the video. Comment on the teacher’s effectiveness in planning and implementing this strategy.

[Q1 Model Response] The students were paired so that a student with a disability worked with a peer who did not have a disability. They engaged in reciprocal teaching—each partner took a turn quizzing the other over science vocabulary flashcards. Tutors provided feedback, affirming each other’s correct responses and saying, “Try again” when their tutee made a mistake. Students knew how to prompt each other and how to ask for help.

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Elements that demonstrate the teacher’s effectiveness in planning and implementing this strategy include the smoothness with which the student pair operated—clearly they were very familiar with the expectations for what they should do as they worked together. The teacher monitored closely and provided guidance, feedback, and encouragement. The students were highly engaged in the activity and knew what to do when they were confused or when their partner was confused, fostering a positive and supportive tone.

[Q2] Review the text feature called Responsive Instruction: Meeting the Needs of Students with Intellectual Disabilities and view Pearson e-Text Video Example 5.7, where a student with intellectual disabilities is paired with a student with no disabilities for the purpose of reviewing science vocabulary.

Question: Reflect on the effectiveness of this review session. What impact did it have on each student?

[Q2 Model Response] In this short session, students benefited from practice with multiple skills. They each reinforced their own content understandings by reading the words and definitions and by providing feedback to their partner. The students took turns assuming positions of leadership and responsibility, building their interpersonal skills and their self-confidence while also increasing their mastery of the content. Finally, working together as tutoring partners helped the students develop and sustain positive, collaborative relationships.

[Q3] Review the text feature called Responsive Instruction: Meeting the Needs of Students with Intellectual Disabilities and view Pearson e-Text Video Example 5.7, where a student with intellectual disabilities is paired with a student with no disabilities for the purpose of reviewing science vocabulary.

Question: Reflect on the impact of classwide peer tutoring. Is this a strategy you would likely use as a teacher? Why or why not?

[Q3 Model Response] Answers will vary but should include: I would be likely to use classwide peer tutoring when I’m a teacher because it’s an efficient and collaborative way to get students to learn content. The research tells us that CWPT can result in improved academic performance for all students and increased amounts of engaged academic time. Further, C WPT helps build positive relationships among students and with teachers, thus promoting acceptance and improving classroom climate. It is a high-engagement practice—each student has an active role to play in the reciprocal teaching, which means that students cannot sit passively and let the activity flow around them. C WPT is a versatile and effective strategy.

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Test Items 5.1 Multiple-Choice Questions 1. Professionals have become more cautious in diagnosing intellectual disabilities for all of the following reasons except a. the stigma associated with the label. b. the belief that intellectual disabilities are a socially constructed condition. c. overrepresentation of children from ethnic minority groups. d. increasing costs associated with special education.

2. The current emphasis on adaptive skills in defining intellectual disabilities is due to the a. influence of the learning disabilities movement. b. fact that many students function effectively despite having low I Q test scores. c. rise of the disability rights movement. d. joint efforts of parents of children with intellectual disabilities.

3. Adaptive behavior is typically thought to comprise a. social and practical intelligence. b. behaviors that cannot be effectively described. c. behavior in the classroom. d. flexibility and resilience.

4. According to the A AIDD, strategies and resources that a person requires to participate in activities associated with normative human functioning are a. scaffolds. b. normative skills. c. adaptive skills. d. supports.

5. The classification system that most school systems use to describe levels of intellectual disabilities is based on a. reading and math achievement levels. b. IQ score. c. the intensity of support needed. d. adaptive level.

6. According to the hypothetical "normal curve," approximately what percentage of the population is expected to have intellectual disabilities?

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a. 1% b. 1.27% c. 2.27% d. 5.27% 7. Current estimates indicate the prevalence of students receiving special education services who are identified as intellectually disabled/mentally retarded as a. less than 1%. b. about 2.5%. c. approximately 3.5% d. more than 5%.

8. In recent years, the percentage of cases in which the cause of intellectual disabilities is known has dramatically increased due to a. better assessment practices by teachers. b. the mapping of the human genetic code. c. better assessment practices by family physicians. d. advances in microscopic technology.

9. A common way to categorize causes of intellectual disabilities is to consider the a. part of the brain affected. b. location at which the cause occurs. c. severity of the condition. d. time at which the cause occurs.

10. Claudia is a third grader with intellectual disabilities. She has thick epicanthal folds in the corners of her eyes, small stature, decreased muscle tone, speckling of the iris of the eye, a small oral cavity, and short, broad hands with a single palmar crease.

These characteristics are typical of a. cultural-familial intellectual disabilities. b. Down syndrome. c. fetal alcohol syndrome. d. Fragile X syndrome.

11. Alzheimer's disease has been linked to which cause of intellectual disabilities? a. neurofibromatosis b. Down syndrome c. phenylketonuria (P KU) d. hydrocephalus 21 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

12. Each of the following diagnostic techniques is done prenatally except a. amniocentesis. b. chorionic villus sampling. c. phenylketonuria (P KU) screening. d. nuchal translucency sonogram.

13. Fragile X syndrome occurs most often in a. females. b. twins. c. first-born offspring. d. males.

14. The most commonly known hereditary cause of intellectual disabilities is a. Fragile X syndrome. b. Down syndrome. c. Williams syndrome. d. Prader-Willi syndrome.

15. Jose has intellectual disabilities. As an infant, he was lethargic and had difficulty eating; however, at about one year of age he became obsessed with food. This is characteristic of a. Down syndrome. b. Williams syndrome. c. Fragile X syndrome. d. Prader-Willi syndrome.

16. A surgically placed shunt that drains excess fluid away from the brain is used to treat a. microcephalus. b. encephalitis. c. meningitis. d. hydrocephalus.

17. Fetal alcohol syndrome is classified as resulting from a(n) a. environmental influence. b. infection. c. genetic factor. d. chromosomal abnormality.

18. Each of the following are possible perinatal causes of intellectual disabilities except 22 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

a. rubella. b. syphilis. c. anoxia. d. low birth weight.

19. An infection of the covering of the brain that may be caused by a variety of bacterial and viral agents is a. syphilis. b. flu. c. meningitis. d. spina bifida.

20. Which one of the following statements about intelligence tests is true? a. An individual's I Q score does not change from one testing to another. b. All IQ tests are culturally biased to a certain extent. c. The older the child, the less validity and reliability the test has. d. IQ tests are an absolute determinant for assessing a person's ability to function in society.

21. How is adaptive behavior typically assessed? a. A psychologist observes the student in the classroom. b. The student is asked to perform a series of academic tasks. c. A parent, teacher, or professional answers questions related to the student's behavior. d. The student fills out a behavior rating form.

22. The ability to keep information in mind while simultaneously doing another task is a. working memory. b. passive memory. c. long-term memory. d. active memory.

23. A person's awareness of what strategies are needed to perform a task, the ability to plan how to use the strategies, and the evaluation of how well the strategies are working is a. metacognition. b. self-regulation. c. working memory. d. perception.

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24. Which of the following best reflects the idea of providing testing accommodations for a student with an intellectual disability? a. Minka is excused from taking standardized tests because of her moderate intellectual disability. b. Hazel takes her end-of-grade test over several days rather than in one sitting. c. Brett receives a test in large print. d. Avery’s teacher relies on classroom observations instead of testing when assessing Avery’s progress.

25. Mario tends to believe whatever he is told, even highly questionable statements or claims, despite any evidence. This tendency is called a. self-deception. b. gullibility. c. unreasonable trust. d. learned helplessness.

26. A specific and characteristic behavior repertoire associated with a genetic or chromosomal disorder is a a. genetic syndrome. b. personality characteristic. c. behavioral phenotype. d. behavioral genotype.

27. In functional academics, academics are taught in the context of a. daily living skills. b. test-taking, such as the S ATs. c. the general education curriculum. d. the common core state standards.

28. Research has consistently shown that students who are positively reinforced for correct responses a. learn at the same rate as when they are not reinforced. b. are susceptible to a "rebound effect," whereby punishment is ineffective. c. learn at a faster rate than when they are not reinforced. d. are highly likely to become dependent on reinforcement.

29. Research on classwide peer tutoring (C WPT) to help meet the instructional needs of students with mild intellectual disabilities in inclusive settings shows that, compared to teacher-led instruction, CWPT resulted in each of the following except a. increased academic performance for all students.

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b. increased amount of engaged academic time. c. increased instances of unproductive or inappropriate behavior. d. positive acceptance from the teachers and students.

30. Effective programs for transitioning students with intellectual disabilities to adulthood a. use direct instruction and cooperative learning. b. focus on community adjustment and employment. c. always involve behavior modification. d. focus on mastering the general education curriculum.

31. Most professionals agree that programming for transition to adulthood for students with intellectual disabilities should begin a. at birth. b. during the elementary years. c. when students express interest in a vocation. d. when the student enters high school.

32. The term used to describe the ability to act autonomously, be self-regulated, act in a psychologically empowered and self-realized manner is a. self-determination. b. self-reliance. c. self-consciousness. d. self-promotion.

33. Which of the following examples best represents the idea of functional academics? a. Hongru learns about solid and liquid measurement while following a recipe. b. Ava follows the standard curriculum except for in math, where she is functioning far below her grade-level peers. c. Mason’s curriculum consists predominately of art and music classes because he excels in those areas. d. Elena learns to ride the bus from her house to a friend’s house.

34. Which of the following statements about sheltered workshops is false? a. There is little, if any, integration with workers who are not disabled. b. They usually offer repetitive work and limited job-training experiences. c. They are run by business people to make a profit. d. Clients are often paid very low wages.

35. The success that community residential facilities (C RF) have has been shown to depend heavily on 25 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

a. where the facility is located geographically. b. whether individuals with disabilities live in their own home or in an apartment. c. the skills and dedication of the staff. d. whether or not they are closely monitored by an outside agency to ensure client safety.

5.2 True/False Questions 1. Virtually all people with intellectual disabilities have limitations in language comprehension and production.

2. If a person achieves a low score on an I Q test, this means that his or her adaptive skills are below average.

3. Down syndrome is usually an inherited condition.

4. The tendency for people with intellectual disabilities to be gullible has resulted in the wrongful conviction of many.

5. People with Prader-Willi syndrome typically inherit it from their fathers.

6. The COVID-19 pandemic disproportionately affected people with intellectual disabilities.

7. Authorities believe that few cases of mild intellectual disabilities are caused by specific genetic syndromes.

8. IQ is generally considered the single best index of how well a person will do in school.

9. A particular protein may be the key to the rapid onset of Alzheimer’s disease in people with Down syndrome.

10. Most researchers agree that it is important to teach students with severe intellectual disabilities how to read and write.

5.3 Short Answer Questions 1. Explain why the major professional organization for people with significant cognitive or intellectual disabilities changed its name from the American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR) to the American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD).

2. Describe what is meant by the phrase, "intellectual disability is a socially constructed condition."

3. Distinguish between intelligence and adaptive behavior, giving examples of tasks that are representative of each. Why is adaptive behavior included in the definition of mental retardation?

4. Discuss the difference in expected prevalence rates for intellectual disabilities (based on the hypothetical normal curve of intelligence) and the actual prevalence figures.

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5. Identify and describe three environmental causes of intellectual disabilities.

6. Write a scenario illustrating the kinds of social problems a person with an intellectual disability is likely to have.

7. What is self-determination? Describe the four components of self-determination.

8. Discuss three advantages of supported competitive employment over sheltered workshops for individuals with intellectual disabilities.

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Test Answer Key 5.1 Multiple Choice Questions 1. d 2. b 3. a 4. d 5. b 6. c 7. a 8. b 9. c 10. b 11. b 12. c 13. d 14. a 15. d 16. d 17. a 18. a 19. c 20. b 21. c 22. a 23. a 24. b 25. b 26. c 27. a 28. c 29. c 30. b 28 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

31. b 32. a 33. a 34. c 35. c 5.2 True/False Questions 1. True 2. False 3. False 4. True 5. False 6. True 7. False 8. True 9. True 10. False 5.3 Short Answer Questions 1. Students should describe the history of labels being used pejoratively, note the fact that "disability" has become a term used worldwide, and point out that the term "intellectual" is more accurate than "mental," given that "mental" is associated with emotions rather than intellect. Students might also make reference to the campaign to end the r-word.

2. Intellectual disability may not be a trait residing in the individual but a product of the interaction between a person and his or her environment. Before the inclusion of "adaptive skills" in the definition of intellectual disabilities, many more individuals were classified as having intellectual disabilities based on their scores on intelligence tests alone. So, many individuals who had once been "intellectually disabled" no longer are. In countries where reading and technology are not as important as our own, "mild" intellectual disabilities may not even exist.

3. Intellectual functioning refers primarily to ability related to academic performance (e.g., academic achievement tests scores in school), while adaptive behavior refers to abilities related to coping with one's environment (e.g., using public transportation to shop). Professionals recognized that I Q tests are far from perfect and that a person might score poorly on I Q tests but still be "streetwise" and that adaptive skills are an important indicator of a person's overall successful functioning in society.

Some definitions of intelligence even include the ability to act independently and manage daily living activities.

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4. The lower prevalence figures are probably due to school personnel considering adaptive behavior or a broader definition of intelligence in addition to an I Q score to diagnose intellectual disabilities. In cases where I Q scores are in the 70s, many teachers and parents are more likely to favor a label of "learning disabilities" rather than "intellectual disabilities" because it may be perceived as less stigmatizing.

Further, many more students who might at one time have been identified as having intellectual disabilities are now being identified as having autism spectrum disorder.

5. Answers will vary: maternal malnutrition, maternal drug use (including alcohol and tobacco), hazards of radiation, and infections in the expectant mother (such as rubella). Children raised under poor environmental circumstances are at risk for intellectual disabilities (under-stimulating environment).

6. Examples should illustrate: difficulties striking up social interactions with others; exhibiting behaviors that put their peers off (inattention and disruptive behavior); and gullibility.

7. It is the ability to make personal choices, to regulate one's life, and to be a selfadvocate. It involves autonomy (acting independently, according to one's own preference), self-regulation (deciding on strategies to use and monitoring one's own performance), psychological empowerment (a belief that one has control over circumstances and the ability to achieve desired outcomes), and self-realization (a reasonably accurate knowledge of one's self, strengths, and weaknesses).

8. It pays at least minimum wage (compared to some options where sub-minimum wage is allowed). It places people with intellectual disabilities in integrated settings where most of the workers do not have disabilities (principle of normalization). It provides ongoing assistance from a job coach to help ensure success. It is more in keeping with the philosophy of self-determination than other options. Workers with intellectual disabilities have reported higher job satisfaction with this option. It is more cost-effective for society.

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Chapter 6 Test Item File Daniel P. Hallahan

Exceptional Learners: An Introduction to Special Education Fifteenth Edition Daniel P. Hallahan, University of Virginia Paige C. Pullen, University of Florida James M. Kauffman, University of Virginia Prepared by Karen M. Cole, University of North Carolina Asheville

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Table of Contents Chapter 6: Learners with Learning Disabilities ................................................... 1 Learning Outcome Quizzes ................................................................... 1 Application Exercises ........................................................................... 16 Test Items ............................................................................................ 21 Test Answer Key .................................................................................. 30

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Chapter 6: Learners with Learning Disabilities Learning Outcome Quizzes Learning Outcome 6.1: Learn the definition of learning disabilities; how to identify learning disabilities; and the prevalence of learning disabilities and the difference in prevalence between sexes.

[Q1] The federal definition of the term learning disability includes all but which of the following stipulations?

1. A learning disability involves one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding written or spoken language.

2. Students with learning disabilities may have difficulty with listening, thinking, speaking, reading, writing, spelling, or doing math calculations.

3. Learning disabilities can include conditions such as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia.

4. Learning disabilities include learning problems resulting primarily from visual, hearing, or motor limitations. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This stipulation is included in the federal definition of the term learning disability.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This stipulation is included in the federal definition of the term learning disability.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This stipulation is included in the federal definition of the term learning disability.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Learning disabilities also cannot result primarily from mental retardation (the term still used in the federal definition), emotional disturbance, or environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage.

[Q2] The National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities (NJCLD) made all but which of the following criticisms of the federal definition of the term learning disability?

1. The federal definition should not include the ability to do math calculations as one of the “basic psychological processes involved in understanding or using language.” [correct] 2. The federal definition includes no reference to central nervous system dysfunction.

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3. The federal definition does not make clear that learning disabilities are lifelong conditions.

4. The federal definition is vague about whether an individual could have both a learning disability and an intellectual or other disability.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Calculation requires an understanding of the language and processes of mathematics, so it makes sense for math to be included in the phrasing. The APA definition includes academic problems mathematical reasoning and number sense.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2]

The NJCLD definition presumes that learning disabilities result from dysfunction of the central nervous system, but the federal definition does not acknowledge that presumption.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The NJCLD definition points out that learning disabilities may occur across the lifespan, but the federal definition does not acknowledge that information.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The NJCLD definition points out that learning disabilities may occur concomitantly with other handicapping conditions.

[Q3] Initially, most students with learning disabilities were identified using which criterion?

1. Whether or not the student struggled in one area (like math) but not in another (like reading) 2. Whether or not there was a severe discrepancy between achievement and intellectual ability [correct] 3. Whether or not the student’s teacher(s) found the student’s development to be atypical as compared to their same-age peers 4. Whether or not the student responded to research-based instruction as delivered in an RTI model

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] While students with learning disabilities often do struggle in one area while achieving at more typical levels in others, the initial criterion used to identify a learning disability was a severe discrepancy between achievement and intellectual ability.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] The IQ-achievement discrepancy model is problematic in several ways, including the fact that for many children, the discrepancy between achievement and intelligence is not evident until they have experienced a long period of failure in school. The time spent waiting for the gap to be “wide enough” is time during which needed special education services could have been provided.

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[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] While teacher input is important as children are evaluated, the initial criterion used to identify a learning disability was a severe discrepancy between achievement and intellectual ability.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] RTI is a more recent alternative for identifying students with learning disabilities. The initial criterion was the IQ-achievement discrepancy.

[Q4] All but which of the following cautions have been raised about using RTI as a means of identifying students with learning disabilities?

1. RTI often fails to identify students in the early elementary grades. [correct] 2. There is little large-scale research about the effectiveness of using RTI as a model for identification.

3. Most of what we know about RTI focuses on reading.

4. Some students are caught in a cycle where they respond well to Tier 2 instruction, are returned to Tier 1, and then are referred back to Tier 2.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Most RTI is implemented in the early elementary grades, so schools may miss students whose academic struggles become obvious when the required skills become more complex in third, fourth, or fifth grade.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement is true.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement is true.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This statement is true.

[Q5] Which of the following statements about the prevalence of learning disabilities is false?

1. White students and students of color are identified with learning disabilities at roughly equivalent rates. [correct] 2. Students with specific learning disabilities make up the largest group served in special education.

3. In recent years, the number of students identified with specific learning disabilities has decreased.

4. About twice as many boys as girls are identified as having learning disabilities.

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[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Like with other areas of disability, students of color are disproportionately identified as having specific learning disabilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] One possible explanation for the large number of identified students is that teachers may be reluctant to entertain the possibility that their own teaching practices might be at fault.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] RTI may be a factor in the reduction in the number of students identified with learning disabilities, as might a conscious effort on the part of schools to be more conservative about applying that designation to students.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Referral bias may be one explanation for the disproportionate representation of boys in the SLD category.

Learning Outcome 6.2: Identify the causes of learning disabilities.

[Q1] Through the use of CAT scans, MRIs, PET scans, and Event-Related Potentials (ERP s), researchers have identified which of the following as being the most likely cause of learning disabilities?

1. Structural and functional differences in the brain [correct] 2. Injury to the parts of the brain that support learning and memory 3. Poor nutrition during early childhood 4. Environmental toxins [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Structural differences refer to characteristics like the sizes of different areas of the brain, while functional differences refer to differences in brain activity.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2]

Brain injury can result in a learning disability, but these specific tests have resulted in the understanding that the most likely cause of learning disabilities is differences in the structure and function of the brain.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Poor nutrition could contribute to the development of a learning disability, but these specific tests have resulted in the understanding that the most likely cause of learning disabilities is differences in the structure and function of the brain.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4]

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While environmental toxins can result in learning disabilities, these specific tests have resulted in the understanding that the most likely cause of learning disabilities is differences in the structure and function of the brain.

[Q2] Findings from neuroimaging studies have been relatively consistent in identifying which of the following as the part of the brain most likely to show structural differences in people with dyslexia?

1. The amygdala 2. The left temporal lobe [correct]

3. The angular gyrus 4. The prefrontal cortex [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Findings from neuroimaging studies have been relatively consistent in identifying structural and/or functional differences in the left temporal lobe and areas around it in persons with dyslexia.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Individuals with dyslexia do not use the typical regions of the brain for language processing, instead using other regions.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Findings from neuroimaging studies have been relatively consistent in identifying structural and/or functional differences in the left temporal lobe and areas around it in persons with dyslexia.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Findings from neuroimaging studies have been relatively consistent in identifying structural and/or functional differences in the left temporal lobe and areas around it in persons with dyslexia.

[Q3] Which of the following toxins is most likely to be a causal factor in learning disabilities?

1. Fluoride 2. Pesticide 3. Lead [correct] 4. Biotoxins [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Lead is the toxin most likely to cause learning disabilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2]

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Lead is the toxin most likely to cause learning disabilities.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Lead can be present in water, air, food, and surfaces painted with lead-based paint.

Before lead paint was banned, young children were susceptible to lead poisoning via ingestion from walls and toys.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Lead is the toxin most likely to cause learning disabilities.

[Q4]

Which of the following statements about learning disabilities is true?

1. They dramatically improve when students reach adulthood.

2. A parent with a learning disability is no more likely than any other parent to have a child with a learning disability.

3. Geneticists have identified the gene primarily responsible for causing learning disabilities.

4. Girls may be identified as having learning disabilities less frequently than boys because boys are more likely to exhibit behaviors that bother teachers. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This statement is false. Learning disabilities persist through adulthood.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement is false. Learning disabilities tend to run in families.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] While genes undoubtedly play a role, geneticists almost universally agree that no single gene causes learning disabilities.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Referral bias may be responsible for the fact that more boys than girls are identified as having learning disabilities.

Learning Outcome 6.3: Learn about the psychological and behavioral characteristics of learners with learning disabilities.

[Q1] Hamida, Max, and Alia are sixth-grade students with learning disabilities. Which of the following statements best illustrates the idea of intraindividual differences?

1. Alia is achieving at seventh-grade level in math but reads at a third-grade level. [correct] 2. Hamida struggles with reading, Max struggles with math computation, and Alia struggles with written expression.

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3. Max’s IQ is significantly higher than Hamida’s.

4. Hamida and Max are both inattentive much of the time.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Intraindividual variation means that students with learning disabilities have uneven profiles, often achieving significantly better in one area than in another.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Differences between or among children reflect interindividual variability.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3]

Differences between or among children reflect interindividual variability.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Differences between or among children reflect interindividual variability.

[Q2] Shakeel has a learning disability in reading and struggles specifically with the ability to blend and segment the sounds in spoken (not written) words. Which of the following terms best describes the area in which Shakeel struggles?

1. Phonemic awareness [correct] 2. Phonological awareness

3. Decoding 4. Fluency [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Phonemic awareness is the understanding that spoken words can be broken down into individual sounds and that sounds can be blended together to form spoken words.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Phonological awareness is an understanding that speech can be broken into smaller units of sound (e.g., words, syllables, onset-rime). Phonemic awareness is one aspect of phonological awareness and focuses on breaking spoken words into their individual sounds or blending sounds to make spoken words.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Decoding is the ability to convert printed words to spoken sounds and is highly dependent on phonemic awareness.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Fluency is the ability to read effortlessly and smoothly.

[Q3] Which one of the following situations best illustrates a student having difficulty in metacognition?

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1. Oscar doesn’t know the difference between the sounds made by the letters m and n.

2. Joelle does not self-correct reading errors, even when what she’s reading doesn’t make sense. [correct] 3. Simon is unable to work multistep problems in math.

4. Terrence can’t produce a word that rhymes with a spoken word.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Metacognition involves being able to think about and actively control our own thinking.

Failing to distinguish between letter sounds does not reflect metacognitive difficulty.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Metacognition involves being able to think about and actively control our own thinking.

Metacognitive readers are constantly asking themselves if what they read made sense and going back to reread if the answer is no.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Metacognition involves being able to think about and actively control our own thinking. If Simon were able to say, “I get hung up on the third step in problems like this because I forget to multiply,” he would be demonstrating metacognition.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Metacognition involves being able to think about and actively control our own thinking.

[Q4] Which of the following examples best illustrates the idea of dysgraphia?

1. Maliyah cannot read text if it is written in cursive.

2. Cade has difficulty creating pie charts and line graphs because of his visual difficulties.

3. Hachiro’s handwriting is very slow and frequently illegible. [correct] 4. Sulayman cannot segment the word dog into its individual sounds.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Dysgraphia is a specific learning disability in writing.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Dysgraphia is a specific learning disability in writing.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] It can be quite difficult to read the handwriting of a student with dysgraphia.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Dysgraphia is a specific learning disability in writing.

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It is common for students with learning disabilities to display all but which of the following behaviors?

1. Challenges with executive functioning 2. Memory problems 3. Physical aggression [correct] 4. Distractibility and impulsivity [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Students with learning disabilities often have trouble self-regulating their behavior.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] It is common for students with learning disabilities to struggle with both working memory and with retrieval of information from long-term memory.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Although some students with learning disabilities may exhibit it, physical aggression is not a behavior typical of students with learning disabilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Students with learning disabilities frequently display attention problems.

Learning Outcome 6.4: Learn about several evidence-based educational strategies for learners with learning disabilities.

[Q1] Changing thought processes, providing strategies for learning, and teaching selfinitiative are components of which of the following methods of addressing learning and academic problems?

1. Self-instruction 2. Self-monitoring 3. Cognitive training [correct] 4. Metacognitive training

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Changing thought processes, providing strategies for learning, and teaching selfinitiative are components of cognitive training, which focuses on modifying unobservable thought processes.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Changing thought processes, providing strategies for learning, and teaching selfinitiative are components of cognitive training, which focuses on modifying unobservable thought processes.

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Cognitive training focuses on modifying unobservable thought processes.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Changing thought processes, providing strategies for learning, and teaching selfinitiative are components of cognitive training, which focuses on modifying unobservable thought processes.

[Q2] Which term below describes a method in which assistance is provided to students while they are first learning a task then gradually reduced until the student can do the task independently?

1. Self-regulated strategy development 2. Self-monitoring 3. Scaffolded instruction [correct] 4. Direct instruction [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Providing significant initial support then gradually fading guidance describes scaffolded instruction.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Providing significant initial support then gradually fading guidance describes scaffolded instruction.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Scaffolding instruction typically involves significant teacher modeling and guided practice before students are asked to complete a task independently.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Providing significant initial support then gradually fading guidance describes scaffolded instruction.

[Q3] Ms. Eliud has pairs of students reread text passages aloud to each other several times over the course of a week. Her reason for having her students do this activity is most likely to promote their growth in which of the following areas?

1. Phonics knowledge 2. Reading fluency [correct] 3. Metacognition 4. Self-monitoring [Feedback for Answer Choice 1]

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While repeated readings may help cement a student’s phonics knowledge, the primary reason for their use is to foster students’ reading fluency.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Repeated readings are especially helpful in building the skill and confidence of students with reading problems.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Repeated readings foster students’ reading fluency.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Repeated readings foster students’ reading fluency.

[Q4] Which of the following would you be most likely to see a teacher do when he is preparing to use direct instruction with his students?

1. Develop a mnemonic device 2. Remind them of the value of using context clues 3. Engage students in scientific inquiry 4. Break down the academic work into its component parts [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1]

Direct instruction involves task analysis: breaking the work down into its component parts and then teaching the parts separately until the child can complete the task and demonstrate the larger skill.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Direct instruction involves task analysis: breaking the work down into its component parts and then teaching the parts separately until the child can complete the task and demonstrate the larger skill.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Direct instruction involves task analysis: breaking the work down into its component parts and then teaching the parts separately until the child can complete the task and demonstrate the larger skill.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] There are several commercially available direct instruction programs that have resulted in long-term academic gains for students.

[Q5] Which of the following statements about the use of mnemonics is false?

1. Students can be taught to create and apply their own mnemonics.

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2. The use of mnemonics correlates with increased motivation, efficacy, and willingness to learn.

3. The mnemonic Key Word method helps students with learning disabilities retain vocabulary.

4. Teachers should only teach one mnemonic at a time to avoid confusing the students. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This statement is true. Researchers who have studied both laboratory and classroom settings have found that students can benefit in several different ways from the use of mnemonics.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement is true. Further, researchers who have studied both laboratory and classroom settings have also found that use of mnemonics can improve cooperation skills.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement is true. In the Keyword Method, students use a similar sounding familiar word (acoustically similar or rhyming) to remember an unknown word.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Research indicates that small groups of students with learning disabilities could be taught using a variety of mnemonic strategies over a period of days without diminishing the effectiveness of the specific mnemonics.

Learning Outcome 6.5: Learn about issues that should be considered with respect to early intervention and transition to adulthood for individuals with learning disabilities.

[Q1] When considering whether a child at the preschool level has a learning disability, educators emphasize which of the following?

1. Prediction [correct] 2. Adaptation

3. Identification 4. Diagnosis [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Strictly speaking, preschoolers haven’t had much exposure to reading or math, so it is difficult to identify students with learning disabilities in this population.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2]

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Educators emphasize prediction at the preschool level. Strictly speaking, preschoolers haven’t had much exposure to reading or math, so it is difficult to identify students with learning disabilities in this population.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Educators emphasize prediction at the preschool level. Strictly speaking, preschoolers haven’t had much exposure to reading or math, so it is difficult to identify students with learning disabilities in this population.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Educators emphasize prediction at the preschool level. Strictly speaking, preschoolers haven’t had much exposure to reading or math, so it is difficult to identify students with learning disabilities in this population.

[Q2] Early childhood educators should be concerned about the development of all but which of the following?

1. Students’ expressive and receptive language 2. Students’ learning styles [correct] 3. Students’ early literacy skills 4. Students’ perceptual-motor skills

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Whether a young child meets expected developmental milestones is one piece of information that might be used to predict a learning disability. (It’s important to remember, though, that development rarely happens in a linear fashion and that some students who initially seem to have delayed development catch up with their peers.)

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Tailoring instruction for students based on their learning styles is a popular notion but there is no evidence that doing so is warranted. Early childhood educators should be more focused on developmental milestones.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3]

Whether a young child meets expected developmental milestones is one piece of information that might be used to predict a learning disability. (It’s important to remember, though, that development rarely happens in a linear fashion and that some students who initially seem to have delayed development catch up with their peers.)

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Whether a young child meets expected developmental milestones is one piece of information that might be used to predict a learning disability. (It’s important to remember, though, that development rarely happens in a linear fashion and that some students who initially seem to have delayed development catch up with their peers.)

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[Q3] In addition to transition plans, federal law now requires that schools develop which of the following?

1. A review of assessment reports 2. A plan for continued communication after a student exits the school system 3. A summary of performance [correct] 4. A performance task that demonstrates the student is eligible for a high school diploma [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Assessment information is included in the summary of performance (SOP) that schools are required to develop for students exiting secondary school.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Schools are required to develop a summary of performance (SOP) that includes information about assessments and accommodations as well as recommendations for future accommodations, assistive technology, and supports. Plans for continued communication are not a required element of an SOP. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] A summary of performance (SOP) includes information about assessments and accommodations as well as recommendations for future accommodations, assistive technology, and supports.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Schools are required to develop a summary of performance (SOP) that includes information about assessments and accommodations as well as recommendations for future accommodations, assistive technology, and supports. There is no requirement that students complete a specific performance task.

[Q4] Which of the following statements about postsecondary education for students with learning disabilities is false?

1. The number of students who have learning disabilities and who attend college is increasing.

2. Receiving accommodations in college requires more work and self-advocacy than receiving them in the K-12 education system.

3. College students with learning disabilities are often eligible for accommodations such as extended test time and volunteer notetakers.

4. Community colleges are required by law to make reasonable accommodations for students with disabilities, but four-year universities are not. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] 14 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

More and more universities are establishing special programs and services for students with disabilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The process of receiving support services is not automatic in college; students must often seek out an office of academic accessibility to request formal accommodations.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Other typical accommodations at the college level include taking exams in distractionfree environments, getting copies of a professor’s lecture notes, and accessing recordings of lecture and texts.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Section 504 of the Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (PL 93-112) requires that colleges and universities make reasonable accommodations for students with disabilities so they will not be discriminated against because of their disabilities.

[Q5] Which of the following factors is not closely associated with a successful transition from K-12 schooling to adulthood for students with disabilities?

1. Goal setting 2. Perseverance

3. Strong networks for social support 4. Focusing only areas of strength [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] According to successful adults with learning disabilities, being able to set one’s own goals is an important factor in a successful transition.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] According to successful adults with learning disabilities, an extraordinary degree of perseverance is needed in order to make a successful transition.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] According to successful adults with learning disabilities, having a strong network of friends and family is an important factor in a successful transition.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] According to successful adults with learning disabilities, one must be able to accept one’s areas of weakness while also adopting an attitude of building on one’s strengths.

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Application Exercises Application Exercise 6.1: Models of Identification Learning Outcome 6.1: Learn the definition of learning disabilities; how to identify learning disabilities; and the prevalence of learning disabilities and the difference in prevalence between sexes.

[Q1] Review the section of the text called Identification and view Pearson e-Text Video Example 6.1 to review how students with learning disabilities are identified.

Question: Compare and contrast the IQ-achievement discrepancy model and the Response to Intervention (RTI) model. How are they alike? How are they different?

[Q1 Model Response] Both models are used to determine whether a student has a learning disability and both consider multiple data points. Both are also widely varied in their implementation, which can be a drawback in either case. There is a significant difference between the two models: one is based on IQ test data, and the other is based on student response to varying levels of evidence-based instruction and intervention.

Until 2004, the IQ-achievement model was the only model for identifying students with learning disabilities. This model requires that students being evaluated for learning disabilities undergo a battery of assessments, including an IQ test. Evaluators then compare the student’s intellectual ability, as reflected by their IQ score, with their actual academic performance. If there is a discrepancy between what they should be able to do, based on their IQ, and what they are actually doing, the student is determined to have a learning disability.

The three-tier RTI model was developed to provide an alternative to the IQ-achievement model. In this model, students in the general education classroom are considered to be in Tier 1, where everyone is provided instruction that reflects high-quality teaching using evidence-based practices. If a student is not successful with Tier 1 instruction, they are moved to Tier 2, where they are given more intensive small-group instruction in the general education classroom. If a student is still struggling in Tier 2, they move to Tier 3.

At that point they may either receive intensive individualized instruction or be referred for special education evaluation.

[Q2] Review the section of the text called Identification and view Pearson e-Text Video Example 6.1 to review how students with learning disabilities are identified.

Question: If you were the parent of a student who was struggling in school, which of these models would you want the school to use when considering whether or not your child had a learning disability? Why do you say so?

[Q2 Model Response] 16 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Answers will vary, but should be well-reasoned and supported with evidence. One example follows.

If I were the parent of a student who was struggling in school and who needed to be evaluated for a learning disability, I would want the school to use the RTI model to make the determination. This model focuses on actual student performance in response to evidence-based instruction provided at different levels of intensity; using it as the identification model would, I believe, reduce the chance that my child would be misidentified. There are many advantages to the RTI model over the IQ-discrepancy model: •

It would be less likely that school personnel would rely on a single data point to decide whether or not my child had a disability.

•

It would reduce the chance that bias would occur in the identification process. IQ tests can discriminate against students from different cultural, ethnic, linguistic, or experiential backgrounds, and I wouldn’t want to have a decision made based on information that was not necessarily representative of them.

•

It would allow my child to receive educational interventions without having to wait for a discrepancy to be large enough to “count.” The school would try something as soon as my child started to struggle, thus reducing the chance of a long period of failure from which it would be difficult to catch up.

Application Exercise 6.2: Direct Instruction

Learning Outcome 6.4: Learn about several evidence-based educational strategies for learners with learning disabilities.

[Q1] Review the section of the text called Responsive Instruction: Meeting the Needs of Students with Learning Disabilities (Direct Instruction), then view Pearson e-Text Video Example 6.7.

Question: What characteristics of direct instruction that lead to academic learning are evidenced in the video?

[Q1 Model Response] In the video, we see the teacher using a scripted program to teach phonics to her students. The pace of instruction is rapid, with the teacher signaling students to get ready and then to quickly provide their responses. She has them respond in unison, and if they are not all solid in their responses, she has them do it over again—teaching for mastery. Students are grouped, presumably based on their achievement levels and needs, and as each one reads aloud, the teacher can assess their progress.

[Q2] Review the section of the text called Responsive Instruction: Meeting the Needs of Students with Learning Disabilities (Direct Instruction), then view Pearson e-Text Video Example 6.7.

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Question: How would you evaluate the teacher’s implementation of the direct instruction lesson in the video? Provide examples to support your answer.

[Q2 Model Response] The teacher delivered this lesson effectively. She is familiar enough with the script that she can follow it without slowing down the pace of her lesson. She uses specific phrasing hand signals to alert children to what is expected of them, which is important given the quick pace of the lesson. She coaches them (“Think about the sounds that you see”) and is clearly paying attention to each student’s responses. She has the students take turns reading aloud so she can assess their progress, and when a student makes a mistake, she has the student start over—again, teaching for mastery.

[Q3] Review the section of the text called Responsive Instruction: Meeting the Needs of Students with Learning Disabilities (Direct Instruction), then view Pearson e-Text Video Example 6.7.

Question: How would you evaluate the impact of the lesson on the students? Provide examples to support your answer.

[Q3 Model Response] Answers will vary.

Because the lesson is designed to make students master one skill before they move on to another, it is clearly tailored to their particular learning needs. The teacher uses a high-participation format and varies activities within the lesson, actions that are helpful for maintaining student engagement and participation. It is likely that this lesson is effective in helping students develop their skill in decoding words.

Application Exercise 6.3: Transition to Adulthood Learning Outcome 6.5: Learn about issues that should be considered with respect to early intervention and transition to adulthood for individuals with learning disabilities.

[Q1] Review the text section called Transition to Adulthood and view Pearson e-Text Video Examples 6.9 and 6.10, which feature Jennifer, a college student who has a learning disability and a hand tremor, talking about accommodations.

Question: What did you learn from Jennifer’s experience that helps you understand the challenge for determining the effectiveness of specific accommodations?

[Q1 Model Response] Jennifer speaks about the fact that in college, students with disabilities have to selfdisclose and seek out access to support and accommodations—a very different arrangement from what happens in K-12 education. She explains that there is an emotional toll associated with seeking accommodations—having to disclose her 18 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

disability and ask for help is not necessarily an easy thing to do, but that’s the way accessibility offices on college campuses typically work. She talks about learning how to identify accommodations that would help rather than deferring to others’ ideas; she describes being offered an accommodation that was not particularly helpful to her because it required her to type on the computer. An accommodation that doesn’t “work” is parallel to no accommodation at all.

Jennifer also describes her varied interactions with professors who asked to provide accommodations—some have been highly supportive and others have been skeptical or less willing to be supportive, subtly or not so subtly communicating the belief that she might not be able to succeed in a class. She also explains the need for students to selfadvocate in order to get the accommodations they need, and to continuously evaluate what is working and what isn’t.

[Q2] Review the text section called Transition to Adulthood and view Pearson eText Video Examples 6.9 and 6.10, which feature Jennifer, a college student who has a learning disability and a hand tremor, talking about accommodations.

Question: What did you learn from Jennifer’s experience about how teachers can help their students develop the knowledge and skills to become effective in advocating for themselves?

[Q2 Model Response]

High school teachers who are aware of the need for students to self-advocate are likely to be more deliberate about coaching the students, taking them through the types of interactions they might have and the types of requests they might need to make. When teachers and professors are communicative and willing to ask how to help rather than assuming that a student is trying to get away with something or is incapable of learning, positive outcomes are much more likely. Jennifer’s example of the professor who shared their lecture notes because the speaker didn’t have a slide presentation is an example of how a teacher can, with problem-solving and generosity of thought, help a student succeed.

[Q3] Review the text section called Transition to Adulthood and view Pearson eText Video Examples 6.9 and 6.10, which feature Jennifer, a college student who has a learning disability and a hand tremor, talking about accommodations.

Question: Describe the self-advocacy skills that Jennifer uses in her postsecondary education experience and discuss whether or not they are effective. Provide evidence to support your answer.

[Q3 Model Response] Jennifer describes coming to the realization that she needs to be able to identify, for herself, the sorts of supports and accommodations she needs, and to use that knowledge as a guide when seeking to increase her access to her college education. It 19 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

is not enough to simply tell faculty that a certain accommodation is needed; it requires continual dialogue about how to get what a person knows they need.

Jennifer’s self-advocacy skills are seemingly effective because she speaks about particular accommodations she has found to be very helpful; she also speaks about having to tweak accommodations that aren’t working.

[Q4] Review the text section called Transition to Adulthood and view Pearson eText Video Examples 6.9 and 6.10, which feature Jennifer, a college student who has a learning disability and a hand tremor, talking about accommodations.

Question: What factors relating to a successful transition does Jennifer exhibit in her behaviors and attitudes?

[Q4 Model Answer] Jennifer exhibits the ability to persevere when things are emotionally difficult. She retains a balanced perspective; she does not allow bad experiences with some professors to overshadow the good experiences she has had. It is clear that Jennifer has confidence in herself and although it’s not easy, she does not allow others’ opinions about her chances of success affect her motivation and forward movement. Jennifer is also knowledgeable about available accommodations and resources and is open to learning how to use new technologies to help her succeed in her courses.

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Test Items 6.1 Multiple-Choice Questions 1. Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that typically results from a deficit in a. phonological processing ability. b. visual acuity. c. understanding word meanings. d. using expressive language.

2. Which of the following statements does not reflect an element of the federal definition of a learning disability? a. Learning disabilities are disorders in basic psychological processes in understanding or using language. b. An individual with a learning disability may demonstrate difficulty in listening, thinking, speaking, reading, writing, spelling, or doing math calculations. c. Students with perceptual disabilities or brain injuries can have learning disabilities. d. Learning disabilities can occur concurrently with intellectual disabilities.

3. The fact that measures of academic learning in the early grades are relatively insensitive to small gaps in skills a. has been used as a reason for criticizing the use of IQ-achievement discrepancy to identify students with learning disabilities. b. has been used as reason not to use response to intervention to identify students with learning disabilities. c. makes it difficult to distinguish between motivation to learn versus fear of failure. d. has led to an artificial increase in the prevalence of learning disabilities.

4. According to law, states seeking to identify students with learning disabilities a. must require the use of the achievement/ability model but may permit the use of response to intervention.

b. must not require the use of the achievement/ability model and must permit the use of response to intervention. c. must require the use of both the ability/achievement model and response to intervention. d. are required to use the patterns of cognitive strengths and weaknesses model or response to intervention.

5. Which of the following statements regarding the response to intervention method of identifying learning disabilities is true? a. RTI is easy to implement.

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b. While schools prefer to use RTI, the federal government prefers the use of the achievement/ability discrepancy model. c. RTI ensures that a student's low achievement is not simply due to ineffective instruction. d. Research has proven that RTI is the most effective way to identify students with learning disabilities.

6. Which of the following statements does not reflect a concern about the use of response to intervention? a. Much of the research that is validated about RTI is focused just on reading.

b. RTI is most often implemented among students in grades 3–5, so we know little about its effectiveness in the earlier elementary grades. c. Some students do well enough in Tier 2 to return to Tier 1, but then they experience difficulties and end up cycling between Tier 1 and Tier 2. d. Currently, many general education teachers are failing to use evidence-based instruction in Tier 1.

7. Which of the following statements about identifying students with learning disabilities by analyzing patterns of cognitive strength and weakness (PSW) is false? a. A psychologist conducts the analysis. b. There is not a specific cut-off between academic achievement and IQ scores.

c. Implementing the model is time intensive. d. Used alone, PSW results in more reliable identification of students who have learning disabilities.

8. In a typical school of 1,000 students, about how many students identified as learning disabled would you expect to find? a. 10 b. 35 c. 150 d. 250

9. Which of the following factors is least likely to be at the root of the disproportionality of minority children in special education? a. the implementation of RTI b. assessment and referral bias c. systemic inequities d. lack of effective instruction 10. Which of the following is most often suggested as an explanation for why boys with learning disabilities outnumber girls in the same category?

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a. the fact that boys outnumber girls in public school classes b. the fact that parents of girls are reluctant for them to be labeled with a disability c. the fact that boys’ behavior often leads to referral. d. the fact that teachers hold lower academic expectations for girls 11. Research using neuroimaging suggests that some cases of learning disability are caused by a. poor growth resulting from poor nutrition. b. damage to and decay of brain tissue.

c. atypical brain structure and activity. d. allergies to food additives.

12. Research on the neurological basis of learning disabilities a. has been relatively consistent in pointing to the left temporal lobe as being involved. b. has made it possible to use neuroimaging as a screening tool for learning disabilities. c. has largely failed to find any connection between brain function and learning disabilities. d. has largely failed to find any connection between brain structure and learning disabilities.

13. Which of the following are statements about learning disabilities is false? a. Learning disabilities tend to run in families. b. Premature birth can result in learning disabilities. c. Toxins have been ruled out as a potential cause of learning disabilities. d. Most geneticists agree that no single gene causes learning disabilities.

14. John, Jim, and Ann are fifth-grade students with learning disabilities. Which one of the following statements best illustrates the concept of interindividual differences? a. John has problems with math and Ann has problems with reading. b. In comparison to the nondisabled students in her class, Ann scores lower in reading and math. c. Jim does well in reading but not in math. d. John has high intelligence but low achievement in spelling.

15. Freda, Sam, and Liz are eighth-grade students with learning disabilities. Which one of the following statements best illustrates the concept of intraindividual variation? a. Freda scores high in math, but not in spelling.

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b. In comparison to eighth graders nationally, Sam scores lower in reading and written expression. c. In comparison to Freda and Sam, Liz has higher achievement in math. d. Liz has lower reading scores than any of the nondisabled students in her class.

16. By definition, every student with learning disabilities has a. brain damage. b. academic problems. c. hyperactivity.

d. deficits in all academic areas.

17. Which poses the most difficulty for most children with learning disabilities? a. reading b. small-motor control c. handwriting d. math 18. The ability to understand that specific words can be broken down into individual sounds is referred to as a. phonological awareness.

b. phonemic awareness. c. decoding. d. reading fluency.

19. Students with poor phonological skills are most likely to have problems with which aspect of written language? a. handwriting b. spelling c. metacognitive strategies d. creative writing

20. When writing creatively, students with learning disabilities tend to a. write paragraphs that are generally as well organized as their peers. b. include about the same number of ideas as their peers. c. have the same type and degree of handwriting problems as their peers. d. use less complex sentence structures than their peers.

21. Gareth is a 12-year-old with learning disabilities who makes many grammatical errors when speaking. Gareth has a problem with which aspect of language? a. phonology 24 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

b. semantics c. pragmatics d. syntax 22. Pragmatics is the study of a. word order within sentences. b. the sound structure of words. c. language use in social settings. d. the meaning of language.

23. A student with specific reading comprehension disability (SCRD) would likely have difficulty in a. accurately match letters with their sounds. b. understanding what they read. c. understanding oral language. d. identifying the individual sounds that make up words.

24. Which of the following statements about students with specific reading comprehension disabilities (SRCD) is true? a. Vocabulary knowledge is necessary but insufficient for effective reading comprehension. b. Students with SRCD need instruction only on comprehension strategies because their word reading skills, vocabulary, fluency, and background knowledge are adequate. c. Researchers have been able to determine the implications of SRCD in terms of diagnosis and interventions. d. Students with SRCD should engage only with literary texts until they can read proficiently, then they should begin working with informational texts.

25. What percentage of children with learning disabilities do recent estimates indicate also have attention problems? a. less than 10% b. about 50% c. about 80% d. 100% 26. Students with learning disabilities typically a. have problems with working memory but not long-term memory. b. have problems with long-term memory but not working memory. c. have problems in working memory and/or long-term memory.

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d. have no memory problems as long as they are motivated properly.

27. Which one of the following problems best illustrates difficulty in metacognition? a. Joelle reverses b and d. b. Simon is always active and out of his seat. c. Rita can't tell the difference between the spoken words think and thing. d. Oscar neglects to slow down when reading a difficult passage.

28. Difficulties experienced by students with learning disabilities in interpreting the feelings and emotions of others reflects a problem with

a. visual perception. b. social cognition. c. affective disorder. d. referential communication.

29. Which of the following is not a gain that researchers have identified as a result of teaching using mnemonics? a. increased recall of information b. improved cooperation skills c. increased motivation, efficacy, and willingness to learn

d. increased executive function skills 30. Making students aware of the stages of problem-solving tasks while they are performing them and bringing behavior under verbal control is a. self-instruction. b. self-monitoring. c. scaffolded instruction. d. reciprocal teaching.

31. A method in which assistance is provided to students when they are first learning tasks, then gradually reduced until the students do the tasks independently is

a. scaffolded instruction. b. self-monitoring. c. prompted instruction. d. self-regulated strategy development.

32. Effective writing instruction involves teaching systematic strategies for each of the following except a. planning. b. handwriting skills.

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c. revising. d. editing.

33. Which approach to mathematics instruction is most efficient for students with learning disabilities? a. constructivist b. discovery-oriented c. teacher-directed d. student-centered

34. All of the following are features of Direct Instruction except a. fast-paced lessons. b. emphasis on drill and practice. c. exploratory lessons. d. immediate corrective feedback.

35. A method involving breaking down academic problems into their component parts that can be taught separately and then combined is called a. direct instruction. b. scaffolded instruction.

c. cognitive training. d. task analysis.

36. Most students with learning disabilities are educated in a. self-contained special education classes. b. special schools. c. resource rooms. d. general education classes.

37. All of the following practices are typical of curriculum-based assessment except a. frequent observation of child's behavior. b. testing completed by classroom teacher. c. comparison of child to national norms. d. use of curriculum the student has been exposed to.

38. Rather than talking about identification of learning disabilities at the preschool level, educators emphasize a. causation/etiology. b. prediction.

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c. adaptive behavior. d. classification.

39. According to the Council for Exceptional Children, special education teachers of students with learning disabilities should be able to do all of the following except a. teach the same content in the same way as the general education teacher. b. address a variety of academic learning problems, such as reading, math, and spelling. c. help students apply their academic skills in the content areas such as science and social studies.

d. teach academic skills in several different settings, such as individually or in small or large groups.

40. In addition to a transition plan, federal law now requires that schools develop a(n) a. summary of performance. b. exit interview. c. assessment review. d. list of ongoing accommodations.

6.2 True/False Questions

1. Psychological processing disorders are considered to be the primary reason for most learning disabilities.

2. Response to intervention is the federally preferred method of identifying learning disabilities.

3. Children and youths with learning disabilities comprise about half of all students who receive special education.

4. Researchers note that more reliable identification occurs when both RTI and psychoeducational assessment are used.

5. In the case of most children with learning disabilities, there is little neurological evidence of actual damage to the brain tissues.

6. About 50% of students with learning disabilities also have problems with attention.

7. The vast majority of children with learning disabilities develop social-emotional problems.

8. The resource room is the most popular placement for students with learning disabilities.

9. Several major professional and parent organizations have developed position papers against placing students with learning disabilities in full-inclusion programs.

10. Most children with learning disabilities outgrow their disabilities as adults.

6.3 Short Answer Questions 28 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Describe two reasons why defining learning disabilities has been so problematic.

2. Define IQ-achievement discrepancy and list three objections to using it for identifying learning disabilities.

3. Describe four psychological or behavioral characteristics of students with learning disabilities.

4. Which is a more convincing method for determining whether learning disabilities are inherited: familiality studies or heritability studies. Why? 5. Write a scenario illustrating the relationship between "locus of control" and "learned helplessness."

6. Identify the main features of cognitive training and describe two techniques that fall under this heading.

7. Identify the major features of direct instruction (DI) and describe the benefit of this approach for students with learning disabilities.

8. Describe the problems that many individuals with learning disabilities encounter in making the transition from student to adult life.

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Test Answer Key 6.1 Multiple Choice Questions 1. a 2. d 3. a 4. b 5. c 6. b 7. d 8. b 9. a 10. b 11. c 12. a 13. c 14. a

15. a 16. b 17. a 18. b 19. b 20. d 21. d 22. c 23. b 24. a 25. b 26. c 27. d 28. b 29. d 30. a 30 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

31. a 32. b 33. c 34. c 35. d 36. d 37. c 38. b

39. a 40. a 6.2 True/False Questions 1. False 2. True 3. True 4. True 5. True

6. True 7. False 8. False 9. True 10. False 6.3 Short Answer Questions 1. It's a relatively new field so there hasn't been as much time to come to a consensus regarding a definition. Yet, as the largest special education category (and one that many people are skeptical of the very existence of), it demands immediate defining.

It has traditionally been associated with a presumption of central nervous system dysfunction of some kind, but until recently this has been very difficult to prove. It has been associated with psychological processing disorders that are terribly difficult to measure and that led to some training programs that were found to be without merit. It is associated with an IQ-achievement discrepancy that suggests that a child is not living up to potential as measured by standardized intelligence tests. This discrepancy (along with the IQ itself) is notoriously difficult to measure.

2. It is an indication that a student is not achieving up to potential as measured by a standardized intelligence test. There is a difference between the measured IQ score of a student (e.g., it is found to be average) and achievement test scores (e.g., they 31 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

are found to be significantly below average). Children with normal IQ scores are typically expected to score in a similar way on achievement tests. Objections to using IQ-achievement discrepancy: some formulas used are statistically flawed and lead to inaccurate judgments; those that are statistically adequate are difficult and expensive to implement; adequate measures may lead to overdependence on a single score with which to make an identification decision; the IQ is not a strong predictor of reading ability itself, yet it requires reading ability that may lead to underestimation of IQ scores for students with learning disabilities, which lessens the discrepancy and may result in under-identification; the idea of discrepancy is practically useless in the early elementary grades where not much academic achievement is expected of anyone.

3. Answers will vary with students elaborating on: interindividual variation; intraindividual variation; academic achievement problems (in just one area, such as reading, written language, spoken language or math); perceptual, perceptual-motor, and general coordination problems; disorders of attention and hyperactivity; memory and metacognitive problems (in just one of those areas); social-emotional problems; motivational problems; or inactive learner problems.

4. The tendency for learning disabilities to run in families (as assessed by familiality studies) may be due to environmental factors rather than, or in addition to, genetic factors. Therefore, heritability studies comparing the prevalence of learning disabilities in identical versus fraternal twins are more convincing. Researchers have found that identical twins are more likely to both have learning disabilities than are fraternal twins, which strongly suggests a genetic cause.

5. Responses will vary but should illustrate an understanding that: People with learning disabilities may appear content to let events happen without attempting to control or influence them, exhibiting an external, rather than an internal, locus of control. They seem to believe their lives are controlled by external factors such as luck or fate, rather than internal factors such as determination or ability. People with this outlook may have a tendency to give up, or not try at all, and expect the worse because they think no matter how hard they try, they will likely fail (or, someone else will take care of it for them).

6. The main features of cognitive training are changing thought processes, providing strategies for learning, and teaching self-initiative. Answers should elaborate on: self-instruction; self-monitoring; scaffolded instruction; and reciprocal teaching.

7. The main features of D I are field-tested, scripted lesson plans; curriculum based on theory of mastery learning; rapid pace of instruction dependent upon frequent teacher questioning and student response; achievement grouping; and frequent assessments. It is among the most well-researched and highly rated commercially available programs for students with learning disabilities. Use of the programs results in immediate academic gains.

8. Many adults with learning disabilities have problems in learning, socializing, holding jobs, and living independently. At the secondary level, teachers must prepare students with learning disabilities for the variety of settings and experiences they will encounter when they leave high school. They need to help them decide if their goal 32 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

is to prepare for work or postsecondary education and emphasize program options accordingly. Obviously, the degree of quality of transition plans and programs varies.

One problem faced after exiting secondary school is the decrease in the amount of guidance provided by adults. The greater emphasis on self-discipline is particularly difficult for many students with learning disabilities. If going on to postsecondary programs, they should learn to advocate for themselves to delineate what accommodations they will need.

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Chapter 7 Test Item File Daniel P. Hallahan

Exceptional Learners: An Introduction to Special Education Fifteenth Edition Daniel P. Hallahan, University of Virginia Paige C. Pullen, University of Florida James M. Kauffman, University of Virginia Prepared by Karen M. Cole, University of North Carolina Asheville

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Table of Contents

Chapter 7: Learners with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder ................... 1 Learning Outcome Quizzes ................................................................... 1 Application Exercises ........................................................................... 13 Test Items ............................................................................................ 21 Test Answer Key .................................................................................. 29

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Chapter 7: Learners with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Learning Outcome Quizzes Learning Outcome 7.1: Learn the history of, clinical definition of, prevalence of, and identification of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

[Q1] All but which of the following statements reflect the significance of the work of Weikard, Crichton, Strauss, and Still for special educators today?

1. They attributed the behaviors we now associate with A DHD to poor parenting. [correct] 2. They wrote about A DHD as early as 1775, indicating that the disability is not a new, trendy phenomenon.

3. Their work delineated some of the same characteristics and behaviors that today’s practitioners expect to see in students with A DHD. 4. They delineated challenges of attention and impulsivity among the populations with whom they worked.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Generally, they attributed ADHD-like behaviors to brain damage or “defective moral control.”

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] In Weikard’s 1775 text, he devoted a chapter to “Lack of Attention” and described the inattentive person as having a deficit in concentration.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Still’s work in particular is still relevant to what we understand about ADHD. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The sorts of behaviors we associate with ADHD today have been identified in children for centuries.

[Q2] All but which of the following statements reflect a subtype of ADHD as defined by the American Psychological Association?

1. ADHD, Predominantly Inattentive Type 2. ADHD, HereditaryType [correct] 3. ADHD, Predominantly Hyperactive-Impulsive Type

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4. ADHD, Combined Type

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The DSM-5 identifies individuals with this subtype as having difficulty paying attention to details, sustaining attention, resisting distraction, and being organized.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] The DSM-5 identifies three types of ADHD: Predominantly Inattentive Type, Predominantly Hyperactive-Impulsive Type, and Combined Type. These definitions seek to describe student behavior rather than identify its cause.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The DSM-5 identifies individuals with this subtype as fidgeting, talking, and moving excessively. They are also prone to having difficulty taking turns and not interrupting others.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Students diagnosed with ADHD, Combined Type typically demonstrate characteristics of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.

[Q3] Which one of the following statements about ADHD is false?

1. The growth of the Other Health Impaired category suggests that more and more students with ADHD are identified as OHI. 2. ADHD occurs much more frequently in boys than in girls.

3. Statistics show that ADHD is largely a U.S. phenomenon. [correct] 4. Research indicates that the prevalence of ADHD among Black children is similar to that among White children.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Even so, many authorities believe that fewer than half of students with ADHD who need special education services are receiving them.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Gender differences are likely due to constitutional, or biological, differences.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] The evidence strongly suggests that prevalence rates at least as high as those in the United States are found in several other countries.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This statement is true. In fact, the only ethnic difference in rates is that Hispanic/Latino children are diagnosed with ADHD less frequently than children of other ethnicities.

[Q4] 2 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Which of the following identification methods is least likely to be used by schools as part of the process of diagnosing ADHD? 1. Behavioral observations 2. Interviews of parents by a clinician 3. Teacher- and parent-rating scales 4. Neuroimaging [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Behavioral observations are conducted by clinicians who watch students performing tasks that require sustained attention.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The interviewer asks about the child’s physical and psychological characteristics as well as family dynamics and interactions with peers.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Raters are asked such things as how often the individual doesn’t pay attention to details becomes distracted, interrupts others, fidgets, and so forth.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Medical exams are typically part of the evaluation process for ADHD, but neuroimaging is not commonly used because it is expensive and still experimental as a diagnostic procedure for ADHD. Neuroimaging is used, however, to investigate the causes of ADH D. [Q5] What percentage of children between the ages of 3 and 17 does the CDC estimate have ADHD? 1. 2.8% 2. 5.7% 3. 8.7% [correct] 4. 14.8% [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The CDC estimates that about 8.7% of students between 3 and 17 have ADHD, but it’s not clear what percent of them are receiving special education services.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The CDC estimates that about 8.7% of students between 3 and 17 have ADHD, but it’s not clear what percent of them are receiving special education services.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3]

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Because ADHD is not recognized as a separate category of students eligible for special education, they are frequently identified as Other Health Impaired if their condition is chronic and negatively affects their educational performance.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The CDC estimates that about 8.7% of students between 3 and 17 have ADHD, but it’s not clear what percent of them are receiving special education services.

Learning Outcome 7.2: Learn about the causes of and psychological and behavioral characteristics of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

[Q1] Neuroimaging studies indicate that which portion of the brain is most often identified as dysfunctional in individuals with ADHD? 1. The cerebellum 2. The hypothalamus 3. The occipital lobe 4. The prefrontal cortex [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The prefrontal cortex is the region of the brain most commonly identified as dysfunctional in individuals with ADHD. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The prefrontal cortex is the region of the brain most commonly identified as dysfunctional in individuals with ADHD. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The prefrontal cortex is the region of the brain most commonly identified as dysfunctional in individuals with ADHD. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] The prefrontal cortex supports, among other behaviors, executive function.

[Q2] Which of the following statements about the causes of ADHD is false?

1. The brains of people with ADHD show structural but not functional differences. [correct] 2. ADHD often has a hereditary basis.

3. No single ADHD-gene exists.

4. There is minimal evidence that excessive television watching causes ADHD. [Feedback for Correct Answer 1]

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Scientists have found both structural and functional differences (i.e., neurotransmitter abnormalities) in the brains of people with ADHD. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Evidence for the genetic transmission of ADHD comes from at least three sources: family studies, twin studies, and molecular genetic studies.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Multiple genes (at least 20) are involved.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The relationship between ADHD and television viewing isn’t well understood. It may even be that ADHD increases television-watching behavior.

[Q3] Which of the following descriptions most closely reflects the behavior of a child who has ADHD, Primarily Inattentive Type?

1. Soryn is always in motion and talks nonstop.

2. Landon often has difficulty completing work and staying organized. [correct] 3. Freya blurts out the answers to the questions as she’s completing a test.

4. Kiyoko interrupts others’ conversations, fidgets constantly, forgets things, and becomes bored with tasks quickly.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Soryn’s behaviors are more reflective of ADHD, Primarily Hyperactive-Impulsive Type.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] It is also typical for students with ADHD, Primarily Inattentive Type, to be easily distracted and to seem as though they are not listening when someone is speaking to them.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Freya’s behavior is more consistent with ADHD, Primarily Hyperactive-Impulsive Type.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Kiyoko’s behaviors are more consistent with ADHD, Combined Type.

[Q4] All but which of the following behaviors are typical of students with ADHD? 1. Waiting patiently [correct] 2. Having difficulty getting ready to start a task or moving from one task to another 3. Overreacting emotionally 4. Having difficulty making and keeping friends 5 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Students with ADHD, particularly those who are impulsive, are likely to have more difficulty in delaying gratification than students without ADHD. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This difficulty in adaptive behavior is typical of students with ADHD. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This social skill deficit is typical of students with ADHD. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Unfortunately, the social skill deficits of students with ADHD often lead to relationship difficulties.

[Q5] Which of the following statements about individuals with ADHD is false?

1. Treating ADHD with psychostimulants has been shown to lead to abuse of illegal substances. [correct] 2. ADHD often occurs simultaneously with other behavioral and learning problems.

3. A student with ADHD is more likely to incur an accidental injury than their peers who do not have ADHD. 4. People with ADHD have a higher frequency of sleep disturbances.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] There is very little research to back up this claim. However, studies do show that adolescents with ADHD are more likely to experiment prematurely with alcohol, tobacco, or illicit drugs.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] About half of children with ADHD also have learning disabilities; many also exhibit some form of emotional or behavioral disorder.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Problems with inattention and impulsivity increase the likelihood of injury.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Many have trouble going to sleep, sleep restlessly, demonstrate inconsistent sleepwake patterns, and have nightmares.

Learning Outcome 7.3: Learn about educational and medication considerations and progress assessment for people with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

[Q1] Which type of medication is most frequently prescribed for students with ADHD?

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1. Antidepressants 2. Psychostimulants [correct] 3. Mood enhancers 4. Psychotropics [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Although it seems paradoxical, psychostimulants are effective in treating many students with ADHD. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Ritalin (methylphenidate), Adderall, and Vyvanse are stimulants that are often prescribed. They influence the release of the neurotransmitters dopamine and norepinephrine, which enable the brain’s executive functions to operate more normally.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Although it seems paradoxical, psychostimulants are effective in treating many students with ADHD. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Although it seems paradoxical, psychostimulants are effective in treating many students with ADHD. [Q2] A life coach for an ADHD student would recommend that parents and teachers engage in all but which of the following behaviors?

1. Providing frequent constructive criticism and feedback on how to improve [correct] 2. Adhering to a regular, posted routine 3. Developing an organizational and storage system 4. Exhibiting consistency [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Many children with ADHD often receive and expect criticism. Instead of focusing on the things, students are doing wrong, parents and teachers should look for good behavior and praise it.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Many students with ADHD do best if their routine is predictable, and they are alerted to upcoming deviations from the schedule.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] For example, parents should develop a system for storage of clothes and toys and for making sure the child has everything they need for school when they leave the house.

Teachers should identify where items should be kept, and where work should be turned in.

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[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Most students with ADHD benefit from consistency and structure.

[Q3] Ms. Nasser is conducting a functional behavior assessment regarding Kai’s constant talking in class despite repeated reminders about the need to work quietly. Which of the following explanations for Kai’s behavior is least likely?

1. He is highly distractible and impulsive.

2. He is challenging Ms. Nasser’s authority. [correct] 3. He is trying to avoid work.

4. He wants attention from his peers and/or Ms. Nasser.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Students with ADHD may have difficulty complying with expectations because of their poor behavioral inhibition and executive functioning.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] While some students with ADHD might willfully defy a teacher, it is more likely that Kai’s constant talking stems from an inability to self-regulate, a need for attention, or a desire to avoid work.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Students with ADHD may intentionally or unintentionally avoid work; Kai may be unable to focus on the task at hand, or he may find it too challenging and chat up his peers to avoid doing it.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Students with ADHD may exhibit attention-seeking behavior.

[Q4] Which of the following scenarios best describes a contingency-based self-management approach to student behavior?

1. Mrs. Harrison reminds Fenton that if he hasn’t finished his work before lunch, he will have to complete it for homework.

2. Mr. Fox establishes clear rules and procedures for his students and tells them what the consequences will be for any rule breaking.

3. Ms. Martin sets a timer to ring every two minutes, and if all students are in their seats and on task, they earn a point toward a group reward. [correct] 4. Ms. Daniels asks a colleague to do an in-class observation of Felix to determine what purpose his behavior is serving, and how it is being reinforced.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1]

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A contingency-based management approach typically involves providing a positive reinforcer to one or more students who demonstrate target behaviors.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] A contingency-based management approach typically involves providing a positive reinforcer to one or more students who demonstrate target behaviors.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Interestingly, a study by Davies and Witte (2000) showed that relationship issues and negative peer pressure did not result from a group-based self-management contingency program.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] A contingency-based management approach typically involves providing a positive reinforcer to one or more students who demonstrate target behaviors. This response reflects functional behavior assessment.

[Q5] What is the purpose of momentary time sampling?

1. To determine how long a student engages in an unproductive behavior 2. To identify the time at which a group-based reward should be given 3. To capture a representative sample of a target behavior over a specified period of time [correct] 4. To provide an estimate of a student’s academic performance [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Momentary time sampling allows the teacher to determine, at various intervals, whether or not a student is exhibiting a particular behavior.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Momentary time sampling allows the teacher to determine, at various intervals, whether or not a student is exhibiting a particular behavior.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] At the beginning of each interval, the observer records whether the student is exhibiting the behavior of interest and then does not observe the student until the beginning of the next interval.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Momentary time sampling allows the teacher to determine, at various intervals, whether or not a student is exhibiting a particular behavior.

Learning Outcome 7.4: Learn about issues that should be considered with respect to early intervention and transition to adulthood for individuals with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

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[Q1] Why is diagnosis of young children with ADHD particularly difficult?

1. Because there is no funding allocated to provide assessment in preschool 2. Because symptoms of ADHD do not usually appear until a child is 8 years old 3. Because many preschoolers without ADHD exhibit a great deal of activity and impulsivity [correct] 4. Because preschool teachers are not formally trained to recognize potential disabilities [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Student development, not funding, is the primary reason that it’s difficult to identify ADH D in young children. Many preschoolers, even those without ADHD, are very active and haven’t yet fully developed impulse control.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Even young children can show the symptoms of ADHD. The fact that many preschoolers are very active and have not yet fully developed impulse control makes it difficult to determine who might have ADHD. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] The fact that many preschoolers are very active and have not yet fully developed impulse control makes it difficult to determine who might have ADHD. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The fact that many preschoolers are very active and have not yet fully developed impulse control makes it difficult to determine who might have ADHD. [Q2] Which of the following statements about adults with ADHD is false?

1. They are more likely to lose or quit their jobs.

2. College students with ADHD tend to struggle more than their peers without ADHD. 3. ADHD in adults looks identical to ADHD in younger people. [correct] 4. Partners of adults with ADHD frequently describe them as inattentive, unreliable, and messy.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Finding work that maximizes an adult’s strengths and minimizes their weaknesses is one of the keys to successful employment.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Time management, in particular, can be challenging for college students with ADHD. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3]

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Adults often display fewer symptoms, and they occur in different contexts (e.g., employment, parenting) than we see with children.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] It’s not surprising that the behavioral characteristics associated with ADHD would present some challenges in adult relationships and parents.

[Q3] Which of the following procedures reflects the generally accepted practice for diagnosing ADHD in adults who were not identified as having ADHD as children?

1. A psychiatrist assesses them for depression and anxiety.

2. A clinician interviews them and considers both their current situation and their history. [correct] 3. They seek written statements from former teachers who can attest to the presence of ADHD behaviors in school.

4. A medical doctor refers them for neuroimaging studies to identify structural and functional brain abnormalities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] A clinical exam including an interview about both present and historical functioning is the most common means of assessing adults for ADHD. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Within the history, the clinician looks for symptoms similar to those that children with AD HD display, although adults may have fewer symptoms, especially those related to hyperactivity.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] A clinical exam including an interview about both present and historical functioning is the most common means of assessing adults for ADHD. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] A clinical exam including an interview about both present and historical functioning is the most common means of assessing adults for ADHD. [Q4] Which of the following reasons best describes why early intervention for preschoolers with ADHD is so critical?

1. Because they are likely to exhibit increasingly inappropriate behavior if they are not taught impulse control 2. Because they are more likely to injure themselves than preschoolers without ADHD 3. Because their parents may pursue legal action if the childcare provider doesn’t identify ADHD symptoms early 11 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

4. Because poor behavioral inhibition and inattention in preschool predict ADHD symptoms and early literacy skills, respectively, in elementary schools [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] It is important to intervene early with preschoolers with ADHD because poor behavioral inhibition and inattention in preschool predict ADHD symptoms and early literacy skills, respectively, in elementary school.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] It is important to intervene early with preschoolers with ADHD because poor behavioral inhibition and inattention in preschool predict ADHD symptoms and early literacy skills, respectively, in elementary school.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] It is important to intervene early with preschoolers with ADHD because poor behavioral inhibition and inattention in preschool predict ADHD symptoms and early literacy skills, respectively, in elementary school.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Educational and behavioral outcomes are more likely to improve when educators and families can start working to mitigate the effects of ADHD early.

[Q5] Which of the following behaviors would you be least likely to see in an adult with ADH D? 1. Daydreaming and allowing their mind to wander 2. Starting many projects but finishing few of them 3. Being late frequently 4. Demonstrating relentless drive and focus [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] People with ADHD are vulnerable to loss of focus and mind wandering.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Adults with ADHD frequently begin a project, get interested in something else, and abandon the initial undertaking.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Adults with ADHD can struggle to organize their calendars and to estimate how much time something will take, so lateness is common among them.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Some people with ADHD have demonstrated tremendous amounts of persistence and resilience and have become highly successful, but they are in the minority.

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Application Exercises Application Exercise 7.1: Characteristics of Students with ADHD Learning Outcome 7.2: Learn about the causes of and psychological and behavioral characteristics of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

[Q1] Review Table 7.1 Examples of Symptoms Associated with Inattention, Hyperactivity, and Impulsivity and view Pearson e-Text Video Example 7.8 about Eric, the preschooler with significant ADHD. Question: Which of the symptoms in Table 7.1 are apparent in the video description of Eric's behavior? What other behaviors that weren't discussed you might expect him to have?

[Q1 Model Response] Eric shows many of the characteristics from Table 7.1. Among others, he is easily distracted and has difficulty focusing and engaging with tasks. He does not seem to listen when spoken to; he is not easily directed or redirected. He struggles to follow instruction. He fidgets, squirms, and moves quickly about the classroom—he is constantly in motion. He has trouble completing tasks like cleaning up after an activity.

Because we know he also gets aggressive with his peers, we can infer that he shows his emotions without restraint and acts without regard for consequences.

Given these behaviors, we could assume that Eric would demonstrate difficulty with doing quiet tasks or activities. We can also assume that he would have difficulty with delayed gratification and turn-taking, and that he would not hesitate to interrupt others.

[Q2] Review Table 7.1 Examples of Symptoms Associated with Inattention, Hyperactivity, and Impulsivity and view Pearson e-Text Video Example 7.8 about Eric, the preschooler with significant ADHD. Question: The DSM-5 recognizes three subtypes of ADHD: (1) ADHD, Predominantly Inattentive Type; (2) ADHD, Predominantly Hyperactive-Impulsive Type; and (3) ADHD, Combined Type. Examples of criteria used to determine these subtypes include (1) for inattention: trouble paying attention to details, difficulty sustaining attention, problems with organization, distractible; (2) for hyperactivity: fidgeting, leaving seat at inappropriate times, talking excessively; (3) for impulsivity: problems awaiting one’s turn, interrupting others.

Based on your observation of Eric and the information in Table 7.1, which subtype of A DHD would you most closely associate with him? Why do you say so? (It is important to note here that we are not attempting to arrive at a formal diagnosis but are, instead, considering Eric's behavior in light of the subtypes of ADHD.) [Q2 Model Response] 13 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Eric’s most overt behaviors are in the areas of hyperactivity and impulsivity—he is almost never still and is demonstrating difficulty managing his emotions, displaying almost all of the behaviors listed in the second and third sections of Table 7.1. However, he also demonstrates symptoms of inattention—difficulty focusing, being easily bored, not seeming to listen when spoken to. Depending on how a qualified practitioner prioritized these behaviors, Eric might be identified as either having ADHD, Predominantly Hyperactive-Impulsive Type or ADHD, Combined type.

[Q3] Review Table 7.1 Examples of Symptoms Associated with Inattention, Hyperactivity, and Impulsivity and view Pearson e-Text Video Example 7.8 about Eric, the preschooler with significant ADHD. Question: What rewards and challenges would you expect if you were a teacher working in a day treatment program similar to the one Eric attends?

[Q3 Model Response] While working in a day treatment program similar to the one Eric attends may not appeal to everyone, those who do decide to work in these settings often view ADHD challenges as puzzles to be solved. They find the fast paced environment stimulating; helping young children develop compensatory learning and behavior strategies feels rewarding to them. For instance, Eric is learning new strategies for managing his hyperactivity and impulsiveness; he is also learning more about how to build and sustain relationships. The work that others are engaging in with him is life-changing; imagine how much better his schooling, employment, and life will be if he learns to manage his ADHD better.

Those who are not keen on working in a day treatment program like the one Eric attends may find ADH D challenges more exhausting than rewarding. With children like Eric, teachers must be hypervigilant at each moment throughout the school day. Not only must they work with Eric to build his self-esteem and his ability to control his actions, and emotions, they must also constantly be monitoring him in terms of how he affects the safety of the other children and teachers in the room. Teachers must demonstrate patience and sustained focus, behaviors that some people find difficult.

Application Exercise 7.2: Meeting the Needs of Students with ADHD Learning Outcome 7.3: Learn about educational and medication considerations and progress assessment for people with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

[Q1] Read the text section called Classroom Structure and Teacher Direction and Table 7.2: Tips to Help Kids Stay Organized and Follow Directions, then view Pearson e-Text Video Example 7.3.

Question: The video and Table 7.2 identify several broad themes regarding how teachers can most effectively educate students with ADHD. For instance, teachers

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should find ways to support students’ ability to focus while at the same time reducing distractions. Identify at least three other themes you see in the video and the table.

[Q1 Model Response] In addition to supporting student focus and reducing distractions, important themes across Video 7.3 and Table 7.2 are: •

clarifying and being consistent with expectations

•

planning and delivering active, explicit instruction

•

organizing the classroom and routines carefully while also helping students develop organizational skills

•

accommodating students’ need for movement while holding appropriate behavioral expectations

•

motivating students by affirming their successes and growth

[Q2] Read the text section called Classroom Structure and Teacher Direction and Table 7.2: Tips to Help Kids Stay Organized and Follow Directions, then view Pearson e-Text Video Example 7.3.

Scenario: Mr. Cooper teaches fifth grade. Among his 24 students, there are four who have ADHD. At 7:25, students get off the bus and come to the classroom. They hang their backpacks in the open lockers against the wall of the classroom, being sure to take out their homework folders and place them in their desks. They use the computer to indicate whether or not they brought their lunch or will be eating a school lunch; at the beginning of the school year, students often forgot to do this step, but with repetition and practice, it’s a rare day when Mr. Cooper has to remind the students about completing the lunch count.

Once students have put away their materials and chosen their lunch, they are free to wander around the classroom until Mr. Cooper is ready to start instruction. Many of the students in the class particularly enjoy the fact that Mr. Cooper loves comic books, and they love to talk about and emulate the poses of the superheroes on the posters Mr. Cooper has placed beneath the smart board in the front of the room. Each superhero poster has an associated slogan (i.e., solve problems creatively, demonstrate flexibility, communicate and behave with kindness, and show resilience). The class motto is “We use our superpowers” and when Mr. Cooper needs to encourage students or have them check their behavior, he says the slogan to the class. They respond by saying, “Superheros are amazing!”

On some mornings, Mr. Cooper’s schedule starts with mathematics, and on other mornings, it starts with language arts. Before he begins the first lesson, Mr. Cooper has the students recite the class rules. The announcements then come on the tv; students tend to whisper to each other or read silently during this time. After the announcements wrap up, Mr. Cooper starts his lesson.

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Today the students are supposed to be responding to a writing prompt. Mr. Cooper shows them the prompt, clarifies that it is asking them to describe a favorite memory, and says, “Get out your notebooks and start writing.” He puts on some kid-friendly rap as background music. As his students work, other students who are in the hallway can peek in and see their friends; several of Mr. Cooper’s students are in the habit of watching for a particular friend to go by during the writing period. Other students get up to sharpen their pencils several times during the writing period; Mr. Cooper is sometimes frustrated that students aren’t always prepared for the writing session and that their work is often incomplete by the time he’s ready to transition to another type of lesson.

During the next part of the schedule, Mr. Cooper has his students work on new vocabulary words for science. Students are assigned a partner and each pair is given a cloth bag containing a set of flashcards and a set of pictures that illustrate the words.

They take turns drilling each other on the vocabulary, saying the word and the definition, then finding the corresponding picture before dropping the word card and the picture back into the bag. Mr. Cooper circulates through the room and listens to each pair, affirming correct answers, coaching students who are struggling, and saying, “Remember to use your superpowers” when behavior dictates it. When students are finished reviewing, they can choose how to spend their time until the other students are all finished; many of them are restless by this point and there’s a fair amount of noise and motion as they enjoy several minutes of free time. When everyone is finished with the flashcard activity, Mr. Cooper calls them all back together and they review the new vocabulary words that are written on brightly colored paper at the front left part of the classroom.

After lunch, the students come back to the room and sit at their desks to watch a video on a social studies concept. Mr. Cooper gives them a set of notes that follow the content of the video; some of the information in the notes has been replaced with blank lines, and students are expected to fill out the notes as they watch the video. Mr. Cooper stops the video periodically to give students time to write. When the period is done, he posts his copy of the completed notes and students can check their work against the key while they’re packing up for the day.

Question: Considering the information in Table 7.2 and the video, what things is Mr. Cooper doing that are effective for all students but particularly effective for his students with ADHD? [Q2 Model Answer] Mr. Cooper has provided structure and routine for the students when they first enter the classroom. They know what to do with their materials and typically make their lunch choices automatically. Students have homework folders that they use to carry assignments back and forth; they know what to do with those folders upon arrival to the classroom.

Mr. Cooper has provided clear rules for the students and reviews them daily. He has made an attractive room that appeals to student interests and he has enumerated several behaviors that he wants his students to display. He has developed a call and 16 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

response motto for encouraging students and for having them make behavioral checks or for having them remember their goals. He has identified music that students enjoy and plays it for them. He affirms his students with praise and encouragement.

Mr. Cooper circulates and assists, monitoring students’ progress. He allows them to do activities that involve multiple modalities, like the flash card exercises. He gives them guided notes to help them stay focused on the video, and he makes the answers available to them in case someone didn’t get finished or had something incorrect.

[Q3] Read the text section called Classroom Structure and Teacher Direction and Table 7.2: Tips to Help Kids Stay Organized and Follow Directions, then view Pearson e-Text Video Example 7.3.

Scenario: Mr. Cooper teaches fifth grade. Among his 24 students, there are four who have ADHD. At 7:25, students get off the bus and come to the classroom. They hang their backpacks in the open lockers against the wall of the classroom, being sure to take out their homework folders and place them in their desks. They use the computer to indicate whether or not they brought their lunch or will be eating a school lunch; at the beginning of the school year, students often forgot to do this step, but with repetition and practice, it’s a rare day when Mr. Cooper has to remind the students about completing the lunch count.

Once students have put away their materials and chosen their lunch, they are free to wander around the classroom until Mr. Cooper is ready to start instruction. Many of the students in the class particularly enjoy the fact that Mr. Cooper loves comic books, and they love to talk about and emulate the poses of the superheroes on the posters Mr. Cooper has placed beneath the smart board in the front of the room. Each superhero poster has an associated slogan (i.e., solve problems creatively, demonstrate flexibility, communicate and behave with kindness, and show resilience). The class motto is “We use our superpowers” and when Mr. Cooper needs to encourage students or have them check their behavior, he says the slogan to the class. They respond by saying, “Superheros are amazing!”

On some mornings, Mr. Cooper’s schedule starts with mathematics, and on other mornings, it starts with language arts. Before he begins the first lesson, Mr. Cooper has the students recite the class rules. The announcements then come on the tv; students tend to whisper to each other or read silently during this time. After the announcements wrap up, Mr. Cooper starts his lesson.

Today the students are supposed to be responding to a writing prompt. Mr. Cooper shows them the prompt, clarifies that it is asking them to describe a favorite memory, and says, “Get out your notebooks and start writing.” He puts on some kid-friendly rap as background music. As his students work, other students who are in the hallway can peek in and see their friends; several of Mr. Cooper’s students are in the habit of watching for a particular friend to go by during the writing period. Other students get up to sharpen their pencils several times during the writing period; Mr. Cooper is sometimes frustrated that students aren’t always prepared for the writing session and 17 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

that their work is often incomplete by the time he’s ready to transition to another type of lesson.

During the next part of the schedule, Mr. Cooper has his students work on new vocabulary words for science. Students are assigned a partner and each pair is given a cloth bag containing a set of flashcards and a set of pictures that illustrate the words.

They take turns drilling each other on the vocabulary, saying the word and the definition, then finding the corresponding picture before dropping the word card and the picture back into the bag. Mr. Cooper circulates through the room and listens to each pair, affirming correct answers, coaching students who are struggling, and saying, “Remember to use your superpowers” when behavior dictates it. When students are finished reviewing, they can choose how to spend their time until the other students are all finished; many of them are restless by this point and there’s a fair amount of noise and motion as they enjoy several minutes of free time. When everyone is finished with the flashcard activity, Mr. Cooper calls them all back together and they review the new vocabulary words that are written on brightly colored paper at the front left part of the classroom.

After lunch, the students come back to the room and sit at their desks to watch a video on a social studies concept. Mr. Cooper gives them a set of notes that follow the content of the video; some of the information in the notes has been replaced with blank lines, and students are expected to fill out the notes as they watch the video. Mr. Cooper stops the video periodically to give students time to write. When the period is done, he posts his copy of the Question: Considering the information in Table 7.2 and the video, what thing could Mr. Cooper be doing more effectively in order to meet the needs of all students, particularly those of his students with ADHD? [Q3 Model Response] Mr. Cooper could follow the same schedule as closely as possible each day and make sure a visual of it is posted in the classroom. He could also provide more structure when students enter the room and when they finish their work—there is a fair amount of goofing off and wasting time. He could set clear expectations about attentive behavior during announcements and could reduce distraction during writing by omitting the music and closing the classroom door. (Note: Identifying music that the students like is a good thing; he just needs to find a better time to play it for them.) He could also have students sharpen two or three pencils first thing in the morning or at least before they sit down to write.

Mr. Cooper could pay careful attention to the amount and type of decor he places in the front of the classroom; the superhero posters, for instance, are highly motivating but could distract students from the video or from teacher-led instruction, so he might want to move them away from the primary instructional area, perhaps to a side wall. The brightly colored papers with vocabulary words on them might also be distracting or overstimulating; he could either move the vocabulary wall or mute the colors.

Mr. Cooper could be much more explicit with his instruction during writing—he could tell students specifically what his expectations are and model how he himself would 18 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

approach the task. He could even show students some examples of varying quality so they have an idea of what he hopes they will produce. He could break the writing assignment down into smaller steps and check in with students about each step during the lesson period.

Application Exercise 7.3: Individual Contingency Plans Learning Outcome 7.3: Learn about educational and medication considerations and progress assessment for people with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

[Q1] Read the section of the text called Functional Behavioral Assessment and ContingencyBased Self-Management, then view Pearson e-Text Video Example 7.6.

Question: What benefits can you identify with the MotivAider that Brandon is using to help him remain on task? Why do you think the system is working well in Brandon’s situation?

[Q1 Model Response] •

The MotivAider is interesting to Brandon and he enjoys using it; in fact, he clearly feels special that he gets to demonstrate it to other people.

•

Because it is clipped to his shirt, he can’t really miss the haptic reminder it sends.

It is less obtrusive than a device with an audible tone would be.

•

The device is set so he works for five minutes and then Brandon self-assesses; this period of time is appropriate because it is short and will refocus Brandon often. (Presumably as he gets better at remaining on task, the intervals would be increased in length.)

•

There are three levels of positive feedback in this process: first, he gets to award himself points with the clicker, then, as he builds points, he earns stickers, and after he collects enough stickers, he earns a prize.

The system seems to be working for Brandon and his teacher because it is simple, requires little teacher effort in terms of monitoring, has various levels of reinforcement, and isn’t overly distracting to others. Self-monitoring heighten’s Brandon’s awareness of how he is spending his time and pulls him back on task when he is distracted.

[Q2] Read the section of the text called Functional Behavioral Assessment and ContingencyBased Self-Management, then view Pearson e-Text Video Example 7.6.

Question: What drawbacks might there be to having a single student use a MotivAider or other individual contingency plan in class?

[Q2 Model Response] If used correctly, the MotivAider device shouldn't be more than mildly distracting to other students, but there is potential that the vibration could be heard by those close by and 19 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

that the clicker might be an auditory distraction. Further, other kids of Brandon’s age might think the clicker is cool and be distracted by wanting to examine/play with it. And unless community expectations are carefully set, other students could tease Brandon for having to use the device.

A larger potential challenge is that other students might feel that they, too, would like to use a MotivAider or that Brandon is getting rewards and experiences that they are not.

This could lead to interpersonal or motivational issues with and among students.

[Q3] Read the section of the text called Functional Behavioral Assessment and ContingencyBased Self-Management, then view Pearson e-Text Video Example 7.6.

Question: In his contingency plan with the MotivAider, Brandon has to earn 109 points per day. When he meets or exceeds that number, he gets to place a sticker on his snail chart. When he has 100 stickers, he gets a prize. Given what you've read in the text about reinforcement, do you think that this strategy is effective? Why or why not?

[Q3 Model Response] Answers will vary.

I believe that self-monitoring plans that utilize rewards are effective. I think that the fiveminute interval between self-assessments seems reasonable, and we can assume that Brandon has worked up to earning a high number of points by the end of the day (he says “109 today”). He seems to be successfully using the program.

My only question or concern is about how many stickers he has to earn to fill out the snail. Asking a young student to wait 100 days (or presumably more, if he has some days where he doesn’t hit the target) for the larger reward seems like a very high expectation to me. If I were beginning this process with a student like Brandon, I would set a target for a lower number of stickers initially, or give multiple stickers each day when the child reached their point target (particularly if it were a high one).

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Test Items 7.1 Multiple-Choice Questions 1. Which of these authors’ works have had the least influence on the historical foundations regarding the existence of ADHD? a. Still's children with "defective moral control." b. Hoffman’s poetic case study, “Fidgety Phillip.” c. Werner and Strauss’s work with students with “brain damage.” d. Weikard's writing on "Lack of Attention."

2. Which of the following is a way that Still's cases were similar to today's population of persons with ADHD? a. Many had average intelligence. b. The condition was more prevalent in females than males. c. There was no evidence of a hereditary basis. d. Most of the children had no other psychological or physical problems.

3. In addition to clinical observations, Werner and Strauss used an experimental task that a. assessed whether individuals displayed atypical sensitivity to light. b. presented figure/background slides for very brief exposure times. c. recorded instances of aggressive behavior. d. assessed the effects of stimulant medication on students displaying characteristics we now associate with ADHD. 4. All of the following are true of Cruickshank’s work except a. the children he studied showed no evidence of brain damage. b. most of the children in his study had average intelligence. c. he created an educational program for children with characteristics of what is now called ADHD. d. he emphasized the need to reduce distractions in children’s environments.

5. What do many authorities currently suggest should replace inattention as the primary deficit in ADHD? a. hyperactivity b. aggressiveness c. lack of executive function d. behavioral inhibition

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6. Each of the following is a subdivision of ADHD according to the American Psychiatric Association's diagnostic manual except a. predominantly inattentive type. b. predominantly hyperactive-impulsive type. c. predominantly withdrawn-distractible type. d. combined type.

7. Child guidance clinics a. rarely see clients who have ADHD. b. see children with ADHD more than they see children with most other types of disabilities. c. see many more girls than boys with ADHD. d. turn away more children with ADHD than they treat.

8. What percentage of the school-age population does the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention report as having ADHD? a. 1–3% b. 4–5% c. 6–7% d. 8–9% 9. Which of the following is a reason why ADHD was not included when the federal government began tracking the prevalence of disabilities? a. There was a large body of research suggesting it is not a distinct disability. b. The advocacy base for children with ADHD was not yet well-developed. c. There was already a category for minimal brain injury. d. The federal government put a cap on the number of disability types to be served by public schools.

10. Students with ADHD receive special education services under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (I DEA) in which category? a. ADHD b. learning disabilities c. emotional or behavioral disorders d. other health impaired (OHI) 11. Which of the following statements is false? a. The growth of the Other Health Impaired category suggests that more students with ADHD are being identified as O HI. b. ADHD occurs much more frequently in boys than in girls.

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c. Gender differences in diagnosis of ADHD are likely due to biological differences. d. Statistics show that ADHD is largely a U.S. phenomenon.

12. All of the following are often used as part of the process of diagnosing children with ADHD except a. a medical exam. b. a clinician interviewing parents and child. c. neuroimaging. d. teacher- and parent-rating scales.

13. Rating scales used for ADHD are typically filled out by each of the following except a. medical doctors. b. parents. c. teachers. d. the child.

14. Which statement about the brains of people with ADHD is true? a. The brains of people with ADHD show structural and functional differences from the brains of people without ADHD. b. Neuroimaging technology has shown there is no neurological basis for ADHD. c. Most people with ADHD have experienced a brain injury. d. There is a diagnostic blood test now available for ADHD. 15. Which of the following statements about the effects of media use on ADHD is false? a. Attention problems might cause children to want to watch more television. b. Parents may use television as a means of occupying their children or controlling their hyperactive behavior. c. Internet gaming disorder is a newly-identified type of ADHD. d. Children with ADHD spend more time on the Internet than their non- ADHD peers.

16. With regard to ADHD, sugar and food additives a. cause hyperactivity and inattentiveness. b. have no apparent direct causal link with ADHD. c. should be restricted from the diets of all students with ADHD. d. lead to allergies that trigger ADHD in most, but not all, students.

17. The part of the brain responsible for executive functions such as the ability to regulate one's own behavior is the a. basal ganglia.

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b. cerebellum. c. corpus collosum. d. prefrontal cortex.

18. A neurotransmitter involved in sending messages between neurons and the brain that is found in abnormal levels in people with ADHD is a. histamine. b. serotonin. c. dopamine. d. cortisol.

19. Which of the following statements about causal factors and ADHD is false? a. While excessive gaming is unlikely to cause ADHD, having ADHD may lead a person to game excessively. b. There is some suggestive evidence that food allergies might promote ADHD for a very small subgroup of children. c. Pregnant women who smoke or who are exposed to lead have a greater chance of having a child with ADHD. d. Scientists have identified a single gene that may explain the hereditary basis of A DHD. 20. The classic "Marshmallow Experiment" and follow-up studies demonstrated that a. the inability to delay gratification by young children was related to several negative outcomes in adulthood. b. sugar intake has little impact on children's hyperactivity. c. the more sweets young children with ADHD consume when unsupervised, the greater the likelihood that they will display behavioral problems in school. d. marshmallows exacerbate hyperactivity in children with ADHD. 21. All of the following are ways that people with ADHD can exhibit problems with executive function except a. they have difficulty engaging in social interactions. b. they have difficulty with working memory. c. they have difficulty with inhibitory control. d. they have difficulty with mental flexibility.

22. An area of deficit that has traditionally been associated with persons with intellectual disabilities but is beginning to be of interest with respect to persons with ADHD is a. stereotypic behaviors. b. verbal intelligence.

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c. gullibility. d. adaptive behavior skills.

23. Compared to students with other disabilities, students with ADHD a. have fewer social skills problems. b. have more friends of the opposite gender. c. are more likely to be rejected by their peers. d. are viewed as less rude.

24. The negative social status experienced by students with ADHD is a. usually long lasting. b. usually overcome by early adulthood. c. largely a myth associated with the label. d. primarily an issue during elementary school.

25. Children with ADHD often have trouble making friends for all but which of the following reasons? a. They are viewed as rude by others. b. They don’t know which behaviors are acceptable and which are not. c. They have difficulty managing their impulses and their emotions. d. They have difficulty interpreting social cues.

26. Ruby’s teacher describes her as spacey, easily tired, and confused. Ruby also frequently loses her train of thought or forgets what she was going to say. Which of the following statements is false in this situation? a. Ruby might not have ADHD. b. Ruby cannot have ADHD—Combined Type. c. Ruby is more likely to be socially withdrawn than socially rejected. d. Ruby may be demonstrating sluggish cognitive tempo.

27. The National Institute of Health recommends all of the following for students with AD HD except a. maintaining a daily schedule that is consistent. b. using praise when rules are followed. c. using homework and notebook organizers. d. emphasizing inquiry-based learning.

28. Determining the antecedents, consequences, and setting events that maintain inappropriate behaviors is called a. functional behavioral assessment.

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b. task analysis. c. positive behavior interventions and supports (P BIS). d. targeted intervention.

29. The most frequently prescribed types of medication for students with ADHD are a. depressants. b. mood enhancers. c. psychotropics. d. psychostimulants.

30. Which of the following statements about Ritalin is true? a. Research indicates that Ritalin has little benefit in improving behavioral inhibition and executive functioning. b. Ritalin is not effective for about 30% of people who take it. c. Ritalin has no side effects. d. Ritalin is prescribed more often for Black children and children from lower-wealth homes than it is for White children and children from higher-SES homes.

31. Diagnosis of young children with ADHD is particularly difficult because a. there is no funding to do assessment in preschool. b. the symptoms usually do not appear before a child is eight years of age. c. preschool teachers have no training in identifying children with disabilities. d. many preschoolers without ADHD exhibit a great deal of activity and impulsivity.

32. The best way to identify adult ADHD is to use which of the following sources? a. the Conners behavior scale b. a neuroimaging study c. the person's life and medical history d. interviews with past teachers 33. Which of the following conclusions about adults with ADHD has not been documented? a. They finish fewer years of school. b. They have more automobile infractions. c. They have fewer marital problems. d. They have more addictive behaviors.

34. A therapeutic technique that involves identifying someone whom the person with AD HD can rely on for support is a. training.

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b. coaching. c. encouraging. d. directing.

35. Research suggests that about % of those diagnosed as ADHD in childhood still persist with major symptoms as adults. a. 50 b. 80 c. 20 d. 13 7.2 True/False Questions 1. ADHD is not a separate special education category under IDEA. 2. Hyperactivity is a characteristic of all children with ADHD. 3. Samples taken from the population at-large indicate that girls outnumber boys with A DHD at a ratio of 3  1 4. Recent research shows that there is evidence of a neurological basis for ADHD. 5. People with ADHD are more prone to sleep problems and accidental injuries.

6. Research indicates that psychostimulant use in childhood leads children to being taking illegal drugs.

7. Punishment as a contingency for inappropriate behavior is especially important for self-management techniques to be effective.

8. The effect of Ritalin on persons with ADHD is the same as the effects on persons without ADHD. 9. Transitions from one activity to the next can be particularly problematic, behaviorwise, for students with ADHD. 10. Many children with ADHD also have learning disabilities or other emotional/behavioral disorders.

7.3 Short Answer Questions 1. Explain why ADHD is not included as a separate category of special education under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (I DEA) and why many professionals are disappointed with this situation.

2. Describe the four components used in the identification of ADHD. 3. Describe three psychological and behavioral characteristics one might expect to find in people with ADHD. 4. Explain the difficulty students with ADHD have managing transitions among tasks and suggest three cognitive supports for transitioning from one activity to another.

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5. What is meant by the statement: "It may not be that they do not know how to behave appropriately so much as that they are unable to do so?"

6. How have methods for teaching students with ADHD changed since Cruickshank's approach in the late 1950s? In what ways are today's methods similar to Cruickshank's ideas?

7. Write a brief scenario describing a student's problem behavior. Then, explain how a functional behavioral assessment could be used to determine the function of the behavior. Next, describe a contingency-based self-management plan that could be used to address the problem behavior within the context of its apparent function.

8. What do authorities recommend regarding instruction of preschoolers diagnosed with ADHD?

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Test Answer Key 7.1 Multiple Choice Questions 1. b 2. a 3. b 4. a 5. d 6. c 7. b 8. d 9. b 10. d 11. d 12. c 13. a 14. a 15. c 16. b 17. d 18. c 19. d 20. a 21. a 22. d 23. c 24. a 25. b 26. b 27. d 28. a 29. d 30. b 29 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

31. d 32. c 33. c 34. b 35. a 7.2 True/False Questions 1. True 2. False 3. False 4. True 5. True 6. False 7. False 8. False 9. True 10. True 7.3 Short Answer Questions 1. When the original law now known as I DEA was passed in 1975, research on ADHD was in its infancy, and the advocacy base for children with ADHD was not well developed. By the time of the reauthorization of the law in 1990, there was substantial research on ADHD, and the major advocacy group was large and strong.

Nevertheless, their lobbying efforts were unsuccessful. The Department of Education did decide that students with ADHD could be eligible for special education services under the category of other health impaired and under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. Many professionals think that this is too roundabout a means of identification and are upset because Section 504 does not require an IEP. 2. Most authorities agree that a medical examination, a clinical interview, teacher and parent rating scales, and behavioral observations should be used to assess ADHD. The medical exam rules out other medical conditions. The clinical interview provides information about physical and psychological characteristics, family dynamics, and peer interactions. Several reliable rating scales have been developed to rate individuals on a variety of criteria. Behavioral observations can occur in several settings and are especially useful in learning how a person responds to tasks requiring sustained attention.

3. Answers will vary with elaboration on: behavioral inhibition, executive functions, delay of gratification, the "Marshmallow Experiment," adaptive behavior skills, social behavior problems, and coexisting conditions.

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4. If a student with ADHD is deficient in behavioral inhibition, it means that once he or she begins a task it is difficult for him or her to mentally switch to a new activity. The executive controls needed to "inhibit" a current activity and "startup" another are different for students with ADHD compared to students without ADHD. Supports include: allowing time between asking a student to do or say something and expecting the response (increased wait time); avoiding overloading the students working memory by providing information in smaller chunks or providing a visual; creating routinized procedures for daily transitions; preparing students for the type of response that will be required when asking a question; and dividing instruction into consistent sequences throughout the day.

5. Students with ADHD are often able to give a socially acceptable answer when asked what the appropriate behavior in a given situation should be; however, when faced with choices in the actual situation, their deficits in behavioral inhibition can lead them to make choices impulsively and to react in inappropriate ways.

6. Many authorities now believe that not all children with ADHD are distracted by things in their environment so it is rare to see teachers using all components of Cruickshank's program (e.g., carrels). The extreme degree of classroom structure and teacher direction advocated by Cruickshank is also rarely seen today (they would be difficult to do in a general education classroom and students need to learn to be more independent). Methods still in use today are use of clear, predictable, uncomplicated routine and structure; presenting with small, uncomplicated tasks; and avoidance of tight timelines.

7. Answers will vary with elaboration on: F BA involves determining the consequences, antecedents, and setting events that maintain inappropriate behavior. Typical functions of inappropriate behavior of students with ADHD are to avoid work and to gain attention from peers or adults. Contingency-based self-management plans will vary but should illustrate having students keep track of their own behavior and then receiving consequences (usually in the form of rewards) based on their behavior.

8. Given that excessive activity and impulsivity are relatively normal for young children, a child diagnosed with A DHD at this age must present extraordinary challenges.

Because of the severity of the symptoms of preschoolers who have been diagnosed with ADHD, the importance of the educational principles of classroom structure, teacher direction, functional behavioral assessment, and contingency-based selfmanagement are all the more important. Because of their undeveloped selfmanagement skills, most recommend an even stronger emphasis on the use of contingencies in the form of praise, points, and tangible rewards.

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Chapter 8 Test Item File Daniel P. Hallahan

Exceptional Learners: An Introduction to Special Education Fifteenth Edition Daniel P. Hallahan, University of Virginia Paige C. Pullen, University of Florida James M. Kauffman, University of Virginia Prepared by Karen M. Cole, University of North Carolina Asheville

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Table of Contents

Chapter 8: Learners with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders .................... 1 Learning Outcome Quizzes ........................................................... 1 Application Exercises .................................................................. 17 Test Items .................................................................................... 26 Test Answer Key ......................................................................... 34

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Chapter 8: Learners with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders Learning Outcome Quizzes Learning Outcome 8.1: Understand the terminology used with, the definition and classification of, and the prevalence of learners with emotional or behavioral disorders.

[Q1] What is the most common type of problem exhibited by students who are placed in special education for EBD? 1. Aggressive, disruptive behavior [correct] 2. Imaginary friendships 3. Lack of close emotional ties 4. Social fear or disinterest [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Boys outnumber girls in displaying these behaviors by a ratio of 5 to 1 or more.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The most common types of problems exhibited by students who are placed in special education for EBD are externalizing—aggressive, acting-out, and disruptive behavior.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The most common types of problems exhibited by students who are placed in special education for EBD are externalizing—aggressive, acting-out, and disruptive behavior.

Many may, and probably do, lack close emotional ties. But such internalizing behaviors are much less likely to catch the attention of teachers and other professionals than externalizing behaviors are.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The most common types of problems exhibited by students who are placed in special education for EBD are externalizing—aggressive, acting-out, and disruptive behavior.

Many may, and probably do, show social fear or disinterest. But such internalizing behaviors are much less likely to catch the attention of teachers and other professionals than externalizing behaviors are.

[Q2] Which aspect of the federal definition of E BD has been most widely criticized?

1. The inclusion of children with schizophrenia 2. The exclusion of children deemed socially maladjusted [correct] 3. The emphasis on students’ inability to build and maintain satisfactory relationships with peers and teachers 4. The inclusion of children specifically designated as having conduct disorder 1 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The fact that students deemed socially maladjusted are specifically excluded is most controversial.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] The term socially maladjusted is not clearly defined in the legislation. Some states and localities have interpreted socially maladjusted to be the equivalent of conduct disorder—aggressive, disruptive, and antisocial behavior The A PA and the CCBD have condemned this practice, which has no scientific basis.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Few experts would argue against the inclusion of students who are unable to build and maintain satisfactory relationships. It is the exclusion of children who are deemed socially maladjusted that is most problematic and has been widely argued against.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Children with conduct disorder are not specifically named in the federal definition. In fact, some states and localities have equated conduct disorder with social maladjustment, which means students identified with conduct disorder are not eligible for special education services.

[Q3] What percentage of the school-aged population exhibits serious and persistent emotional/behavioral problems, according to credible studies in the United States and other countries?

1. Less than 1% 2. 2.5% 3. 6–10% [correct] 4. 10–12% [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] At least 6–10% of children and youths of school age exhibit serious and persistent emotional/behavioral problems.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] At least 6–10% of children and youths of school age exhibit serious and persistent emotional/behavioral problems.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] However, fewer than 1% of schoolchildren in the United States are identified as having emotional disturbance for special education purposes. Researchers view this problem of underidentification is viewed as a serious health risk.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] At least 6–10% of children and youths of school age exhibit serious and persistent 2 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

emotional/behavioral problems.

[Q4] Many educators prefer Forness and Knitzer’s (1992) proposed definition of E BD for all but which of the following reasons?

1. It includes both disorders of emotions and disorders of behavior, and it recognizes that they may occur either separately or in combination.

2. It is sensitive to ethnic and cultural differences.

3. It recognizes that students can have multiple disabilities.

4. It specifies that even students with minor or transient problems or ordinary responses to stress can meet the criteria for E BD. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The inclusion of both disorders of emotion and disorders of behavior is an advantage of Forness and Knitzer’s proposed definition.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Forness and Knitzer’s proposed definition is sensitive to ethnic and cultural differences.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Forness and Knitzer’s proposed definition acknowledges that students can have multiple disabilities.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] The Forness and Knitzer definition specifically excludes students who have minor or transient problems or ordinary stress responses.

[Q5] Which of the following students is displaying externalizing behavior?

1. Hartley struggles with significant anxiety both at school and at home.

2. Paige engages in significant negative self-talk as her emotions are escalating.

3. Kunto shows signs of depression, including being withdrawn and uncommunicative.

4. Dell argues with his teacher and throws things as his emotions escalate. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Externalizing behaviors are those that involve striking out against others. Anxiety and depression are internalizing behaviors.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Paige is demonstrating an internalizing behavior. Externalizing behaviors are those that involve striking out against others.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3]

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Externalizing behaviors are those that involve striking out against others. Anxiety and depression are internalizing behaviors.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Externalizing behaviors are those that involve striking out against others.

Learning Outcome 8.2: Understand how learners with emotional or behavioral disorders are identified and the causes of emotional or behavioral disorders.

[Q1] Which of the following statements regarding school practices and the development of E BD is false?

1. Children’s emotional or behavioral problems may become better or worse, depending on how they are managed in the classroom.

2. A child’s temperament and social competence can interact with the behaviors of their peers and teachers, contributing to emotional or behavior problems.

3. Teachers may be less likely to use evidence-based management and instructional practices with students with E BD. 4. Researchers have identified a list of the specific school experiences and teacher behaviors that contribute to E BD. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This statement is true. It is inevitable that school experiences will interact in some way to worsen or lessen a student’s inappropriate behavior.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement is true and reflects one of the reasons that it is difficult to identify which particular school experiences contribute to a child’s behavioral difficulties.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Teachers are less likely to provide evidence-based practices, such as increased opportunity to respond and positive feedback, to students with E BD. These teacher behaviors may contribute to students’ negative perceptions of the school climate.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] We don’t know specifically which school experiences and teacher behaviors contribute to EBD. What we do know is that teachers should carefully reflect on how their academic instruction, approaches to behavior management, and expectations may contribute to student misconduct.

[Q2] All but which of the following have been named as causes of E BD? 1. Poor parenting practices [correct] 2. Biological disorders and diseases 4 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

3. Pathological family relationships 4. Undesirable experiences in school [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Even in cases of severe E BD, researchers haven’t found consistent and valid evidence that allows blaming parents for their children’s EBD. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Any one, or a combination, of biological disorders and diseases, pathological family relationships, and undesirable school experiences can contribute to causing E BD. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Any one, or a combination, of biological disorders and diseases, pathological family relationships, and undesirable school experiences can contribute to causing E BD. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Any one, or a combination, of biological disorders and diseases, pathological family relationships, and undesirable school experiences can contribute to causing E BD. [Q3] Which of the following statements about E BD is false?

1. It’s easier to identify disordered behaviors than it is to define and classify their types and causes.

2. There is a one-to-one relationship between temperament and E VD. [correct] 3. Because it’s so easy to identify emotional and behavioral disorders, relatively few schools bother to use systematic screening procedures.

4. The more ACEs that children have, the more likely they are to have adverse outcomes.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Although EBD may be difficult to define and types may be difficult to classify, most students with EBD don’t escape the notice of their teachers.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] This statement is false. A difficult child might be handled so well or a child with an easy temperament treated so poorly that the outcome will be quite different from what one would predict on the basis of initial behavioral style.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Teachers tend to recognize E BD when they see it, particularly if the student is exhibiting externalizing behaviors.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Adverse childhood experiences reflect trauma that a student has experienced. Higher numbers of ACES correlate with poorer outcomes for both children and adults.

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[Q4] Which of the following responses best reflects what we know about the cause of E BD in a majority of cases?

1. In most cases, the cause of E BD is often unknown. [correct] 2. Biological factors are most frequently responsible for E BD. 3. In the majority of cases, E BD is caused by issues and behaviors within families.

4. Students develop E BD most often in response to problematic school-based situations.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] It is true, though, that some factors might give a child a predisposition to exhibit problem behavior, and others might precipitate or trigger it.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Although biological, family-related, and school-based factors may contribute to E BD, in the majority of cases, no conclusive empirical evidence indicates that any one of these factors is directly responsible for causing it.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Although biological, family-related, and school-based factors may contribute to E BD, in the majority of cases, no conclusive empirical evidence indicates that any one of these factors is directly responsible for causing it.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Although biological, family-related, and school-based factors may contribute to E BD, in the majority of cases, no conclusive empirical evidence indicates that any one of these factors is directly responsible for causing it.

[Q5] What is the role of medication in addressing the needs of students with E BD? 1. Medication can be very helpful in treating E BD, but it is seldom the only intervention that is needed. [correct] 2. Medication is largely ineffective in the treatment of E BD because the issue is an emotional one, not a biological one.

3. Medication is not necessary if the school provides mental health services to students with EBD. 4. Medication is significantly less effective when the students exhibit internalizing behaviors.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] In addition to providing medication, experts also typically address the psychological and social aspects of the disorder.

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[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] In most cases, the causes of E BD are unknown and/or reflect multiple factors, both emotional and biological.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Medication can be quite helpful for some students, even those who receive mental health support.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This statement is unsupported by research.

Learning Outcome 8.3: Learn about the psychological and behavioral characteristics of learners with emotional or behavioral disorders.

[Q1] Which of the following problems is most commonly exhibited by the average child with E BD? 1. Aggression and defiance [correct] 2. Withdrawal and inattentiveness 3. Above-average intelligence 4. High academic achievement [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Other common behaviors among students with E BD are teasing, yelling, destructiveness, vandalism, and extortion.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Although some students with E BD may be withdrawn and inattentive, students with E B D typically get noticed because their aggressive and defiant behaviors are readily displayed.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The average student with E BD has an IQ that falls into the dull-normal range (about 90); relatively few score above the bright-normal range.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Students with E BD often have mild intellectual disabilities or fall into the category of slow learners. They are seldom academically advanced.

[Q2] Rain is a nine-year-old boy with E BD. If he is like the typical child with E BD, his IQ score probably falls in which range on standardized tests?

1. 75–85 2. 85–95 [correct] 7 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

3. 105–115 4. 115–125 [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Students with E BD typically have I Qs measured at about 90. Intelligence tests aren’t perfect instruments, and one can argue that E BD might prevent children from scoring as high as they are capable of scoring. Still, the IQs for these students do indicate lower ability to perform tasks, and the lower scores are consistent with impairment in other areas of functioning (e.g., academic achievement and social skills).

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Relatively few students with E BD have IQ scores of higher than 90. Intelligence tests aren’t perfect instruments, and one can argue that E BD might prevent children from scoring as high as they are capable of scoring. Still, the I Qs for these students do indicate lower ability to perform tasks, and the lower scores are consistent with impairment in other areas of functioning (e.g., academic achievement and social skills).

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Relatively few students with E BD have IQ scores of higher than 90. Intelligence tests aren’t perfect instruments, and one can argue that E BD might prevent children from scoring as high as they are capable of scoring. Still, the I Qs for these students do indicate lower ability to perform tasks, and the lower scores are consistent with impairment in other areas of functioning (e.g., academic achievement and social skills).

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Relatively few students with E BD have IQ scores of higher than 90. Intelligence tests aren’t perfect instruments, and one can argue that E BD might prevent children from scoring as high as they are capable of scoring. Still, the IQs for these students do indicate lower ability to perform tasks, and the lower scores are consistent with impairment in other areas of functioning (e.g., academic achievement and social skills).

[Q3] Which of the following statements about bullying is false?

1. Defining and identifying bullying is difficult.

2. Interventions to reduce bullying behavior have been shown to be highly successful. [correct] 3. While teachers often label physical aggression as bullying, they often fail to identify teasing, name-calling, and verbal aggression as bullying.

4. Students report higher rates of bullying than teachers do.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] No one set of behaviors describes a bully, so definitions of bullying vary widely.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] While a few programs have been shown to have reduced bullying and victimization in 8 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

schools, in most cases, the effects were statistically insignificant.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] When these behaviors are overlooked, bullying can escalate, leading to hostile environments in schools.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] As many as 30%–80% of students have been the victim of bullying in school.

[Q4] Which of the following statements is true?

1. Depression is not a widespread problem among children and adolescents.

2. The nature of depression in children and adolescents is quite different from that of adults.

3. Suicide is one of the leading causes of death among young people. [correct] 4. Antidepressant medications have not been successful in helping young people with depression.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Recently, mental health workers and special educators have begun to realize that depression is a widespread and serious problem among children and adolescents.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] In both children and adults, the indications of depression include disturbances of mood or feelings, inability to think or concentrate, lack of motivation, and decreased physical well-being.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Depression, especially when severe and accompanied by a sense of hopelessness, is linked to suicide and suicide attempts.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] When depression has a biological cause, antidepressants can be helpful in treating students experiencing it. However, antidepressant use must be carefully considered because it can lead to other problems.

[Q5] To what do behavioral psychologists attribute withdrawal and depression?

1. Internal conflicts 2. Unconscious motivations 3. Failures in social learning [correct] 4. Internal conflicts and unconscious motivations [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] 9 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Proponents of the psychoanalytic approach are likely to see internal conflicts and unconscious motivations as the underlying cause of withdrawal and depression.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Proponents of the psychoanalytic approach are likely to see internal conflicts and unconscious motivations as the underlying cause of withdrawal and depression.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] This view is supported by more empirical research data than other views.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Proponents of the psychoanalytic approach are likely to see internal conflicts and unconscious motivations as the underlying cause of withdrawal and depression.

Learning Outcome 8.4: Understand some of the educational considerations for students with emotional or behavioral disorders, and how professionals assess progress to help plan educational strategies.

[Q1] Which of the following teacher actions has research found to be correlated with reduced problem behavior in the classroom?

1. Allowing unstructured free time each day 2. Separating students with E BD from other students 3. Offering effective instruction [correct] 4. Being consistent in punishing problem behavior [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] There is little, if any, evidence that providing unstructured free time each day is likely to decrease problem behavior. In fact, one would expect inappropriate behavior to increase as structure decreases.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] There is little, if any, evidence that separating students with E BD from their peers is likely to decrease problem behavior.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] When teachers provide excellent academic instruction, they reduce problem behaviors and increase academic skills.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] When the classroom focus is on external control of students’ behavior, academic instruction and social learning are too often secondary or almost entirely neglected.

[Q2] In cases where students with E BD have engaged in serious misbehavior, which of the 10 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

following questions is most frequently used as educators decide how to respond?

1. Is there a zero tolerance policy in effect?

2. Was anyone hurt as a result of the misbehavior?

3. Is the behavior a manifestation of the student’s disability? [correct] 4. Were there witnesses to the inappropriate behavior?

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The most commonly asked question in cases of serious misbehavior by E BD students is whether or not the behavior results from the student’s disability.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The most commonly asked question in cases of serious misbehavior by E BD students is whether or not the behavior results from the student’s disability.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] The thinking is that it would be unfair to punish a student if their behavior results directly from their disability.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The most commonly asked question in cases of serious misbehavior by E BD students is whether or not the behavior results from the student’s disability.

[Q3] All but which of the following strategies have been shown to be effective in serving students with EBD? 1. Using systematic, data-based interventions 2. Using zero tolerance policies that clearly define unacceptable behavior [correct] 3. Providing multiple opportunities for students to practice new skills 4. Engaging in continuous assessment and monitoring of progress [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Applying research-based interventions systematically and consistently is effective practice.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Zero tolerance policies for students with disabilities are highly controversial and are often deemed ineffective.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Skills should not be taught in isolation but instead applied directly in everyday situations through modeling, rehearsal, and guided practice.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Teachers should conduct direct, daily assessment of performance and use the results to 11 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

guide their planning.

[Q4] Which of the following statements about students with E DB is false?

1. Students with E BD have higher dropout rates and lower graduation rates than students in other groups.

2. Students with E BD typically have low grades and other unsatisfactory academic outcomes.

3. Students with E BD are often placed in highly restrictive settings.

4. Students with E BD tend to struggle academically but have relatively stable lives outside the school. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This statement is true; students with E BD often have low grades and unsatisfactory academic outcomes.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement is true; students with E BD have higher dropout rates and lower graduation rates than other groups.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement is true. However, even when students are placed in separate schools and classes, educators hope for reintegration into the mainstream.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Students with E BD typically have family problems and a variety of difficulties in the community.

[Q5] All but which of the following strategies are helpful in teaching students with E BD to follow peer models of appropriate behavior?

1. Teaching them which behaviors are worthy of emulating 2. Teaching them which peers are the best models of behavior 3. Teaching them where, when, and how to demonstrate specific behaviors 4. Teaching them all subjects in the general education classroom [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Students with E BD are unlikely to benefit from incidental social learning; they must be taught specifically what behaviors are desirable and when/where to exhibit them.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Students with E BD are unlikely to easily identify which peers are demonstrating behaviors worth emulating. They must be given direct instruction about whom and what 12 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

to imitate.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Explicit instruction over lengthy periods of time is required for students to be able to successfully emulate the behavior of their peers in the general education classroom.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Students with E BD are unlikely to benefit from simply being present in the general education classroom because incidental social learning is insufficient to address their disabilities.

Learning Outcome 8.5: Learn about issues that should be considered with respect to early intervention and transition to adulthood for individuals with emotional or behavioral disorders.

[Q1] All but which of the following reasons explain why early, comprehensive, intense, and sustained intervention for students with E BD is so rare?

1. Schools are not legally required to provide services for preschoolers with disabilities. [correct] 2. Teachers and parents worry about the negative effects of labeling a very young child as EBD. 3. People who work with and care for young children may not be familiar with early signs of problems.

4. School personnel and parents are optimistic that young children will grow out of bad behavior as they continue to develop.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] IDEA requires schools to provide early intervention for children of preschool age.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] People who work with and care for young children are often reluctant to assign a label, particularly one as potentially stigmatizing as E BD, to their charges.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] It can be difficult to determine which behaviors are developmentally appropriate and which are atypical, particularly since many preschoolers without E BD have tantrums, throw things, and demonstrate other behaviors associated with E BD. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Taking this view can result in students missing out on early intervention that might have reduced the severity of their E BD. [Q2] Tad is a 15-year-old youth with a long-standing history of school failure and serious 13 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

behavioral offenses. He is currently in prison and receives no special education services. Which of the following statements best describes the most likely reason Tad is not receiving services?

1. IDEA does not apply to prison schools or juvenile facilities.

2. Tad is considered socially maladjusted and therefore is not eligible for services. [correct] 3. Tad lost the right to a free, appropriate, public education when he was convicted of a serious offense.

4. Tad has refused to participate in special education programming.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The education of students who are incarcerated is governed by the same laws that apply to those who are not incarcerated, though the laws aren ’t always carefully implemented.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] The current federal definition of E BD appears to allow denial of special education services to a large number of young people who exhibit extremely serious misbehavior and have long histories of school failure.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The right to an education does not end with a criminal conviction.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The most likely reason Tad is not receiving services is that social maladjustment is specifically excluded from the definition of E BD. [Q3] Among students with EBD, which of the following are least likely to have positive outcomes?

1. Children and adolescents who are shy, anxious, or neurotic 2. Children and adolescents who are diagnosed with depression 3. Children and adolescents with conduct disorders [correct] 4. Children and adolescents who, as preschoolers, were provided with early intervention for behaviors associated with E BD [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] It is the conduct-disordered (hyperaggressive) child or youth whose adulthood is most likely to be characterized by socially intolerable behavior and lack of social competence.

About half the children who are hyperaggressive will have problems that require legal intervention or psychiatric care when they are adults.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2]

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It is the conduct-disordered (hyperaggressive) child or youth whose adulthood is most likely to be characterized by socially intolerable behavior and lack of social competence.

About half the children who are hyperaggressive will have problems that require legal intervention or psychiatric care when they are adults.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] It is the conduct-disordered (hyperaggressive) child or youth whose adulthood is most likely to be characterized by socially intolerable behavior and lack of social competence.

About half the children who are hyperaggressive will have problems that require legal intervention or psychiatric care when they are adults.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] It is the conduct-disordered (hyperaggressive) child or youth whose adulthood is most likely to be characterized by socially intolerable behavior and lack of social competence.

About half the children who are hyperaggressive will have problems that require legal intervention or psychiatric care when they are adults.

[Q4] Why is it particularly challenging to serve secondary students with E BD? 1. Because schools can’t afford the commercially prepared programs that research has shown to be effective 2. Because these students are generally popular with their peers and act inappropriately as a means of getting attention 3. Because their E BD is correlated to hormonal changes that make it virtually impossible to reach them during adolescence 4. Because their behavioral characteristics and academic skills vary so widely [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] There are few commercially prepared programs, if any, that have been shown to be effective in helping students with E DB. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Adolescents with E BD often behave in ways that prevent them from being liked, accepted, and helped by classmates.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] While hormones may play a role in the way an adolescent’s EBD is manifested, the main reason that secondary students with E BD are so hard to serve is that each one needs a program individualized for their specific needs.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] It’s hardly realistic to suggest that any single type of program or model will be appropriate for youths with E BD. [Q5] 15 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Which of the following statements about programs designed for adolescents with E BD is false?

1. Some students with E BD are placed in alternative schools that offer highly individualized programs in both setting and content.

2. Some students with E BD are taught in regular public high school classes.

3. Some students with E BD engage in work-study programming that combines vocational education, job experience, and academic study.

4. Some students with E BD are placed in private or public residential schools, but this placement is illegal. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Alternative schools are a common way of delivering services to students with E BD. Remember that each student’s placement is individualized to meet specific needs.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Given the typical outcomes for students with E BD, the number of students served in regular high school classes is likely quite small, but it’s not unheard of. Remember that each student’s placement is individualized to meet specific needs.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Work-study programs are common for students with E BD. Remember that each student’s placement is individualized to meet specific needs.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] It is not illegal to place a student in a residential school if that is the placement that best meets the student’s needs.

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Application Exercises Application Exercise 8.1: Bullying Learning Outcome 8.3: Learn about the psychological and behavioral characteristics of learners with emotional or behavioral disorders.

[Q1] Review Pearson e-Text Video Example 8.4 and read the section of the text called Responsive Instruction: Meeting the Needs of Students with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders—Strategies for Reducing Bullying.

Scenario: It’s the start of third period, and Mrs. Rodriguez’s students start to troop into the room. Mrs. Rodriguez is bustling around, getting materials ready for the lesson, which gives you the opportunity to observe the students and their informal social interactions. You note that some students cluster in groups of two or three, talking and laughing, while others head to their desks and sit there quietly.

At a table in the back, you see Eve and Jocelyn working together on something, presumably putting last-minute touches on a poster that they’re making. They are talking animatedly and seem to be having a disagreement over whether or not they should do something Eve thinks will improve the work. Eve raises her voice and speaks in a sharp tone to Jocelyn; Jocelyn shrugs and indicates that Eve can make the change to the project. Upon hearing Eve's raised voice, Mrs. Rodriguez says, “Eve? Jocelyn?

Everything okay?” The girls nod and Mrs. Rodriguez resumes working at her desk.

In another part of the room, you see Jack moving along behind Taylor as Taylor goes to turn in some paperwork to Mrs. Rodriguez. Every time Taylor moves, Jack mimics the action and exaggerates it in unflattering ways. Taylor walks with a slight limp, so as Jack is walking, he limps dramatically. Some of the other students are watching and laughing, which makes Jack behave even more outrageously with his actions. Taylor hears the laughter, turns around, sees Jack, and laughs, but in his face you can see his discomfort. Mrs. Rodriguez, hearing the laughter, looks up and raises an eyebrow, but doesn’t see anything amiss at that moment.

Jessica and Ivy, two of the most popular girls in the school, are looking at a social media site together on Jessica’s phone. You hear Jessica say, sneeringly, “Ha! Look at Adrina’s post! She is going out with Henry—I can’t believe he broke up with me and is now dating her.” Then you see her set her jaw and begin typing something. She says to Ivy, “I just posted that Adrina is adopted because her parents couldn’t bear the sight of her. I also said that only somebody as desperate as Henry would be going out with her.

Maybe now she’ll get the message—I told her not to be posting things about him.” Ivy laughs, saying, “You’d think she’d be smart enough to learn from our other posts about her—we aren’t going to stop until she learns her lesson.”

Overhearing this, Mrs. Rodriguez says, “Jessica. Ivy. We’ve talked about this. Stop it now.” She then calls the class to order and begins the lesson.

Question: Evaluate each of the interactions in this scenario. Do you think bullying is 17 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

taking place? Why or why not?

[Q1 Model Response] Since we only have a small snapshot of student behaviors, we can’t be sure that any of these behaviors reflect bullying. However, there are some areas of concern that, as the video makes clear, a teacher would need to consider carefully and monitor closely.

Eve and Jocelyn’s behaviors are not likely to reflect bullying. Given what we know, this interaction seems like a minor disagreement resolved between the girls.

Jack’s mimicking of Taylor is cause for concern; while it’s possible that this is a one-off behavior, it may also represent a pattern of teasing and harassment. Jack is clearly engaging in this behavior to get the attention of other students and his actions are belittling in nature, focusing on Taylor in a negative way. While it’s definitely true that this behavior is unkind and unhelpful, it’s important to note that we don’t yet have enough information to be sure that this is a bullying situation.

Jessica and Ivy’s behavior almost certainly reflects bullying—the post about Adrina was clearly intended to cause embarrassment and pain and it appears that this isn’t the first time the girls have been unkind to Adrina. Intentionally hurting or harassing another student is a reprehensible behavior, and when behaviors of this nature occur over time, we can be even more certain that bullying is taking place.

[Q2] Review Pearson e-Text Video Example 8.4 and read the section of the text called Responsive Instruction: Meeting the Needs of Students with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders—Strategies for Reducing Bullying.

Scenario: It’s the start of third period, and Mrs. Rodriguez’s students start to troop into the room. Mrs. Rodriguez is bustling around, getting materials ready for the lesson, which gives you the opportunity to observe the students and their informal social interactions. You note that some students cluster in groups of two or three, talking and laughing, while others head to their desks and sit there quietly.

At a table in the back, you see Eve and Jocelyn working together on something, presumably putting last-minute touches on a poster that they’re making. They are talking animatedly and seem to be having a disagreement over whether or not they should do something Eve thinks will improve the work. Eve raises her voice and speaks in a sharp tone to Jocelyn; Jocelyn shrugs and indicates that Eve can make the change to the project. Upon hearing Eve's raised voice, Mrs. Rodriguez says, “Eve? Jocelyn?

Everything okay?” The girls nod and Mrs. Rodriguez resumes working at her desk.

In another part of the room, you see Jack moving along behind Taylor as Taylor goes to turn in some paperwork to Mrs. Rodriguez. Every time Taylor moves, Jack mimics the action and exaggerates it in unflattering ways. Taylor walks with a slight limp, so as Jack is walking, he limps dramatically. Some of the other students are watching and laughing, which makes Jack behave even more outrageously with his actions. Taylor hears the laughter, turns around, sees Jack, and laughs, but in his face you can see his 18 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

discomfort. Mrs. Rodriguez, hearing the laughter, looks up and raises an eyebrow, but doesn’t see anything amiss at that moment.

Jessica and Ivy, two of the most popular girls in the school, are looking at a social media site together on Jessica’s phone. You hear Jessica say, sneeringly, “Ha! Look at Adrina’s post! She is going out with Henry—I can’t believe he broke up with me and is now dating her.” Then you see her set her jaw and begin typing something. She says to Ivy, “I just posted that Adrina is adopted because her parents couldn’t bear the sight of her. I also said that only somebody as desperate as Henry would be going out with her.

Maybe now she’ll get the message—I told her not to be posting things about him.” Ivy laughs, saying, “You’d think she’d be smart enough to learn from our other posts about her—we aren’t going to stop until she learns her lesson.”

Overhearing this, Mrs. Rodriguez says, “Jessica. Ivy. We’ve talked about this. Stop it now.” She then calls the class to order and begins the lesson.

Additional Information: During another observation in Mrs. Rodriguez’s class the next day, you pay careful attention to the students whose behavior you particularly noticed yesterday. You note that Eve and Jocelyn enter the classroom together, put away their materials, and sit together talking comfortably and casually. Mrs. Rodriguez compliments them on their poster and they both smile proudly.

You shift your attention to Jack as he enters the classroom. He puts away his materials, then walks near Taylor’s desk. After making sure Mrs. Rodriguez isn’t looking, he shoves Taylor’s books to the floor and says in a sneering voice, “Oh, so sorry, I tripped” and then laughs. At the sound of the books hitting the floor, Mrs. Rodriguez looks up and frowns. She notices Taylor’s crimson face and Jack’s smug smile and says, “Jack, I’d like you to change seats to come sit over here by me.” Jack moves, still smiling snarkily at Taylor as he does so. Mrs. Rodriguez walks over to Taylor and says, “Just ignore him. He’s trying to get a rise out of you.”

Mrs. Rodriguez moves over to where Jack is now seated and says, “I am seeing a pattern recently where you are picking on Taylor. I want to be clear that I will not tolerate bullying, so I expect you to cut it out as of this moment. Our classroom is a place where we show mutual respect to each other and I expect you to behave accordingly.”

Question: Evaluate the teacher's behaviors in terms of effectiveness. What is she doing well? What might she add, subtract, or improve?

[Q2 Model Response] Mrs. Rodriguez was monitoring the interactions between Jack and Taylor—a good move. Since Jack showed concerning behavior yesterday, Mrs. Rodriguez is clearly on the lookout for a pattern of behavior, and, upon noticing one developing, she moves Jack away from Taylor, tells him she has noticed his unkind treatment, and reminded him of the expectations for his behavior as part of the classroom community. She has established herself as an authority figure in school safety and has taken action before Jack’s bullying behaviors escalate further.

19 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

These are all good choices on Mrs. Rodriguez’s part. However, they do not go far enough. It would have been good if, seeing Jack, Ivy, and Jessica’s behaviors the day before, she had intervened then instead of waiting; even if the behaviors were one-offs, they are still unkind and unacceptable and should be dealt with without delay. Mrs. Rodriguez could have had a conversation with the class about bullying, why it’s unacceptable, and what students should do if they are experiencing it. She should also let them know clearly what the consequences will be when she sees bullying happen.

Further, Mrs. Rodriguez’s response to Taylor is poor; the victim of bullying should be supported instead of being told it’s their job to not react to the bully. Mrs. Rodriguez might have connected Taylor with the school counselor to help process the feelings Jack has evoked.

[Q3] Review Pearson e-Text Video Example 8.4 and read the section of the text called Responsive Instruction: Meeting the Needs of Students with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders—Strategies for Reducing Bullying.

Scenario: It’s the start of third period, and Mrs. Rodriguez’s students start to troop into the room. Mrs. Rodriguez is bustling around, getting materials ready for the lesson, which gives you the opportunity to observe the students and their informal social interactions. You note that some students cluster in groups of two or three, talking and laughing, while others head to their desks and sit there quietly.

At a table in the back, you see Eve and Jocelyn working together on something, presumably putting last-minute touches on a poster that they’re making. They are talking animatedly and seem to be having a disagreement over whether or not they should do something Eve thinks will improve the work. Eve raises her voice and speaks in a sharp tone to Jocelyn; Jocelyn shrugs and indicates that Eve can make the change to the project. Upon hearing Eve's raised voice, Mrs. Rodriguez says, “Eve? Jocelyn?

Everything okay?” The girls nod and Mrs. Rodriguez resumes working at her desk.

In another part of the room, you see Jack moving along behind Taylor as Taylor goes to turn in some paperwork to Mrs. Rodriguez. Every time Taylor moves, Jack mimics the action and exaggerates it in unflattering ways. Taylor walks with a slight limp, so as Jack is walking, he limps dramatically. Some of the other students are watching and laughing, which makes Jack behave even more outrageously with his actions. Taylor hears the laughter, turns around, sees Jack, and laughs, but in his face you can see his discomfort. Mrs. Rodriguez, hearing the laughter, looks up and raises an eyebrow, but doesn’t see anything amiss at that moment.

Jessica and Ivy, two of the most popular girls in the school, are looking at a social media site together on Jessica’s phone. You hear Jessica say, sneeringly, “Ha! Look at Adrina’s post! She is going out with Henry—I can’t believe he broke up with me and is now dating her.” Then you see her set her jaw and begin typing something. She says to Ivy, “I just posted that Adrina is adopted because her parents couldn’t bear the sight of her. I also said that only somebody as desperate as Henry would be going out with her.

20 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Maybe now she’ll get the message—I told her not to be posting things about him.” Ivy laughs, saying, “You’d think she’d be smart enough to learn from our other posts about her—we aren’t going to stop until she learns her lesson.”

Overhearing this, Mrs. Rodriguez says, “Jessica. Ivy. We’ve talked about this. Stop it now.” She then calls the class to order and begins the lesson.

Additional Information: Just as the period is ending, you observe Eve and Jocelyn standing together and talking to each other derisively about Adrina, who is clearly hearing everything that is said. You catch the phrases “doesn’t belong here,” “nobody can stand her,” and “should leave this school and save us all having to deal with her ugly face.” Unbeknownst to Eve and Jocelyn, however, Mrs. Rodriguez has walked up behind them, picking up on the last few insults they make toward Adrina. The bell rings and while the other students leave for lunch, Mrs. Rodriguez asks Eve and Jocelyn to remain behind. Mrs. Rodriguez uses the classroom phone to call the school counselor.

She says, “Two students in my class have been showing bullying behavior toward a third student for the last two weeks. I have spoken with them previously to ask them to stop, but they have continued to harass this student. I am reaching out to you because I know you are the main contact in our schoolwide bullying prevention program. I would like you to come and escort the girls to the office; I will call their parents and the parents of the bullied student to alert them that we’ll be setting up meetings with them.”

Question: Evaluate the teacher's behaviors in terms of effectiveness. What is she doing well? What might she add, subtract, or improve?

[Q3 Model Response] Mrs. Rodriguez, as a safety authority in the school, is putting her foot down and implementing the school’s protocol for dealing with bullying. She has connected Ivy and Jessica with the counselor and is having them escorted to the office—a good idea since when students know they are in trouble, they may not follow a directive to go see the principal. She has also indicated that she will be calling Jessica and Ivy’s parents.

Mrs. Rodriguez has waited too long to address Jessica and Ivy’s behavior. She should have intervened, following the school’s anti-bullying protocol, several days before.

Further, Mrs. Rodriguez has failed to address the bullying incident with Adrina directly, though she does indicate the intention to call Adrina’s parents. Ensuring that the victim receives support is a critical action in bullying situations; Mrs. Rodriguez could have also asked the school counselor to speak with Adrina, or she herself could have spent time with Adrina, processing what has been happening and letting Adrina know that the school is going to intervene.

Application Exercise 8.2: Structure and Routine Learning Outcome 8.4: Understand some of the educational considerations for students with emotional or behavioral disorders, and how professionals assess progress to help plan educational strategies.

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[Q1] Walkup: Review Pearson e-Text Video Example 8.5 and review the text section called How Can I Help? Students with E BD in the General Education Classroom.

Question: In the video, what actions has the teacher taken to minimize the risk that bathroom breaks and lunch times will trigger student behavior problems? Why do you think she chose these particular actions?

[Q1 Model Response] Regarding the bathroom, she took the entire class to the bathroom at the same time. It was efficient and safer than letting them go individually. She set clear expectations for them; she taught them what the routines were for these breaks. They practiced lining up in a specific order, one that varies weekly so all students have a turn at leading and ending the line. She instituted a practice of only two students going into the bathroom at a time; she also used instructional time well by having students work with flashcards as they waited for everyone to have their chance to use the restroom. She established how many paper towels students could use and how long they should leave the water running. Students received periodic reminders about these procedures to keep them on track.

Regarding the lunchroom, she developed and taught a structure because these particular students didn’t all have the ability to create their own internal structures. The practices reinforced basic manners like waiting until everyone was seated and taking a quiet five seconds before beginning to eat. They had structured lunch conversations as a way to reduce conflict and give them things to talk about. Each student had the opportunity to join in the low-stress conversation. She rotated students through the position of lunch leader, a way to make sure all students had a chance to demonstrate/develop responsibility and leadership skills.

The teacher chose the bathroom strategies primarily to prevent misbehavior, reduce wasted time, and ensure students safety. The lunch procedures were implemented to prevent misbehavior and ensure that lunches went smoothly, that conversations were pleasant, and that all students were made to feel part of the community. In general, much of what the teacher was teaching was simply in place to reinforce appropriate prosocial behavior.

[Q2] Walkup: Review Pearson e-Text Video Example 8.5 and review the text section called How Can I Help? Students with E BD in the General Education Classroom.

Question: Which of the skills listed in the text section called How Can I Help? are evident in the teacher's approaches to bathroom breaks and lunch?

[Q2 Model Response] The teacher is utilizing prevention strategies for individuals who are at risk of or who have emotional or behavioral disorders. She is using nonaversive strategies to manage behavior and has established consistent routines for bathroom breaks and for lunch 22 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

periods. She is clearly attuned to student behaviors, assessing both appropriate and problematic social behaviors of her students. She has established clear rules and expectations and supports students as they work to meet them.

[Q3] Walkup: Review Pearson e-Text Video Example 8.5 and review the text section called How Can I Help? Students with E BD in the General Education Classroom.

Question: Imagine that you are this teacher and you want to figure out a process for minimizing problem behavior when students enter the classroom each morning. What steps would you take to provide structure and to prevent inappropriate behavior?

[Q3 Model Response] Answers will vary, but might include some of the following strategies: •

Greet students at the door and welcome them to the classroom. Encourage reciprocal greetings where they say hello to the teacher and to each other.

•

Have a set routine for what students do when they come in each morning—put away backpacks, indicate lunch choice, get out needed materials, etc.

•

Post that routine and the daily schedule/learning targets so they are visible to students.

•

Monitor carefully. Gauge mood and affect as students enter the room; identify any student who might be upset or on the verge of making a bad choice. Intervene positively as necessary.

•

Once students have completed any activity that involves movement in and around the classroom, have them sit at their desks to complete a low-stress engaging activity.

Application Exercise 8.3: Tyra’s Behavior Learning Outcome 8.4: Understand some of the educational considerations for students with emotional or behavioral disorders, and how professionals assess progress to help plan educational strategies.

[Q1] Walkup: Review Pearson e-Text Video Example 8.7 and read the text section called Disciplinary Considerations.

Question: In the video, what behaviors do you see from Tyra and from her teacher that are intended to prevent Tyra from making poor choices when she is upset or frustrated?

Do you think this system is effective? Why or why not?

[Q1 Model Response] Tyra was clearly upset at the start of the video, and she moved herself away from her group. This action seems to indicate that she and her teacher have worked out a system for what Tyra should do when she starts feeling upset. After Tyra separated 23 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

herself from her peers, the teacher acknowledged the choice and then worked to refocus the other students on the work at hand. The teacher encouraged Tyra to get herself together and rejoin the group when she was ready. Tyra moved to her desk, an action that the teacher recognized as a good choice. Finally, the teacher encouraged Tyra to continue to use the cool-down strategy and then he reminded her that throwing things was not appropriate. Tyra then returned to her group.

This system seems to be effective; Tyra was able to prevent her emotions and behaviors from escalating. This system also allowed the other students in her group to continue on with their work. Tyra’s teacher identified the function of Tyra’s behavior as attention-seeking; he was able to give her positive attention because she used an effective strategy instead of making a poor choice. If Tyra had not known how to separate herself from the group and cool down, it’s likely the issues with her peers would have continued to escalate; if that happened, not only is it likely that significant instructional time would be lost, but it’s also entirely possible that the disagreement could have turned physically or verbally aggressive.

[Q2] Walkup: Review Pearson e-Text Video Example 8.7 and read the text section called Disciplinary Considerations.

Question: Imagine that instead of viewing Tyra's choice to distance herself from her peers as a good thing, the teacher instead moved to punish her to discourage that behavior. What outcomes might you anticipate in this case, especially if Tyra is a student with a behavioral/emotional disorder? Why do you say so?

[Q2 Model Response] While punishment may be appropriate in some cases of inappropriate behavior, it does not teach the student how to manage their emotions or how to demonstrate an acceptable alternative behavior. Punishment is intended to function as a deterrent. It is based on the hope that the student will stop doing the problematic behavior to avoid the unpleasant consequences and it actually sets up an adversarial position between the student and the teacher. If the teacher had punished Tyra instead of working with her to develop a plan of what to do when she gets upset, the situation might have devolved into a power struggle. Approaching the situation the way the teacher did reflects his intention to teach Tyra behavioral and emotion management skills that will serve her well throughout her life.

[Q3] Walkup: Review Pearson e-Text Video Example 8.7 and read the text section called Disciplinary Considerations.

Question: Let's assume that Tyra is a student with a behavioral/emotional disorder.

Imagine that one day, her regular teacher is out sick, and there is a substitute teacher in the classroom. Imagine that, as in the video, Tyra gets upset about something and separates herself from her peers. Since the substitute teacher doesn’t know about

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Tyra’s cool-down strategy, she insists that Tyra return to the group. Tyra refuses and the situation escalates, ending with Tyra throwing a pair of scissors, almost causing injury to another child. The substitute teacher sends Tyra to the school principal, Ms. Fairfax, who immediately suspends Tyra from school for three days. Evaluate the principal's decision in light of what you know regarding disciplinary considerations for students with EBD. [Q3 Model Response] Simply sending Tyra home for three days is a premature and problematic decision. I DE A discipline provisions are intended to ensure that the rights of students are protected even as the school works to maintain a safe environment. When students have emotional or behavioral disorders, disciplinary actions are particularly complicated because it is difficult to separate problematic behaviors (even dangerous ones) from the disability. Instead of immediately suspending Tyra, Ms. Fairfax needed to consider whether or not it was likely that Tyra’s behavior was a manifestation of her disability. If it were possible that it was (and given Tyra’s emotional/behavioral disorder, that seems likely), the principal should not have acted hastily. Instead, Ms. Fairfax should have taken time to consider the ramifications of punishing a student for engaging in misbehavior that is part of their disability. It would have been a much better idea for her to consult with special education personnel to make a manifestation determination, decide whether an interim alternative educational placement should be provided, and ensure that a positive, proactive behavioral intervention plan was in place for Tyra.

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Test Items 8.1 Multiple-Choice Questions 1. The most pervasive problem of children with E/BD is their a. imaginary friendships. b. aggression aimed at others. c. lack of close emotional ties. d. social fear or disinterest.

2. Which of the following statements about terminology is false? a. The federal government and most states have replaced the term emotionally disturbed with behaviorally disturbed. b. The term behaviorally disordered focuses attention on the clearly observable aspect of the problem. c. Many professional organizations and advocacy groups prefer the term emotional or behavior disorder. d. Prosocial behavior refers to desirable ways of behaving.

3. The problematic behavior of children and youth with E/BD tends to be a. exhibited more often in highly structured environments. b. indicative of a psychological processing problem. c. typified by a sudden onset of extremely inappropriate behavior. d. episodic, highly variable, and situation specific.

4. The federal definition of E/BD has been most widely criticized for its exclusion of children with a. autism. b. schizophrenia. c. social maladjustment. d. attention deficit disorder.

5. In contrast to the present federal definition, the proposed National Mental Health and Special Education Coalition definition of E/BD a. recognizes that disorders of emotion and behavior may occur separately or in combination. b. focuses only on problems that exist in a school setting. c. excludes students with schizophrenia. d. is less sensitive to ethnic and cultural differences.

6. Two broad dimensions of behavior disorders are 26 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

a. externalizing and internalizing. b. withdrawal and disinterest. c. exterior and interior. d. hostility and aggression.

7. Schizophrenia is associated the least with which of the following problems? a. delusions and hallucinations b. tendency to withdraw into their own private worlds c. seizures d. severe disorder of thinking 8. Comorbidity in persons with E/BD is a. common. b. unusual. c. extremely rare. d. part of the diagnosis.

9. According to the federal government, what percentage of the school-age population is identified for special education services under the category of "emotional disturbance?" a. less than 1% b. about 2% c. 3–5% d. 6–10% 10. What percentage of the school-aged population exhibits serious and persistent emotional/behavioral problems, according to credible studies in the United States. and other countries? a. less than 1% b. about 2% c. 6–10% d. 10–15%.

11. Each of the following statements is true about children with E/BD except a. aggressive acting-out behavior is most common. b. most students identified are psychotic. c. boys outnumber girls. d. juvenile delinquency and conduct disorder cannot be clearly distinguished from emotional disturbance.

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12. The causes of E/BD have been attributed to each of the following except a. biological disorders and diseases. b. pathological family relationships. c. undesirable school experiences. d. membership in a particular cultural group.

13. In the majority of cases, the cause of E/BD is a. biological. b. family-related. c. the result of multiple factors. d. school-based.

14. The term used to describe a biologically determined behavioral style is a. personality. b. temperament. c. learning style. d. attitude.

15. Which of the following statements about causes of E/BD is false? a. For most children with E/BD, no real evidence shows that biological factors are at the root of the disability. b. Causes are usually exclusively biological or exclusively psychological. c. Medication may be helpful in addressing the problems of students with E/BD. d. Factors like disease, malnutrition, and brain trauma can predispose children to develop E/BD. 16. Which of the following statements regarding school practices and development of E/BD is false? a. Children may become better or worse, depending on how they are managed in the classroom. b. A child's temperament and social competence interact with the behaviors of peers and teachers. c. Researchers have identified the set of specific school experiences contribute to the development of E/BD. d. Teachers need to be aware of how their academic instruction and behavior management approaches may contribute to students’ misconduct.

17. Despite problems in defining E/BD, most children with severe E/BD are easily recognized because a. teachers are trained in the use of behavior rating scales.

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b. systematic screening procedures are used in most schools. c. their behavior attracts immediate attention. d. most schools have psychologists on-site.

18. Bertram is a nine-year-old boy with E/BD. If he is like the typical child with E/BD, his IQ score probably falls in which range on standardized tests? a. dull–normal b. bright–normal c. normal d. superior 19. On standardized achievement tests, most students with E/BD perform a. at grade level. b. above grade level. c. at mental age level. d. below mental age level.

20. The most common problems exhibited by children with E/BD are a. withdrawn behaviors. b. internalizing behaviors. c. impulsive behaviors. d. externalizing behaviors.

21. Many social learning theorists and behavioral psychologists believe that aggression is a. a result of an overwhelming sense of frustration. b. a learned behavior. c. a result of subconscious motives. d. a defense mechanism used in distressing situations.

22. Erik is a sixth grader with E/BD who is highly aggressive. His teacher, Mr. Gregory, should be advised to try all of the following techniques with Erik except a. providing examples of nonaggressive responses in aggression-provoking circumstances. b. role-playing nonaggressive behavior with him. c. preventing him from receiving positive consequences for aggression. d. letting him "act out" his aggression freely.

23. Negative reinforcement a. results in an increase in positive behavior.

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b. is a more nuanced form of punishment c. is intended to decrease inappropriate behaviors. d. has little to no research to support its use.

24. Which of the following statements about depression is true? a. Depression is not a widespread problem among children and adolescents. b. The nature of depression in children and adolescents is quite different from that of adults. c. Suicide is among the leading causes of death among young people. d. Antidepressant medications have not been successful in helping young people with depression.

25. Which of the following statements regarding behavioral control and academic/social learning for students with E/BD is false? a. Too often, the focus is on academic instruction at the expense of social learning and student behavior. b. Excellent academic instruction can reduce misbehavior. c. Without effective behavior control, it is unlikely that academic and social learning will occur. d. Using behavior control strategies that involve the student as much as possible in self-control is an effective approach to classroom management.

26. Susan and Mike are looking to place their son, Max, in an effective educational program for students with E/BD. They should select a program that includes all of the following elements except a. systematic, data-based interventions. b. direct, daily assessment of performance. c. emphasis on high levels of accuracy in academic tasks. d. programming for transfer and maintenance.

27. In comparison to the percentage of students with most other disabilities, students with E/BD are more likely to be educated in a. general education classrooms. b. resource room programs. c. less restrictive settings. d. more restrictive settings.

28. Which of the following statements about instructional considerations for students with E/BD is true? a. Providing opportunities for incidental social learning is not an adequate method of addressing social difficulties.

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b. If social skills are improved, any academic deficits will improve to the point of not being an issue. c. Many incarcerated youths actually receive better instruction because they are in a highly structured environment. d. Kindness, concern, and academic expertise are sufficient qualities for teachers of students with E/BD. 29. Increasingly, researchers recognize that problem behavior occurs less frequently in the classroom when a. the teacher is offering effective instruction. b. the teacher allows unstructured free time each day. c. the teacher separates students with behavior problems from other students. d. the teacher consistently punishes each occurrence of problem behavior.

30. Which of the following concepts specific to discipline of students with disabilities is not identified as controversial by the text authors? a. determining if behavior is a manifestation of disability b. using of negative reinforcement c. providing alternative placements for education d. developing positive and proactive behavior intervention plans 31. Under IDEA, "functional behavioral assessment" (F BA) a. refers to assessment that is based on both psychoanalytic and behavioral principles. b. refers to a specific set of procedures designed to pinpoint the purpose of a student's behavior. c. is optional. d. is conducted by school psychologists.

32. With respect to monitoring the progress of students with E/BD, a. both academic and behavioral progress should be monitored. b. standardized assessments are more accurate than teacher rating scales. c. curriculum-based assessments are ineffective. d. teacher rating scales that assess behavior are sufficient to document progress.

33. Effective interventions for preschool children with E/BD that include defining and measuring behavior and rearranging the environment to teach and support more appropriate conduct are a. psychoeducational. b. humanistic.

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c. ecological. d. behavioral.

34. Which of the following is not a reason why early, comprehensive, intense, and sustained intervention is so rare? a. concern about labeling and stigma. b. lack of familiarity with the early signs of problems. c. optimism about a child's development (i.e., "he'll grow out of it"). d. parental apathy and disinterest.

35. Tad is a 15-year-old youth with a long-standing history of school failure and serious behavioral offenses. He is currently in prison and receives no special education services. A likely reason why Tad is not receiving services is that a. IDEA does not apply to prison schools. b. Tad is considered "socially maladjusted" and therefore is not eligible for services. c. since he has been convicted of a serious offense, Tad has lost the right to a free, appropriate public education. d. Tad has refused to participate in special education programming.

8.2 True/False Questions 1. Punishment may actually increase aggression under certain circumstances.

2. Some educators, researchers, and parents decry the trend toward including students with E/BD in the general education classroom.

3. Boys with externalizing forms of E/BD outnumber girls with externalizing forms of E/BD by about five to one.

4. Teachers typically name physical aggression as bullying but overlook name-calling and verbal aggression as bullying behaviors.

5. Teachers' informal identifications of students as having emotional or behavioral disorders are notoriously unreliable and invalid.

6. Zero tolerance policies have been effective in reducing serious misbehavior by students with E/BD. 7. The academic achievement of students with E/BD has not been found to be related to teachers’ advanced training, certification, or years of teaching experience.

8. A student with disabilities cannot be expelled from school.

9. "Manifestation determination" means that the circumstances surrounding a particular incident are not weighed in deciding what the consequences should be.

10. Transition from school to work is usually not a significant problem for those with E/B D because they tend to be so independent.

8.3 Short Answer Questions 32 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Describe two misunderstandings that seem to contribute to a common viewpoint in society that E/BD is not a "real" disorder.

2. Discuss the controversy associated with the present federal definition of E/BD and the advantages of the National Mental Health and Special Education Coalition definition.

3. Why do estimates of the prevalence of E/BD vary so much across different studies?

4. What are the four factors thought to contribute to E/BD and what is the degree to which they are thought to be responsible for E/BD? 5. What procedures are used to identify students with E/BD? 6. Differentiate between externalizing and internalizing behavior disorders by writing two brief case descriptions of students with these types of E/BD. 7. Write a brief case description of a student with E/BD and explain why this student's problems need to be addressed with a balance of behavioral control strategies and academic and social learning techniques.

8. "Zero tolerance" in the school system is similar to "mandatory sentencing" in the legal system. Provide an example illustrating zero tolerance and why this policy is sometimes considered to be unfair by teachers, administrators, and parents.

9. Describe the difficulties related to identifying preschool children with E/BD, and explain why "preventive efforts seem to have a good chance of success."

10. Discuss factors that need to be considered for the transition from school to work for an adolescent with E/BD.

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Test Answer Key 8.1 Multiple Choice Questions 1. c 2. a 3. d 4. c 5. a 6. a 7. c 8. a 9. a 10. c 11. b 12. d 13. c 14. b 15. b 16. c 17. c 18. a 19. d 20. d 21. b 22. d 23. a 24. c 25. a 26. c 27. d 28. a 29. a 30. b 34 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

31. b 32. a 33. d 34. d 35. b 8.2 True/False Questions 1. True 2. True 3. True 4. True 5. False 6. False 7. True 8. False 9. False 10. False 8.3 Short Answer Questions 1. There is an idea that children with E/B D aren't really disturbed, just a "pain in the neck." Some people don't understand (or believe) that children can be both disturbed and disturbing. Also, there is an idea that if a person has a disorder, that disorder would be exhibited all the time (as consistently as intellectual or physical disabilities).

2. One of the most controversial aspects of the federal definition is its exclusion of children who are socially maladjusted (also called conduct disorder in many states) but not emotionally disturbed. Professional organizations have condemned this practice, which has no empirical basis. It results in huge numbers of students being excluded from special education services. The N MHSE definition uses terminology reflecting current professional preferences for minimizing stigma; it includes both disorders of emotion and behavior and recognizes that they can occur separately or in combination; it is school-centered but recognizes that disorders exhibited outside the school settings are important; it is sensitive to ethnic and cultural differences; it does not include minor or transient problems; it acknowledges the importance of prereferral interventions but does not require slavish implementation in extreme cases; it acknowledges that students can have multiple disabilities; and it includes the full range of emotional or behavioral disorders without arbitrary exclusions.

3. There has been no standard and reliable definition or screening instrument. Juvenile delinquency and conduct disorder present particular problems in estimating 35 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

prevalence because we cannot clearly distinguish between social maladjustment and emotional disturbance. If socially maladjusted children and youths are included within the group of people with emotional or behavioral disorders, then many more individuals should be receiving special education services.

4. The factors are biological, family, school, and cultural. Student responses should demonstrate their understanding of how these factors may contribute to E/B D, but stress that research does not show precisely how each one contributes. Generally, we know that certain parenting and school practices are better than others, that there are cultural elements that seem to have an effect on behavior, and that there is a relationship between biological factors and behavior.

5. Students with emotional or behavioral disorders are so readily identified by school personnel that few schools bother to use systematic screening procedures (and there is no point screening for them when the services available are so limited).

When used, formal screening and accurate identification are complicated by problems of definition. Teachers' informal judgments have served as a fairly valid and reliable means of screening students.

6. Externalizing behaviors will include: striking out against others; conduct disorder; aggressive, acting-out behavior; oppositional defiant disorder. Internalizing behaviors will include: mental or emotional conflicts, such as depression and anxiety; schizophrenia; immature, withdrawn behavior; attempted suicide.

7. Descriptions will vary. Too often, the focus is on external control of students' behavior rather than academic and social learning. While behavioral control strategies are essential for academic and social learning to occur, excellent academic instruction can reduce problem behaviors. Teachers should be particularly knowledgeable about self-control strategies and effective instruction in social skills to allow students to live, learn, and work with others.

8. Zero tolerance means that the circumstances surrounding a particular incident are not considered when deciding what the consequences should be. Schools may not even be able to choose to use discretion in applying the zero-tolerance policy.

Answers will have various examples such as a child with an intellectual disability not understanding that even a toy gun is not allowed.

9. Diagnosis is difficult as young children respond to a variety of factors with hyperactive, aggressive, and defiant behaviors. Most toddlers exhibit what could later be considered disruptive behavior (grabbing, pushing, and tantrums). However, their social emotional behavior is quite flexible. It is responsive to conditions in the social environment and can be shaped by adults if intervention is comprehensive, intense, and sustained.

10. The variability within the group must be considered and plans must be highly individualized. Behavioral characteristics will range from severely withdrawn to aggressively delinquent; intelligence will range from students with severe retardation to those who are highly gifted; academic skills will range from preschool to college level. Preparing for transition to work generally addresses the basic academic skills necessary for successful employment and social skills training to help them be 36 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

accepted, liked, and helped by employers, co-workers, and neighbors. However, by the time students with emotional or behavioral disorders are ready to exit high school, rather than trying to remediate academic and social skills, the aim of even the most effective program is to help them accommodate their disabilities by teaching them the skills they need to survive and cope in the world (i.e., it's too late to play "catch up" so we'd better prepare them to at least survive).

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Chapter 9 Test Item File Daniel P. Hallahan

Exceptional Learners: An Introduction to Special Education Fifteenth Edition Daniel P. Hallahan, University of Virginia Paige C. Pullen, University of Florida James M. Kauffman, University of Virginia Prepared by Karen M. Cole, University of North Carolina Asheville

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Table of Contents Chapter 9: Learners with Autism Spectrum Disorders ................................ 1 Learning Outcome Quizzes ........................................................... 1 Application Exercises .................................................................. 16 Test Items .................................................................................... 23 Test Answer Key ......................................................................... 31

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Chapter 9: Learners with Autism Spectrum Disorders Learning Outcome Quizzes Learning Outcome 9.1: Understand the most current definition of autism spectrum disorders (ASD) in an historical context and understand the prevalence of students with autism spectrum disorders.

[Q1] What is the current prevalence rate for autism spectrum disorder?

1. About 1 in 54 [correct] 2. About 1 in 88 3. About 1 in 333 4. About 1 in 2500 [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] This rate has increased dramatically. It was 1 out of 2,500 in the 1960s and 1 out of 150 in the year 2000.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The current rate of 1 in 54 reflects dramatic increases in A SD diagnoses since the 1960s when it was 1 in 2,500.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The current rate of 1 in 54 reflects dramatic increases in A SD diagnoses since the 1960s when it was 1 in 2,500.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The current rate of 1 in 54 reflects dramatic increases in A SD diagnoses since the 1960s when it was 1 in 2,500.

[Q2] Regarding socioeconomic and racial disparities in A SD identification, which of the following statements is false?

1. Disproportionality exists based on both socioeconomic status and race.

2. Children from lower SES backgrounds are more likely to be identified with A SD than children from wealthier circumstances. [correct] 3. Hispanic children are less likely to be identified as A SD than White or Black children.

4. Low SES and minority families experience greater barriers to accessing ASD diagnostic services.

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This statement is true. Identification of A SD is subject to inequities.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] The reverse is true. Children from higher S ES backgrounds are more likely to be identified with ASD than their peers from lower-wealth circumstances.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement is true. Identification of A SD is subject to inequities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This statement is true. Issues in accessing diagnostic and follow-up care are common among lower-SES families.

[Q3] Why were the definition and criteria of Asperger syndrome eliminated from the DSM-5?

1 Because experts decided that Asperger syndrome should be included under the category of learning disabilities 2 Because the findings of the Wakefield paper, which asserted that vaccines cause autism, were retracted 3 Because Asperger syndrome is part of a continuum of autism diagnoses [correct] 4 Because parents and professionals lobbied to remove the term from the diagnostic manual [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Asperger syndrome is now included under the broader category of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD).

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] While it’s true that Wakefield’s assertions were retracted, controversy over the role of vaccines played no part in the recategorization of Asperger syndrome. Asperger syndrome is now included under the broader category of A SD. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Asperger syndrome is now included under the larger umbrella of A SD. [Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Although Asperger syndrome is no longer a separate category in the DSM-5, some parents and professionals still use the term.

[Q4] Scientists give all but which of the following explanations for the dramatic increase in prevalence statistics for A SD? 1. Widening criteria used for diagnosis

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2. Heightened awareness of autism in the general public 3. Diagnostic substitution 4. Widespread use of vaccines for infants and toddlers [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The criteria used to diagnose autism have broadened and include the recognition of individuals who are higher functioning.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Medical, psychological, and educational professionals also have a greater awareness of autism.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] As the prevalence rates for A SD have increased, the prevalence rates for intellectual disabilities have decreased.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Most scientists do not subscribe to the idea that vaccinations are linked to autism.

Nevertheless, there has been a growing tendency for parents not to have their children vaccinated.

[Q5] Into what two general domains does the DSM-5 divide the symptoms of A SD? 1. Mild (Asperger syndrome) and moderate impairments and behaviors 2. Environmentally influenced and inherited impairments and behaviors 3. Sensory impairment and intellectual impairments and behaviors 4. Social communication impairment and repetitive/restrictive behaviors [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The two general domains included in the DSM-5 definition of ASD are social communication impairment and repetitive/restrictive behaviors.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The two general domains included in the DSM-5 definition of ASD are social communication impairment and repetitive/restrictive behaviors.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The two general domains included in the DSM-5 definition of ASD are social communication impairment and repetitive/restrictive behaviors.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] The DSM-5 also states that the deficits begin in early childhood, even though they might not become evident until later, often when the child’s poor communication skills become apparent.

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Learning Outcome 9.2: Become familiar with the causes of autism spectrum disorders and how autism spectrum disorders are identified.

[Q1] Which of these statements about possible causes of autism spectrum disorder is true?

1. Autism spectrum disorder is caused by parental attitudes and behavior.

2. The brains of children with autism initially grow more slowly than those of children without autism spectrum disorders (A SD).

3. Scientists have established unequivocally that there are neurological abnormalities in individuals with autism. [correct] 4. Heredity plays no role in the development of A SD. [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Historically, parenting was considered a likely cause of A SD, but our current understandings have broadened to focus more heavily on other factors including neurobiology, heredity, and environmental toxins.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] In fact, studies indicate that the brains and heads of young children with autism tend to grow suddenly and excessively starting perhaps as early as the first year of life. This is then followed by a deceleration, such that they are about normal in size by adolescence.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] More specifically, research suggests that the brain cells of individuals with autism exhibit deficient connectivity, referred to as neuronal underconnectivity, which disrupts the cell’ ability to communicate with each other.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Studies have shown that when a child is diagnosed with autism, the chances are 15% that their younger sibling will also be diagnosed with autism.

[Q2] All but which of the following are considered to be early warning signs of A SD? 1. Poor eye contact 2. Lack of responsiveness and/or smiling 3. Impaired ability to initiate or sustain a conversation with others [correct] 4. Excessive lining up of objects or toys [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Poor eye contact can be an early indicator of A SD. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] 4 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Lack of smiling and/or responsiveness can be an early indicator of A SD. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] While impaired ability to initiate or sustain a conversation is a potential warning sign for ASD, it occurs later than the other responses listed here.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Young children who engage in excessive lining up of objects or toys may be demonstrating an early warning sign for A SD. [Q3] Diagnosing a child with autism typically relies on all but which of the following assessments?

1. Observation by a psychiatrist or other clinician 2. An IQ test [correct] 3. Behavior checklists completed by the parents 4. Interviews with caregivers [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The ADOS-2 is a commonly used instrument that a clinician uses while observing a child in several semi-structured play activities.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Although they may be included as part of a full-scale evaluation, the information from I Q tests is not one of the main assessments used to diagnose A SD. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Parents complete behavioral checklists and provide information about the child’s functioning in language/communication; reciprocal social interaction; and restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped behaviors.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The ADI-R is used to interview caregivers about the child’s functioning in language/communication; reciprocal social interaction; and restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped behaviors.

[Q4] Which of the following physical symptoms is most commonly associated with Autism Spectrum Disorder?

1. Headaches 2. Excessive crying 3. Skin rashes

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4. Gastrointestinal issues [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Researchers have found a correlation between the severity of autism symptoms and the level of bacteria in the gut.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Researchers have found a correlation between the severity of autism symptoms and the level of bacteria in the gut.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Researchers have found a correlation between the severity of autism symptoms and the level of bacteria in the gut.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Interestingly, children with autism were 7 times more likely than children without autism to have experienced diarrhea/colitis in the last 12 months.

[Q5] Which of the following statements about the causes of A SD is false?

1. Studies of identical and fraternal twins have provided evidence that autism has a hereditary component.

2. Spontaneous gene mutations that can result in autism are sometimes passed down to children from one or both parents.

3. Mothers who were exposed to high rates of traffic-related air pollution are more likely to have a child with A SD. 4. Individuals with autism exhibit excessive neuronal connectivity. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] When a monozygotic (identical, one egg) twin has autism, the chances are much greater that the other twin will also have autism than is the case with dizygotic (fraternal, two eggs) twins.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Even if they aren’t diagnosed as having autism, family members of those with autism are more likely to exhibit autistic-like characteristics at a subclinical level, such as a lack of close friends, a preoccupation with narrow interests, and a preference for routines.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Evidence is building that environmental toxins may contribute to A SD. [Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Research suggests that the brain cells of individuals with autism exhibit deficient neuronal underconnectivity, which disrupts the cells’ ability to communicate with each other 6 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Learning Outcome 9.3: Learn about the psychological and behavioral characteristics of learners with autism spectrum disorders.

[Q1] All but which of the following are characteristics that apply generally to individuals with autism spectrum disorders (A SD)?

1. Demonstrating a broad range of interests [correct] 2. Demonstrating impaired social responsiveness 3. Demonstrating impaired communication 4. Demonstrating stereotyped and ritualistic behavior [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Rather than having a broad range of interests, individuals with A SD are more likely to have an exceedingly narrow range of interests.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] People with autism are likely to display impaired social responsiveness.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] People with autism are likely to demonstrate communicative impairments.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] It is common for people with autism to demonstrate stereotyped and ritualistic behavior.

[Q2] What is joint attention?

1. One person alerting another to a stimulus via nonverbal means, such as gazing or pointing [correct] 2. One person looking at a stimulus within milliseconds of another person looking at the same stimulus 3. One person anticipating another person’s focus of attention 4. Two people using the same cues to help focus their attention [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Deficits in social communication are often linked to impairment in the ability to engage in joint attention. Researchers have found that the joint attention abilities of 3-year-olds with autism predicted their engagement in close and conflict-free friendships at 8 to 9 years of age.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Joint attention is a social process in which one person gazes or points at something because they want to show it to another person.

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[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Joint attention is a social process in which one person gazes or points at something because they want to show it to another person.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Joint attention is a social process in which one person gazes or points at something because they want to show it to another person.

[Q3] Which of the following is not a typical characteristic of persons with A SD? 1. Difficulties in thinking about situations in a nuanced way 2. The tendency to interpret situations using emotion or sentiment rather than logic [correct] 3. The tendency to take things said to them literally 4. Difficulties in knowing the “dos and don’ts” of everyday living that most people learn incidentally [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] They are often overly literal in how they “read” the behavior and language of others, and they often interpret situations using logic to the exclusion of emotion or sentiment.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] People with A SD are more likely to apply logic when interpreting situations. They are often overly literal in how they “read” the behavior and language of others.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] They are often overly literal in how they “read” the behavior and language of others, and they often interpret situations using logic to the exclusion of emotion or sentiment.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] People with A SD often struggle with understanding the hidden curriculum.

[Q4] Amari is a 10-year-old with ASD. Which of the following behaviors would you be least likely to see her doing?

1. Flapping her hands 2. Ignoring some sensory input but overreacting to other stimuli 3. Using social media [correct] 4. Reacting poorly to change [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] People with A SD are prone to abnormal sensory perceptions. Accordingly, they may 8 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

display stereotyped motor or verbal behaviors similar to those that are evident in people who are blind.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Some people with A SD are hypersensitive to sensory stimuli, and some are unresponsive to sensory stimuli. Still others, though, demonstrate both hyper- and hyposensitivity.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] People with A SD are often averse to social interaction.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] It is common for people with autism to struggle with changes to their environment or their routine.

[Q5] Which of the following is not one of the most prominent theories researchers use to account for many of the behaviors displayed by people with A SD? 1. Problems in executive functioning 2. Problems with weak central coherence 3. Problems with synaesthesia [correct] 4. Problems in theory of mind [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] EF can be quite impaired in people with A SD. Their ability to plan ahead in a thoughtful way is sabotaged by their problems with working memory, inhibitory control or behavioral inhibition, and mental flexibility.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] People with autism often lack the natural inclination of most people to bring order and meaning to information in their environment by perceiving it as a meaningful whole rather than as disparate parts.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Synaesthesia occurs when the stimulation of one sensory or cognitive system results in the stimulation of another sensory or cognitive system.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] People with ASD often struggle to “read” other people with respect to characteristics such as their intentions, feelings, beliefs, and desires. They often have difficulty understanding what another person is probably thinking.

Learning Outcome 9.4: Understand some of the educational considerations for people with autism spectrum disorders, and how professionals assess progress to help plan educational strategies.

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[Q1] Which of the following is not a fundamental aspect of applied behavior analysis?

1. Continuously assessing student progress 2. Using highly structured lessons 3. Focusing on functional skills 4. Limiting the use of reinforcement [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] In ABA, the focus is on using highly structured lessons to teach functional skills.

Students ’progress is continuously monitored and desired behaviors are reinforced or rewarded.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] In ABA, the focus is on using highly structured lessons to teach functional skills.

Students ’progress is continuously monitored and desired behaviors are reinforced or rewarded.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] In ABA, the focus is on using highly structured lessons to teach functional skills.

Students’ progress is continuously monitored and desired behaviors are reinforced or rewarded.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] ABA emphasizes positive reinforcement or rewarding of desired behaviors.

[Q2] In functional behavioral assessment, which of the following best illustrates the idea of a setting event?

1. Esme is more prone to inappropriate behavior when she misses breakfast. [correct] 2. Shaquila engages in inappropriate behavior in order to avoid doing classwork.

3. Kingston overreacts when his classmates get too loud.

4. Hyrum throws his pencil when his teacher asks him to get to work.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Setting events are contextual factors under which a behavior occurs.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The purpose the behavior serves for the student is the consequence.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The noise the classmates are making is the antecedent and triggers Kingston’s reaction (the consequence).

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[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] In this case, the teacher’s request is the antecedent, and Hyrum’s behavior is a consequence.

[Q3] Research indicates that all but which of the following have significant potential for increasing the functional, vocational, social communication, and/or behavioral skills of students with autism?

1. Video modeling and video self-modeling 2. The MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventories [correct] 3. The Picture Exchange Communication System 4. Social narratives [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Video modeling and video self-modeling show significant promise in improving the outcomes for students with A SD. [Feedback for Correct Answer 2] The MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventories are assessments used to monitor student language development.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] PECS involves the use of pictures to help students initiate and maintain functional communication.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Social narratives are brief stories (which can also contain drawings or pictures) describing social situations (e.g., going to the grocery store, playing during school recess, flying on an airplane) that present possible social interaction challenges while offering examples of appropriate responses.

[Q4] Which of the following responses reflects two critical areas of assessment for students with ASD? 1. Language development and social/adaptive behavior [correct] 2. Range of interests and general academic achievement 3. Engagement in extracurricular activities and general intelligence 4. Functional behavior analysis and applied behavior analysis [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] For many students with autism spectrum disorders, their language acquisition can significantly affect their long-term life outcomes. Continuous assessment of students 11 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

'language development and social/adaptive behaviors can inform planning and programming.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The two critical areas of assessment for students with A SD include language development and social/adaptive behavior.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The two critical areas of assessment for students with A SD include language development and social/adaptive behavior.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The two critical areas of assessment for students with A SD include language development and social/adaptive behavior.

Learning Outcome 9.5: Learn about issues that should be considered with respect to early intervention and transition to adulthood for individuals with autism spectrum disorders.

[Q1] Which of the following best explains why most early intervention programs focus on children with relatively severe degrees of A SD instead of those with milder issues?

1. Because the parents of students with milder degrees of A SD are less likely to be concerned about their children’s progress 2. Because early intervention has proven wholly successful in mitigating A SD in preschoolers with severe symptoms 3. Because students with more severe degrees of A SD are likely to be diagnosed earlier [correct] 4. Because early intervention prevents students with severe degrees of A SD from experiencing worsening symptoms [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Most early intervention programming focuses on children with relatively severe degrees of autism spectrum disorders rather than those with milder issues because the former are more likely to be diagnosed earlier.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] No intervention has been completely successful at helping children overcome A SD. [Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Milder forms of ASD are rarely diagnosed in the preschool years.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Unfortunately, even with some intervention, about a quarter of children with A SD experience worsening symptoms from 11 to 35 months of age.

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[Q2] Which of the following statements about transition to adulthood for students with A SD is false?

1. Regardless of symptom severity, fewer than half of young adults with A SD are employed.

2. Research indicates that programming that includes work-based internships in high school can be highly effective when applied behavioral analysis is utilized.

3. About half of adults with autism live independently. [correct] 4. The outcomes for adults with A SD are similar to those of individuals with intellectual disabilities and are somewhat dependent on their level of cognitive functioning.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This statement is true. Further, only about 10% of adults with A SD live independently.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement is true.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Only about 10% of adults with A SD live independently.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This statement is true.

[Q3] What is the most common cause of employment difficulties for people with Asperger syndrome?

1. Their inability to master job-related skills 2. Their difficulties in social interaction [correct] 3. Their tendency toward physical violence 4. Their poor job performance [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Research suggests that social interaction issues, especially for those with Asperger syndrome, tend to increase as they reach adolescence and adulthood. Unfortunately, this increase in difficulties in social interactions works against their achieving success in employment.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Research suggests that social interaction issues, especially for those with Asperger syndrome, tend to increase as they reach adolescence and adulthood. Unfortunately, this increase in difficulties in social interactions works against their achieving success in employment.

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[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Physical violence is not a trait typically evinced by individuals with Asperger syndrome.

Instead, difficulties in social interactions work against their achieving success in employment.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Research indicates that when people with Asperger syndrome do experience job difficulties, the cause is usually inappropriate social interactions rather than job performance.

[Q4] All but which of the following are essential features of effective preschool programs for children with autism spectrum disorders?

1. At least 25 hours a week of active engagement in intensive instructional programming 2. Inclusion of a family component including parent training 3. Low student-teacher ratios 4. Entry into early intervention programming at 36 months of age [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Students should be actively engaged in intensive instructional programming for a minimum of the equivalent of a full school day, 5 days a week, with full-year programming varied according to the child’s chronological age and developmental level.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] If early intervention is to be as intensive and pervasive as required, family involvement is essential.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Guidelines recommend that each adult work with no more than two young children with ASD in the classroom.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Young children should enter early intervention programming as soon as a diagnosis of ASD is seriously considered. In many cases, this will be considerably younger than 36 months.

[Q5] For individuals with more severe A SD, what is typically the most important consideration with respect to transition to adulthood?

1. Improving social interactions in both employment and post-secondary settings 2. Ensuring that they are provided with support and funding to allow them to attend college 14 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

3. Teaching them how to conduct their own functional behavioral assessments as a means of reshaping their behavior 4. Engaging in person-centered planning regarding living arrangements and employment [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Social interaction in employment and post-secondary settings is typically the focus of transition planning for students with less severe A SD. [Feedback for Answer Choice 2] While many colleges have developed programs specifically to address the needs of students with ASD, ensuring that students have funding and support to attend college is not the main focus of most transition planning.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The most common consideration in transition to adulthood for students with more severe ASD is person-centered planning regarding living arrangements and employment.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] More and more people with autism are being integrated into the community in small community residential facilities and in supported living settings, such as their own homes or apartments. The goal for work settings is for people with autism to be in competitive employment or supported competitive employment.

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Application Exercises Application Exercise 9.1: Evidence-Based Programs and Practices Learning Outcome 9.4: Understand some of the educational considerations for people with autism spectrum disorders, and how professionals assess progress to help plan educational strategies.

[Q1] Review the text section called Educational Programming Principles for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders.

Scenario: Max and Marquis, students in Ms. Lemli’s general education class, both have autism spectrum disorder, and each has a particular area of challenge that Ms. Lemli would like to address. Max struggles to participate appropriately in cooperative activities. When asked to work in a group with other students, he tends to withdraw. He usually sits in his chair with his hands over his ears; he does watch what is going on but does not engage with the other students. Ms. Lemli’s goal for Max is for him to participate more actively in group work.

Marquis’s challenge is academic in nature. Marquis has difficulty when it comes to doing online research to locate useful sources in preparation for writing a research paper. He tends to get bogged down in figuring out how to locate and open the appropriate search engine and enter his search terms. When he gets stuck in the first steps, he stops working and simply sits unproductively at his desk. Ms. Lemli would like to see Marquis be able to identify and open the appropriate search engine, create an advanced search, and choose three sources for use in his paper.

Question: Which evidence-based programming or practices would benefit Max and Marquis? Why do you say so? In what activities would you expect to see Ms. Lemli, Max, and Marquis engage?

[Q1 Model Response] In both of these cases, the use of recorded video might be a very effective way of supporting students’ learning.

Video modeling is typically used to teach functional, behavioral, vocational, and social communication skills, so it might be useful in helping Max learn which behaviors are appropriate during group work. Prior to group work, Max could watch a video of another student working successfully in a group and then try to emulate those behaviors.

Video self-modeling is typically used to foster students’ success with academic tasks, and it might be a good strategy to try with Marquis. Ms. Lemli might record a video of herself coaching Marquis through the process of doing a search for online sources. He could then play the video as he worked to complete the steps independently.

[Q2] Review the text section called Educational Programming Principles for Students with 16 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Autism Spectrum Disorders.

Scenario: Irene, a new student, has recently been added to Ms. Behr’s special education class. Irene has autism, and like many students with autism, she lacks functional communication. Irene does not speak and doesn’t use sign language, but she often gets frustrated by others’ inability to understand what she wants.

Question: Ms. Behr wants to use an evidence-based program or practice that will allow Irene to communicate her thoughts and needs. Which program would you suggest for her? Why do you say so? In what activities would you expect to see Ms. Behr and Irene engaging?

[Q2 Model Response] Ms. Behr could try the Picture Exchange Communication System (P ECS) with Irene. PE CS uses pictures to allow people with communication difficulties to initiate requests and make observations. Ms. Behr would start by teaching Irene to use single pictures to express requests. Over time, Ms. Behr would help Irene choose among pictures to express her thoughts and requests, then later she would help Irene use pictures to form simple sentences (e.g., “I want food.” or “I want a pencil.”) Finally, Ms. Behr would help Irene deepen her communication skills by teaching her to use sentence starters that allow her to make observations: “I see,” “I hear,” and “I feel.”

[Q3] Review the text section called Educational Programming Principles for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders.

Scenario: Mr. Purvis works with young children, mostly kindergartners, with autism.

Many of his students are nonverbal and have not previously attended preschool. Mr. Purvis wants to provide his students with a solid understanding of what to expect from school and how things work there; he also wants to support them as they learn school procedures and expectations (e.g., where to put their materials, what they will be doing at various times of the day). Mr. Purvis uses many visual cues, including posting a daily schedule with words and pictures depicting what students will be doing at various times of the day. He also uses color coding, labeling, and gestures to communicate expectations to students.

Question: Which evidence-based program or practice is Mr. Purvis most likely using?

Why do you think he chose it for his particular group of students?

[Q3 Model Response] Mr. Purvis is using the TEACCH (Treatment and Education of Autistic and Related Communication Handicapped Children) program, which puts heavy emphasis on structure and visual cues. Mr. Purvis likely chose this program because his students are new to the school environment and need help acclimating to the daily experiences and expectations of school; using visual schedules and color coding can help students with organization and routine. Further, many of Mr. Purvis’s students are nonverbal, so the visual elements of the TEACCH program can augment communication in the 17 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

classroom.

Application Exercise 9.2: Engaging with Students with A SD Learning Outcome 9.4: Understand some of the educational considerations for people with autism spectrum disorders, and how professionals assess progress to help plan educational strategies.

[Q1] Walkup: Review Pearson e-Text Video Example 9.6 and review the section of the text called How Can I Help? Students with ASD in the General Education Classroom.

Question: What factors contributed to Beth’s dislike of school prior to moving to her new placement? What reasons might explain why the teachers at her first school might not have been able to fully meet Beth’s needs?

[Q1 Model Response] Beth’s mom indicates that the public school teachers were annoyed or put off by Beth’s disruptive behaviors; they apparently used reprimands and isolation with Beth. The teachers did not know how to navigate teaching a student who had a disability but who was also advanced academically, so they did not appropriately address her academic needs. Beth felt that she couldn’t be herself in public school; she also apparently did not have many friends in the classroom.

Beth’s teachers might have been poorly prepared to have a student with A SD in the general education classroom; many teachers are not specifically trained in how to work effectively with students on the autism spectrum. In general, public school classes are larger than those at private schools, so the teachers were likely less able to devote the time required to meet Beth’s individual needs. Further, the emphasis on standardized testing meant that Beth’s teachers were primarily focused on helping struggling students pass the test; administrative pressure and external calls for accountability are likely responsible for their prioritization of those students’ needs above Beth’s.

[Q2] Walkup: Review Pearson e-Text Video Example 9.6 and review the section of the text called How Can I Help? Students with A SD in the General Education Classroom.

Question: Imagine that you are Beth’s mother and you are looking for a school that uses the Autism Spectrum Disorder Inclusion Collaboration Model. This model identifies five main components, all of which are important. As a parent, though, which of the bullet points (under the five components) in the How Can I Help? box would be of most importance to you? Name your top three and explain why you chose each.

[Q2 Model Response] Answers will vary; here is one possibility: As the parent of a child with autism, I would prioritize these three bullets from the model: 18 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

•

Implementation of appropriate instructional methods: I would choose this element of the model because teachers need to know how to effectively teach students using evidence-based methods. I would also think that if a teacher knows effective instructional methods, they would also have had appropriate training, so to me, this bullet subsumes the first bullet (i.e., availability of appropriately trained support personnel).

•

Social interaction training for students with autism spectrum disorder: I would choose this element of the model because students with A SD often have difficulty with social situations and interpersonal relationships. I would want to be sure the school focused on this element to allow my child to show progress in this important life skill.

•

Effective communication: I would choose this element of the model because as a parent, it would be critical for me to be kept in the loop about how my child is doing in school. I would like to be asked for input and ideas and to share the goals I had for my child.

[Q3] Walkup: Review Pearson e-Text Video Example 9.6 and review the section of the text called How Can I Help? Students with A SD in the General Education Classroom.

Question: Imagine that you are a general education or special education teacher who is looking for a job. You decide you’d like to work in a school that uses the Autism Spectrum Disorder Inclusion Collaboration Model. This model identifies five main components, all of which are important. As a teacher, though, which of the bullet points in the How Can I Help? box would be of most importance to you? Name your top three and explain why you chose each.

[Q3 Model Response] As a teacher working with children with ASD, I would prioritize these three bullets from the model: • Adequate teacher planning time: I would choose this element because meeting individual needs is complex; I would need adequate time to identify the best instructional methods to use with students and then to tailor them specifically to each individual’s needs.

•

Reduced class size: I would prioritize this bullet point because with smaller classes, I would be able to give more attention and focus to each student.

•

Shared decision making: I would choose this element of the model because when all people involved in a child’s education (parents, general education teachers, special education teachers, administrators) work together, the result is more likely to be a positive one.

Application Exercise 9.3: Partnering with Parents Learning Outcome 9.5: Learn about issues that should be considered with respect to 19 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

early intervention and transition to adulthood for individuals with autism spectrum disorders.

[Q1] Review the section of the text called Early Intervention and Pearson e-Text Video Example 9.7 Scenario: Valley Primary School, which serves students in grades Pre-K through 2, has been struggling for the last few years. There has been high turnover among their teaching staff; there have also been several tense meetings with parents who have concerns about the way the school is operating, particularly with regard to how it serves students with autism.

A new principal, Ms. Blix, has been hired to lead Valley this year. Her hope is to guide the school through a transformation so teachers want to teach there and parents and children feel happy and well-served. One area of emphasis in her plan to develop an effective partnership between the school and parents whose children have an autism spectrum disorder. As she considers the plan she wants to put in place, she asks herself these questions: •

What skills and supports do teachers need to be effective partners with parents?

•

What skills and supports do parents need to be effective partners with teachers?

•

What might an effective teacher-parent partnership look like?

Question: Given what you’ve seen in the video and what you’ve read in the text, what skills would teachers need to have in order to be effective partners with parents? Name at least three, giving an explanation for why you included each one.

[Q 1 Model Response] Answers will vary but should include well-considered choices and adequate explanations. One example: Teachers who would be effective in partnership with parents would value collaboration and parental input because parents can provide important perspectives on their children’s needs. They also would be skilled in providing evidence-based instruction that is tailored to the needs of the specific students they serve because using effective, appropriate practices set students up for success, which is important to parents. Finally, teachers who would work effectively with parents communicate sensitively and frequently because a true partnership maintains robust school-home relationships.

[Q2] Review the section of the text called Early Intervention and Pearson e-Text Video Example 9.7.

Scenario: Valley Primary School, which serves students in grades Pre-K through 2, has been struggling for the last few years. There has been high turnover among their teaching staff; there have also been several tense meetings with parents who have 20 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

concerns about the way the school is operating, particularly with regard to how it serves students with autism.

A new principal, Ms. Blix, has been hired to lead Valley this year. Her hope is to guide the school through a transformation so teachers want to teach there and parents and children feel happy and well-served. One area of emphasis in her plan to develop an effective partnership between the school and parents whose children have an autism spectrum disorder. As she considers the plan she wants to put in place, she asks herself these questions: •

What skills and supports do teachers need to be effective partners with parents?

•

What skills and supports do parents need to be effective partners with teachers?

•

What might an effective teacher-parent partnership look like?

Question: Given what you’ve seen in the video and what you’ve read in the text, what skills would parents need to have in order to be effective partners with teachers? Name at least three, giving an explanation for why you included each one.

[Q2 Model Response] Answers will vary but should include well-considered choices and adequate explanations. One example: Parents who would be effective in partnership with teachers value collaboration and the open exchange of ideas because it is important to make sure that differing perspectives are represented. Parents would value the teachers’ expertise and training as a vehicle for their children’s growth and success and would assume that the teachers had their children’s best interest in mind. Finally, they would communicate effectively, providing information, asking questions, affirming progress, and offering support so that the teachers could understand the children and their contexts as completely as possible.

[Q3] Review the section of the text called Early Intervention Pearson e-Text Video Example 9.7.

Scenario: Valley Primary School, which serves students in grades Pre-K through 2, has been struggling for the last few years. There has been high turnover among their teaching staff; there have also been several tense meetings with parents who have concerns about the way the school is operating, particularly with regard to how it serves students with autism.

A new principal, Ms. Blix, has been hired to lead Valley this year. Her hope is to guide the school through a transformation so teachers want to teach there and parents and children feel happy and well-served. One area of emphasis in her plan is to develop an effective partnership between the school and parents whose children have an autism spectrum disorder. As she considers the plan she wants to put in place, she asks herself these questions: •

What skills and supports do teachers need to be effective partners with parents?

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•

What skills and supports do parents need to be effective partners with teachers?

•

What might an effective teacher-parent partnership look like?

Question: What recommendations do you have for how teachers and parents at Valley could go about structuring a partnership program?

[Q3 Model Response] To develop a true partnership, the teachers and parents would need to work together, setting goals and identifying action steps, assessing outcomes, and reflecting on needed changes or modifications. They could come to general agreements about how best to meet the children’s needs: ensuring that children are actively engaged in appropriate programming, ensuring low student-teacher ratios, providing training and development for parents, and ensuring ongoing progress monitoring and reflection.

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Test Items 9.1 Multiple-Choice Questions 1. Which of the following statements about autism spectrum disorders is true? a. It is a single, well-defined category of disability. b. One characteristics of people with autism spectrum disorders is that they are intellectually disabled. c. The majority of people with autism are impaired in some cognitive areas but are highly intelligent or geniuses in others. d. There is no evidence that bad parenting causes autism.

2. The words "autistic" and "autism" come from the Greek word autos, meaning a. cars. b. withdrawn. c. others. d. self.

3. One characteristic that distinguished children studied by Kanner was a. an inability to relate to others in an ordinary manner. b. a need to be picked up or held by parents. c. surprisingly normal language development. d. an extreme dislike of repetition.

4. Asperger identified children who had a. average intelligence but channeled their intellectual pursuits into obsessive preoccupation in narrow areas. b. superior intelligence but channeled their intellectual pursuits into obsessive preoccupation in narrow areas. c. below average intelligence but remarkable ability in a particular area. d. below average intelligence and a tendency toward violent, psychotic behavior.

5. Which of the following is not a characteristic Kanner described in the children he was studying? a. They preferred to play alone. b. They exhibited typical play behavior. c. They showed an obsessive desire for repetition. d. They were resistant to being held by their parents.

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6. The term spectrum in autism spectrum disorder refers to the fact that people with A S D a. have symptoms that are cyclical/wavelike. b. tend to be obsessed with the colors of objects in their environment. c. have a variety of symptoms and degrees of impairment that fall along a continuum. d. are overrepresented in the L GBTQ population.

7. Social (Pragmatic) Communication Disorder is the current term used to describe people who a. have significant cognitive impairment and repetitive behavior. b. have limited language comprehension but communicate readily with others. c. would previously have been diagnosed with retrograde autism. d. would previously have been diagnosed with Asperger syndrome.

8. According to the DSM-5, Asperger syndrome a. is distinguished from autism in that the latter is inherited. b. is no longer an entity separate from A SD. c. is a necessary, but not sufficient condition, to be diagnosed as A SD. d. is only used when an individual has a superior I Q score.

9. DSM-5 divides the symptoms of A SD into two general domains, a. Asperger syndrome and autism. b. mild and moderate-severe ASD. c. social communication impairment and repetitive/restricted behaviors. d. internalizing and externalizing behaviors.

10. The prevalence of A SD a. is far higher in the United States than in Europe and Asia. b. began to diminish in the early 2000s. c. is now higher than the prevalence of learning disabilities. d. is more than four times higher for boys than girls.

11. According to the most recent estimated prevalence rates, how many 8-year-olds have autism spectrum disorder? a. about 1 in 54 b. about 1 in 100 c. about 1 in 333 in rural areas 24 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

d. about 1 in 2,500 if strict medical criteria are used 12. Which of the following is not a reason scientists give for the dramatic increase in prevalence statistics for A SD? a. a widening of the criteria used for diagnosis b. a greater awareness of autism in general c. widespread use of vaccinations for babies d. diagnostic substitution 13. Several research studies have demonstrated that children with autism are more likely than children without autism to exhibit a. high blood pressure. b. gastrointestinal distress. c. an appetite for carbohydrates. d. a propensity to snack between meals.

14. Which term was once commonly applied to mothers of children with autism? a. refrigerator moms b. helicopter moms c. egocentric moms d. bulldozer moms 15. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that pediatricians a. observe whether the parents of children whom they suspect might be autistic are aloof and not very sociable. b. screen for autism at well-child visits at 18 and 24 months. c. put all parents on the alert for autistic tendencies in their children. d. delay inoculations in children whom they suspect might be autistic.

16. Neurological research that involves the brain and head size of people with autism strongly suggests that for many a. their brains are smaller than average while in utero. b. their brains significantly increase in size after about age five. c. their brains grow suddenly and excessively in the first two years of life. d. their brains stop growing at about the time their symptoms become evident.

17. Which of the following statements illustrates evidence for autism having a hereditary component? a. Mothers of children with autism have typically had mothers who were themselves cold and uninvolved.

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b. Researchers have identified a particular gene (A TR2) that is common among individuals with autism. c. Family members of those with autism are less likely to have a preference for routines than people in general. d. Identical twins are much more likely to both have autism than are fraternal twins.

18. Which of the following statements about Andrew Wakefield’s highly impactful study about vaccines and autism is false? a. The majority of study’s authors stood by their findings that there was a causal link between the MMR vaccine and autism. b. The study asserted that symptoms of autism tended to appear within 48 hours to 2 weeks of children receiving their M MR vaccinations. c. The paper was published in a highly prestigious medical journal but was later retracted because of methodological flaws. d. The study’s release correlates to a resurgence in measles cases in the United States and in England.

19. What percentage of children with autism appears to experience autistic regression? a. 10% b. 33% c. 40–50% d. 50–75% 20. Which of the following statements about race-based and SES-based disproportionality in identification of A SD is false? a. Children from lower-SES backgrounds are less likely to be diagnosed with A SD than children from higher S ES circumstances. b. Hispanic and Black children are diagnosed with A SD at a higher rate than White children. c. Lack of access to health care and diagnostic services may explain why children of color and children from lower-SES homes are less frequently diagnosed with A SD. d. Help navigating the complex system of diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up has shown promising results for addressing the inequity in A SD identification processes.

21. Each of the following is a characteristic that applies generally to individuals with autism spectrum disorder except a. impaired social responsiveness. b. impaired communication. c. stereotyped and ritualistic behavior.

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d. broad range of interests.

22. Joint attention is the process of a. looking at a stimulus within milliseconds of another person looking at the same stimulus. b. anticipating another person's focus of attention. c. one person alerting another to a stimulus via nonverbal means, such as gazing or pointing. d. two people using the same cues to help focus their attention.

23. All of the following are characteristics of persons with Asperger syndrome except a. difficulties in thinking about situations in a nuanced way. b. tendency to take things said to them literally. c. tendency to interpret situations using emotion or sentiment rather than logic. d. difficulties in knowing the "dos and don'ts" of everyday living that most people learn incidentally.

24. Jeremy has severe autism. He does not interact with others socially and his intellectual functioning appears to be very low. However, Jeremy has extraordinary ability as a pianist. Jeremy a. would best be described as having autism savant syndrome. b. likely has Social (Pragmatic) Communication Disorder. c. is exhibiting characteristics of Asperger syndrome. d. should be in a program for gifted and talented students.

25. A mixing of sensory or cognitive systems whereby stimulation of one elicits stimulation of the other is a. neuron mirroring. b. echolalia. c. neuronal hyperconnectivity. d. synaesthesia.

26. Students with A SD who have difficulty navigating societal dos and don’ts are struggling with the a. hidden curriculum. b. differentiated curriculum. c. social curriculum. d. stepwise curriculum.

27. People with Asperger syndrome tend to be 27 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

a. overly literal but not logical. b. overly literal and focused on logic over emotion. c. logical and able to see situations in a nuanced way. d. focused on emotion over logic, and are quite literal.

28. Children with autism spectrum disorder would be least likely to have atypical behaviors with of the following communication skills? a. communicative intent b. social etiquette c. semantics d. pragmatics 29. Which of the following is not one of the three most prominent theoretical frameworks that identify the major impairments attributed to autism spectrum disorders? a. executive functioning b. family systems c. central coherence d. theory of mind 30. Jean is a young woman with A SD. Her coworker recently lost a family member to cancer. Jean expounded on her knowledge of the cause and effects of the illness, but did not offer condolences, nor did she notice the discomfort she was causing her coworker. Jean's inability to perceive the feelings or to understand the emotional state of her coworker is related to a. central deconstruction theory. b. theory of least resistance. c. theory of mind. d. mindfulness.

31. Applied Behavior Analysis (A BA) includes each of the following components except a. using structured lessons. b. limited use of reinforcement. c. focus on functional skills. d. continuous assessment of progress.

32. Functional behavioral assessment is used to reduce or eliminate negative behaviors.

The purposes the negative behaviors serve for a person are a. quasi-negative reinforcers. b. antecedents.

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c. setting events. d. consequences.

33. Educators of students with autistic spectrum disorder are putting increasing emphasis on applying behavioral psychology in a. structured settings and controlled environments. b. normalized situations and normalized locations. c. natural settings and natural interactions. d. natural settings and in-vitro interactions.

34. According to the National Research Council, each of the following is considered an essential feature of effective educational programs for preschool children with autistic spectrum disorder except a. focus on a differentiated curriculum. b. entry into intervention programs as soon as diagnosis is seriously considered. c. inclusion of a family component, including parent training. d. low student/teacher ratios in the classroom.

35. Planning for transition to adulthood for people with Asperger syndrome is largely concerned with issues of a. accessible housing. b. sexual education. c. public versus private residential placement. d. social interaction.

9.2 True/False Questions 1. Assessment of students with A SD should monitor their progress in language development and social adaptive behavior.

2. Even with early intervention, about a quarter of children with A SD experience worsening symptoms between 14 and 36 months of age.

3. About half of adults with autism live independently.

4. Prevalence figures have risen dramatically in the last 30–40 years.

5. Spontaneous genetic mutations have a role in causing autism.

6. About 70% of students with A SD are served in self-contained classrooms.

7. Most people with autism exhibit remarkable ability or talent in particular splinter skills, such as playing music, drawing, or calculating.

8. At the preschool level, teachers emphasize natural interactions in general education classrooms with students who do not have disabilities.

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9. Children with autism are more likely to experience gastrointestinal distress than children without autism.

10. Food contaminants and other toxins are unlikely to contribute to neurological disorders like ADHD and ASD. 9.3 Short Answer Questions 1. Why is "autism" more appropriately thought of in terms of the broader phrase "autism spectrum disorder?"

2. What is meant by the term "hidden curriculum?" Provide two examples from your own experience.

3. Briefly describe attempts to construct a unifying theory of autism spectrum disorders.

4. Summarize the history of recognizing and treating A SD. 5. What areas particularly need to be assessed for students with autism spectrum disorders, what are appropriate methods of assessment, and what special concerns are there regarding assessment?

6. Describe how you could use a system like the Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) to improve the functional communication of a person with autism.

7. Describe three strategies to help a student with autism be included more in a general education classroom.

8. What characteristics should early education and interventions for students with autism have?

9. What is the early intensive behavioral interventions (E IBI) program, and why are professionals cautious about recommending it?

10. What features should be present in a transition plan for students with autism spectrum disorders?

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Test Answer Key 9.1 Multiple Choice Questions 1. d 2. d 3. a 4. a 5. b 6. c 7. d 8. b 9. c 10. d 11. a 12. c 13. b 14. a 15. b 16. c 17. d 18. a 19. b 20. b 21. d 22. c 23. c 24. a 25. d 26. a 27. b 28. c 29. b

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30. c 31. b 32. d 33. c 34. a 35. d 9.2 True/False Questions 1. True 2. True 3. False 4. True 5. True 6. False 7. False 8. True 9. True 10. False 9.3 Short Answer Questions 1. Autism has been a separate category in the I DEA since 1990; however, other disorders are so similar to it that the broader term "autism spectrum disorder" is more descriptive and inclusive. All of the disorders associated with autism are rare and overlap considerably, so it is tempting to lump them together as "autism."

However, it is best to think of autism as a spectrum of disorders because they vary greatly in severity of symptoms, age of onset, and associations with other disorders.

Furthermore, the manifestations of the disorder do not vary only across children, but within an individual child over time. There is no single behavior that is always typical of autism and no behavior that would automatically exclude an individual from diagnosis of autism.

2. Hidden curriculum refers to the do's and don'ts of everyday living that most people learn incidentally or with very little instruction from others. Answers of personal experience will vary, but should describe situations in which someone was unaware of particular understandings or insights that others easily knew or demonstrated.

3. There are three prominent theories that attempt to account for many of the behaviors that people with autism spectrum disorders display. Individually, none can explain all the problems, but together they help build a composite picture of the disorders. One theory focuses on problems people have with executive functions (self-directed 32 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

behaviors, such as working memory, self-regulation of emotions, and the ability to plan ahead). Another theory focuses on problems with central coherence, or the natural inclination for most people to bring order and meaning to information in their environment by perceiving it as a whole rather than as disparate parts. The theory of mind focuses on problems with being able to take the perspective of other people.

4. Mention the key figures in the early history of A SD—Asperger, Kanner. Discuss how these conceptualizations differ. Discuss the changes made to D SM-5 to eliminate Asperger syndrome as a separate entity.

5. Language development and social/adaptive behavior can be monitored using inventories (checklists by parents and teachers) to measure many dimensions of language and behavior. Scales by parents and teachers can also be used.

Examples are the Communication Development Inventory, the PDD Behavioral Inventory, and the Social Responsiveness Scale. There are some standardized measures to evaluate program outcomes, but teachers can also use direct observations in natural settings. Many students with autism spectrum disorders cannot participate in standard assessments even with accommodations. For these students, alternate assessment methods like portfolios can be used.

6. Students should describe a step-by-step system for: teaching students to use picture cards to represent nouns; to gradually increase the vocabulary of picture cards; to choose appropriate cards from given choices; to add basic sentence structure by pairing pictures with words; and to add pictures or words representing other parts of speech.

7. Successful strategies for collaboration will include elaboration on three of the following: environmental and curricular modifications, attitudinal and social support, coordinated team commitment, recurrent evaluation of inclusive practices, or home– school collaboration. The “How Can I Help” text feature provides many recommendations.

8. To be most effective, they must be early, intensive, highly structured, and should involve families. They should focus on using natural interactions to teach children in natural environments. Low student/teacher ratios are also important, along with frequent progress monitoring.

9. EIBI is based on the features for early intervention programs recommended by the National Research Council that particularly emphasizes the role of parents as interventionists. It is anchored in applied behavior analysis tradition, and requires considerable time commitments from therapists and parents in implementing very structured training on specific skills. Because of its intensity and need for a very high level of parental involvement, many are reluctant to recommend its use. However, it can be effective in improving language and functional skills.

10. Planning should begin in elementary years and gradually become more intensive into secondary years, typically progressing from a more academic orientation to a more functional skills and basic academics orientation. Person-centered planning should be used, encouraging the student to make his or her own decisions. The goal 33 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

for work settings is competitive or supported competitive employment. For those with Asperger syndrome, the focus is on social interactions in the workplace.

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Chapter 10 Test Item File Daniel P. Hallahan

Exceptional Learners: An Introduction to Special Education Fifteenth Edition Daniel P. Hallahan, University of Virginia Paige C. Pullen, University of Florida James M. Kauffman, University of Virginia Prepared by Karen M. Cole, University of North Carolina Asheville

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Table of Contents

Chapter 10: Learners with Communication Disorders ....................................... 1 Learning Outcome Quizzes ................................................................. 1 Application Exercises ......................................................................... 14 Test Items .......................................................................................... 23 Test Answer Key ................................................................................ 31

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Chapter 10: Learners with Communication Disorders Learning Outcome Quizzes Learning Outcome 10.1: Understand the definition and prevalence of communication disorders.

[Q1] Which of the following scenarios best reflects a student who has a language disorder?

1. Nur lisps when she tries to pronounce the sound /s/.

2. Wells stutters when he speaks, especially if he is nervous.

3. Evie has difficulty using words to express her thoughts and feelings. [correct] 4. Brittani uses Black English Vernacular, saying, “I ain’t done my homework.”

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Lisping reflects difficulty producing sound, so it is a speech disorder.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Stuttering reflects difficulty producing sound, so it is a speech disorder.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Language disorders include problems with comprehension and/or expression.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] African American English (Ebonics or Black English Vernacular), Appalachian English, and the Cajun dialect are varieties of English, not disorders of speech or language.

[Q2] Which term best describes the actions of requesting objects, rejecting interactions, sharing ideas, and seeking social interaction?

1. Receptive language 2. Speech 3. Communicative functions [correct] 4. Morphology [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Receptive language refers to decoding or understanding messages.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Speech is the neuromuscular activity of forming and sequencing the sounds of oral language.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3]

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Communicative functions allow the expression and interpretation of both verbal and nonverbal messages.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Morphology refers to the rules that govern alterations of the internal organization of words, such as adding suffixes and other grammatical inflections.

[Q3] Why is it difficult to estimate the prevalence of communication disorders?

1. Because schools do not maintain accurate records 2. Because there is significant overlap with other areas of disability [correct] 3. Because many parents are reluctant to allow their children to receive speech and language services 4. Because definitions of communication disorders vary so much from state to state [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Establishing the prevalence of communication disorders is difficult because they are extremely varied, sometimes difficult to identify, and often occur as part of other disabilities (e.g., intellectual disabilities, brain injury, learning disabilities, or autism).

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Communication disorders are also extremely varied and are sometimes difficult to identify.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Establishing the prevalence of communication disorders is difficult because they are extremely varied, sometimes difficult to identify, and often occur as part of other disabilities (e.g., intellectual disabilities, brain injury, learning disabilities, or autism).

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Establishing the prevalence of communication disorders is difficult because they are extremely varied, sometimes difficult to identify, and often occur as part of other disabilities (e.g., intellectual disabilities, brain injury, learning disabilities, or autism).

[Q4] About what percent of students in elementary and secondary grades have speech disorders?

1. 15% 2. 12% 3. 9% 4. 5% [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1]

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About 5% of students in elementary and secondary grades have speech disorders; about 1% of the school-age population have language disorders.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] About 5% of students in elementary and secondary grades have speech disorders; about 1% of the school-age population have language disorders.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] About 5% of students in elementary and secondary grades have speech disorders; about 1% of the school-age population have language disorders.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Further, about 1% of the school-age population have language disorders.

[Q5] Approximately what percentage of children identified for special education receive services primarily for speech or language disorders?

1. 1–2% 2. 5% 3. 10% 4. 20% [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] About a million children—approximately one fifth of all children who are identified for special education—receive services primarily for language or speech disorders.

Speech-language therapy is one of the most frequently provided related services for children with other primary disabilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] About a million children—approximately one fifth of all children who are identified for special education—receive services primarily for language or speech disorders.

Speech-language therapy is one of the most frequently provided related services for children with other primary disabilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] About a million children—approximately one fifth of all children who are identified for special education—receive services primarily for language or speech disorders.

Speech-language therapy is one of the most frequently provided related services for children with other primary disabilities.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Speech-language therapy is one of the most frequently provided related services for children with other primary disabilities (e.g., intellectual disabilities or learning disability).

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Learning Outcome 10.2: Learn about the difference between communicative differences and disorders and learn the major disorders of speech and language.

[Q1] Which of the following questions would best help discern if a student has a language disorder?

1. Is the student an effective communicator in their speech and language community? [correct] 2. Is the student having difficulty pronouncing specific sounds?

3. Does the child speak with a strong accent?

4. Does the child speak African American English or Appalachian American English?

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Someone with a language difference that is also a disorder has difficulty communicating in every language environment, including the home language community.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Difficulty in producing speech sounds is reflective of a speech disorder rather than a language disorder.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Speaking with an accent does not, in and of itself, reflect a language disorder, though it is possible for a student with a strong accent also to have a language disorder.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Care must be taken not to mistake a cultural or ethnic difference for a disorder; on the other hand, disorders that exist in the context of a language difference must not be overlooked.

[Q2] Which of the following statements about communication differences is false?

1. There is general agreement that students who speak a language variation other than Mainstream American English (MAE) should be taught to code switch. [correct] 2. Children who are English Language Learners are less likely than native English speakers to score as proficient in reading.

3. The mismatch between African American English (AAE) and Mainstream American English (MAE) affects the acquisition of reading skills.

4. Assessing an English Language Learner’s rapid naming ability can help identify language impairment.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1]

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A number of people object to the direct teaching of MAE and code-switching, pointing out that asking students to code switch is racist and forces them to set aside their own identity.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement is true. ELLs are also at higher risk of being identified as having disabilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] When texts are written in MAE, students who speak other language variations (e.g., AA E) are likely to be less familiar with the wording of the ideas being presented. This unfamiliarity with vocabulary and language structure may put them at a disadvantage in understanding what they are reading.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Identifying monolingual/bilingual students based on their rapid naming scores relative to those of their typically developing peers may prevent delayed diagnoses of developmental language disorders.

[Q3] At present, which theory of communication is considered to have the most direct implications for speech-language pathologists and teachers?

1. Cognitive development theory 2. Pragmatic or social interaction theory [correct] 3. Behavioral psychology theory 4. Biological maturation theory [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Pragmatic or social interaction theory is widely viewed as having the most direct implications for speech-language pathologists and teachers because it focuses most directly on how communication skills can be fostered through adult–child interaction.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Pragmatic or social interaction theory is widely viewed as having the most direct implications for speech-language pathologists and teachers because it focuses most directly on how communication skills can be fostered through adult–child interaction.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Pragmatic or social interaction theory is widely viewed as having the most direct implications for speech-language pathologists and teachers because it focuses most directly on how communication skills can be fostered through adult–child interaction.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4]

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Pragmatic or social interaction theory is widely viewed as having the most direct implications for speech-language pathologists and teachers because it focuses most directly on how communication skills can be fostered through adult–child interaction.

[Q4] What is a secondary language disorder?

1. A language disorder that manifests when a student is in high school 2. A language disorder with no known cause 3. A language disorder that results from another condition [correct] 4. A significant language delay that a child might not outgrow [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] A primary language disorder has no known cause. A secondary language disorder is caused by another condition, such as hearing impairment, autism spectrum disorder, cerebral palsy, intellectual disability, or traumatic brain injury.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] A primary language disorder has no known cause. A secondary language disorder is caused by another condition, such as hearing impairment, autism spectrum disorder, cerebral palsy, intellectual disability, or traumatic brain injury.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Potential causes include intellectual disability, hearing impairment, autism spectrum disorder, cerebral palsy, or traumatic brain injury.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] A significant language delay that a child might not outgrow is called Early Expressive Language Delay (EELD).

[Q5] Which of the following statements about speech disorders is false?

1. A 10-year-old student who says “vewy” instead of “very” is likely to have an articulation disorder.

2. Voice disorders, though difficult to define precisely, are characteristics of pitch, loudness, and/or quality that are abusive of the larynx.

3. Stuttering is a common disorder and occurs more frequently in boys than girls. [correct] 4. Usually, a person with apraxia knows that they want to communicate but can’t do so.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Articulation disorders are errors in producing sounds. While many young children have difficulty pronouncing all sounds correctly before they are eight or nine years old, a ten-

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year-old who is still having difficulty making the /r/ sound might well have an articulation disorder.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Voice disorders range from vocal hoarseness to abnormalities of the oral cavity.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Only about 1% of children and adults stutter, making it an uncommon disorder. It is true, though, that more boys than girls stutter.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This statement is true; apraxia can be very frustrating to the speaker since they know they are making errors and want to correct them but can’t.

Learning Outcome 10.3: Understand some of the educational considerations for people with communication disorders, and how professionals assess progress to help plan educational strategies.

[Q1] Which term best reflects methods of progress monitoring that involve a cycle of teaching followed by testing and reteaching as needed?

1. Curriculum-based language and communication assessment 2. Response to intervention 3. Diagnostic assessment 4. Dynamic assessment [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Dynamic assessment involves a cycle of teaching, followed by testing, and then reteaching as necessary. Data from dynamic assessments helps guide intervention.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Dynamic assessment involves a cycle of teaching, followed by testing, and then reteaching as necessary. Data from dynamic assessments helps guide intervention.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Dynamic assessment involves a cycle of teaching, followed by testing, and then reteaching as necessary. Data from dynamic assessments helps guide intervention.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Data from dynamic assessments helps guide intervention.

[Q2] Which of the following procedures best represents milieu teaching?

1. Fiona requests a ball from her teacher, who asks, “What do you want to do with the ball?” The teacher gives Fiona the ball when she replies to the question. [correct] 7 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

2. Fiona requests a ball from her teacher, who says, “There are fun things to do with a ball!” The teacher then gives Fiona the ball.

3. Fiona requests a ball from her teacher, who asks, “What do you want to do with the ball?” The teacher waits five seconds, then gives Fiona the ball whether she replies to the question or not.

4. Fiona requests a ball from her teacher, who gives it to her and allows her to play with it. The teacher then asks, “Do you like playing with the ball?”

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] In milieu teaching, instruction is focused on the child’s interests. When the child requests something from the adult, the adult prompts the child’s language and gives access to what is requested contingent on an attempt to communicate.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] In milieu teaching, instruction is focused on the child’s interests. When the child requests something from the adult, the adult prompts the child’s language and gives access to what is requested contingent on an attempt to communicate.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] In milieu teaching, instruction is focused on the child’s interests. When the child requests something from the adult, the adult prompts the child’s language and gives access to what is requested contingent on an attempt to communicate.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] In milieu teaching, instruction is focused on the child’s interests. When the child requests something from the adult, the adult prompts the child’s language and gives access to what is requested contingent on an attempt to communicate.

[Q3] Which one of the following responses best reflects what a teacher should do if a child has difficulty answering a question?

1. Allow the students to ask a question of their own 2. Reduce the complexity of the original question [correct] 3. Ask several questions with synonymous meaning 4. Ask a question on a different topic [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The teacher should reduce the complexity of the question if a child is having difficulty answering it.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] When students fail to answer higher-order questions because these are beyond their level of information or skill, the teacher should reformulate the question at a simpler

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level. After students solve the intermediate steps, the teacher can return to the question that was initially too difficult.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Asking several questions with synonymous meanings might overwhelm a child with a language disorder. The teacher should ask one open-ended question, and, if the student can’t answer it, reformulate it at a simpler level.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Moving on to a different topic will likely deprive the student of a learning opportunity— the chance to understand the question, and discuss the original topic. The teacher should reduce the complexity of a question if a child is having difficulty answering it.

[Q4] Which question would be most likely to engage students in meaningful conversation?

1. What do you think we could do to make recess more fun? [correct] 2. Did you think the pizza at lunch tasted good?

3. How’s your day going?

4. What word can you think of that means the same thing as the word happy?

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Asking open-ended questions that focus on the students’ experiences and interests can lead to more extended dialogues.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Teachers may overuse yes/no questions, which curtail the child’s engagement in extended dialogues or provocative conversations.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Questions like this one may be too general to allow the student with a language disorder to formulate a meaningful response that leads to conversation.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Open-ended questions offer richer conversational opportunities than closed-ended questions.

[Q5] Which one of the following statements about written language development is true?

1. As students move up the grade levels, written language takes on increasing importance. [correct] 2. Written language and literacy are not usually problems for students with speech and language disorders.

3. Most students with language disorders are good readers but poor writers.

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4. Semantics, syntax, and morphology are relatively unimportant in written expression.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] The interactions teachers have with students about their writing—the questions they ask to help students understand how to write for their readers—are critical to overcoming disabilities in written language.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] It is common for students with language impairments to have difficulty with both reading and written expression.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] It is common for students with language impairments to have difficulty with both reading and written expression.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Understandings about semantics, syntax, and morphology provide significant support for students’ written expression.

Learning Outcome 10.4: Learn about issues that should be considered with respect to early intervention and transition to adulthood for individuals with communication disorders.

[Q1] Jennie is a preschooler with delayed language development. On what aspect of language would her teachers be most likely to focus?

1. Discourse [correct] 2. Articulation 3. Verb forms and plurals 4. Syntax [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Preschool teachers emphasize teaching children to use the discourse that is essential for success in school. Children must learn, for example, to report their experiences in detail and to explain why things happen, not just add to their vocabularies.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Preschool teachers emphasize teaching children to use the discourse that is essential for success in school. Children must learn, for example, to report their experiences in detail and to explain why things happen, not just add to their vocabularies.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Preschool teachers emphasize teaching children to use the discourse that is essential for success in school. Children must learn, for example, to report their experiences in detail and to explain why things happen, not just add to their vocabularies.

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[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Preschool teachers emphasize teaching children to use the discourse that is essential for success in school. Children must learn, for example, to report their experiences in detail and to explain why things happen, not just add to their vocabularies.

[Q2] Which of the following statements about adolescents with speech and language disorders is false?

1. They sometimes seek out speech-language support because they are socially embarrassed by their difficulties.

2. Setting realistic goals for the speech and language learning of people with severe disabilities is typically a simple process. [correct] 3. The focus of transition for students with communication disorders is using the language demanded for successful independent living and/or employment.

4. Some students might need to be taught an alternative to oral language or given a system of augmented communication.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] If their phonology, voice, or stuttering is causing them social embarrassment and/or interfering with occupational pursuits, an adolescent (or adult) may seek out the services of a speech-language pathologist.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Goal setting can be difficult. Teaching simple, functional language—such as social greetings, naming objects, and making simple requests—may be realistic goals for some adolescents and adults.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Being able to use language effectively in social interactions and in the working world is an important aspect of transition to adulthood.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This statement is true, particularly in the case of students with severe disabilities.

[Q3] Which of the following factors is most likely to reduce the effectiveness of strategy training for adolescents with speech and language disorders?

1. Size of instructional group 2. Emphasis on vocational rather than academic goals 3. Poor reading skills [correct] 4. Minimal peer involvement [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] 11 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Of the responses listed, the factor most likely to interfere with the effectiveness of strategy instruction is the student’s poor reading skills. Deficits in symbolic activities or intelligence may also reduce a student’s ability to benefit from training in cognitive strategies.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Of the responses listed, the factor most likely to interfere with the effectiveness of strategy instruction is the student’s poor reading skills. Deficits in symbolic activities or intelligence may also reduce a student’s ability to benefit from training in cognitive strategies.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Deficits in symbolic activities or intelligence may also reduce a student’s ability to benefit from training in cognitive strategies.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Of the responses listed, the factor most likely to interfere with the effectiveness of strategy instruction is the student’s poor reading skills. Deficits in symbolic activities or intelligence may also reduce a student’s ability to benefit from training in cognitive strategies.

[Q4] Which of the following objectives for intervention in young children’s language use would typically receive focus after the others listed?

1. Looking at an adult during interactions 2. Taking turns and trying to prolong pleasurable activities 3. Following the gaze of an adult 4. Engaging in group conversation with peers [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The earliest objectives in language use also include taking turns in and trying to prolong pleasurable activities and games; following the gaze of an adult; directing the behavior of adults; and persisting in or modifying gestures, sounds, or words when an adult does not respond.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The earliest objectives in language use also include looking at an adult during interactions; following the gaze of an adult; directing the behavior of adults; and persisting in or modifying gestures, sounds, or words when an adult does not respond.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The earliest objectives also involve the child’s looking at the adult during interactions; taking turns in and trying to prolong pleasurable activities and games; directing the behavior of adults; and persisting in or modifying gestures, sounds, or words when an adult does not respond.

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[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Working to develop the more basic behaviors associated with interactive language use typically precedes a focus on group discourse.

[Q5] Ideally, when should the earliest intervention in the area of speech and language development, if needed, begin?

1. During the first few months of life [correct] 2. Between the ages of 12 and 18 months 3. When the child is of preschool age 4. In kindergarten [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Early childhood specialists assert that prelinguistic intervention is critical for language development—that is, intervention should begin before the child’s language emerges.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Early childhood specialists assert that prelinguistic intervention is critical for language development—that is, intervention should begin before the child’s language emerges.

The foundations for language are laid in the first few months of life.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Early childhood specialists assert that prelinguistic intervention is critical for language development—that is, intervention should begin before the child’s language emerges.

The foundations for language are laid in the first few months of life.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Early childhood specialists assert that prelinguistic intervention is critical for language development—that is, intervention should begin before the child’s language emerges.

The foundations for language are laid in the first few months of life.

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Application Exercises Application Exercise 10.1: Language Differences and Disorders Learning Outcome 10.2: Learn about the difference between communicative differences and disorders and learn the major disorders of speech and language.

[Q1] Walkup: Review the section of the text called Communication Variations and the one called Primary Language Disorders.

Scenario: Ms. Gamble teaches second grade at Spotswood Primary School near New Orleans. You are observing in her classroom one day, and you note that while most of the students speak Mainstream American English (MAE), some students’ oral language is atypical. You begin paying close attention to the language the students are using, and you decide to observe a small group of students as they work.

As the group is working, Monique says, “The book says that Eloise done got upset that she and her best friend had a fight. I’d be mad, too—when I fight with my friends, I get really frustrated. I mean, I get so mad and upset. Sometimes I just have to ask my friend to go home so I can be done being mad.” The other children nod their agreement that they, too, would find the situation frustrating.

Question: Given what you’ve read in the text, do you believe Monique should be evaluated to see if she has a primary language disorder? Why or why not?

[Q1 Model Response] Based on the limited information we have, it is unlikely that Monique needs to be evaluated to see if she has a primary language disorder. Monique’s speech communicates her ideas clearly and she is successful at reading the text—two things that would be less likely if she had a primary language disorder. The language she uses, while not always reflective of MAE, is, for the most part, do follow a logical grammatical structure. The other children understand her intent clearly.

[Q2] Walkup: Review the section of the text called Communication Variations and the one called Primary Language Disorders.

Scenario: Ms. Gamble teaches second grade at Spotswood Primary School near New Orleans. You are observing in her classroom one day, and you note that while most of the students speak Mainstream American English (MAE), some students’ oral language is atypical. You begin paying close attention to the language the students are using.

Manuel, a student whose family moved to the United States last year, is on the playground talking with his cousin Esperanza, who lives in the same neighborhood he does. Both students’ families speak Spanish at home, and Manuel and Esperanza sometimes use Spanish during lunch and recess. You observe them as they talk together on the playground. You studied Spanish in college, and though you are by no means fluent, you pick up on the fact that Esperanza is asking Manuel why he and his 14 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

brother had a fight the day before. As the conversation between the students progresses, Esperanza looks confused. She keeps telling Manuel that she doesn’t understand what he means. Manuel tries to phrase his ideas differently, but Esperanza still does not comprehend what he is trying to say. Both Manuel and Esperanza are getting frustrated and seem relieved when Ms. Gamble says that recess time is over.

Later that afternoon, you sit in on a meeting between Ms. Gamble and Manuel’s parents. Ms. Gamble reports that Manuel is having difficulty in reading and writing.

Through an interpreter, Ms. Gamble asks Manuel’s mother and father if they ever have difficulty understanding what he is trying to tell them. They say yes. Ms. Gamble asks if that’s mostly when he’s speaking English, and the parents say they have a hard time understanding anyone who is speaking English, but that they also have difficulty understanding Manuel when he speaks Spanish. They say he has always had difficulty expressing himself.

Question: Given what you’ve read in the text, do you believe Manuel should be evaluated to see if he has a primary language disorder? Why or why not?

[Q2 Model Response] It would be a good idea for Manuel to be evaluated for a primary language disorder even though English is not his native language. The fact that family members with whom he shares both a language and a dialect are having difficulty understanding him is concerning; the fact that his communication problems persist in various environments also suggests that Manuel should be evaluated for a primary language disorder. Finally, his difficulties in reading and writing can also be associated with a primary language disorder.

[Q3] Walkup: Review the section of the text called Communication Variations and the one called Primary Language Disorders.

Scenario: Ms. Gamble teaches second grade at Spotswood Primary School near New Orleans. You are observing in her classroom one day, and you note that while most of the students speak Mainstream American English (MAE), some students’ oral language is atypical. You begin paying close attention to the language the students are using.

Tatyana and Oksana are students whose parents are from the Ukraine; the girls have lived in the United States from the time they were about five years old. As you observe them during art class and over lunch, you note that they are speaking conversational English accurately and well. You hear them talking with their native-English-speaking peers about a birthday party they’ll all be attending that weekend and telling another friend in detail about a movie they watched the night before. You also note that when the art teacher asks them to tell the other students about their projects, they express themselves clearly and well.

After lunch, the students head back to the classroom for their science lesson about force and energy. You note that Tatyana and Oksana are much less engaged during science than they were during art; when Ms. Gamble asks questions about the content, Tatyana and Oksana do not volunteer to answer them. They do not raise their hands 15 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

when Ms. Gamble asks if anyone would like to read a passage from their science text aloud; they also struggle when trying to complete the independent work Ms. Gamble assigns at the end of the lesson.

Question: Given what you’ve read in the text, do you believe Tatyana and Oksana should be evaluated for primary language disorders? Why or why not?

[Q3 Model Response] It does not seem necessary to evaluate Tatyana and Oksana for primary language disorders at this point. We know that they can make themselves understood during art and at lunch. We know they have been invited to a birthday party, so we can infer that they have been socially accepted—something that might not happen if other students had difficulty understanding them. The fact that Tatyana and Oksana are not as engaged or confident in science class is more likely a reflection of the complexity of the language used for content-based instruction; being able to carry on an informal conversation is less demanding than having to learn new academic vocabulary representing unknown concepts. They have only been in the United States for a couple of years, so it seems logical to assume that with continued instruction and practice, they will develop a more robust academic vocabulary.

Application Exercise 10.2: Articulation Disorders Learning Outcome 10.2: Learn about the difference between communicative differences and disorders and learn the major disorders of speech and language.

[Q1] Review Pearson e-Text Video Example 10.5 and read the section of the text called Articulation Disorders.

Question: Would you say that the student in the video has an articulation disorder?

Why or why not?

[Q1 Model Response] The student in the video does appear to have an articulation disorder. She has difficulty producing sounds, presumably at least in part because of physiological limitations. She is young, and many young children have difficulty producing some speech sounds, but her sounds are distorted. Further, the speech-language therapist is modeling sound formation by having the child watch how the therapist’s mouth is positioned when different sounds are made, which is further evidence that they are working specifically on articulation.

[Q2] Review Pearson e-Text Video Example 10.5 and read the section of the text called Articulation Disorders.

Question: Do you think this child’s speech disorder has a biological cause? Why do you say so?

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[Q2 Model Response] It is likely that this child’s articulation disorder does have a biological cause; it is almost certainly secondary to her Down syndrome, which we know is the result of the presence of an extra chromosome. Individuals with Down syndrome often have structural differences in their mouths (larger tongues, smaller upper jaws) that affect sound production.

[Q3] Review Pearson e-Text Video Example 10.5 and read the section of the text called Articulation Disorders.

Question: What positive outcomes might you expect as this student masters sound production more fully?

[Q3 Model Response] As the child masters articulation more fully, she will be able to express herself more clearly, which in turn will make her more understandable to other people. The better an individual can communicate, the more likely it is that they will engage in meaningful interactions with others. As this child’s communicative ability develops further, her opportunities may also develop; being able to be understand will likely enhance not only her social and academic interactions, but also, well into the future, her employment opportunities.

Application Exercise 10.3: Talking with Students Learning Outcome 10.3: Understand some of the educational considerations for people with communication disorders, and how professionals assess progress to help plan educational strategies.

[Q1] Review the sections of the text called Question-Asking Strategies and the one called Focus On: Talking with Students.

Scenario: Avery is 12 and has a language disorder. Her parents describe her as an introvert, but once she is comfortable in a situation, she is much more relaxed. Avery loves comic books and watching YouTube videos. She also loves animals, art class, and a particular K-Pop group. She participates in an afterschool program at the local Y WCA and is excited about an upcoming camping trip.

One of Avery’s Individualized Education Program (IEP) goals emphasizes oral language development, particularly in social situations. Each day Ms. Whitesides and Avery sit together to have a casual conversation. Here’s an example of one of those conversations: Ms. Whitesides: So, Avery, how has your morning been?

Avery: Good.

Ms. Whitesides: Did you go to art class?

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Avery: Yes. Ms. Whitesides: What kind of project did you make there?

Avery: We made pictures with tissue paper.

Mrs. Whitesides: Tissue paper, eh? What is that?

Avery: It’s this really thin paper that comes in lots of different colors. When you glue them down, you can see lots of colors.

Ms. Whitesides: Oh, I love making things with tissue paper. There are so many interesting things to do with it. What was your picture of?

Avery: Me camping.

Ms. Whitesides: Let’s say that in a complete sentence: My picture was of me camping.

Avery: My picture was of me camping.

Ms. Whitesides: What was in the picture?

Avery: I showed some trees and a campfire. I even put an owl in the tree!

Ms. Whitesides: Wow, that was a great idea! I know you are excited about the camping trip. What are you looking forward to the most?

Avery: … (silent for two seconds) Ms. Whitesides: Come on, I know you can tell me about this.

Avery: … (silent for two seconds) Ms. Whitesides: Are you going to make s’mores? I love s’mores.

Avery: Yes, we’re gonna make s’mores over the campfire.

Ms. Whitesides: Tell me more about that. I’d love to hear some more about s’mores.

Haha—get it? Some more about s’mores?

Avery, excitedly: Well, we build a big ol ’fire and then we get out some food. Graham crackers and chocolate and big puffy marshmallows. We put the marshmallows on sticks and stick them in the fire until they’re all brown. I have to be careful. I don’t like burned marshmallows. Then we put the marshmallow on a cracker with a piece of chocolate and eat it up! I love to…

Ms. Whitesides, enthusiastically joining in: That sounds fun, but it's also really messy. What does your face look like after you eat s’mores?

Avery: I am all sticky. I usually gots cracker crumbs and chocolate on my face. Once I even had marshmallow on me. It was very, very messy!

Ms. Whitesides: Let’s say that sentence again, but this time, instead of saying “gots,” Let’s say “I usually have cracker crumbs and chocolate on my face.”

Avery: I usually have…I forgot what I was telling you.

Ms. Whitesides: That’s okay. We can talk about something else. Tell me about the best comic book you’ve read lately.

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Avery: Oh, it was about Iron Man. He wears a big ol ’metal thing and goes out to do lots of stuff like saving people and stuff.

Question: Given her goal of increasing Avery’s language use, what things has Ms.Whitesides done effectively in this interaction?

[Q1 Model Response] Ms. Whitesides has chosen topics that Avery is interested in—art class, camping, and comic books. She has asked several open-ended questions and has shown interest in and excitement about what Avery is telling her. She has asked questions that encourage Avery to expand on something she has already said (e.g., “Tissue paper, eh? What is that?”). They are in a relaxed space and Ms. Whitesides makes a play on words with some more and s’mores, showing that she has a sense of humor.

[Q2] Review the sections of the text called Question-Asking Strategies and the one called Focus On: Talking with Students.

Scenario: Avery is 12 and has a language disorder. Her parents describe her as an introvert, but once she is comfortable in a situation, she is much more relaxed. Avery loves comic books and watching YouTube videos. She also loves animals, art class, and a particular K-Pop group. She participates in an afterschool program at the local Y WCA and is excited about an upcoming camping trip.

One of Avery’s IEP goals emphasizes oral language development, particularly in social situations. Each day Ms. Whitesides and Avery sit together to have a casual conversation. Here’s an example of one of those conversations: Ms. Whitesides: So, Avery, how has your morning been?

Avery: Good.

Ms. Whitesides: Did you go to art class?

Avery: Yes. Ms. Whitesides: What kind of project did you make there?

Avery: We made pictures with tissue paper.

Mrs. Whitesides: Tissue paper, eh? What is that?

Avery: It’s this really thin paper that comes in lots of different colors. When you glue them down, you can see lots of colors.

Ms. Whitesides: Oh, I love making things with tissue paper. There are so many interesting things to do with it. What was your picture of?

Avery: Me camping.

Ms. Whitesides: Let’s say that in a complete sentence: My picture was of me camping.

Avery: My picture was of me camping.

Ms. Whitesides: What was in the picture?

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Avery: I showed some trees and a campfire. I even put an owl in the tree!

Ms. Whitesides: Wow, that was a great idea! I know you are excited about the camping trip. What are you looking forward to the most?

Avery: … (silent for two seconds) Ms. Whitesides: Come on, I know you can tell me about this.

Avery: … (silent for two seconds) Ms. Whitesides: Are you going to make s’mores? I love s’mores.

Avery: Yes, we’re gonna make s’mores over the campfire.

Ms. Whitesides: Tell me more about that. I’d love to hear some more about s’mores.

Haha—get it? Some more about s’mores?

Avery, excitedly: Well, we build a big ol ’fire and then we get out some food. Graham crackers and chocolate and big puffy marshmallows. We put the marshmallows on sticks and stick them in the fire until they’re all brown. I have to be careful. I don’t like burned marshmallows. Then we put the marshmallow on a cracker with a piece of chocolate and eat it up! I love to…

Ms. Whitesides, enthusiastically joining in: That sounds fun, but it's also really messy. What does your face look like after you eat s’mores?

Avery: I am all sticky. I usually gots cracker crumbs and chocolate on my face. Once I even had marshmallow on me. It was very, very messy!

Ms. Whitesides: Let’s say that sentence again, but this time, instead of saying “gots,” Let’s say “I usually have cracker crumbs and chocolate on my face.”

Avery: I usually have…I forgot what I was telling you.

Ms. Whitesides: That’s okay. We can talk about something else. Tell me about the best comic book you’ve read lately.

Avery: Oh, it was about Iron Man. He wears a big ol ’metal thing and goes out to do lots of stuff like saving people and stuff.

Question: Given her goal of increasing the Avery’s language use, what things might Ms. Whitesides do differently to make their interactions more effective?

[Q2 Model Response] Ms. Whitesides started the conversation off with some closed-ended questions, so it was a bit slow getting started; open-ended questions are better for facilitating a dialogue. She also could have given more wait time for some of the questions; two seconds may be too short for Avery to think of which part of the camping trip she was looking forward to the most. After Avery paused a second time, Ms. Whitesides just supplied her with a topic (s’mores), which Avery talked about enthusiastically but which may not be the thing she was looking forward to the most. Ms. Whitesides corrects Avery twice, which isn’t necessarily a bad thing, but when Avery forgets what she was saying, instead of prompting her back to the topic, Ms. Whitesides just moves on.

20 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Q3] Review the sections of the text called Question-Asking Strategies and the one called Focus On: Talking with Students.

Scenario: Avery is 12 and has a language disorder. Her parents describe her as an introvert, but once she is comfortable in a situation, she is much more relaxed. Avery loves comic books and watching YouTube videos. She also loves animals, art class, and a particular K-Pop group. She participates in an afterschool program at the local Y WCA and is excited about an upcoming camping trip.

One of Avery’s IEP goals emphasizes oral language development, particularly in social situations. Each day Ms. Whitesides and Avery sit together to have a casual conversation. Here’s an example of one of those conversations: Ms. Whitesides: So, Avery, how has your morning been?

Avery: Good.

Ms. Whitesides: Did you go to art class?

Avery: Yes. Ms. Whitesides: What kind of project did you make there?

Avery: We made pictures with tissue paper.

Mrs. Whitesides: Tissue paper, eh? What is that?

Avery: It’s this really thin paper that comes in lots of different colors. When you glue them down, you can see lots of colors.

Ms. Whitesides: Oh, I love making things with tissue paper. There are so many interesting things to do with it. What was your picture of?

Avery: Me camping.

Ms. Whitesides: Let’s say that in a complete sentence: My picture was of me camping.

Avery: My picture was of me camping.

Ms. Whitesides: What was in the picture?

Avery: I showed some trees and a campfire. I even put an owl in the tree!

Ms. Whitesides: Wow, that was a great idea! I know you are excited about the camping trip. What are you looking forward to the most?

Avery: … (silent for two seconds) Ms. Whitesides: Come on, I know you can tell me about this.

Avery: … (silent for two seconds) Ms. Whitesides: Are you going to make s’mores? I love s’mores.

Avery: Yes, we’re gonna make s’mores over the campfire.

Ms. Whitesides: Tell me more about that. I’d love to hear some more about s’mores.

Haha—get it? Some more about s’mores?

21 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Avery, excitedly: Well, we build a big ol ’fire and then we get out some food. Graham crackers and chocolate and big puffy marshmallows. We put the marshmallows on sticks and stick them in the fire until they’re all brown. I have to be careful. I don’t like burned marshmallows. Then we put the marshmallow on a cracker with a piece of chocolate and eat it up! I love to…

Ms. Whitesides, enthusiastically joining in: That sounds fun, but it's also really messy. What does your face look like after you eat s’mores?

Avery: I am all sticky. I usually gots cracker crumbs and chocolate on my face. Once I even had marshmallow on me. It was very, very messy!

Ms. Whitesides: Let’s say that sentence again, but this time, instead of saying “gots,” Let’s say “I usually have cracker crumbs and chocolate on my face.”

Avery: I usually have…I forgot what I was telling you.

Ms. Whitesides: That’s okay. We can talk about something else. Tell me about the best comic book you’ve read lately.

Avery: Oh, it was about Iron Man. He wears a big ol ’metal thing and goes out to do lots of stuff like saving people and stuff.

Question: Imagine that you are Ms. Whitesides and are going to have a lunchtime conversation with Avery after she returns from her camping trip. Write three questions that you might use to initiate the conversation, then for each one, write one or more follow-up questions you might ask that would allow the conversation to continue.

[Q3 Model Response] Answers will vary but questions should be relevant to Avery and should be open-ended.

Our model answer continues the conversation specifically about camping, but learners are free to take the conversation in any direction.

•

What was the best thing that happened to you while you were camping? When that happened, what was it like? How did you feel?

•

How did everybody get along on the camping trip? When people disagreed about something, how did they solve the problem?

•

Imagine you have the chance to either go camping at the Grand Canyon with your family or here at home with your friends and counselors from the YWCA. Which one would you pick and why? If you could choose any place in the world to go camping, where would you go? What is it about that place that is interesting to you?

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Test Items 10.1 Multiple-Choice Questions 1. Communication requires a. language. b. encoding and decoding. c. speech. d. listening and speaking.

2. Requesting objects, rejecting interactions, sharing ideas, and seeking social interaction are examples of a. communicative functions. b. communication. c. language. d. receptive language.

3. The communication of ideas through an arbitrary system of symbols used according to certain rules that determine meaning is a. speech. b. language. c. communication. d. phonology.

4. The term encoding refers to a. expressive language. b. receptive language. c. discourse. d. communication.

5. The term decoding refers to a. communication. b. expressive language. c. discourse. d. receptive language.

6. The neuromuscular activity of forming and sequencing the sounds of oral language is called a. phonemic awareness. b. discourse.

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c. speech. d. phonology.

7. "Phonology" refers to linguistic rules governing a. construction of sentences. b. particular sounds and how they are sequenced. c. patterns of language use. d. construction of word forms.

8. Problems using language appropriately in social situations reflect particular challenges in the area of a. syntax. b. semantics. c. speech. d. pragmatics.

9. Shaunta has a speech disorder which causes her to stutter. This is a disorder of a. articulation. b. motor-speech. c. voice. d. fluency.

10. All of the following are examples of speech disorders except a. semantic disorder. b. articulation disorder. c. fluency disorder. d. voice disorder.

11. It is difficult to estimate the prevalence of communication disorders primarily because a. there is so much overlap with other categories of disability. b. schools do not maintain accurate records in this area. c. many parents are reluctant to allow their children to receive speech and language services. d. definitions of communication disorders vary so much from state to state.

12. Approximately what percentage of children identified for special education receives services primarily for speech or language disorders? a. 1% b. 5% 24 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

c. 10% d. 20% 13. Approximately how many preschool-age students are thought to have speech disorders? a. 1% b. 8–9% c. 15% d. 20% 14. Approximately how many members of the school-age population are thought to have language disorders? a. 1% b. 5% c. 10% d. 20% 15. Which one of the following is the best example of a language variation? a. acquired aphasia b. stuttering c. Appalachian English d. American Sign Language 16. Which of the following statements about communication variations is true? a. If a student does not use the language expected in school, they have a language disorder. b. A person with a language difference that is also a disorder has difficulty communicating even in their home language community. c. Children of nondominant cultures should not be expected to learn the rules for effective communication in the dominant culture. d. Bias is no longer an issue in normative tests of language assessment.

17. Which of the following examples best reflects the influence of a dialect? a. When Zelda pronounces the word snake, it sounds more like thnake. b. Martine rarely speaks to people she doesn’t know. c. Jasper has a very limited listening/speaking vocabulary. d. Aaron says, “ax” when he means “ask.”

18. Language development is least associated with which of the following? a. physical maturation 25 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

b. cognitive development c. native language d. socialization 19. Which of the following responses best reflects the language development theory focused on information processing? a. Language learning depends on brain development and proper brain functioning. b. Language learning depends on the consequences of language behavior. c. Language learning depends on the ability to acquire and employ rule-governed aspects of language. d. Language learning depends on how language inputs and outputs are analyzed and understood.

20. The social interaction, or pragmatic, theory of language development suggests that a. comprehending language is more important than producing language. b. language is taught by direct instruction and arrangement of consequences. c. language development is easily separated from social and cognitive development. d. the natural environment may be arranged to teach more effective language.

21. At present, which theory of communication is considered to have the most direct implications for speech-language pathologists and teachers? a. cognitive development b. pragmatic or social interaction c. behavioral psychology d. biological maturation 22. Language disorders are generally classified according to two dimensions, a. domain and etiology. b. primary and secondary causes. c. phonology and cause. d. specific impairment and expressive delay.

23. Which of the following statements about classification of language disorders is false? a. If by age 2 a child is not using two-word utterances, he might be considered to have early expressive language delay (EELD). b. About half the children whose language development is delayed at age 2 will gradually catch up developmentally.

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c. A significant percentage of the children who show language impairments in kindergarten will have obvious reading problems by second grade. d. Difficulty in using language in social interactions and relationships is an exclusive feature of secondary language disorders.

24. The terms specific language impairment and developmental language disorder refer to a. language disorders resulting from learning disabilities. b. language disorders occurring concomitantly with other disorders. c. language disorders with no identifiable cause. d. language disorders resulting from intellectual disabilities.

25. An example of a primary language disorder is a(n) a. phonological disorder. b. articulation disorder. c. early expressive language delay. d. fluency disorder.

26. When a child does not understand the rules for producing the sounds of their language at an age-appropriate level and in a culturally appropriate way, they would be more likely to be identified with a. a phonological disorder. b. an articulation disorder. c. a voice disorder. d. developmental apraxia.

27. Articulation disorders a. are easily distinguished from phonological disorders. b. are genetically based. c. have no known causes. d. involve errors in sound production.

28. Many children do not learn to produce all speech sounds correctly until they a. are 18 months old. b. are 3 years old. c. are 8–9 years old. d. leave high school (16–18 years old).

29. Which one of the following is an articulation disorder? a. stuttering 27 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

b. lisping c. aphasia d. mutism 30. Due to a brain injury, Ethan has difficulty selecting and sequencing speech. He knows he makes errors and what he wants to say, but simply cannot. Henry's condition is a. dysarthria. b. stuttering. c. acquired apraxia. d. acquired aphasia.

31. The primary role of the classroom teacher is to facilitate development of which aspect of language? a. phonology b. semantics c. pragmatics d. morphology 32. Which one of the following is an example of an alternative question-asking strategy? a. focusing on student-initiated questions b. reducing the complexity of a question c. increasing interaction between student and teacher so both members ask and answer questions d. creating several questions with synonymous meaning 33. Methods of progress monitoring that involve a cycle of teaching, followed by testing, and then reteaching as necessary are a. dynamic assessments. b. curriculum-based language and communication assessments. c. curriculum-based management. d. response to intervention.

34. Much of a child's language and social development depend on two characteristics of language interaction the child has with caregivers. What are the characteristics? a. nature and quantity of the language b. quality and variety of the language c. variety and resonance of the language d. loudness and functionality of the language

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35. Jennie is a preschooler with delayed language development. Language intervention at this level generally focuses on a. articulation. b. verb forms and plurals. c. concept development. d. discourse.

36. Which of the following statements about adolescents and adults with speech and language problems is false? a. They might refer themselves to a speech-language pathologist because of social embarrassment. b. The loss of the ability to speak is typically more disabling than the loss of the ability to use language. c. People with severe disabilities may need to be taught an alternative to oral language or be given an augmentative communication system. d. There may be problems setting realistic goals for speech and language learning.

37. Which condition reduces the effectiveness of strategy training for adolescents with speech and language disorders? a. use of natural group settings b. emphasis on vocational goals c. poor reading skills d. involvement of peers 10.2 True/False Questions 1. By definition, all communication disorders involve impairments of speech.

2. Many children quickly outgrow their dysfluencies.

3. For children with developmental language delay, letter identification is a better predictor of later dyslexia than phonological awareness.

4. Texting may be a useful means of communication for students with developmental language delays.

5. A student who has a physical abnormality of the oral cavity is likely to have a voice disorder involving resonance.

6. More girls than boys stutter.

7. Prelinguistic communication is not correlated with a child’s later ability to use language.

8. A secondary language disorder has no known cause.

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9. Early intervention for speech and language disorders should emphasize conversation skills rather than the mechanics of language.

10. Many of the academic and social difficulties of adolescents and adults are now attributed to basic language disorders.

10.3 Short Answer Questions 1. Distinguish between disorders of language and disorders of speech, provide two examples of each, and define each example.

2. Distinguish between a communication disorder and a communication variation.

When might a communication variation demand special teaching?

3. List at least three of the six theories of language development that have dominated the study of human communication at various times. Which theory is widely viewed as having the most direct implications for speech-language pathologists and teachers? Why? 4. What is the difference between a primary language disorder and a secondary language disorder?

5. Explain how teachers' problems with communication skills can interfere with the progress of students with speech or language disorders. Provide examples of specific problems with communication that teachers sometimes demonstrate.

6. What should be considered when developing an assessment-based intervention plan for a student with communication disorders?

7. The current trend in early intervention is to provide speech and language intervention in the natural environment of the young child. Discuss the rationale underlying this trend and describe three strategies that are consistent with the trend.

8. Describe the three categories that adolescents and adults in speech and language intervention programs typically fit in.

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Test Answer Key 10.1 Multiple Choice Questions 1. b 2. a 3. b 4. a 5. d 6. c 7. b 8. d 9. d 10. a 11. a 12. d 13. b 14. a 15. c 16. b 17. d 18. c 19. d 20. d 21. b 22. a 23. d 24. c 25. c 26. a 27. d 28. c 29. b 30. c 31 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

31. c 32. b 33. a 34. a 35. d 36. b 37. c 10.2 True/False Questions 1. False 2. True 3. True 4. True 5. True 6. False 7. False 8. False 9. True 10. True 10.3 Short Answer Questions 1. Language disorders include problems in comprehending and using language for communication, regardless of the symbol system used (spoken, written, signing, and other). Examples are problems with phonology (sound combinations), morphology (construction of word forms such as plurals and verb tenses), syntax (construction of sentences), semantics (intentions and meanings people attach to words and sentences), and pragmatics (the use to which language is put; it includes nonverbal behavior as well as vocalizations that form the pattern of language). Speech disorders are impairments in the production and use of oral language. They include phonological disorders (understanding the rules for producing the sounds of one's language), voice disorders (pitch, loudness, and quality), articulation (making speech sounds), fluency (producing speech with a normal flow), and motor-speech disorders (dysarthria and apraxia).

2. A communication disorder is impairment in the ability to receive, send, process, and comprehend concepts of verbal, nonverbal, and graphic symbol systems, manifesting as speech and/or language disorders. Communication variations include language that is unique to a particular region, ethnic group, or cultural group. It also includes systems that compensate for problems of people with severe expressive or language comprehension disorders. If a student's communication variation is so 32 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

different from the communication of the dominant culture that the student is unable to communicate effectively, the student will be at risk for school failure, possibly leading to less success in the world of the dominant culture. In such cases, failure to teach children the skills they need to communicate effectively according to the rules of the dominant culture will deny them opportunities. Rather, they need to be taught to live in two worlds: one in which their home language is used, and one in which school language is used.

3. Biological maturation, behavioral psychology, information processing, linguistic or theories will include atavistic perspective, cognitive development, and social interaction. Social interaction theory is viewed as having the most direct implications because it focuses most on how communication skills can be fostered through adult–child interaction.

4. Primary language disorders have no known cause and secondary language disorders are caused by another condition (intellectual disability, hearing impairment, etc.).

5. Problems in classroom discourse involve how teachers talk to students as well as how students use language. Teachers must learn to be clear, relevant, and informative and skilled at holding listeners' attention. Teachers often ask students questions in areas of the students' identified weaknesses (e.g., repeatedly asking a child to name colors when the child does not know colors). Teachers may too often take the lead in discussions, ask too many questions, use an unpleasant tone of voice, be judgmental or make fun of students' language, not allow enough time for students to respond, interrupt while students are talking, not include certain children in discussions, or not provide all children with opportunities to communicate.

6. What the child talks about, how the child talks about things, how the child functions in his or her linguistic community, and how the child uses language, and how the child should be taught to improve those skills?

7. Much of children's language and social development depends on the nature and quantity of the language interactions they have with their parents or caregivers.

Thus, it appears that the key to preventing many disabilities related to language development is to help parents improve how they relate to their children when they are infants and toddlers. Likewise, intervention in preschool and primary grades must be guided by understanding of children's families. Extending the role of the parent means a lot of simple play with accompanying verbalizations and choosing objects, activities, words, and consequences for the child's vocalizations with care so the chances that the child will learn increase. In preschool, teaching discourse (conversation skills) is a critical focus and may be achieved by teacher's daily individualized conversations with children, daily reading to individual children or small groups, and frequent classroom discussion. Providing interventions in typical environments for children requires a close relationship between teachers and speech-language pathologists. The SLP needs to work directly with children in the classroom, and advise the teacher on how to carry out on-going interventions. Peers may also be involved as they can be taught to interact in ways that encourage students with speech or language disorders to practice skills.

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8. 1. The self-referred (their phonology, voice, or problem is causing social embarrassment and or interfering with occupational pursuits). 2. Those with other health problems (might have experienced damage to speech of language capacities as a result of disease or injury). 3. People with severe disabilities (might need services of an SLP to help achieve more intelligible speech or to use an AA.

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Chapter 11 Test Item File Daniel P. Hallahan

Exceptional Learners: An Introduction to Special Education Fifteenth Edition Daniel P. Hallahan, University of Virginia Paige C. Pullen, University of Florida James M. Kauffman, University of Virginia Prepared by Karen M. Cole, University of North Carolina Asheville

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Table of Contents

Chapter 11: Learners Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing............................................ 1 Learning outcome quizzes ......................................................................... 1 Application Exercises ............................................................................... 17 Test Items ................................................................................................ 22 Test Answer Key ...................................................................................... 31

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Chapter 11: Learners Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing Learning outcome quizzes Learning Outcome 11.1: Understand the definition, classification, and prevalence of individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing.

[Q1] From a physiological perspective, what is the basis of the distinction between the terms deaf and hard of hearing?

1. The pitch of sounds detected 2. The origin of hearing loss 3. The effect on learning and communicative outcomes 4. The decibel levels detected [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Those who maintain a strictly physiological viewpoint are interested primarily in the measurable degree of hearing impairment. They generally consider people with hearing impairments of about 90 d B or greater to be deaf and people with impairments at lower decibel levels to be hard of hearing.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Those who maintain a strictly physiological viewpoint are interested primarily in the measurable degree of hearing impairment. They generally consider people with hearing impairments of about 90 d B or greater to be deaf and people with impairments at lower decibel levels to be hard of hearing.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] People with an educational viewpoint are concerned with how much the hearing impairment is likely to affect the child’s ability to speak and develop language. Those who maintain a strictly physiological viewpoint are interested primarily in the measurable degree of hearing impairment.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Those who maintain a physiological viewpoint generally consider people with hearing impairments of about 90 dB or greater to be deaf and people with impairments at lower decibel levels to be hard of hearing.

[Q2] Simon’s hearing loss occurred when he was seven years old. How his loss is best described?

1. Postlingual [correct] 2. Conductive 1 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

3. Sensorineural 4. Congenital [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Having postlingual hearing loss means Simon’s ability to speak intelligibly is likely to be much higher than that of someone with a prelingual loss. Having language, even for a brief period of time, before becoming deaf makes a big difference for communication in spoken language.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Because hearing children have language well before the age of seven years, Simon’s hearing loss is considered postlingual. As a practical matter, this designation means his ability to speak intelligibly is likely to be much higher than that of someone with a prelingual loss. Having language, even for a brief period of time, before becoming deaf makes a big difference for communication in spoken language.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Because hearing children have language well before the age of seven years, Simon’s hearing loss is considered postlingual. As a practical matter, this designation means his ability to speak intelligibly is likely to be much higher than that of someone with a prelingual loss. Having language, even for a brief period of time, before becoming deaf makes a big difference for communication in spoken language.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Because hearing children have language well before the age of seven years, Simon’s hearing loss is considered postlingual. As a practical matter, this designation means his ability to speak intelligibly is likely to be much higher than that of someone with a prelingual loss. Having language, even for a brief period of time, before becoming deaf makes a big difference for communication in spoken language.

[Q3] Which argument is most likely to be made by people who say that deafness should not be considered a disability?

1. Although deafness is a handicap, it is not a disability.

2. Those who are deaf should be considered a cultural minority with a language of their own. [correct] 3. Only those with prelingual deafness should be identified as having a disability.

4. There are advantages to being deaf, so it is not a disability.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] For the vast majority of society, who are able to hear, it seems fairly obvious that deafness is a disability. However, it is far from obvious to many people who are deaf, who argue that instead of being considered as having a disability, people who are deaf should be viewed as a cultural minority with a language of their own: sign language.

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[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] For the vast majority of society, who are able to hear, it seems fairly obvious that deafness is a disability. However, it is far from obvious to many people who are deaf.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] For the vast majority of society, who are able to hear, it seems fairly obvious that deafness is a disability. However, it is far from obvious to many people who are deaf, who argue that instead of being considered as having a disability, people who are deaf should be viewed as a cultural minority with a language of their own: sign language.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] For the vast majority of society, who are able to hear, it seems fairly obvious that deafness is a disability. However, it is far from obvious to many people who are deaf, who argue that instead of being considered as having a disability, people who are deaf should be viewed as a cultural minority with a language of their own: sign language.

[Q4] According to the U.S. Department of Education, what percentage of students are identified as deaf or hard of hearing?

1. 0.10% [correct] 2. 0.14% 3. 10% 4. 14% [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Hearing impairment is more prevalent in ethnically diverse populations and in those who live in poverty; of children who have hearing impairments, over 30% come from Spanish-speaking homes.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Approximately 0.10% of students are identified and served as having a hearing impairment.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Approximately 0.10% of students are identified and served as having a hearing impairment.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Approximately 0.10% of students are identified and served as having a hearing impairment.

[Q5] From an educational point of view, how is deafness best defined?

1. As an inability to understand speech even with a hearing aid [correct] 3 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

2. As difficulty hearing that has been present since birth 3. As a hearing loss of more than 90 dB in at least one ear 4. As a condition that worsens with age [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] The determination is made based more on the ability of the individual to function in the classroom and society.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Whereas the medical field looks to the measurement of hearing in decibels to define deafness, the educational field prefers to determine whether the individual has an inability to understand speech even with a hearing aid.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Whereas the medical field looks to the measurement of hearing in decibels to define deafness, the educational field prefers to determine whether the individual has an inability to understand speech even with a hearing aid.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Whereas the medical field looks to the measurement of hearing in decibels to define deafness, the educational field prefers to determine whether the individual has an inability to understand speech even with a hearing aid.

Learning Outcome 11.2: Learn about the anatomical and physiological characteristics of the ear, the causes of hearing impairments, and how hearing impairments are identified.

[Q1] What is the most important organ for hearing?

1. The cochlea [correct] 2. The vestibular mechanism 3. The tympanic membrane 4. The ossicles [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] The cochlea contains the parts necessary to convert the mechanical action of the middle ear into an electrical signal in the inner ear that is transmitted to the brain.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The most important organ for hearing is the cochlea, which contains the parts necessary to convert the mechanical action of the middle ear into an electrical signal in the inner ear that is transmitted to the brain.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The most important organ for hearing is the cochlea, which contains the parts 4 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

necessary to convert the mechanical action of the middle ear into an electrical signal in the inner ear that is transmitted to the brain.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The most important organ for hearing is the cochlea, which contains the parts necessary to convert the mechanical action of the middle ear into an electrical signal in the inner ear that is transmitted to the brain.

[Q2] Ideally, which of the following timing patterns should be used when babies are screened for hearing impairments?

1. 1-3-6 week rule 2. 1-3-6 month rule [correct] 3. 2-4-6 week rule 4. 2-4-6 month rule [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Ideally, a 1-3-6 month rule is followed; babies are screened at the hospital by 1 month, with those who show signs of hearing loss followed up on by 3 months and entering a family intervention program by 6 months.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Babies are screened at the hospital by 1 month, with those who show signs of hearing loss followed up on by 3 months and entering a family intervention program by 6 months.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Ideally, a 1-3-6 month rule is followed; babies are screened at the hospital by 1 month, with those who show signs of hearing loss followed up on by 3 months and entering a family intervention program by 6 months.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Ideally, a 1-3-6 month rule is followed; babies are screened at the hospital by 1 month, with those who show signs of hearing loss followed up on by 3 months and entering a family intervention program by 6 months.

[Q3] Which of the following statements about the identification of students with hearing loss is false?

1. Some screening tests use computer technology to measure how well the cochlea receives and emits sounds.

2. Pure-tone audiometry is used to establish an individual’s threshold for hearing at a variety of different frequencies.

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3. The speech-reception threshold is a measure of how well the ossicles in the middle ear are functioning. [correct] 4. A person with average-normal hearing can barely hear sounds at a sound-pressure of 0 dB. [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This statement is true. The sounds emitted by the cochlea are known as otoacoustic emissions, and they provide a measure of how well the cochlea is functioning.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement is true. A person’s threshold for hearing, as measured in hertz (H z) units, is the level at which they can first detect a sound; it refers to how intense a sound must be before the person detects it.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] The speech-reception threshold (S RT) is the decibel level at which one can understand speech. One way to measure the S RT is to present the person with a list of two-syllable words, testing each ear separately.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This statement is true. The zero-decibel level is frequently called the zero hearingthreshold level, or audiometric zero.

[Q4] Which of the following statements related to the causes of hearing loss is true?

1. Atresia is an infection of the skin of the external auditory canal.

2. Hearing problems that originate in the inner ear are conductive hearing impairments.

3. The most severe hearing impairments are associated with the middle ear.

4. Otitis media can result in temporary conductive hearing impairment. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This statement is false. Atresia occurs when the external auditory canal does not form.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement is false. Hearing problems that originate in the middle or outer ear are conductive hearing impairments. Hearing problems that originate in the inner ear are sensorineural hearing impairments.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement is false. The most severe hearing impairments are associated with the inner ear.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Temporary losses resulting from otitis media can make the child vulnerable to language delays.

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[Q5] Which of the following is not a type of hearing test?

1. Speech audiometry 2. Pure-tone audiometry 3. Screening test 4. Connexin-26 test [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Audiologists use speech audiometry to test a person’s detection and understanding of speech.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Pure-tone audiometry is a test designed to establish the individual’s threshold for hearing at a variety of different frequencies.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Many schools have routine screening programs in the early elementary grades. These tests, especially those that are group rather than individually administered, are less accurate than tests done in an audiologist’s office.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Connexin-26 is a gene. Mutations in it are the most common causes of congenital deafness.

Learning Outcome 11.3: Understand some psychological and behavioral characteristics of people with hearing impairments.

[Q1] Which of the following statements about sign language is false?

1. Sign language has grammatical structure at both the sentence/syntax level and at the word/sign level.

2. Sign language reflects both cultural variations and dialects.

3. Children who are deaf reach the same language development milestones in sign that hearing children reach in spoken language, and do so at about the same time.

4. Sign language is accurately described as a primitive visual representation of oral language similar to mime. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This statement is true. Handshapes, location, and movement are combined to create a grammar every bit as complex as that of spoken language.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement is true. The different dialects are usually due to differences in 7 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

geographic locations. B SL is a manifestation of the historical segregation of Black deaf students.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement is true. Deaf children “babble” at about the same time as their hearing peers verbally babble. And infants who are deaf sign their first words and two-word phrases at about the same time that hearing infants verbalize their first words and twoword phrases.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Research in several areas has proved that sign language is a true language.

[Q2] In which area would you expect a child who is deaf to have the largest deficit?

1. Reading and language arts [correct] 2. Mathematics 3. General intellectual ability 4. Physical agility and motor control [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] The average 15-year-old student with a hearing impairment has a deficit of at least 5 years in reading.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The average 15-year-old student with a hearing impairment has a deficit of at least 5 years in reading. Math is typically their best academic subject, also they still trail their hearing peers in it by substantial margins.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The average 15-year-old student with a hearing impairment has a deficit of at least 5 years in reading. Students with hearing impairments do not necessarily have intellectual disabilities; performance tests administered in sign offer a much fairer assessment of the IQ of a person with a hearing impairment.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The average 15-year-old student with a hearing impairment has a deficit of at least 5 years in reading.

[Q3] Among students who are deaf, which typically achieve the highest levels of literacy?

1. students whose hearing parents teach them how to speak 2. students whose parents are deaf and teach them ASL [correct] 3. students whose brothers and sisters are hearing

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4. students whose hearing parents communicate with them via both speech and ASL [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Several studies have demonstrated that children who are deaf whose parents are also deaf have higher levels of achievement and better language skills than those who have hearing parents.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Parents who are deaf might be able to communicate better with their children through the use of ASL, providing the children with needed support. In addition, children who have parents who are deaf are more likely to be proficient in A SL, and A SL can aid these children in learning written English and reading.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Several studies have demonstrated that children who are deaf whose parents are also deaf have higher levels of achievement and better language skills than those who have hearing parents.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Several studies have demonstrated that children who are deaf whose parents are also deaf have higher levels of achievement and better language skills than those who have hearing parents.

[Q4] About what percentage of children who are deaf have hearing parents?

1. 90% [correct] 2. 65% 3. 45% 4. 10% [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Unfortunately, many parents who can hear, as well as parents who are hard of hearing, don’t become proficient in A SL and are unable to communicate with their children easily.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] About 90% of students who are deaf have hearing parents.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] About 90% of students who are deaf have hearing parents.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] About 90% of students who are deaf have hearing parents.

[Q5]

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Which of the following statements about Deaf culture and Deaf activism is false?

1. Most members of the Deaf community prefer to see people who are deaf marry or enter into committed partnership with hearing people. [correct] 2. Most professionals now agree that Deafness is a culture emanating from the common bond of sign language.

3. Many within the Deaf community and some professionals are concerned that the increase in inclusion is eroding the cultural values of the Deaf culture.

4. Many members of the Deaf community oppose cochlear implant surgery because they view the process as physically and culturally invasive.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] The Deaf community tends to frown on marriages or committed partnerships between people who are deaf and those who are hearing. Survey data indicates that rates of ingroup marriage are as high as 90%.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement is true. The unifying influence of sign language is the first of six factors noted by Reagan (1990) as demarcating the Deaf community as a true culture.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement is true. In the past, much of Deaf culture was passed down from generation to generation through contacts made at residential schools. If they attend local schools, today’s children who are deaf may have little contact with other children who are deaf.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This statement is true. Wearing a cochlear implant can raise the dilemma of cultural identity for its user. In other words, with which cultural group—hearing or deaf—does the wearer identify?

Learning Outcome 11.4: Learn about some educational considerations for people with hearing impairments and how professionals assess progress to help plan educational strategies.

[Q1] All but which of the following factors make speechreading challenging?

1. The heavy reliance on amplification technology [correct] 2. The frequency in homophenes in spoken language 3. The need for the speechreader to see the speaker 4. The fact that speakers vary in how they produce sounds [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Speechreading reflects an auditory-oral approach, while amplification technology is 10 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

most associated with the auditory-verbal approach.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Homophenes are different sounds that are visually identical when spoken and can make it difficult for a speechreader to identify which sound is being made.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Lighting must be adequate and the speaker must be facing the speechreader if they are to successfully interpret another person’s words.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This variation can make it difficult for speechreaders to discern which sound is being made.

[Q2] Which of the following statements about the total communication/simultaneous communication system is false?

1. Signing English systems were developed over several generations of users. [correct] 2. Signing English systems maintain the same word order as spoken English.

3. Signing English systems are not true languages.

4. Signing English systems are too slow and awkward to be of much benefit in learning English.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] In fact, the opposite is true. Critics of the total communication/simultaneous communication system argue that signing English systems have been invented by individuals or small groups of people in short periods of time, whereas A SL has been developed over generations of users.

Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement is true and reflects a criticism of the total communication system.

Advocates of ASL argue that word order is not the critical element in teaching a person to use and comprehend English.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement is true and reflects a criticism of the total communication system. Critics argue that signing English systems have been invented by individuals or small groups of people in short periods of time and thus are not true languages.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This statement is true. Advocates of A SL believe that fluency in A SL provides students with a rich background of information that prepares them for the learning of English.

[Q3] Which of the following statements about the bicultural-bilingual approach is false?

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1. ASL is considered the primary language, and English is considered the secondary language.

2. It is the most effective approach for teaching language to students who are deaf. [correct] 3. People who are deaf play an important role in the development of the program and its curriculum.

4. The curriculum includes instruction in Deaf culture.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This statement is true. Bilingual education for students who are deaf can be structured so that ASL is learned first, followed by English, or the two can be taught simultaneously.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] This statement is true. Research comparing A SL, signing English systems, and other approaches, including the bicultural-bilingual approach, has been insufficient to conclude that only one approach should be used.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement is true. People who are part of the Deaf culture are in the best position to determine the curriculum.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This statement is true. Teaching students who are deaf about Deaf culture is a significant part of the bicultural-bilingual approach.

[Q4] What is the purpose of using an F M system with hearing aids?

1. To increase reverberation 2. To alter the pitch of different sounds 3. To amplify sound [correct] 4. To allow the teacher to talk to the student without others overhearing [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] FM systems are used in conjunction with hearing aids to amplify sound. The student hears the amplified sound either through a hearing aid that comes attached to the F M receiver or by attaching a behind-the-ear hearing aid to the F M receiver.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] FM systems are used in conjunction with hearing aids to amplify sound. The student hears the amplified sound either through a hearing aid that comes attached to the F M receiver or by attaching a behind-the-ear hearing aid to the F M receiver.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] 12 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

The student hears the amplified sound either through a hearing aid that comes attached to the FM receiver or by attaching a behind-the-ear hearing aid to the F M receiver.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] FM systems are used in conjunction with hearing aids to amplify sound. The student hears the amplified sound either through a hearing aid that comes attached to the F M receiver or by attaching a behind-the-ear hearing aid to the F M receiver.

[Q5] Which of the following statements about assessing the progress of students who are deaf or hard of hearing is false?

1. The progress monitoring measures used are similar to those used to assess students who hear.

2. Standardized tests may be biased against students who are deaf or hard of hearing.

3. The law requires students who are deaf or hard of hearing to be provided with an interpreter who can sign instructions and questions during standardized testing. [correct] 4. Curriculum-based measurement is appropriate for use with students who are deaf or hard of hearing.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This statement is true. Teachers can feel confident in administering C BM probes to monitor progress in reading fluency and comprehension as well as written expression and math.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement is true. Unfortunately, most standardized assessments are biased toward the majority culture. Educators must consider these biases carefully when making decisions as a result of students’ outcomes.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Most states allow signing directions without restriction, but some states consider the accommodation for signing questions nonstandard.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Progress monitoring measures are similar to those used to assess students who hear.

Learning Outcome 11.5: Learn about issues that should be considered with respect to early intervention and transition to adulthood for individuals with hearing impairments.

[Q1] What is the primary focus of early intervention for young children with hearing impairments?

1. Social skills 13 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

2. Play 3. Language development [correct] 4. Self-esteem [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Social skill development is important for young children who have hearing impairments.

However, language development is most often the focus of early intervention.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Play is important for young children who have hearing impairments, but language development is most often the focus of early intervention.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Some people maintain that the English language should be the focus of intervention efforts, and others hold that A SL should be used starting in infancy.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Developing self-esteem is important for young children who have hearing impairments, but language development is most often the focus of early intervention.

[Q2] Which of the following statements about deaf children with hearing parents is false?

1. Children who are deaf and their hearing parents tend to have less natural and facilitative interactions.

2. Hearing parents of children who are deaf are not as likely to be well prepared to cope with a child’s deafness.

3. Children who are deaf and have hearing parents are more likely to receive cochlear implants. [correct] 4. Hearing parents cannot draw on their own experiences in order to offer helpful support to their child who is deaf.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This statement is true and is a reason why early intervention for children who are deaf is so critical.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement is true. Parents who are deaf can draw on their own experiences to provide helpful support to the child.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] There is no evidence that this is the case, and even if it were, it would not explain the greater language delays among children who are deaf but have hearing parents.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This statement is true. Parents who have lived with their own deafness are in a better 14 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

position to anticipate their child’s needs in a variety of settings.

[Q3] Jamilla is a high school student who is deaf. Which of the following interventions holds the most promise for helping her have a satisfying career and life?

1. Finding a sheltered employment situation 2. Going to college [correct] 3. Being able to live independently 4. Becoming an ASL interpreter [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] A 15-year study of graduates with hearing impairment from 2- to 4-year colleges found that a college education made a substantial difference in having a satisfying career and life.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Research also indicates that level of educational attainment is highly predictive of obtaining employment.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] A 15-year study of graduates with hearing impairment from 2- to 4-year colleges found that a college education made a substantial difference in having a satisfying career and life.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] A 15-year study of graduates with hearing impairment from 2- to 4-year colleges found that a college education made a substantial difference in having a satisfying career and life.

[Q4] Which of the following statements about sign language interpreters is false?

1. Some students need ASL interpreters while others need interpreters who use transliteration.

2. Some people assert that relying on interpretation as an accommodation can rob the student of the motivation to learn to speak English.

3. There is a national shortage of adequately trained interpreters.

4. Students whose schools provide well-trained sign language interpreters can take in the same amount of information as their hearing peers. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This statement is true. The question of which one to use—ASL or transliteration—is dependent on whether the student is proficient in A SL or signed English.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] 15 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

This statement is true. Professionals who advocate for more of an oral over a manual approach to education caution against too much reliance on sign language interpretation, especially in the case of young children.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement is true. In 2020, the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics projected an increase of 20% in open sign language interpreter positions from 2019 to 2029.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] When hearing students and students who are deaf hear and see (through interpretation) the same lecture, the students who are deaf don’t learn as much of the material.

[Q5] Why is it desirable for native signers to be part of early intervention efforts?

1. Because children who are deaf need to learn ASL rather than English 2. Because they will help meet the needs of the 90% of students who are deaf and who also have deaf parents 3. Because schools are not allowed to provide sign language interpreters 4. Because it is difficult for hearing parents to become fluent in sign language [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] There is controversy over what language(s) are best for children who are deaf to learn.

The reason it is desirable to have native signers deliver some or all early intervention is that hearing parents are rarely fluent in sign language.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] In fact, 90% of students who are deaf have hearing parents. It is desirable to have native signers deliver some or all early intervention because hearing parents are rarely fluent in sign language.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Providing sign language interpreters is a service that schools can provide to students who are deaf.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Like any language, A SL is harder to acquire as an adult and can rarely be learned to the same degree of fluency as that possessed by a native A SL signer.

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Application Exercises Application Exercise 11.1: Levels of Hearing Loss Learning Outcome 11.3: Understand some psychological and behavioral characteristics of people with hearing impairments.

[Q1] Walkup: Review the section of the text called Definition and Classification and Table 11.1.

Scenario: Dennis is a seven-year-old who is taught in a second grade general education classroom. His teacher, Ms. Riley, says that Dennis has difficulty hearing her when he is seated or standing far away from her, so she has moved him to a desk near the primary instructional area in the classroom. During classroom discussions, Dennis sometimes loses the thread of conversation and often gets frustrated because he cannot participate fully. When students do group work, Ms. Riley makes sure that Kendall is in the same group; Kendall makes sure that Dennis understands what to do and feels included in the group’s activities.

Question: Using what you read in the text and Table 11.1, classify Dennis’s level of hearing loss and identify his hearing threshold level. Why did you choose that label?

(Keep in mind that the table provides only general information about levels of loss and can’t be used as a hard and fast diagnostic tool.)

[Q1 Model Response] conversational speech only when he is close enough to the speaker, as evidenced by the need for him to sit close to Ms. Riley during class. He struggles with class Dennis’s hearing loss would probably be described as moderate. He can hear discussions and group work, relying on Kendall to help him be able to engage fully in cooperative activities. Dennis’s hearing threshold is likely between 41 and 55 decibels.

[Q2] Walkup: Review the section of the text called Definition and Classification and Table 11.1.

Scenario: Jack is a young adolescent student who is well-liked by his peers. He plays on the football team and is a member of the debate club. During class his hearing is not an issue, but when he is in the cafeteria or on the field, he has difficulty hearing what others are saying. His teammates and friends have learned to simply speak loudly when they are talking to Jack, especially if he is not looking at them.

Question: Using what you read in the text and Table 11.1, classify Jack’s level of hearing loss and identify his hearing threshold level. Why did you choose that label?

(Keep in mind that the table provides only general information about levels of loss and can’t be used as a hard and fast diagnostic tool.)

[Q2 Model Response] 17 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Jack’s hearing loss is probably best classified as slight. He doesn’t have difficulty communicating in quiet environments like the classroom, but he does have trouble recognizing faint speech in noisy environments like at football games and in the school cafeteria. Jack’s hearing threshold is likely to be between 16 and 25 decibels.

[Q3] Walkup: Review the section of the text called Definition and Classification and Table 11.1.

Scenario: Audrey is a senior in high school who was recently in a car accident that resulted in a head injury. When she returned to school a few weeks after the accident, her ability to hear was compromised, though her ability to speak was not significantly affected. Although she can detect loud noises and can catch some words in conversation if the speaker is loud enough, she does watch people’s mouths closely to try to identify what they are saying. Audrey’s teachers and peers have resorted to using gestures, writing notes, or texting her most of the time when they need to communicate with her.

Question: Using what you read in the text and Table 11.1, classify Audrey’s level of hearing loss and identify her hearing threshold level. Why did you choose that label?

(Keep in mind that the table provides only general information about levels of loss and can’t be used as a hard and fast diagnostic tool.)

[Q3 Model Response] Audrey’s hearing loss is likely to fall into the severe range with a hearing threshold of 71–90 decibels. While she can hear loud noises, she is not able to hear conversations unless they are very loud, and even then she doesn’t catch all the words; she is relying on speechreading to supplement her understanding of what is being said.

Application Exercise 11.2: Belisa’s Adjustment Learning Outcome 11.3: Understand some psychological and behavioral characteristics of people with hearing impairments.

[Q1] Walkup: Review the section of the text called Social Adjustment and Pearson e-Text Video Example 11.4.

Question: Belisa underwent a significant period of adjustment when she got her hearing aids. What elements of her life did she have to adjust in response to being able to hear?

[Q1 Model Answer] After she got her hearing aids, Belisa had to learn how to engage in behaviors that were out of reach when she could not hear. She would have had to learn to identify various sounds and associate them with meaning; she would also have to navigate social situations differently. She did not learn, for instance, how to engage in casual conversation with other students, so she felt self-conscious when her social interactions 18 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

suddenly shifted in a completely new direction. Given how abrupt the change was for her, it’s not surprising that she felt awkward.

[Q2] Walkup: Review the section of the text called Social Adjustment and Pearson e-Text Video Example 11.4.

Question: Belisa describes a period of self-consciousness she experienced after getting her hearing aids. Given what you’ve read in the text, why do you believe she had this period of self-doubt?

[Q2 Model Answer] Belisa probably had a period of self-doubt because she was 17 when she got her hearing aids; she had learned how to navigate without relying on aural inputs. After 17 years of only knowing herself as a person who could not hear, to suddenly realize all the sounds that are part of the lives of hearing people must have been overwhelming. She was suddenly in an entirely new world auditorily; she was also an adolescent at the time, and adolescents often feel awkward and self-conscious even if they’ve been hearing their whole lives. She probably was overwhelmed by the need to figure out her identity once she could hear.

[Q3] Walkup: Review the section of the text called Social Adjustment and Pearson e-Text Video Example 11.4.

Question: If you were Belisa’s teacher when she got her hearing aids, how could you support her as she adjusts to significantly improved hearing? Name at least three ways.

[Q3 Model Answer] First, I would simply recognize what an overwhelming thing it must be to gain hearing after not being able to hear for your entire life. I would celebrate with her, but I would also do my best to make sure that I personally didn’t overwhelm her with sounds during the school day. I would help her process and understand what she was hearing—for instance, if a bell rang, she might hear it but not immediately know that that was the signal to change classes.

I would also want to carefully monitor her interactions with other people and the ways they engaged with her. If other students had only known her as a deaf person, they might also need some help adjusting to the best ways to interact with Belisa once she could hear.

Finally, I would carefully consider my instructional methods to take advantage of her ability to hear while also making sure I didn’t single her out or make her feel awkward and uncomfortable.

Application Exercise 11.3: Classroom Implications Learning Outcome 11.4: Learn about some educational considerations for people with 19 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

hearing impairments and how professionals assess progress to help plan educational strategies.

[Q1] Walkup: Review the section of the text called How Can I Help? Collaboration and CoTeaching of Students Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing and Pearson e-Text Video example 11.9.

Question: The video shows an early intervention program for children who are deaf. In what way does this classroom experience look similar to what you might see in the classroom of children who are hearing? In what ways is it different?

[Q1 Model Answer] The class looks similar to a regular general education classroom because the teacher is serving as instructional leader, giving students instructions for what they should be doing. Students are asking and answering questions, a commonplace activity in general education classrooms. The classroom itself looks very similar to a general education classroom. There are many materials; there are also quite a few visuals posted on the walls and a rug where the teacher delivers whole-group instruction. Some children are restless and not always paying attention—something we see in virtually every classroom regardless of type or grade level.

One primary difference is that the teacher is also not only communicating verbally but also with sign language; some of the children are communicating in sign language without accompanying oral language. During whole group instruction, there is not a lot of student chatter—the room is very quiet. And unlike a typical general education classroom, where students can listen to others’ responses while not looking at them, in this classroom, if a student turns away from the teacher or from their peers, they are highly likely to miss what was said. The teacher has the students seated in a semicircle on the carpet—unlike in the regular classroom, where she could put students in rows, she needs all students to be able to see her as she signs the lesson and instructions.

[Q2] Walkup: Review the section of the text called How Can I Help? Collaboration and CoTeaching of Students Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing and Pearson e-Text Video example 11.9.

Question: The video shows an early intervention program for children who are deaf.

The teacher in this video is highly trained in teaching students who are deaf or hard of hearing. What teacher behaviors described in the text do you see in this video?

[Q2 Model Answer] The teacher is giving many visual cues to help students comprehend the lesson. She speaks slowly and uses A SL fluently to augment her verbal instructions. She has modified the way students sit in the classroom so they can all see her and see each other; she is fostering social interaction by having the students sit in close proximity rather than at separate desks.

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[Q3] Walkup: Review the section of the text called How Can I Help? Collaboration and CoTeaching of Students Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing and Pearson e-Text Video example 11.9.

Question: Imagine that you are a general education teacher and that you have one or two children in your general education classroom who have hearing impairments. Using what you know from the video and the text, identify three challenges you would face as you worked with all your students. How might you address each challenge?

[Q3 Model Answer] One challenge would be simply being able to communicate effectively with the students with hearing impairments. If the students cannot hear, the teacher would have some logistical challenges to figure out. For instance, those students would need to be placed where they can see all that is going on, and the teacher would need to use many visuals and gestures/actions to help them understand. If the students had residual hearing, the teacher would definitely want to explore whether there were available technologies that could help them engage more fully in instruction. The teacher might also want to learn at least basic sign language.

Fostering appropriate social interaction could be a challenge. A teacher would need to be strategic in helping deaf students build positive relationships with other children, perhaps by teaching basic signs, by encouraging students to write notes and use gestures. A teacher would also need to consider which children might be seated near the children who are deaf; making sure they are seated near supportive, helpful people would be important.

A teacher would also need to think about which instructional strategies would be best to meet the needs of all students. It might mean that some strategies they usually use would need to be modified; for instance, figuring out how to read aloud to the class in ways that the students who were deaf could participate could be challenging.

Collaborating with special education personnel would be especially important as the teacher figured out how best to teach.

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Test Items 11.1 Multiple-Choice Questions 1. From the physiological perspective, the distinction between "deaf" and "hard of hearing" is based on a. decibel levels detected. b. frequency of sounds detected. c. type of hearing loss. d. oral language ability.

2. From an educational point of view, how is "deafness" best defined? a. a condition present since birth b. an inability to understand speech even with a hearing aid c. a hearing loss of more than 90 dB in at least one ear d. a condition of old age 3. The term hard of hearing is used to describe people with hearing impairment who a. were not born deaf but became deaf later in life. b. judge themselves as incapable of hearing as well as the rest of the population. c. have a conductive hearing loss. d. have enough residual hearing to process sound with a hearing aid.

4. Simon has a hearing loss that occurred when he was seven years old. His loss is best described as a. conductive. b. sensorineural. c. congenital. d. postlingual.

5. According to the U.S. Department of Education, what percentage of students are identified as deaf or hard of hearing? a. 14% b. 0.10% c. 1.4% d. 0.014% 6. People who say that deafness should not be considered a disability argue that a. there is a difference between prelingual and postlingual deafness. b. they should be considered a cultural minority with a language of their own.

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c. there are advantages to being deaf, so it is not a disability. d. although deafness is a handicap, it is not a disability.

7. The ossicles function to create a. an increased sense of balance. b. an electrical impulse being sent to the brain. c. the transfer of energy from the middle to the inner ear. d. a vacuum that stimulates hair cells.

8. The most important organ for hearing is the a. cerumen. b. tympanic membrane. c. vestibular mechanism. d. cochlea.

9. Ideally, screening tests for babies should follow a a. 1-3-6 year rule. b. 1-3-6-month rule. c. 2-4-6-year rule. d. 2-4-6-month rule.

10. Pure-tone audiometry establishes the a. threshold for hearing at various frequencies. b. degree to which one can detect and understand speech. c. kinds of hearing tests that should be used. d. presence of the Moro reflex.

11. The "speech reception threshold" is best defined as the a. decibel level at which one can understand speech. b. intensity and sound wave frequency of spoken language. c. Hz level at which the average person can detect sound. d. level at which the human ear can discriminate between similar sounds.

12. Which ethnic group is overrepresented in the population with hearing impairments? a. Hispanics b. African Americans c. Asians d. Native Americans 13. Swimmers' ear is 23 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

a. a myth because the external canal is impervious to infection. b. an infection of the skin of the external auditory canal. c. caused by allergies to algae and other plant material in the water. d. caused by a perforation of the eardrum.

14. The most severe hearing impairments are associated with which part of the ear? a. middle ear b. eardrum c. inner ear d. outer ear 15. All of the following are problems associated with inner ear hearing loss except a. sound distortion. b. balance problems. c. ringing noises. d. draining fluid.

16. The most frequent viral cause of nongenetic deafness in newborns is a. otitis media. b. maternal rubella. c. congenital herpes. d. congenital cytomegalovirus.

17. Which of the following structures will you not find in the middle ear? a. incus. b. malleus. c. auricle. d. stapes.

18. The grammatical structure of American Sign Language consists of each of the following except a. handshape. b. location. c. intensity. d. movement.

19. Which of the following statements about sign language is false? a. It is a simplistic visual representation of oral language similar to mime. b. It has grammatical structure at the sentence level and the word level.

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c. There is no universal sign language. d. Twins who are born deaf develop a signing system, but it is rudimentary and less sophisticated than ASL. 20. Which of the following statements about children who are deaf is false? a. They reach the same language development milestones in sign as children without hearing loss do in spoken language, but at a slower rate. b. They reach the same language development milestones in sign at the same time as children without hearing loss do in spoken language. c. They are at a distinct disadvantage regarding acquisition of spoken language. d. If they are prelingually deaf, they may never develop intelligible speech.

21. When performance tests, rather than verbal tests, are used, a. the IQ scores of both those who are hearing and those who are deaf are lower. b. the IQ scores of those who are deaf are lower than the scores of those who are hearing. c. the IQ scores of those who are deaf are higher than the scores of those who are hearing. d. there is no difference in IQ scores between those who are deaf and those who are hearing.

22. With deaf students, phonology skills a. are virtually impossible to teach and thus are largely irrelevant to their learning to read. b. should be excluded from reading instruction because they make it more complicated for students to learn ASL. c. are similar to phonology skills of students with reading disabilities except in cases where the student is profoundly deaf. d. are most easily acquired if they are integrated into a differentiated curriculum model of instruction.

23. Among students who are deaf, those who achieve the highest levels of literacy tend to have a. hearing parents who teach them how to speak. b. parents who are deaf and who teach them ASL. c. brothers and sisters who are hearing. d. parents who communicate with them using both ASL and speech.

24. Two factors that seem to have a positive effect on social adjustment among students who are deaf are a. more inclusion with hearing peers and having parents who hear.

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b. more inclusion with hearing peers and having parents who are deaf. c. more inclusion with peers who are deaf/hearing impaired and having parents who hear. d. more inclusion with peers who are deaf/hearing impaired and having parents who are deaf.

25. All of the following factors identify the Deaf community as a true culture except a. voluntary organizational networks such as National Theater of the Deaf. b. historical awareness documenting people and events significant to deafness. c. predominant pattern of marrying people outside of the Deaf community. d. well-established behavioral guidelines with regard to such things as eye contact and physical contact in interactions.

26. Which of the following statements about cochlear implants in children is false? a. They generally result in the child developing better expressive and receptive language skills. b. The chances that they will result in better reading comprehension are increased with explicit instruction. c. Students who have them typically demonstrate normal reading comprehension a year after the surgery. d. Outcomes are highly variable from individual to individual.

27. The genetic engineering debate regarding Deaf activism arises in part because some members of the Deaf community want to a. eliminate embryos that have the Connexin-26 gene. b. physically alter certain genes to cause a baby to be hearing. c. eradicate deafness in vitro. d. deliberately increase their chances of having a deaf child.

28. The auditory-verbal approach encourages children with hearing impairment to a. depend on others in their environment for sound cues. b. use their residual hearing. c. learn sign language. d. focus on visual cues.

29. Teaching people with hearing impairments to use visual information, including facial expressions, to understand what is being said to them is a. speechreading. b. lipreading. c. face reading.

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d. gestural reading.

30. Which of the following statements about signing English systems is false? a. They are the type of manualism most often used in total communication. b. They follow the same word order as spoken English. c. They include fingerspelling. d. They are the same thing as ASL. 31. A principle underlying the bicultural-bilingual approach is a. teaching the history of the Deaf culture instead of that of the dominant culture. b. providing a foundation in spoken English to serve as a basis for ASL. c. stressing that ASL is the primary language, and English is secondary. d. encouraging hearing people to learn ASL as a second language.

32. ATT, also referred to as TTYs, is a device for a. decoding closed captions on TV. b. accessing teletext service. c. printing sign language texts. d. communicating via telephone.

33. Currently, approximately how many students with hearing impairments attend classes in their local schools? a. 88% b. 8% c. 10% d. 18% 34. In recent years, many people within the deaf community have questioned the trend toward inclusion of children with hearing impairment because a. it creates too much work for the general education teacher. b. deaf children do not enjoy engaging with students who can hear. c. it forces these students to lose their deaf identity. d. these students do not have the cognitive or academic skills to succeed in the mainstream.

35. Many in the Deaf community believe that residential schools for children who are deaf are necessary to a. perpetuate the Deaf culture and use of ASL. b. ensure that students learn age-appropriate social skills. c. provide jobs for those who are deaf as workers in the schools.

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d. overcome the negative effects of many home situations.

36. Which statement about the assessment of progress of students who have hearing impairments is true? a. Curriculum-based measurement is not an appropriate method for measuring reading fluency for these students. b. Most standardized assessments are biased toward the majority culture. c. Research does not support the development of phonics-based reading skills for these students. d. Several standardized measures of reading ability are available for these students.

37. The focus of early intervention for children with hearing impairments is on a. social skills. b. language development. c. play. d. self-esteem.

38. Benicio, who is deaf, is the six-month-old son of hearing parents. To interact effectively with Benicio, his parents should a. emphasize lip movements. b. encourage verbal babbling. c. attend to Benicio’s eye gaze. d. avoid use of speech.

39. A major reason that individuals with hearing impairments find it difficult to obtain appropriate and satisfying employment is that they a. have a tendency to be overly concerned about what people who have hearing are saying about them. b. have become too dependent on the accommodations they have had in virtually all of their school experiences. c. have difficulties in understanding social cues. d. are disadvantaged by employers’ lack of knowledge about possible accommodations.

40. Which of the following statements about COVID-19’s impact on people who are deaf or hard of hearing is false? a. Obtaining accurate information and guidance on matters of public safety was difficult because of the lack of sign language interpreters. b. People who are deaf or hard of hearing were more susceptible to the virus because of their tendency to develop ear infections.

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c. There was no universal signing vocabulary for COVID-19. d. Face coverings caused difficulty for those who engage in speechreading.

11.2 True/False Questions 1. Most people who are deaf have some residual hearing.

2. Sign language is not a true language.

3. A mutation in the connexin-26 gene is the most common cause of congenital deafness.

4. Children who are deaf reach language development milestones in sign later than hearing children do in spoken language.

5. Environmental factors can cause hearing impairments.

6. BASL is a sign language dialect based on historical segregation patterns for Black students who were deaf.

7. When people who are deaf and use ASL visit a foreign country, they are unlikely to have difficulty communicating because signs are almost wholly universal.

8. Most children who are deaf achieve at normal levels on academic tasks such as reading, writing, and mathematics.

9. Students with hearing loss are served in special schools or residential settings more than any other disability category.

10. Most standardized assessments are biased against learners who are deaf or hard of hearing.

11.3 Short Answer Questions 1. Describe the process of hearing within the context of the anatomy and physiology of the ear.

2. Discuss procedures for measuring hearing in infants.

3. Discuss the effects of hearing impairment on intellectual development and describe recent changes in knowledge associated with this issue.

4. Identify and describe two factors that affect the social adjustment of individuals with hearing impairment.

5. Describe four factors that demarcate the Deaf community as a true culture.

6. Describe advantages and disadvantages of the approaches to communication: oral (auditory-verbal approach), total, or bicultural-bilingual.

7. Compare and contrast American Sign Language and signing English systems: As communication systems, what features do they share? What are the relative advantages and disadvantages of each for students with deafness?

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8. There is considerable disagreement among professionals and parents with respect to inclusion for students who are deaf. Describe two arguments against inclusion for these students.

9. Why is language development so controversial for parents and professionals in early intervention?

10. Describe the challenge faced by students with hearing impairment with respect to postsecondary education and employment.

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Test Answer Key 11.1 Multiple Choice Questions 1. a 2. b 3. d 4. d 5. b 6. b 7. c 8. d 9. b 10. a 11. a 12. a 13. b 14. c 15. d 16. d 17. c 18. c 19. a 20. a 21. d 22. c 23. b 24. d 25. c 26. c 27. d 28. b 29. a 30. d 31 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

31. c 32. d 33. a 34. c 35. a 36. b 37. b 38. c 39. d 40. b 11.2 True/False Questions 1. True 2. False 3. True 4. False 5. True 6. True 7. False 8. False 9. True 10. True 11.3 Short Answer Questions 1. The auricle of the outer ear collects sound which is funneled through the external auditory canal to the eardrum, which vibrates and sends sound waves to the middle ear. The ossicles (little bones) conduct the vibrations from the air-filled middle ear to the oval window, next to the fluid-filled inner ear. The cochlea converts vibrations from the mechanical movements of the middle ear into electrical signals which send a message of sound to the brain.

2. As a result of an initiative by the federal government, about 95% of all newborns are screened for hearing. Ideally, a 1-3-6 rule is followed; babies are screened at the hospital by 1 month, with those who show signs of hearing loss followed up by 3 months and entering a family intervention program by 6 months. Some of the screening tests involve computer technology to measure otoacoustic emissions.

Many schools have routine screening programs in the early elementary grades.

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These tests, especially those that are group rather than individually administered, are less accurate than tests done in an audiologist's office.

3. It was once assumed that people with hearing impairments had lower intellectual ability. Professionals believed that the ability to understand concepts was impaired in people with hearing problems because of their deficient spoken language (i.e., if they have no language with which to define and explain concepts, their intellectual ability must be negatively affected). We now know that individuals with hearing impairments who use American Sign Language do, in fact, have a legitimate language. Performance on verbal tests of intelligence, not surprisingly, results in lower IQ scores for people with hearing impairments. However, IQ scores based on performance tests are no different for hearing and deaf individuals.

4. People who are deaf may have difficulty finding others with whom they can communicate, placing them at risk for loneliness. In inclusionary settings, little interaction typically occurs between students who are deaf and those who are not, so they need to be taught social behaviors to help them interact with hearing peers.

A child who is deaf who has hearing parents may face greater social adjustment challenges than if she or he has parents who are deaf. Hearing parents may not become proficient in ASL, limiting their ability to communicate easily. The need for social interaction is probably most influential in leading many people with hearing loss to associate primarily with others with hearing loss.

5. Answer will elaborate on: the unifying influence of sign language (linguistic differentiation), attitudinal deafness, behavioral norms, endogamous marital patterns, historical awareness, and voluntary organizational networks.

6. The auditory-verbal approach stresses auditory habilitation (encouraging children to make use of what hearing they possess) and speech training (teaching of speech sounds and how to produce them; speechreading; cued speech). Critics say that for many people who are deaf it is unreasonable to assume they have enough hearing to be of use, and denying access to ASL is denying access to language and communication. Speechreading is extremely difficult. The total communication approach combines oral and manual methods. It involves simultaneous use of speech with a signing English system. Signing English systems maintain the same word order as spoken English. Proponents of this method say it makes learning English easier. Advocates of ASL say it is too slow and awkward. They believe the fluency of ASL provides users with a rich background of information that readies them for learning English. The bicultural-bilingual approach considers ASL as the primary language and English as the secondary language and emphasizes a curriculum with instruction in Deaf culture. It is analogous to bilingual instruction for hearing students for whom English is a second language and whose family culture is different from the majority culture of the school. Advocates of one approach believe it is easier to learn English if a child first has a solid ASL foundation.

7. Both can be used to convey abstract ideas, but only ASL is a true language, with its own grammar. Both use hand signals and gestures. Unlike ASL, Signing English systems maintain the same word order as spoken English, making it possible to speak and sign at the same time. Proponents of this method say the 33 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

correspondence in word order between signing English and English helps students learn English better. Advocates of ASL say signing English systems are too slow and awkward to be of much benefit in learning English. They believe the fluency of A SL provides students with a rich background that helps them learn English. They further assert that ASL is the most natural and efficient way for students to learn about the world. Signing English systems have been invented by one or a few people in a short period of time, whereas ASL has evolved of several generations of users.

8. Studies have shown that some students who are deaf have positive experiences and outcomes from placement in integrated settings. However, opponents of inclusion argue that residential schools (and to a lesser extent, day schools) foster the concept of a Deaf culture and the use of ASL. They feel inclusion forces students who are deaf to lose their Deaf identity and places them in an environment where it is almost impossible for them to succeed. There is usually only one student with hearing loss in a class leading to a lack of a "critical mass" of students who are deaf, resulting in a lack of peers with whom to communicate and a high degree of social isolation.

9. They must make a decision regarding whether the English language should be the focus of intervention efforts, or if ASL should be used starting in infancy.

10. Unemployment and underemployment are persistent problems, but expansion of postsecondary programming is improving the situation. Accommodations are at the heart of the problem and the solution. Employers often don't know what kinds of accommodations to provide, and people who are hard of hearing or deaf often don't know what to ask for. An accommodation that makes attending traditional colleges and universities more viable is the provision of sign language interpreters. A challenge with this situation is the use of transliteration (similar to signed English) rather than ASL. Interpreters find it more difficult to use ASL (they have to digest the meaning of what is said before they sign it), but research has shown it is more effective than transliteration. Instructors need to understand how to interact and work with the interpreter.

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Chapter 12 Test Item File Daniel P. Hallahan

Exceptional Learners: An Introduction to Special Education Fifteenth Edition Daniel P. Hallahan, University of Virginia Paige C. Pullen, University of Florida James M. Kauffman, University of Virginia Prepared by Karen M. Cole, University of North Carolina Asheville

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Table of Contents

Chapter 12: Learners with Blindness or Low Vision ........................................... 1 Learning Outcome Quizzes ................................................................. 1 Application Exercises ......................................................................... 16 Test Items .......................................................................................... 22 Test Answer Key ................................................................................ 30

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Chapter 12: Learners with Blindness or Low Vision Learning Outcome Quizzes Learning Outcome 12.1: Understand the definition, classification, and prevalence of individuals with blindness or low vision.

[Q1] On what factor does the educational definition of blindness and low vision rely most heavily?

1. The type of reading instruction the student requires [correct] 2. The level of visual acuity the student has 3. The method by which the student’s vision is assessed 4. The degree of remaining sight the student has [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] For educational purposes, individuals who are blind are so severely impaired they must learn to read braille or use aural methods of accessing written information. Those who have low vision can read print, even if they need adaptations such as magnifying devices or large-print books.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] For educational purposes, individuals who are blind are so severely impaired they must learn to read braille or use aural methods of accessing written information. Those who have low vision can read print, even if they need adaptations such as magnifying devices or large-print books.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] For educational purposes, individuals who are blind are so severely impaired they must learn to read braille or use aural methods of accessing written information. Those who have low vision can read print, even if they need adaptations such as magnifying devices or large-print books.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] For educational purposes, individuals who are blind are so severely impaired they must learn to read braille or use aural methods of accessing written information. Those who have low vision can read print, even if they need adaptations such as magnifying devices or large-print books.

[Q2] On what factors does the legal definition of blindness rely most heavily?

1. Visual acuity and color perception 2. Visual acuity and field of vision [correct] 1 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

3. Field of vision and depth perception 4. Depth perception and color perception

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The legal definition involves assessment of visual acuity and field of vision.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] A person who is legally blind has visual acuity of 20/200 or less in the better eye even with correction (e.g., eyeglasses) or has a field of vision so narrow that its widest diameter subtends an angular distance no greater than 20 degrees.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The legal definition involves assessment of visual acuity and field of vision.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The legal definition involves assessment of visual acuity and field of vision.

[Q3] What percentage of school-aged children does the federal government classify as having a visual impairment as their primary disability?

1. 4% 2. 0.4% 3. 0.04% [correct] 4. 0.004% [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The federal government classifies only about 0.04% (or 4 in 10,000) of the population ranging from 6 to 21 years of age as “visually impaired,” which includes those who are blind or who have low vision.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The federal government classifies only about 0.04% (or 4 in 10,000) of the population ranging from 6 to 21 years of age as “visually impaired,” which includes those who are blind or who have low vision.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] About four children out of 10,000 are classified as visually impaired. Most estimates indicate that blindness is approximately one-tenth as prevalent in school-age children as in adults.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The federal government classifies only about 0.04% (or 4 in 10,000) of the population ranging from 6 to 21 years of age as “visually impaired,” which includes those who are blind or who have low vision.

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[Q4] In which age group would you find the greatest number of people who are blind or have low vision?

1. Preschoolers 2. Preadolescents 3. Adolescents 4. Adults [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Like deafness, blindness occurs most often in adulthood.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Like deafness, blindness occurs most often in adulthood.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Like deafness, blindness occurs most often in adulthood.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Like deafness, blindness occurs most often in adulthood.

[Q5] Which of the following statements about blindness and low vision is false?

1. According to the legal classification system, persons who have low vision have visual acuity falling between 20/70 and 20/200 in the better eye with correction.

2. Visual acuity is not a very accurate predictor of how people will function or use whatever remaining sight they have.

3. The majority of people who are legally blind can see to some degree.

4. The IEP of a student who is blind or has low vision must specify that the child be placed in the general education classroom. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This statement is true. The legal classification system relies on measurements of visual acuity and field of vision.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement is true, which is why educators tend to prefer to base the definition of blindness/low vision on what method students use to read.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement is true. Very few people have no sight at all.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] The student’s individual needs will determine their educational placement.

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Learning Outcome 12.2: Learn about the anatomical and physiological characteristics of the eye, the causes of visual impairments, and how visual impairments are identified.

[Q1] What is the function of the cornea?

1. To perform the major part of the bending (refraction) of the light rays so that the image will be focused [correct] 2. To contract or expand depending on the amount of light striking it 3. To refine and change the focus of the light rays before they pass through the vitreous humor 4. To convert light rays to impulses that are sent to the brain via the optic nerve [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] The cornea is the transparent cover in front of the iris and pupil.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The function of the cornea is to perform the major part of the bending (refraction) of the light rays so that the image will be focused.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The function of the cornea is to perform the major part of the bending (refraction) of the light rays so that the image will be focused.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The function of the cornea is to perform the major part of the bending (refraction) of the light rays so that the image will be focused.

[Q2] Which of the following statements about the Snellen chart is false?

1. It cannot be used with very young children or nonreaders. [correct] 2. It is used to measure visual acuity.

3. It consists of rows of letters or Es of varying sizes.

4. It measures distance vision but not near-point vision.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] This statement is false. For the very young and/or those who cannot read, the chart has rows of the letter E arranged in various positions, and the person’s task is to indicate in what direction the “legs” of the E’s face.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement is true.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3]

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This statement is true. Individuals who know the alphabet read sequences of letters; young children and nonreaders indicate the direction the “legs” of the letter E are facing.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This statement is true. Assessing near vision usually involves naming letters that range in size from smaller to larger on a card that is at a typical reading distance from the person’s eyes.

[Q3] Which of the following is not a visual problem resulting from refraction?

1. Myopia 2. Glaucoma [correct] 3. Hyperopia 4. Astigmatism [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Myopia, hyperopia, and astigmatism are all visual problems resulting from issues with the way light rays bend as they pass through the various structures of the eye.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Glaucoma is actually a group of eye diseases that causes damage to the optic nerve.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Myopia, hyperopia, and astigmatism are all visual problems resulting from issues with the way light rays bend as they pass through the various structures of the eye.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Myopia, hyperopia, and astigmatism are all visual problems resulting from issues with the way light rays bend as they pass through the various structures of the eye.

[Q4] Which of the following causes of blindness results from issues with mechanisms in the brain?

1. Optic nerve hypoplasia 2. Retinopathy of prematurity 3. Cortical visual impairment [correct] 4. Retinitis pigmentosa [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] ONH involves underdevelopment of the optic nerve.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2]

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ROP results in abnormal growth of blood vessels in the eye, which then causes the retina to detach.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] For children, CVI is now the leading cause of visual impairment.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Retinitis pigmentosa is a hereditary condition that results in degeneration of the retina.

[Q5] What term describes a condition in which one or both eyes are directed inward or outward?

1. Nystagmus 2. Diabetic retinopathy 3. Strabismus [correct] 4. Astigmatism

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Strabismus is a condition in which one or both eyes are directed inward (crossed eyes) or outward. Left untreated, strabismus can result in permanent blindness because the brain will eventually reject signals from a deviating eye.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Strabismus is a condition in which one or both eyes are directed inward (crossed eyes) or outward. Left untreated, strabismus can result in permanent blindness because the brain will eventually reject signals from a deviating eye.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Fortunately, strabismus can often be corrected with eye exercises or surgery.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Strabismus is a condition in which one or both eyes are directed inward (crossed eyes) or outward. Left untreated, strabismus can result in permanent blindness because the brain will eventually reject signals from a deviating eye.

Learning Outcome 12.3: Understand some psychological and behavioral characteristics of people with blindness or low vision.

[Q1] Which of the following statements about the conceptual abilities of children with visual impairment is true?

1. The performance of infants with visual problems is the same as that of their sighted peers on conceptual tasks.

2. Touch is as efficient as sight for arriving at conceptualizations of objects.

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3. Infants with vision problems pick up information incidentally in the same way as their peers with sight.

4. Children with vision problems are less likely than their sighted peers to explore their environment unprompted. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Infants and very young children with blindness lag behind their sighted peers on tasks of conceptual ability.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Touch is less effective than sight (or sight combined with touch) for developing conceptual understandings.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] While infants and children with sight can pick up a lot of visual information incidentally, children who have visual impairments need to extend themselves out to the world to pick up some of the same information.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] It is critical that teachers and parents provide intensive and extensive instruction, including repetition, in order to help children with visual impairments develop their conceptual abilities.

[Q2] Which of the following statements about the abilities of students with blindness is true?

1. It is unlikely that blindness results in lower intelligence. [correct] 2. The intelligence of both sighted students and students with blindness/low vision are readily assessed using comparable standardized tests of intelligence.

3. Early delays in conceptual abilities tend to worsen, especially once children begin to use language.

4. Young children who are blind are typically less motivated than sighted children to use language.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] This statement is true.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement is false. Most authorities believe that comparisons of the two groups ’ intellectual abilities are virtually impossible because finding comparable tests is so difficult.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement is false. Children with blindness or low vision tend to catch up quickly once they begin to use language.

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[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This statement is false. Language is the main channel through which children with visual impairments communicate, so they may be even more motivated than their sighted peers to use language.

[Q3] Which of the following statements about the social adjustment of people with visual impairments is false?

1. The social interactions of people with visual impairments can be negatively affected by their inability to see and interpret nonverbal communication.

2. Sighted people are typically comfortable when interacting with people with visual impairments. [correct] 3. People with visual impairments may go out of their way to demonstrate to sighted people that they are competent and capable.

4. When people with visual impairments exhibit stereotypic behaviors, their social adjustment can be negatively affected.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This statement is true. Children with visual impairments often need to be taught directly how to use social cues such as smiling or nodding.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] The authors assert that of all the special education categories, visual impairments seem to evoke the most social awkwardness, perhaps because of the role that the eyes play in social interactions.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement is true. Some people who are blind feel that they need to go to great lengths to appear “normal” to others.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] When a person with a visual impairment engages in repetitive movements such as body rocking, poking, or rubbing the eyes, repetitive hand or finger movements, and grimacing, it can be off-putting to other people.

[Q4] Which of the following statements about the orientation and mobility skills of people with visual impairments is true?

1. Some research indicates that people who are totally blind have better mobility skills than those who have partial sight. [correct] 2. The ability to use cognitive mapping depends highly on the individual’s general intelligence.

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3. The ability to use echolocation is an inherited trait that benefits some people with visual impairments.

4. Many people who are blind or who have low vision automatically develop better acuity in their other senses.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] This finding is the opposite of what we would expect to see: that people who are blind would struggle more with travel and movement.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement is false. The ability to use cognitive mapping depends highly on the individual’s spatial abilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement is false. Echolocation is a learned skill.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This statement is false. People who have visual impairments do not automatically develop better acuity in their senses of hearing and touch. Through concentration and attention, they learn to make very fine discriminations in touch and hearing.

[Q5] Which of the following terms refers to the ability of a blind person to make a mental spatial representation of their environment?

1. Cognitive mapping[correct] 2. Echolocation 3. Obstacle sense 4. Location visualization [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Cognitive mapping, sometimes referred to as mental mapping, involves the ability to integrate the relative position of various points in the spatial environment in order to navigate it more efficiently.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Echolocation is the ability to detect objects in the environment by creating auditory echoes of intentionally produced sounds.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] People with visual impairments do not develop an additional sense. When they make mental spatial representations of their environments, they are using cognitive mapping.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] When people with visual impairments make mental spatial representations of their environments, they are using cognitive mapping.

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Learning Outcome 12.4: Learn about educational considerations for people with visual impairments and how professionals assess progress to help plan educational strategies.

[Q1] Which of the following statements about current issues in the use of braille among students with visual impairments is false?

1. Only about 8.6% of children use braille as their primary mode of reading and writing.

2. Teachers often do little to encourage the normalization of student use of braille.

3. Advances in technology have contributed to a reduction in the use of braille.

4. English-speaking countries have not identified a preferred braille code. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This statement is true. Many within the community of people who are blind are alarmed at the reduced availability of braille and assert that it has led to a distressing rate of illiteracy.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement is true. People concerned about the reduced teaching of braille charge that too few sighted teachers are proficient in braille and that these teachers do little to discourage the notion held by some that using braille indicates inferiority.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement is true. Books on tape, speech-recognition software, digital assistants, and computerized magnification devices have made it even easier to obtain and produce information, thus serving as a disincentive for students to learn braille.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] This statement is false. Unified English Braille (UEB) has been identified as the preferred code for English-speaking countries, although it has not yet been universally adopted.

[Q2] Which mobility aid is most often recommended for people with visual impairments?

1. A long cane [correct] 2. A guide dog 3. A tactile map 4. A human guide [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Proper use of a long cane requires considerable coordination between the sweeping of the cane and the movement of the feet.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2]

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Guide dogs and their owners must undergo extensive training. They must also have the correct temperament to resist becoming distracted and to be patient sitting quietly for long periods of time.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Tactile maps aren’t always readily available.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Relying on human guides can foster dependence among people who are blind.

[Q3] Which of the following statements about technological aids for people with visual impairments is false?

1. Visual impairment is perhaps the disability area in which the most technological advances have been made.

2. Systems to provide artificial vision to people who have been blind since birth are commonly available. [correct] 3. Screen readers can magnify information on screen, convert on-screen text to speech, or do both.

4. People whose blindness is corrected by surgery often face significant challenges adjusting to the change.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This statement is true. Startup companies focused on the population of individuals with visual impairments are proliferating.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] This statement is false. Several projects are in the experimental stages, but they are not yet available for widespread use.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement is true. Programs like JAWS® for Windows® have made the World Wide Web much more accessible to people with visual impairments.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This statement is true. Many individuals who were blind and then were given sight have had harmful psychological consequences.

[Q4] In what educational setting would you be most likely to find students with visual impairments working with an itinerant teacher?

1. A general education classroom [correct] 2. A residential school 3. A self-contained classroom 11 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

4. A resource room [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Itinerant teachers typically visit several different schools to work with students in the general education classroom.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] In the early 1900s, virtually all children who were blind were educated in residential institutions. Currently, however, the most popular placement for students with visual impairments is in the general education classroom with itinerant teacher support.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] It would be rare for a typical school to have enough students with visual impairments to form a self-contained class.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] It would be rare for a typical school to have enough students with visual impairments to form a resource class.

[Q5] Which of the following statements about the assessment of progress for students with blindness or low vision is true?

1. IDEA requires inclusion of braille instruction in the IEP, so teachers must assess students’ braille skills regularly. [correct] 2. Teachers should avoid using curriculum-based measurement to assess the progress of students who are blind or have low vision.

3. Global positioning systems provide little useful information about the travel proficiency of students with visual impairments.

4. All students with visual impairments receive response accommodations during

testing.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] This statement is true. The use of braille is a significant aspect of academic success for students with blindness or low vision.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement is false. CBM is an effective method for measuring the progress of students with visual impairments.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement is false. An orientation and mobility instructor can use a global positioning system to gather data such as travel times, travel modes, routes, and trip duration.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4]

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Students who need to use a braille would likely receive this response accommodation, but students who do not need to respond in braille would not.

Learning Outcome 12.5: Learn about issues that should be considered with respect to early intervention and transition to adulthood for individuals with blindness or low vision.

[Q1] Which of the following is not recommended in the text as a focus for early intervention efforts with very young children with blindness or low vision?

1. Orientation and mobility skill development 2. Early literacy, numeration, and cognitive skill development 3. Nonverbal communication skill development [correct] 4. Social skill development [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Many infants who are blind lag behind their peers in motor development. Consequently, Orientation and mobility (O & M) training is a critical component of preschool programming.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Also, finger strength should be a focus so students can become proficient users of braille.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Although children with visual impairments do need to be directly taught nonverbal communication skills, early intervention in this area is secondary to O&M skills, social skills, literacy skills, numeration skills, and cognitive skill development.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Research has shown that preschoolers with visual impairments are much less likely to initiate social interactions with their sighted peers, often preferring to be left alone. If not addressed early on, such passivity may continue on into adolescence and beyond.

[Q2] All but which of the following are typical reasons why adolescents and young adults with visual impairments might have difficulty moving into independent living situations?

1. Many individuals with visual impairments don't receive adequate training in daily living skills.

2. Inclusion in the general education classroom has reduced the time teachers spend on preparing students to live independently.

3. Research indicates that people who are blind cannot live independently at the same level that sighted people can. [correct]

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4. People with sight often assume that people with visual impairments are helpless and treat them paternalistically as a result.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The sighted often take for granted daily living skills because they seem so easy to do.

Actually, many of these skills need to be taught directly.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Many students who are blind or have low vision are taught in the general education classroom by teachers who are not focused on teaching daily living skills.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] This statement is false. People who are blind can successfully live independently, but only with the intentional and thorough teaching of daily living skills.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] People with visual impairments have a long history of arguing against paternalistic treatment by sighted society, often resisting governmental actions that were presumably designed to help them.

[Q3] Which of the following statements about employment among people who have visual impairments is false?

1. About 44% of the working-age U.S. population who are visually impaired are employed.

2. Employees who are blind typically need more sick days than typical employees. [correct] 3. There is racial disparity in how long individuals wait to receive an individualized plan for employment from vocational rehabilitation services.

4. Some employers don’t understand that with appropriate accommodations, it’s possible to keep blindness from becoming a barrier to successful job performance.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This statement is true. Employer attitudes play a role in the rate at which individuals with visual impairments are employed.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] While some job adjustments can help people with visual impairments become and remain successfully employed, providing additional sick days is not a common accommodation.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement is true. Non-White applicants wait significantly longer than those who are White.

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This statement is true. Employer attitudes play a role in the rate at which individuals with visual impairments are employed.

[Q4] When a young child who has a visual impairment is integrated into a group of sighted preschoolers, which of the following actions should teachers be sure to take?

1. Allowing the child with blindness or low vision to be the first to try out new activities 2. Asking the parents of the sighted children to invite the child with blindness or low vision to play dates 3. Treating the child with blindness or low vision the same as all other children in the class at all times 4. Ensuring that the child with blindness or low vision does not become socially isolated [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The teacher’s first concern should be making sure that the child with a visual impairment does not become socially isolated.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The teacher’s first concern should be making sure that the child with a visual impairment does not become socially isolated.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The teacher’s first concern should be making sure that the child with a visual impairment does not become socially isolated.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] It is important that the teacher facilitate interactions among students with visual impairments and sighted students.

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Application Exercises Application Exercise 12.1: Teacher Collaboration Learning Outcome 12.4: Learn about educational considerations for people with visual impairments and how professionals assess progress to help plan educational strategies.

[Q1] Walkup: Review the section of the text called Educational Considerations (stop when you get to the subheading Braille) and Pearson e-Text Video Example 12.8.

Question: The teachers in the video are collaborating for the benefit of a student who is blind but who is served in the regular education classroom. What modifications that you read about in the text are apparent in the video?

[Q1 Model Response] In the video, the teachers discuss tactile experiences and manipulatives (e.g., fraction wheels) for use with the student as he learns fractions. They discuss the technical symbols he’ll have to learn in braille to be able to read the worksheets the student will use. For the heavily visual worksheets that the general education teacher is going to use, the special education teacher says she will have him feel the manipulatives and then have him write the answers.

[Q2] Walkup: Review the section of the text called Educational Considerations (stop when you get to the subheading Braille) and Pearson e-Text Video Example 12.8.

Question: Given that the student described in the video has a serious enough visual impairment that he reads braille, how are the teachers taking advantage of his other senses to help him understand the content being taught?

[Q2 Model Response] The activities as the teachers have planned them rely heavily on other senses, particularly the sense of touch. The student will be able to feel representations of what the other students will be able to see on their worksheets, and he will be given support as he does so. The general education teacher mentions a science experiment that involves shaking (thus touch and hearing). The student will also use his hearing as he listens to class activities (e.g., word problems) and instructions and as he interacts with both of his teachers.

[Q3] Walkup: Review the section of the text called Educational Considerations (stop when you get to the subheading Braille) and Pearson e-Text Video Example 12.8.

Question: Serving students with significant visual impairments in the regular classroom requires collaboration between special education teachers and regular education teachers. What inferences can you draw from the video about (a) the extent to which 16 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

the school supports collaboration of this nature and (b) what personal characteristics the teachers have that allow them to work together so well?

[Q3 Model Response] Not having enough time is probably the biggest impediment to collaborative planning; we can tell that the school is supportive of this sort of collaboration because it provides a shared planning time where the special education teacher and the general education teacher can work together for the good of the student. Further, the special education teacher is teaching alongside the general education teacher during lessons; when the special education teacher mentions her conversation with the student about how long it took to complete an activity, the general education teacher says, “I heard you say that.”

Thus we know that the two were working together in class, a support that would only happen if the school’s administrators were supportive.

These teachers are good problem-solvers and good listeners. Each shows obvious respect for the work that the other is doing. They talk through the possibilities together, and both teachers seem to be committed to finding ways to say yes to needed accommodations. They demonstrate sensitivity (e.g., “He can definitely participate” and “He can join right in”) and high expectations (e.g., the teacher pointing out to the student, “You can do that a lot faster; you can do it in half the time”).

Application Exercise 12.2: Braille and Print Learning Outcome 12.4: Learn about educational considerations for people with visual impairments and how professionals assess progress to help plan educational strategies.

[Q1] Walkup: Review the section of the text called Responsive Instruction: Meeting the Needs of Students with Visual Impairments, the one called Use of Remaining Sight, and the one called Listening Skills. View Pearson e-Text Video Example 12.10.

Question: In what ways are the classroom, instruction, and students in the video similar to what you would encounter in general education classes for individuals with sight? In what ways are they different?

[Q1 Model Response] The classroom, instruction, and students in the video are similar to what we might see in a general education classroom in terms of the activities they’re doing and the way they are grouped. The teacher is guiding students through the reading of the passage and they are discussing it, just as we would expect to see in a typical general education classroom. We would also expect teachers to individualize instruction as much as possible to meet students’ individual needs, though most general education teachers are not able to do quite as much individualization as we see in the video. A student is using a voice amplifier—something we might see even in a class where all students are able to see.

The class in the video differs from what we might expect to see in a general education classroom with students who all have their sight because of the various modes in which 17 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

students in the main group are taking in information; all of them are reading the same passage but they’re doing it in different ways. Some are reading braille, some are using large print, and one student is reading large print with a magnifying glass. There are more adults in this room than you would typically see in a general education class serving students with sight; there are fewer students, too.

[Q2] Walkup: Review the section of the text called Responsive Instruction: Meeting the Needs of Students with Visual Impairments. View Pearson e-Text Video Example 12.10.

Question: The video shows several students reading the same text but in different mediums. What mediums do you see being used? How does what you see in the video mesh with the findings of the Koenig and Holbrook (2000) study? What other ways might you suggest that students could use to help them read and understand the text?

Why would you suggest those?

[Q2 Model Response] We see students using braille and large print; we also see a student using a magnifying glass with the book propped up on a support.

The instruction in the video reflects the finding from the Koenig and Holbrook (2000) study that recommends teaching listening skills such as aural reading and live-reader skills; although these are not being taught overtly, students are practicing them in this lesson. One student is also engaging in daily Braille instruction and practice.

Students who cannot see can take in information using other means beyond the ones shown in this video. They could use a smart board with large print projected or other magnifying devices. They could also listen to audiobooks, use a computer with a screen reader, or use a compressed-speech device.

[Q3] Walkup: Review the section of the text called Responsive Instruction: Meeting the Needs of Students with Visual Impairments, the one called Use of Remaining Sight, and the one called Listening Skills. View Pearson e-Text Video Example 12.10.

Question: A point of contention among respondents in the Koenig and Holbrook (2000) study was how much time should be devoted to teaching students both print and braille.

What are the pros and cons of teaching a single mode versus teaching both modes?

[Q3 Model Response] Pros of teaching both print and braille include more flexibility and independence for students with visual impairments; being able to read both also provides access to information in two formats, thus making it more accessible to students. In some situations, braille may be a primary means of communication, and if they can’t read it, they won’t be able to fully engage. The same thing is true of print—if a student has enough vision to read print using a magnifying or other supportive device, it could be helpful for them to have print-reading skills. These are compelling arguments for teaching both print and braille.

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One con of teaching both print and braille is the need for specially trained teachers to help students learn braille. Whereas the use of magnifying devices is relatively quick to learn, braille takes time and practice. Teachers who can read braille comprise a much smaller group than teachers who can read print, so more teachers will be effective in teaching print than in teaching braille. Print is also more accessible in some ways; screen readers can communicate text to students without having the tactile sensation that braille provides.

Application Exercise 12.3: Accommodations in Testing Learning Outcome 12.4: Learn about educational considerations for people with visual impairments and how professionals assess progress to help plan educational strategies.

[Q1] Walkup: Read the section of the text called Focus on: Louis Braille and the Development of Braille and the one called Testing Accommodations, then review Pearson e-Text Video Example 12.14.

Question: How are the definitions of literacy for the sighted and literacy for the blind that are described in the Focus On passage similar? How are they different? How widespread do you think agreement is with these two definitions?

[Q1 Model Response] According to the Focus On passage in the text, literacy for the sighted involves the ability to read and write printed words, while literacy for the blind equates with the ability to read and write braille. Both are intended to allow literate people to access and share important information, but they require very different media and skill sets in order to do so.

While it’s unlikely that anyone would disagree with the definition of literacy for people with sight, it is apparent that a number of people disagree with this definition of literacy for the blind. Given that only 8.6 percent of children use braille as their primary mode of reading and writing, a large majority of people are finding alternate ways to help people who are blind take in and share information.

[Q2] Walkup: Read the section of the text called Focus on: Louis Braille and the Development of Braille and the one called Testing Accommodations, then review Pearson e-Text Video Example 12.14.

Question: In this video, the teachers are discussing how best to accommodate a fourth grade student named Rudy as he takes a standardized test of reading comprehension.

Rudy is learning braille but cannot yet read it at the same level as his peers are reading print.

The general education teacher wants to have the test read aloud to Rudy. The special education teacher seems reluctant to agree to that accommodation, though she eventually does. What reasons might the general education teacher give for having the test read aloud to the student? Why might the special education teacher have been 19 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

reluctant to agree? Why do you think she eventually did agree? Did she do the right thing? Why or why not?

[Q2 Model Response] The general education teacher is likely thinking of how to help the student showcase what he knows and can do to the best of his ability; if the student isn’t bogged down by trying to make sense of the print, there’s a much better chance that he will be able to answer the questions correctly. With the general education teacher’s method of delivering the test, Rudy has a much better chance of doing well on the test and of feeling good about himself. Another possible factor in the general education teacher’s stance may reflect his need for his students to score well on the test in response to administrative or political calls for teacher accountability.

The special education teacher is likely approaching the question from the standpoint of what sort of assessment would provide the most accurate information about how well Rudy can read print, not just listen to it. The test is a test of reading comprehension rather than a test of listening comprehension; Rudy’s performance on the test when it’s read aloud to him may overestimate his ability to read and comprehend the text. The special education teacher is likely thinking that it would be better to have an accurate assessment even if it shows that the student is behind his grade-level peers in reading.

The special education teacher likely agreed because the general education teacher is the one under whose name the test scores will be reported; there is also some possibility that she felt explaining her position more fully would seem overly assertive or critical.

Answers about agreement will vary.

[Q3] Walkup: Read the section of the text called Focus on: Louis Braille and the Development of Braille and the one called Testing Accommodations, then review Pearson e-Text Video Example 12.14.

Question: In this video, the teachers are discussing how best to accommodate a fourth grade student named Rudy as he takes a standardized test of reading comprehension.

Rudy is learning braille but cannot yet read it at the same level as his peers are reading print.

The general education teacher wants to have the test read aloud to Rudy. The special education teacher seems reluctant to agree to that accommodation, though she eventually does. What are the potential short- and long-term effects of this decision on Rudy?

[Q3 Model Response] In the short term, Rudy would likely score well on the test because it’s measuring his ability to listen and comprehend rather than his ability to read and comprehend; both he and his general education teacher would likely feel positive about the progress that Rudy is making.

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In the long term, this decision might cloud Rudy’s true reading comprehension ability, which could lead to inappropriate instructional goals for him for the future. Assume that he scored very well on this test; it might lead an IEP team, which includes his parents, to be reluctant to include reading comprehension as an annual goal for him. It might also lead his teachers to overestimate his ability, thus leading them to provide him with reading activities that are actually too hard for him to complete if he’s not having the text aloud to him. That could be very frustrating and confusing for Rudy.

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Test Items 12.1 Multiple-Choice Questions 1. As a disability of children, blindness is a. one of the most prevalent disabilities. b. about average in prevalence compared to other sensory disabilities. c. the least prevalent disability. d. increasing rapidly in prevalence.

2. The legal definition of blindness involves assessment of a. color perception and visual acuity. b. field of vision and depth perception. c. visual acuity and field of vision. d. depth perception and color perception.

3. Even though he has visual acuity of 20/20, Jeff is considered legally blind. This is possible if he has severely restricted a. angular vision. b. peripheral vision. c. visual discrimination. d. night vision.

4. A common criticism of legal definitions of blindness is that visual acuity a. is difficult to measure objectively. b. doesn't predict how well people function and/or use their remaining sight. c. is defined in different ways by different professionals. d. doesn't provide information about the cause of blindness.

5. The educational definition of blindness and low vision stresses a. the method of reading instruction. b. how well the student has adapted to their visual impairment. c. the method of vision assessment. d. how much remaining sight a student has.

6. For educational purposes, individuals who are blind a. must use a magnifying device. b. can still read print if it is large enough. c. have absolutely no sight.

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d. must use braille or aural methods.

7. All of the following are common vision problems caused by errors of refraction except a. hyperopia. b. astigmatism. c. glaucoma. d. myopia.

8. What percentage of school-aged children does the federal government classify as visually impaired? a. 0.4% b. 0.04% c. 4.0% d. 0.004% 9. Blindness occurs most often in a. adulthood. b. adolescence. c. early childhood. d. preadolescence.

10. The transparent gelatinous substance inside of the eye is known as the a. aqueous humor. b. cornea. c. vitreous humor. d. retina.

11. The structure in the eye that refines and changes the focus of the light rays is the a. lens. b. pupil. c. vitreous humor. d. retina.

12. Each of the following is a limitation of the Snellen Chart except a. it measures visual acuity for distant but not near objects. b. it does not accurately indicate visual acuity. c. it depends on a person's ability to recognize letters. d. it does not accurately indicate how a person uses vision in natural settings.

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13. Colleen is described as being able to detect some objects in the environment when it is fully lit. This is an example of a skill a teacher might note when performing a a. visual acuity assessment. b. learning styles assessment. c. visual discrimination assessment. d. functional vision assessment.

14. In children, the leading cause of blindness is a. cortical visual impairment. b. retinitis pigmentosa. c. injuries, athletic and otherwise. d. brain tumors.

15. Clara has good vision for assignments written on the blackboard, but she has difficulty with the print in her textbook. She may have a refraction problem known as a. myopia. b. hyperopia. c. astigmatism. d. text blindness.

16. Which of the following statements about retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) is false? a. ROP involves abnormal growth of blood vessels in the eye. b. ROP can lead to a detached retina. c. ROP can be prevented if the newborn is provided high amounts of oxygen. d. ROP can be an outcome when a woman’s pregnancy doesn’t go to full term.

17. A condition that involves an underdevelopment of part of the eye and is often associated with other neurological conditions, such as cerebral palsy, is a. retinopathy of prematurity. b. optic nerve hypoplasia. c. fetal alcohol syndrome. d. cortical visual impairment.

18. An important difference between individuals with and without sight is that a. those without sight become highly adept at learning things incidentally. b. those without sight have to take more initiative to learn what they can from their environment. c. those with sight are more internally motivated. d. those with sight are more likely to develop behavioral problems.

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19. A hereditary disease that usually causes the field of vision to narrow and also affects night vision is a. diabetic retinopathy. b. nystagmus. c. cortical visual impairment. d. retinitis pigmentosa.

20. The ability to integrate the relative position of various points in the spatial environment in order to navigate it more efficiently is called a. cognitive mapping. b. memory mapping. c. cognitive sequencing. d. memory sequencing.

21. Echolocation a. can be accomplished by clicking one's tongue. b. is a skill obtainable by people who are blind but not those who are sighted. c. demonstrates that blindness results in the development of neural pathways that augment the efficiency of their hearing. d. demonstrates that humans are able to hear much higher frequencies with practice.

22. In comparison to sighted children, children who are blind a. experience articulation problems, which they quickly outgrow. b. differ with regard to all major aspects of language. c. are not impaired in language functioning and might even be more motivated than sighted children to use language. d. have restricted language development because of their lack of visual experiences.

23. Most professionals now agree that the intelligence of people with blindness a. is slightly higher than that of people with sight. b. is markedly lower than that of people with sight. c. is slightly lower than that of people with sight. d. can't be compared directly to that of people with sight.

24. Which of the following statements about the conceptual abilities of children with visual impairment is true? a. The performance of infants with visual problems is the same as that of their peers with sight on conceptual tasks.

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b. Adults should directly encourage infants and toddlers with vision problems to explore their environment as they are less likely than their sighted peers to do so on their own. c. Touch is just as efficient as sight for arriving at conceptualizations of objects. d. Infants with vision problems pick up information incidentally in the same way their peers with sight do.

25. Orientation and mobility skills a. develop so naturally in people who are blind that little instruction is needed to learn them. b. are largely dependent on motivation and proper O & M instruction. c. are highly correlated with level of visual acuity—the greater the loss of acuity, the better are one's O & M skills. d. are highly correlated with level of visual acuity, the greater the loss of acuity, worse are one's O & M skills.

26. People who are blind a. develop better acuity in their other senses. b. are superior to sighted people in musical ability. c. have lowered thresholds for sensation in touch and hearing. d. learn to make better use of the sensations they experience.

27. Many authorities believe that lower achievement scores of students who are blind or who have low vision is most likely due to a. the visual problem itself. b. poor listening skills. c. use of braille forms of achievement tests. d. lack of exposure to braille or low expectations.

28. Social adjustment problems for children with visual impairment are most likely the result of a. inherent personality problems. b. society's reaction to people who are blind. c. stereotypic behaviors. d. blindisms which cannot be controlled.

29. The basic unit of braille is a a. single dot. b. word. c. quadrangular cell containing one to six dots.

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d. circular array of dots.

30. Approximately, how many children with blindness currently use braille as a primary reading method? a. 8.6% b. 14.4% c. 36.1% d. 45.7% 31. The National Federation of the Blind has had braille bills passed to a. ensure that teachers of students with visual impairment are proficient in braille. b. require braille instruction for all students with visual impairment. c. increase the availability of devices like the Kurzweil Personal Reader. d. provide funding for students to attend special schools to learn braille.

32. Use of compressed speech enables students with blindness to a. listen to recorded texts at a faster rate. b. tape record reports rather than type them. c. develop better listening skills. d. participate more fully in class discussions.

33. Which mobility aid is most often recommended by professionals? a. the long cane b. a guide dog c. a tactile map d. a human guide 34. Research on braille leads to all the following recommendations except a. daily braille instruction for a period of 1.5 to 2 hours during the early elementary grades. b. pre-braille instruction (e.g., exposure to names in braille, tactile labels, writing experiences) for preschool and kindergarten-age students. c. braille slate and stylus instruction several days a week for moderate to short time periods beginning in third or fourth grade d. discouraging keyboard instruction until the student has reached a fifth grade proficiency level in reading braille.

35. When guiding a person who is blind, you should a. take the person’s arm and have them walk slightly ahead of you. b. let the person take your arm and walk slightly behind you.

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c. walk at a much slower pace than normal. d. allow the person to go through door ahead of you.

36. Historically, residential institutions were the preferred means of service delivery because they a. offered a number of specialized services in one place. b. provided more opportunities for social development. c. maximized the academic achievement of students with visual impairment. d. reduced the burden on families of caring for a child with blindness.

37. Which of the following statements with respect to early intervention programs for children who are blind is false? a. Literacy and cognitive skills should be taught. b. Mobility skills should be taught. c. Finger strength should be taught. d. All skills should be taught just as they are for students with sight.

38. In a co-teaching model, the teacher of students with visual impairments should engage in all of the following except a. providing strategies for teaching listening skills. b. modifying instructional methods and materials. c. designing multisensory learning environments. d. transcribing all written materials into braille.

12.2 True/False Questions 1. The majority of people who are legally blind have some useful vision.

2. Blindness is primarily an adult disability.

3. Most authorities believe that lack of vision significantly alters the ability to understand and use language.

4. People who are blind develop an extra ambulatory sense that enables them to detect obstacles.

5. Most people with visual impairment use braille as their primary method of reading.

6. Children spontaneously compensate for poor vision by developing superior listening skills.

7. Authorities recommend the use of guide dogs as the most efficient mobility aid for most persons who are blind.

8. Itinerant teacher services to a general education classroom is the most popular placement for students with visual impairments.

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9. Most students who are blind do not receive the necessary training in daily living skills to live independently.

10. Adults who are blind are employed less than half the rate of those who are sighted.

12.3 Short Answer Questions 1. Write a case description of a student who is defined as legally blind but has low vision from an educational perspective.

2. Describe two behavioral and two physical signs that might indicate a student has a vision problem.

3. Compare the language development of children who are blind or have low vision to that of children with sight and describe a problem associated with measuring intelligence in students who are blind.

4. Explain why there is a common misconception that people who are blind develop an "extra sense."

5. Describe stereotypic behaviors and explain why some professionals think a goal should be elimination of such behaviors while others think they should not be interfered with.

6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the following mobility aids: the long cane, human guides, and guide dogs?

7. Provide brief descriptions for at least three examples of technological aids for communication, information access, and orientation and mobility. Then summarize cautions when considering use of technology.

8. Which skills should be the focus of assessment for students with visual impairments, and how should those skills be assessed?

9. Describe two reasons why many adolescents and young adults with visual impairments might have problems becoming independent.

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Test Answer Key 12.1 Multiple-Choice Questions 1. c 2. c 3. b 4. b 5. a 6. d 7. c 8. b 9. a 10. c 11. a 12. c 13. d 14. a 15. b 16. c 17. b 18. b 19. d 20. a 21. a 22. c 23. d 24. b 25. b 26. d 27. d 28. b 29. c 30. a 30 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

31. a 32. a 33. a 34. d 35. b 36. a 37. d 38. d 12.2 True/False Questions 1. True 2. True 3. False 4. False 5. False 6. False 7. False 8. True 9. True 10. True 12.3 Short Answer Questions 1. Cases will vary but will reflect knowledge of: The legal definition involves assessment of visual acuity and field of vision. A person who is legally blind has visual acuity of 20/200 or less in the better eye even with correction or a field of vision so narrow that its widest diameter subtends an angular distance no greater than 20 degrees. Legally, a person with low vision is defined as one with visual acuity between 20/70 and 20/200 in the better eye with correction. The educational definition is not concerned with the specific measurements of acuity and field of vision. Instead, it stresses the method of reading instruction. To be blind, a person must learn to read braille or use aural methods. Those who can read print, even if they need magnifying devices or large-print books, are said to have low vision.

2. Behavior: rubs eyes excessively, shuts or covers one eye, tilts or thrusts head forward, has difficulty with reading or other close-up work, holds objects close to eyes, blinks more than is usual, is irritable doing close-up work, is unable to see distant objects clearly, squints and frowns. Physical: eyes itch or burn, cannot see well, experiences dizziness or nausea after close-up work, blurred or double vision.

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3. Lack of vision does not seem to have a significant effect on the ability to understand and use language, since auditory perception is the sensory modality through which we learn language. Lack of vision appears to have little effect on the ability to understand and use language. Most authorities believe that it is impossible to make comparisons between intelligence of sighted persons with that of persons with blindness because finding comparable tests is so difficult. Evidence indicates there is no reason to believe blindness results in lower intelligence.

4. Some persons who are blind have the ability to detect physical obstructions in the environment. They often seem able to sense an object in their path. This skill has come to be known as obstacle sense. It does not mean they actually have an extra sense; rather, some people who are blind have come to be able to detect subtle changes in the pitches of high-frequency echoes as they move toward an object.

This is a result of the Doppler effect that says the pitch of a sound rises as a person moves toward its source. Extraneous noise can render obstacle sense useless.

People who are blind do not automatically develop better acuity in other senses, but they do make better use of sensations they obtain.

5. Stereotypic behaviors are repetitive movements such as rocking, poking or rubbing the eyes, repetitive hand or finger movements, and grimacing. They can be a problem if they interfere with good social adjustment for persons who are blind (e.g., some sighted people may be uncomfortable with the behaviors). Some theories suggest that the behaviors are an attempt to provide oneself with more stimulation to make up for deficient sensory or social stimulation. Other theories suggest they are attempts to self-regulate one's stimulation in the face of overstimulation. In either case, some believe that the behaviors should not be interfered with because they may serve an important function. Still others believe that the behaviors should be eliminated, especially when done in the extreme, because they may be an impediment to socialization (and are sometimes even harmful).

6. Long cane: Advantages are it is economical and even preschoolers can be taught to use it. A disadvantage is that it requires considerable coordination between the sweeping of the cane and the movement of the feet, and it may be stigmatizing to some people. Guide dogs: Advantages are they can be valuable aids and companions, and may alert owners to potential hazards sooner than can be detected by a cane. Disadvantages are that dogs may attract attention of people who may distract the dog or owner; they require tremendous amounts of training and the owner requires extensive training to use the dog; they must be cared for. Human guides: Advantage is that they enable the person with visual impairment to have the greatest freedom in moving about safely. A disadvantage is that it fosters too much dependence on other people.

7. Examples will include descriptions of: computers and software that convert printed material into synthesized speech or braille (Kurzweil 1000), portable braille notetakers, hand-held personal data assistants, news services, screen readers that magnify information and/or convert to speech, improved web design, electronic sensing devices (laser cane, Miniguide), Global Positioning Systems (GPS), and artificial vision systems. Cautions: braille still has some advantages (skimming, note-

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taking, reading a speech, using dictionaries), current devices are only aids to Orientation and Mobility (O & M), not replacements.

8. IDEA requires that braille instruction be included in IEPs, so it must be monitored. C BM is an appropriate method (with time modifications as reading braille is slower).

Math skills can also be monitored with CBM (translated into Nemeth Codes, with time modifications). O & M skills are critical, and can be monitored with checklists and GPS (travel proficiency). Standardized tests normed for students with low-vision or blindness can be used to measure outcomes in academic and functional skills.

9. Many don't receive necessary training in daily living skills. Ironically, increased integration in schools may have led to a decrease in teaching these skills. Another problem is the paternalistic way that society treats people without sight.

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Chapter 13 Test Item File Daniel P. Hallahan

Exceptional Learners: An Introduction to Special Education Fifteenth Edition Daniel P. Hallahan, University of Virginia Paige C. Pullen, University of Florida James M. Kauffman, University of Virginia Prepared by Karen M. Cole, University of North Carolina Asheville

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Table of Contents Chapter 13: Learners with Low-Incidence, Multiple, and Severe Disabilities ... 1 Learning Outcome Quizzes ................................................................. 1 Application Exercises ......................................................................... 14 Test Items .......................................................................................... 19 Test Answer Key ................................................................................ 27

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Chapter 13: Learners with Low-Incidence, Multiple, and Severe Disabilities Learning Outcome Quizzes Learning Outcome 13.1: Understand the most current definitions for and the prevalence of low-incidence, multiple, and severe disabilities.

[Q1] Which of the following statements about students with severe disabilities is false?

1. Students with autism or intellectual disabilities may or may not be identified as having severe disabilities.

2. Students with severe disabilities almost always require extensive support in more than one major life activity.

3. Students with severe disabilities often have concomitant impairments that require highly specialized, ongoing support.

4. Students with a combination of disabilities receive services only for their primary disability. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This statement is true. Autism spectrum disorders and intellectual disabilities can range from mild to severe; while some individuals identified with autism or intellectual disabilities will need extensive, highly specialized support, others will not.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement is true. Because of the intensity of their physical, mental, or emotional problems, students with severe disabilities need highly specialized education, social, psychological, and medical services in order to maximize their full potential for useful and meaningful participation in society and for self-fulfillment.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement is true. Because of the intensity of their physical, mental, or emotional problems, students with severe disabilities need highly specialized education, social, psychological, and medical services in order to maximize their full potential for useful and meaningful participation in society and for self-fulfillment.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] This statement is false. According to I DEA, the category includes students with concomitant disabilities because “multiple disabilities means concomitant impairments . . . the combination of which causes such severe educational problems that they cannot be accommodated in special education programs solely for one of the impairments.”

[Q2] 1 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Why is the organization formerly known as the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps now called TASH? 1. Because the original group name was too long 2. Because the use of the word handicapped is considered pejorative [correct] 3. Because The Association for the Severely Handicapped was dissolved after controversy 4. Because the latest reauthorization of I DEA requires it [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Reducing the organization’s name to its acronym deemphasizes the word handicapped because some believe it is a pejorative term.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Reducing the organization’s name to its acronym deemphasizes the word handicapped.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] TASH is an updated name for The Association for the Severely Handicapped. Reducing the organization’s name to its acronym deemphasizes the word handicapped because some believe it is a pejorative term.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] IDEA does not contain any requirement about the way organizations are named. The organization reduced the name to T ASH to deemphasize the word handicapped, since some view it as a pejorative term.

[Q3] What percentage of the population are affected by low-incidence, severe, and multiple disabilities?

1. 5% 2. 3% 3. 1% 4. Less than 1% [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Low-incidence, severe, and multiple disabilities probably affect fewer than 1% of the population.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Low-incidence, severe, and multiple disabilities probably affect fewer than 1% of the population.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Low-incidence, severe, and multiple disabilities probably affect fewer than 1% of the 2 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

population.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Although they are relatively few in number, children with severe disabilities typically require extensive, complex services.

[Q4] Which of the following is not part of the mission of T ASH? 1. To eliminate residential schools and self-contained classrooms [correct] 2. To promote full inclusion of children and adults with significant disabilities in all aspects of their community 3. To eliminate social injustices that diminish human rights 4. To promote equity, opportunity, and inclusion [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] TASH defines its mission as “to promote the full inclusion and participation of children and adults with significant disabilities in every aspect of their community, and to eliminate the social injustices that diminish human rights.”

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] TASH defines its mission as “to promote the full inclusion and participation of children and adults with significant disabilities in every aspect of their community, and to eliminate the social injustices that diminish human rights.”

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] TASH defines its mission as “to promote the full inclusion and participation of children and adults with significant disabilities in every aspect of their community, and to eliminate the social injustices that diminish human rights.”

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] TASH defines its mission as “to promote the full inclusion and participation of children and adults with significant disabilities in every aspect of their community, and to eliminate the social injustices that diminish human rights.”

Learning Outcome 13.2: Understand the definition, characteristics, prevalence, causes, and educational considerations associated with traumatic brain injury.

[Q1] Which of the following statements about chronic traumatic encephalopathy is least accurate?

1. Its symptoms include behavioral and mood changes.

2. It is a degenerative brain disease.

3. Its symptoms often do not appear at the time of the injury.

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4. It results from being knocked out or passing out and hitting one’s head. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Behavioral signs like impulsivity and physical/verbal abuse occur first, then mood changes like depression and anxiety follow. The third phase of C TE involves neurocognitive decline.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] It is caused by repetitive trauma to the brain and is common in athletes, particularly those who engage in contact sports.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Many times the effects of brain trauma show up years after the injuries occurred.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Being knocked out or hitting one’s head are two potential causes of CTE, but they are not the only ones. CTE is caused by subconcussive blows, severe concussions, and brain injuries.

[Q2] All but which of the following characteristics are commonly associated with traumatic brain injuries?

1. They are caused by degenerative or congenital conditions. [correct] 2. They result from an external force.

3. They lead to neurological or neurobehavioral dysfunction.

4. They can result from open or closed injuries to the head.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] TBIs are caused by either open or closed head injuries. They are specifically not caused by degenerative or congenital conditions.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] TBIs can result from either open or closed injuries to the head.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The federal definition of TBI states that they result in “total or partial functional disability or psychosocial impairment, or both, that adversely affects a child ’s educational performance.”

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Open head injuries involve a penetrating head wound from such causes as a fall, gunshot, assault, vehicular accident, or surgery. Individuals with closed head injuries have no open head wound but may have brain damage caused by internal compression, stretching, or other shearing motion of neural tissues within the head.

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What is the primary cause of TBI in children after age 5?

1. Assaults 2. Vehicular accidents [correct] 3. Accidental falls 4. Qunshot wounds [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Among children younger than 5 years old, accidental falls are the dominant cause of TB I, with vehicular accidents and child abuse causing substantial injuries as well. After age 5, and increasingly through adolescence, vehicular accidents account for the majority of TBI; assaults and gunshot wounds are increasingly prevalent among youths at older ages.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Among children younger than 5 years old, accidental falls are the dominant cause of TB I. [Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Among children younger than 5 years old, accidental falls are the dominant cause of TB I, with vehicular accidents and child abuse causing substantial injuries as well. After age 5, and increasingly through adolescence, vehicular accidents account for the majority of TBI; assaults and gunshot wounds are increasingly prevalent among youths at older ages.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Among children younger than 5 years old, accidental falls are the dominant cause of TB I, with vehicular accidents and child abuse causing substantial injuries as well. After age 5, and increasingly through adolescence, vehicular accidents account for the majority of TBI; assaults and gunshot wounds are increasingly prevalent among youths at older ages.

[Q4] The Council for Exceptional Children refers to TBI as a silent epidemic for all but which of the following reasons?

1. Traumatic brain injuries usually result in the inability to speak. [correct] 2. TBIs are rapidly increasing in prevalence.

3. Many serious head injuries go unreported.

4. Many cases of TBI go undetected or are mistaken for other disabilities.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] While some traumatic brain injuries do affect people’s ability to speak, the CEC refers to TBI as a silent epidemic because of its increasing prevalence; it’s “silent” because many serious head injuries are unreported, and many cases of TBI go undetected or 5 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

are mistaken for other disabilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The CEC refers to TBI as a silent epidemic because of its increasing prevalence; it’s “silent” because many serious head injuries are unreported, and many cases of TBI go undetected or are mistaken for other disabilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The CEC refers to TBI as a silent epidemic because of its increasing prevalence; it’s “silent” because many serious head injuries are unreported, and many cases of TBI go undetected or are mistaken for other disabilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The CEC refers to TBI as a silent epidemic because of its increasing prevalence; it’s “silent” because many serious head injuries are unreported, and many cases of TBI go undetected or are mistaken for other disabilities.

[Q5] Which of the following is not a typical educational consideration in addressing the needs of students with TBI? 1. Consistently holding the student accountable for completing assignments as soon as they enter or return to school after their injury [correct] 2. Helping family members, teachers, and peers to respond appropriately to the sudden and sometimes dramatic changes resulting from the injury 3. Planning the transition from a hospital or rehabilitation center to the school 4. Helping the student recover cognitive abilities to the extent possible [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Helping the student develop strategies for remembering and making sense of academic information is important, but a strict accountability system for academic work is not typically a high-priority educational consideration for students with T BI entering or returning to school after their injury.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] People involved in the student’s life typically must learn new ways to engage with the student and to deal with the differences resulting from the injury.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Both general and special education teachers need training about TBI and its ramifications if students are to be reintegrated successfully into the schools and classrooms they attended before the injury.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The abilities to remember and to make sense of academic information and social circumstances are key to the student’s long-term success. The teacher must help the 6 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

student learn to use coping mechanisms and alternative strategies, such as using a tape recorder, smartphone, planner, or other organizational devices and memory aids for whatever abilities cannot be recovered.

Learning Outcome 13.3: Understand the definition, prevalence, causes, psychological and behavioral characteristics, and educational considerations associated with deafblindness.

[Q1] Which of the following is not named by the text authors as a factor that heavily influences outcomes for individuals with deaf-blindness?

1. The quality and intensity of instruction the person receives 2. The degree and type of auditory impairment and visual impairment 3. The person’s general level of intelligence [correct] 4. The presence of other disabilities and medical conditions [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] People with deaf-blindness have more positive outcomes when they receive frequent, high-quality, intense intervention.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The extent to which vision and hearing are impaired has ramifications for both intervention and outcomes.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] The factors that the authors name as important influences on outcomes for people with deaf-blindness are the quality and intensity of instruction the person receives, the degree and type of auditory and visual impairment, and the presence of other disabilities and medical conditions.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Despite some very notable exceptions, in general, the more numerous the impairments, the greater is the impact on a person’s ability to adapt.

[Q2] Which of the following statements about the prevalence of individuals with deafblindness is false?

1. About 2% of the school-age population are identified as having deaf-blindness. [correct] 2. 87% of people with deaf-blindness additional disabilities.

3. Cognitive disabilities are common among individuals with deaf-blindness.

4. It is common for people with deaf-blindness to have orthopedic disabilities.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] 7 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

While it is hard to determine what percentage of the school-age population has deafblindness, we know that the disability is very, very rare. In 2018, there were 9,904 deafblind individuals from birth to 21 years of age.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement is true. The combination of impairments typically causes severe difficulty in daily life activities, psychosocial adjustment, or obtaining a vocation.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement is true. Other common concomitant disabilities include orthopedic disabilities and complex health care needs.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This statement is true. This statement is true. Other common concomitant disabilities include cognitive disabilities and complex health care needs.

[Q3] Which of the following statements about the causes of deaf-blindness is false?

1. Prematurity is the most common trigger of deaf-blindness.

2. When deaf-blindness is hereditary, it is caused by one of two genetic/chromosomal syndromes. [correct] 3. Meningitis is a postnatal infection of the covering of the brain that can cause deafblindness.

4. Coloboma refers to a condition where the pupil of the eye is abnormally shaped, and/or there are abnormalities of the retina or optic nerve.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This statement is true. Prematurity can trigger deaf-blindness in three broad categories: genetic/chromosomal syndromes, prenatal conditions, and postnatal conditions.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] While the text specifically discusses Usher syndrome and CHARGE syndrome, dozens of genetic/chromosomal syndromes are now known to be associated with deafblindness.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement is true. TBI is another common postnatal cause of deaf-blindness.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This statement is true. Coloboma can result in a variety of visual problems, including deficits in visual acuity and extreme sensitivity to light.

[Q4] All but which of the following statements about communication among people with deafblindness is false?

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1. Members of the deaf-blind community have begun to develop a tactile system that allows them to communicate with others.

2. Most authorities would agree that communication is the biggest obstacle faced by people with deaf-blindness.

3. If parents and professionals recognize that a student with deaf-blindness is socially isolated before the child is 8 years old, the pattern of isolation can typically be reversed. [correct] 4. Persistent and intensive instruction is critical in helping individuals with deafblindness learn language and higher concepts.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This statement is true. The development of Protactile A SL (PTASL) holds promise for substantially improving the means of communication for people in the Deaf-Blind community.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement is true. Another significant problem for people with deaf-blindness is accessing information.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] This statement is false. Patterns of isolation are difficult to reverse regardless of the age of the child, so it’s not surprising that individuals who are deaf-blind are at risk for developing behavior disorders such as anxiety, depression, and even psychosis.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This statement is true. It’s critical that professionals and parents work together to provide an environment that’s as supportive and rich in communication opportunities as possible.

[Q5] All but which of the following statements reflect educational considerations to be made regarding individuals with deaf-blindness?

1. Early intervention is a critical means of improving outcomes for people with deafblindness.

2. Providing structure and routine is important in the education of students with deafblindness.

3. Students with deaf-blindness learn a significant amount of information incidentally. [correct] 4. Orientation and mobility training is important because people with deaf-blindness are at high risk of being unable to navigate their environments.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The fact that two senses—hearing and sight—are involved in deaf-blindness makes the need to intervene (both medically and educationally) as early as possible of paramount 9 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

importance.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] To create a successful environment for learning, it’s critical that teachers and other professionals and parents provide a sense of security and consistency.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Because their sensory limitations impede their ability to pick up information incidentally, students with deaf-blindness need to be taught directly.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] People who are both deaf and blind are restricted in their ability to make use of auditory signals for navigating the environment.

Learning Outcome 13.4: Learn about educational considerations for many students with low-incidence, multiple, and severe disabilities (e.g., augmentative or alternative communication, dealing with behavior problems, early intervention, and transition to adulthood) [Q1] Which of the following statements about augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) is false?

1. Selecting a vocabulary and helping students effectively and efficiently indicate elements in that vocabulary is an important process in designing AAC. 2. Approaches to AAC vary from relatively simple, low-tech solutions to complex, and high-tech solutions.

3. AAC is indicated only in cases where the student has a severe intellectual disability. [correct] 4. In designing AAC, one of the primary considerations is whether or not it can be used in a variety of social contexts.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This statement is true. Users of AAC who are not literate must rely on a vocabulary and symbols that are selected by others. If the vocabulary and symbols, as well as other features of the system, are not well chosen, AAC will be quite limited in the learning and personal relationships it allows.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement is true. Each person’s communicative needs are different, so there is significant variation in the A AC systems that are used.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] This statement is false. Students for whom AAC must be designed range in intelligence from highly gifted to having profound intellectual disabilities, but they all have one characteristic in common: the inability to communicate effectively through speech 10 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

because of a physical impairment.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This statement is true. For instance, researchers are attempting to make it possible for young AAC users to talk about the same kinds of things that other youngsters do.

[Q2] Which of the following statements about self-stimulation is false?

1. The high rate, lack of subtlety, and social inappropriateness of self-stimulation among people with disabilities differentiates it from the norm.

2. Nearly, everyone, both with and without disabilities, engages in some form of selfstimulation.

3. Research indicates that self-stimulation has little effect on student learning. [correct] 4. Self-stimulation seems to have no apparent purpose other than providing sensory stimulation.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This statement is true. Nearly, everyone sometimes engages in some form of selfstimulation, such as lip-biting, hair-stroking, and nail-biting, but not at the high rate that characterizes a disability.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement is true. Lip-biting, hair-stroking, and nail-biting are examples of common self-stimulatory behaviors that are not concerning unless they occur at problematic levels.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] This statement is false. Some individuals with autism or other pervasive developmental disabilities engage in self-stimulation to the exclusion of academic and social learning.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This statement is true. Self-stimulation may take a wide variety of forms, such as swishing saliva, twirling objects, hand-flapping, fixed staring, and the like.

[Q3] Which of the following statements about tantrums and aggression is false?

1. Tantrums and physical aggression may result from an individual’s desire to avoid something.

2. When students throw tantrums or become aggressive, teachers should withdraw their requests or demands for performance. [correct] 3. There may be no discernable reason for tantrums or aggression.

4. Physical aggression is not always associated with tantrums.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] 11 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

This statement is true. Often tantrums or aggression are precipitated by a request or demand that the individual do something (perhaps a self-care task or some academic work). Too often, the consequence of the inappropriate behavior is that the demand is withdrawn, thus, reinforcing the tantrum/aggressive behavior.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] When a request or demand for reasonable performance is withdrawn in response to a tantrum or aggression, the tantrum behavior or physical aggression is reinforced.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement is true. While tantrums and aggression may begin in response to a request or demand that the student do something, it is also common for these behaviors to happen with no apparent reason.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This statement is true. While aggression can be part of a tantrum, some individuals with severe or multiple disabilities engage in calculated physical attacks that threaten or injure others. Sometimes these attacks come without warning or only after subtle indications of imminent assault that only someone who knows the individual well is likely to perceive.

[Q4] Which of the following is not one of the value-based practices considered essential to early intervention programs in special education?

1. The use of research- or value-based practices that reflect the ideals of the early childhood special education community 2. The adoption of a culturally sensitive, unbiased, and nondiscriminatory perspective 3. The use of developmentally appropriate practices 4. The use of management systems in which parents quickly punish inappropriate behavior [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Some of these value-based practices are providing individualized practices for each child and family, communicating with family members in a nonpaternalistic manner and with mutual respect and caring, making center environments safe and clean, and providing opportunities for families to have access to medical decision making.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Having someone in the program who can speak the family’s language is important, as is communicating respect, caring, and sensitivity.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] There is some disagreement about how best to navigate the discrepancy between developmental age and chronological age.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] 12 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Punishment is not considered a value-based practice in early intervention.

[Q5] Which of the following descriptions most accurately describes the P BIS approach to problematic behavior?

1. Focusing on the elimination of target behaviors by punishing the student for exhibiting them 2. Providing significant levels of positive reinforcement, and praise when students are meeting expectations 3. Identifying and addressing the singular cause of inappropriate behavior and then using applied behavior analysis 4. Identifying alternative, acceptable ways to communicate through teaching more appropriate behaviors and/or changing the environment [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] PBIS is guided by two fundamental assumptions: (1) Each behavior carries a communicative intent, and (2) typically, multiple factors influence the presence of specific behavior.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Affirmation and positive reinforcement are part of the PBIS model, but this description is incomplete.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] PBIS is in contrast with traditional models of behavior management, which focus on the elimination of target behaviors without regard for triggers or causes, personal and/or environmental.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] PBIS is guided by two fundamental assumptions: (1) Each behavior carries a communicative intent, and (2) typically, multiple factors influence the presence of specific behavior.

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Application Exercises Application Exercise 13.1: Life After TBI Learning Outcome 13.2: Understand the definition, characteristics, prevalence, causes, and educational considerations associated with traumatic brain injury.

[Q1] Walkup: Review the section of the text called Definition and Characteristics (stop before the Focus On box) and view Pearson e-Text Video Example 13.1.

Question: From the video, is it possible to determine whether Rebekah’s head injury was open or closed? Why or why not? Does it matter?

[Q1 Model Response] We can’t actually tell the nature of Rebekah’s traumatic brain injury (TBI). We may assume that it was an open head injury because she mentions popping out of the car’s sunroof, so we might picture her with an open injury as a result. However, it’s possible that there was internal compression, stretching, or other shearing motions of the neural tissues in the head.

From an educational standpoint, it doesn’t particularly matter if Rebekah’s head injury was open or closed. Teachers deal with the aftereffects of the injury regardless of the type of injury the student experienced.

[Q2] Walkup: Review the section of the text called Definition and Characteristics (stop before the Focus On box) and view Pearson e-Text Video Example 13.1.

Question: What were some of the immediate aftereffects of Rebekah’s traumatic brain injury? Which ones that she mentions are addressed specifically in the federal definition of TBI? [Q2 Model Response] Rebekah mentions being in a coma for a month and being concerned that she wouldn’t be able to walk. She also mentioned that she had a feeding tube for a month. She continues to have difficulty with her left hand.

The federal definition of TBI specifically names issues in motor abilities and physical functions. While the video doesn’t indicate that Rebekah experienced additional difficulties as a result of the accident, it’s plausible to believe that she experienced some of the other impairments included in the federal definition of TBI. [Q3] Walkup: Review the section of the text called Definition and Characteristics (stop before the Focus On box) and view Pearson e-Text Video Example 13.1.

Question: Near the end of the video, she works with others at the Clubhouse to prepare a meal. As you watch her work in the kitchen, what behaviors does she display 14 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

that demonstrate the significant progress she has made in her rehabilitation? What residual effects of the injury do you notice?

[Q3 Model Response] Rebekah can walk and talk. She has the manual dexterity not only to feed herself, but to prepare meals for others. She has a sense of humor about the fact that the function of her left hand is still impaired as a result of the accident. She has difficulty removing her glove and she has to find alternative ways to hold the can of beans so she can spoon them into the pot.

[Q4] Walkup: Review the section of the text called Definition and Characteristics (stop before the Focus On box) and view Pearson e-Text Video Example 13.1.

Question: Why might a person enjoy serving as a teacher/mentor in a program like the one Rebecca attends? What reasons might a different person give for not wanting a job like this? Do you think you would enjoy working as a teacher/mentor in a program like the one Rebekah attends? Why or why not?

[Q4 Model Response] People who would enjoy working in a program like the one at the Clubhouse would probably enjoy close interaction with other people and would find it rewarding to see their clients make progress in overcoming the effects of their injuries. They might be a person who likes breaking tasks down into small steps and checking things off the list as they get accomplished. They might find it particularly meaningful to help people who have had TBI s regain their functional abilities.

People who probably would not enjoy working in this program might be intimidated by the idea of working with a person who has endured such a significant injury; they might worry that they would say or do something incorrectly and that the client would suffer as a result. They might be impatient with helping a client complete each small step toward the goal. They might also be worried that, unlike Rebekah, the client might behave unpredictably or inappropriately.

Application Exercise 13.2: Language Disorders Following TBI Learning Outcome 13.2: Understand the definition, characteristics, prevalence, causes, and educational considerations associated with traumatic brain injury.

[Q1] Review the section of the text called Language Disorders and view Pearson e-Text Video Example 13.6.

Question: What specific evidence do you see in the video that Chris’s TBI has left him with some difficulty with language?

[Q1 Model Response]

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Chris speaks slowly and in some cases his articulation is distorted. His ideas are not always fully connected, although it’s not very hard to get the gist of what he is saying.

He has difficulty answering some questions (e.g. “What does your artwork mean to you?”), which in and of itself does not necessarily reflect a language problem, but it does beg the question about whether he is having difficulty formulating a response or whether he really doesn’t know the answer. The video ends with him just stopping in the middle of a sentence after saying “you know” twice.

[Q2] Review the section of the text called Language Disorders and view Pearson e-Text Video Example 13.6.

Question: The second paragraph of the text segment about language disorders lists language problems that are common among people with T BI. As you view the video, which of the listed behaviors would you say are more problematic for Chris? Which ones are not as problematic?

[Q2 Model Response] Chris seems to have some difficulty responding quickly and organizing his language. He may be having trouble dealing with abstractions, given his difficulty answering the question about what his artwork means to him. His affect is somewhat flat at the beginning of the video, though he does use phrasing that reflects positive thoughts (“I like Wednesday night—hump day”).He sustains attention well and seems to respond appropriately in this social situation with an interviewer.

[Q3] Review the section of the text called Language Disorders and view Pearson e-Text Video Example 13.6.

Question: Chris has difficulty articulating why his art is meaningful to him. Given the paintings shown in the video, do you think Chris’s art has a communicative purpose?

Why or why not?

[Q3 Model Response] Those who see Chris’s art as having a communicative purpose could refer to how the variety of the artwork he has created might reflect different moods and emotions. They might refer to the fact that he says he has difficulty speaking out, thus inferring that Chris’s art allows him a voice for things he can’t express verbally. Chris indicates that his artwork is a way of helping his pain; it is also obviously a vehicle by which he accesses socialization and engagement with other people, so that might be an indirect communicative purpose of his art. Chris says he likes art because it’s alive, which could reflect his happiness at surviving his accident. The use of bright colors might reflect a positive attitude and outlook.

Those who are less convinced that Chris’s art has a communicative purpose might point to the fact that he doesn’t indicate that his art is intended to express anything specific; some of it is abstract and its meaning would be open to interpretation by others. They 16 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

might also assert that he likes art because attending art classes allows him to engage with other people over a shared activity but that the art itself is not serving a communicative purpose.

Application Exercise 13.3: Teaching Students with Deaf-Blindness Learning Outcome 13.3: Understand the definition, prevalence, causes, psychological and behavioral characteristics, and educational considerations associated with deafblindness.

[Q1] Review the section of the text called The Importance of Direct Teaching, then view Pearson e-Text Video Example 13.9.

Question: In what ways does the video demonstrate the use of direct teaching? Why is this instructional method critically important when teachers work with students who have deaf-blindness?

[Q1 Model Response] In the video, the teacher is instructing the students directly, guiding each student through each segment of the lesson. She facilitates their participation by asking questions and prompting responses, and although each student in the class can hear her at all times, she focuses on one student at a time. She uses concrete objects and physical touch to encourage learning.

Taking this approach is important because teachers cannot rely on students with deafblindness to absorb information incidentally; kinesthetic/tactile engagement is a primary way students learn. Because of the students’ sensory limitations, their school experiences must be well-sequenced, predictable, and repetitive; activities also must be planned very intentionally.

[Q2] Review the section of the text called The Importance of Structured and Predictable Routines and the one called Responsive Instruction: Meeting the Needs of Students with Low-Incidence, Multiple, and Severe Disabilities, then review Pearson e-Text Video Example 13.9.

Question: In what ways does the video reflect the use of structured and predictable routines? Why is this type of structure helpful for students who have deaf-blindness?

[Q2 Model Response] The teacher’s approach is very structured and focuses on typical class routines like naming the days of the week, participating in attendance-taking, and understanding the schedule for the day. The students have clearly worked with these structures before; for instance, they know which object represents workshop time and which one represents their chance to go swimming. She engages in turn-taking (both between herself and the students and among the students themselves).

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Predictable and structured routines foster students’ feelings of competence and safety.

Students who are deaf-blind can only learn by doing; structure and routine help them make sense of the world.

[Q3] Review the section of the text called Communication and the one called Responsive Instruction: Meeting the Needs of Students with Low-Incidence, Multiple, and Severe Disabilities, then review Pearson e-Text Video Example 13.9.

Question: In what ways does the video reflect an emphasis on tactile communication?

How does this sort of communication benefit students who have deaf-blindness?

[Q3 Model Response] Each time she asks the students to do something, the teacher provides them with a tangible object to accompany the task. These tactile cues support the students’ ability to learn the class structure and routines; for instance, during attendance they push the big blue “I’m here” button, and as they discuss the schedule, they are handed various objects to represent different activities during the day. She is also teaching them adapted signs for some of the activities (e.g., workshop). We can assume that for larger tasks (e.g., laundry, setting the table), she has taught subroutines so students can follow a predictable sequence in a larger activity.

Teaching structure for students with deaf-blindness is helpful because they have limited use of two of our primary senses for learning.

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Test Items 13.1 Multiple-Choice Questions 1. Which of the following statements about severe and multiple disabilities is false? a. A person with TBI can be expected, with time and care, to recover completely and function without disabilities. b. Many people with severe and multiple disabilities can now live independently or semi-independently. c. People who cannot speak can still engage in conversation. d. Many people with severe and multiple disabilities can be employed outside of sheltered workshops.

2. All low-incidence, severe, and multiple disabilities combined probably affect what percentage of the population? a. about 2% b. less than 1% c. about 3% d. about 4% 3. Which of the following elements is not included in definitions of T BI? a. injury to the brain caused by a degenerative or congenital condition b. injury to the brain caused by an external force c. injury resulting in a diminished or altered state of consciousness d. injury resulting in neurological or neurobehavioral dysfunction 4. Brain damage caused by internal compression, stretching, or other shearing motion of neural tissues within the head is due to a. open head injuries. b. external force. c. closed head injuries. d. degenerative conditions.

5. Which statement about T BI is true? a. The age range in which TBI is most likely to occur is late adulthood. b. Males are more likely to experience TBI than females are. c. About 56% of students with TBI have moderate to severe impairment. d. Prevalence of TBI is decreasing because of medical advances.

6. Carl was three years old when he acquired TBI. Which of the following was the least likely cause of his brain injury?

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a. He was accidentally shot by a playmate who found an unsecured gun. b. He was violently shaken by a caregiver. c. He was in a car accident. d. He had an accidental fall.

7. After age 5, and increasingly through adolescence, the primary cause of TBI is a. assaults. b. accidental falls. c. vehicular accidents. d. gunshot wounds.

8. Which of the following characteristics is not an essential feature of appropriate education for students with TBI? a. support in catching up to grade-level academic content b. assistance with transition from a hospital or rehabilitation center to the school. c. help solving problems in focusing and sustaining attention for long periods. d. an IEP concerned with cognitive, social/behavioral, and sensory-motor domains.

9. Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (C TE) a. was over-diagnosed before the advent of sophisticated neuroimaging techniques. b. manifests itself in adulthood but is the result of an undiagnosed concussion in early childhood. c. is a degenerative disease caused by repetitive trauma to the brain. d. is largely a media-created condition.

10. The greatest complicating factor in most students' return to school following TBI is issues with a. social skills. b. physical appearance. c. mobility. d. language or speech disorders.

11. Which of the following statements about concussions is false? a. Concussions are happening with greater and greater frequency. b. Athletes must be knocked unconscious to be diagnosed with a concussion during play. c. The prevalence of students diagnosed with concussions is greater because more students are going to the hospital when they have a head injury.

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d. Diverse populations are more likely to be disadvantaged in terms of concussion identification and treatment.

12. Which of the following statements about the emotional and behavioral effects of TBI is false? a. The amount of physical damage is the determining factor regarding the emotional and behavioral effects of the injury. b. Environments where misbehavior is common are likely to worsen any emotional or behavioral problems resulting from TBI. c. In many cases, typical behavior modification or behavior management strategies are appropriate for students who have TBI. d. TBI often has profound negative effects on the individual’s sense of self.

13. Which of the following statements about the outcomes for individuals with deafblindness is false? a. All interactions with adults and the environment should be viewed as learning opportunities. b. The quality and intensity of instruction the person receives is critical. c. The more severe the impairments, the greater the impact on a person's ability to adapt. d. Additional disabilities do not typically increase the impact on a person's ability to adapt.

14. Which of the following is not a feature of the federal government's definition of deafblindness? a. visual acuity of 20/200 or less in the better eye, with correction b. hearing impairment so severe that most speech cannot be heard, even with amplification c. problems with vision and hearing that cause extreme difficulty in attaining independence d. hearing impairment of 30 d B or greater in the better ear 15. Which of the following is not identified as a prenatal condition that can result in deafblindness? a. German measles b. rubella c. Usher syndrome d. congenital cytomegalovirus 16. The Acadian French of south Louisiana are known for a. having a high incidence of Usher syndrome through intermarriage.

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b. being the first cultural group to establish special schools for children with deafblindness. c. disavowing children who are deaf-blind. d. acquiring deaf-blindness because of environmental toxins.

17. An inherited syndrome of deaf-blindness characterized by hearing loss and retinitis pigmentosa is a. Asperger syndrome. b. Usher syndrome. c. Down syndrome. d. CHARGE syndrome.

18. A syndrome that causes deaf-blindness and is characterized by physical defects such as abnormally shaped pupils and difficulties in swallowing and breathing is a. Usher syndrome. b. Down syndrome. c. Asperger syndrome. d. CHARGE syndrome.

19. Which condition is associated with tunnel vision? a. Down syndrome b. Usher syndrome c. CHARGE syndrome d. Asperger syndrome 20. Most authorities agree that the biggest obstacle faced by persons with deafblindness is a. self-help skills. b. accessing information. c. communication. d. navigating the environment.

21. In addressing the needs of students with deaf-blindness, two principles that practitioners and parents should keep in mind are a. incidental learning and structured routines. b. direct instruction and structured routines. c. direct instruction and variable routines. d. indirect instruction and structured routines.

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22. Which of the following is not an objective to help meet the needs of infants who are deaf-blind? a. identify predictable sequences within specific activities b. identify and use specific auditory, visual, tactile, olfactory, and kinesthetic cues to help the infant anticipate familiar activities c. avoid using subroutines within specific activities d. create a predictable routine by identifying at least five daily activities that can be scheduled in the same sequence each day 23. Tactual signals that can convey a number of messages depending on the situation and context are a. hand-under-hand guidance. b. touch cues. c. adapted signs. d. tactual signs.

24. Most authorities agree that a student with Usher syndrome should a. begin braille and O & M training while functioning as a seeing person. b. begin using braille and O & M training as soon as all sight is gone. c. begin using braille while sighted, but wait for O & M training until all sight is gone. d. begin O & M training while sighted, but wait until sight is gone to begin braille.

25. Any manual or electronic means by which a person who is unable to communicate through normal speech can express wants and needs, share information, engage in social closeness, or manage social etiquette is a. facilitated communication. b. augmentative or alternative communication. c. manual communication. d. applied functional communication.

26. Major problems to be solved in helping individuals communicate in ways other than signing include a. determining whether the individuals are visual or auditory learners. b. finding appropriate reinforcers. c. using speech synthesizers. d. selecting a vocabulary and giving them an effective, efficient means of communicating.

27. Augmentative/alternative communication a. relies on technological advances to maintain its effectiveness.

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b. has been made obsolete by nanotechnology. c. is most effective when the person has speech articulation problems. d. includes both manual and electronic means of communication.

28. Any repetitive, stereotyped behavior that seems to have no immediately apparent purpose is a. self-mutilation. b. self-stimulation. c. tantrums. d. self-injury.

29. Tantrums a. are a form of self-stimulation. b. inhibit socialization. c. are best dealt with by not giving in and holding firm to expectations. d. are the result of having a poor self-concept.

30. Shaunta's mother told her to pick up her stuffed bear and put it away. Shaunta threw herself to the ground and began kicking and screaming. Shaunta's mom put the bear away herself, telling Shaunta, "O.K., O.K., calm down." Shaunta quickly ended her tantrum and returned to playing. Which statement is true? a. The mother's behavior reinforced the tantrum behavior. b. The mother's behavior makes future tantrums less likely. c. The mother imposed an unreasonable demand on her child. d. People with multiple severe disabilities should not be expected to do chores.

31. The process of finding out why or under what circumstances problem behavior is exhibited is called a. positive behavioral support. b. functional support. c. functional behavioral assessment. d. task analysis.

32. The process of identifying alternative, acceptable ways to communicate through teaching more appropriate behaviors and/or changing the environment to reduce the likelihood of prompting the undesirable behavior is a. positive behavioral support. b. augmented behavior management. c. functional behavior analysis. d. negative reinforcement.

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33. Which of the following is a fundamental assumption of positive behavioral support? a. Typically, one factor alone is responsible for the presence of specific behavior. b. Each behavior carries a communicative intent. c. All behavior is modifiable. d. Positive behavioral support improves behavior only in students with mild disabilities.

34. Each of the following is considered a criterion essential for early intervention programs in special education except a. research- or value-based practices. b. family-centered practices. c. moving children beyond their comfort zones. d. chronologically age-appropriate practices.

35. Michelle is an early intervention specialist working with the families of children with severe disabilities. Although they are not proven to be effective by research, she knows that she needs to provide individualized practices for each family, communicate with family members in a nonpaternalistic manner, and ensure that any placement she recommends be safe and clean. These are examples of a. multiculturally-based practices. b. cross-disciplinary collaboration. c. family-centered practices. d. value-based practices.

36. Which of the following statements about early intervention for students with lowincidence, multiple, and/or severe disabilities is false? a. Educators and other professionals should acknowledge that all parents need to be educated about effective parenting practices. b. Someone in the program, or immediately available, should speak the family's preferred language. c. Professionals in related disciplines should work collaboratively rather than independently. d. Developmentally appropriate practices should be balanced with practices that are also chronologically age appropriate.

13.2 True/False Questions 1. People with a severe disability in any area often have more than one disability.

2. The effects of TBI are always severe and permanent.

3. Before age 5, the main cause of TBI is vehicular accidents.

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4. Many of the behavior management or modification strategies used with students with E/BD are not effective with students with TBI. 5. The term deaf-blindness includes those with a combination of low vision and mild hearing impairments.

6. The major symptoms of Usher syndrome are hearing loss, vision loss, and intellectual disability.

7. Most authorities agree that the biggest obstacle faced by people with deaf-blindness is communication.

8. One promising form of communication for people who are deaf-blind is the use of a signing system relying on contact/physical touch.

9. In early intervention, it is important to balance developmentally appropriate practice with educational methods that are chronologically age appropriate.

10. The best place to teach domestic skills is not always the student's home.

13.3 Short Answer Questions 1. Write a case description of an individual with traumatic brain injury (TBI) that illustrates by example the possible effects of TBI. 2. Explain why traumatic brain injury (TBI) is sometimes considered "invisible" and a "silent epidemic."

3. Describe the major problems that students with TBI experience with reentry to school after their trauma.

4. Discuss some of the major issues pertaining to head injuries in athletics.

5. Why should students with Usher syndrome receive intensive and extensive instruction in Braille and orientation and mobility even when they are still able to see?

6. Describe augmentative and alternative communication systems. What problems are associated with AAC? What are the benefits of AAC? 7. Write a case description involving a teacher and a young student with a severe disability who exhibits repeated tantrums (describe one tantrum event). In so doing, describe what the tantrum “looks like,” why the student has the tantrum, and what the teacher's reaction to the tantrum should be.

8. Why should "early intervention" be seen as having two meanings: (1) early in the child's life and (2) as soon as possible after the disability is detected?

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Test Answer Key 13.1 Multiple-Choice Questions 1. a 2. b 3. a 4. c 5. b 6. d 7. c 8. a 9. c 10. d 11. b 12. a 13. d 14. d 15. c 16. a 17. b 18. d 19. b 20. c 21. b 22. c 23. c 24. a 25. b 26. d 27. d 28. b 29. b 30. a

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31. c 32. a 33. b 34. c 35. d 36. a 13.2 True/False Questions 1. True 2. False 3. False 4. False 5. False 6. False 7. True 8. True 9. True 10. True 13.3 Short Answer Questions 1. Answers will vary to include examples based on possible effects of TBI found in the text. Rather than stating "problems remembering things," answers should have examples such as: "Every day, John's mother helps him check off a list of materials he should have in his book bag because he typically forgets many items needed for the school day."

2. It is sometimes considered "invisible" because many people who experience TBI do not look unusual. In fact, even a person's friends and co-workers may not observe an outward, physical difference in an individual who sustains a brain injury. This can lead to misunderstandings of the person's abilities and motivations. It is often referred to as a "silent epidemic" because of its increasing prevalence (up to 20,000 people per year have lasting effects from about a million head injuries each year) and because many serious head injuries are unreported. As a result, many cases of TBI are undetected or mistaken for other disabilities.

3. Social/emotional problems and language disorders. Sometimes the student with T BI sees himself or herself as not having changed; whereas peers and teachers may notice that the student is not the same (TBI may shatter an individual's sense of self). This can certainly cause social problems and lead to behavioral problems. The academic problems experienced by the students can cause problems for the teacher and frustration for the student, and many students with TBI exhibit characteristics that teachers find troublesome (e.g., inattention, irritability, aggression, become 28 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

easily frustrated, extremely uneven progress, perseveration). The assessment of a student's academic and social skills is difficult as it can be nearly impossible to separate physiological causes or reasons for difficulty with a task from other causes.

Language or speech disorders may be the greatest complicating factor in most students' return to school after TBI. Problems with finding or saying the right words or constructing sentences are a source of frustration, anger, and confusion. TBI can disrupt all aspects of the give-and-take of social interaction that are required for effective communication.

4. Sports-related concussions have occurred in all levels of athletics, including youth sports, since their inception. We are now hearing about it because of greater awareness, as well as the fact that concussions happening with greater frequency.

Although sports-related concussions are frequent in contact sports such as football, wrestling, boxing, and hockey, they are also common in bicycling, playground accidents, and less combative sports like basketball and soccer. There are concerns that head athletic trainers in the NCAA answer directly to head football coaches.

Therefore, if players are injured (e.g., suffer a concussion), the trainers' job is to keep the player safe, but coaches want them back on the field. C TE awareness is beginning to rise as a result of media reports on famous athletes, particularly those who have played in the N FL who have died as a result of CTE. 5. Even though they may start out having relatively good vision, their vision inevitably declines to the point where they are legally, if not totally blind. And, even when the deterioration occurs slowly over the course of several years, parents and teachers may neglect the importance of preparing the child for the fact that he or she will one day have substantial loss. Sometimes, they fear that early introduction of braille and orientation and mobility training will stigmatize the child and damage her or his selfconcept. As one person who gradually lost his sight illustrated, "Braille is not just for people who are already blind." There is a risk to creating a situation where the person with Usher syndrome can neither read print nor braille at all, having to rely on others who are literate (in either). Learning braille and Orientation and Mobility (O & M) is not likely to get any easier (will likely be more difficult) as a person ages.

6. AAC includes any manual or electronic means by which a person expresses wants and needs, shares information, engages in social closeness, or manages social etiquette. Problems involved in designing AAC include selecting a vocabulary and giving effective, efficient means of indicating elements in the vocabularies. Many direct-selection and scanning methods have been devised (person might point with a headstick, use eye movements, or operate a switch by foot, tongue, or head movement or breath control).

Some individuals use a typewriter fitted with a special key guard. A communication board is an array of pictures, words, or symbols that can be selected by the person using the device. Some problems with AAC include the speed, reliability, portability, cost, and overall effectiveness in helping a person communicate. The benefit of AAC is that it enables persons with severe disabilities to communicate more independently and effectively.

7. Answers will vary to reflect knowledge about: severe tantrums include a variety of behaviors (self-injury, screaming, crying, and aggression). They are often 29 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

precipitated by a request or demand that the individual do something and the consequence is that the demand is withdrawn. Repeated tantrums impose a handicap on the individual who uses them because they may curtail learning and stymie socialization. The teacher should not withdraw a reasonable demand for performance; rather, she or he should modify their demand or circumstances in some way or alternate demands for performance in ways that are less likely to set off a tantrum.

8. Most children with multiple and severe disabilities are identified at birth or soon thereafter because their disabilities are very noticeable. Early intervention (educationally) for these children could begin as soon as their medical conditions are stabilized. Others with severe and multiple disabilities may seem typical at birth but are recognized as having disorders later (e.g., autistic spectrum disorder). Still others may be developing normally for any period of time until an event that seriously damages her or his brain (e.g., TBI). These individuals should begin educational early intervention as soon after their diagnoses are made as possible.

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Chapter 14 Test Item File Daniel P. Hallahan

Exceptional Learners: An Introduction to Special Education Fifteenth Edition Daniel P. Hallahan, University of Virginia Paige C. Pullen, University of Florida James M. Kauffman, University of Virginia Prepared by Karen M. Cole, University of North Carolina Asheville

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Table of Contents

Chapter 14: Learners with Physical Disabilities and Other Health Impairments ................................................................................................................................. 1 Learning Outcome Quizzes ................................................................................................. 1 Application Exercises ........................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

Test Items ..................................................................................................................................... 24 Test Answer Key ...................................................................................................................... 33

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Chapter 14: Learners with Physical Disabilities and Other Health Impairments Learning Outcome Quizzes Learning Outcome 14.1: Learn the definitions, classifications, and prevalence for physical disabilities and other health impairments.

[Q1] What is the primary distinguishing feature of students with physical disabilities or other health impairments?

1. They have medical, health, or physical problems. [correct] 2. They have intellectual disabilities related to medical problems.

3. They have emotional or behavioral challenges related to medical problems.

4. They have cognitive or motor problems.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Children with physical disabilities or other health impairments are those whose physical limitations or health problems interfere with school attendance or learning to such an extent that they require special services, training, equipment, materials, or facilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] A child with a physical disability or other health impairment might also have an intellectual disability (or other concomitant disability), but the primary distinguishing feature of students in this category is that they have medical, health, or physical problems.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] A child with a physical disability or other health impairment might also have an emotional/behavioral disability (or other concomitant disability), but the primary distinguishing feature of students in this category is that they have medical, health, or physical problems.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] A child with a physical disability or other health impairment might also have cognitive or motor problems (or other concomitant disabilities), but the primary distinguishing feature of students in this category is that they have medical, health, or physical problems.

[Q2] What term is commonly used to describe physical or other health impairments that have been present since the student’s birth?

1. Acute disabilities

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2. Congenital anomalies [correct] 3. Episodic conditions 4. Prenatal disabilities [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Physical or other health impairments that have been present since a person ’s birth are called congenital anomalies. Children may also acquire disabilities through accident or disease after birth.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Children may also acquire disabilities through accident or disease after birth.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Physical or other health impairments that have been present since a person ’s birth are called congenital anomalies. Children may also acquire disabilities through accident or disease after birth.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Physical or other health impairments that have been present since a person ’s birth are called congenital anomalies. Children may also acquire disabilities through accident or disease after birth.

[Q3] Esme has cerebral palsy. Which word best describes the type of condition she has?

1. Episodic 2. Acute 3. Chronic [correct] 4. Progressive [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] An episodic condition occurs repeatedly, although most of the time the individual can function quite normally. Its occurrence is limited primarily to successive episodes. The episodes don’t necessarily become more serious or severe over time. Esme ’s condition is chronic.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] An acute illness or condition may be very serious or severe, but it either resolves on its own or with treatment (which may include hospitalization or medication), and the person recovers. Esme’s condition is chronic.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] A chronic condition is ongoing. It occurs or reoccurs over a long period of time and usually does not resolve, even with the best treatment.

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A progressive condition is one that becomes more and more serious or severe over time, usually involving more and more complications or deterioration. Esme ’s condition is chronic.

[Q4] What effect have advances in medicine had on the need for special education due to physical disabilities?

1. They have almost eliminated the need for special education for the majority of students with physical disabilities.

2. They have made it more difficult for students with physical disabilities to qualify for special education.

3. They have led to the passing of a 2018 law requiring that special education services be provided for students with physical disabilities.

4. They have led to an increase in the need for special education for students with severe disabilities. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Ironically, medical advances have not only improved the chances of preventing or curing certain diseases and disorders, but also assured the survival of more children with severe medical problems, thus increasing demand for special education services.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Ironically, medical advances have not only improved the chances of preventing or curing certain diseases and disorders, but also assured the survival of more children with severe medical problems, thus increasing demand for special education services.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Ironically, medical advances have not only improved the chances of preventing or curing certain diseases and disorders, but also assured the survival of more children with severe medical problems, thus increasing demand for special education services.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Ironically, medical advances have not only improved the chances of preventing or curing certain diseases and disorders, but also assured the survival of more children with severe medical problems, thus increasing demand for special education services.

[Q5] Which of the following statements about physical disabilities is false?

1. About 1% of the school-age population are classified as having physical disabilities.

2. A person with an acute illness is likely to recover.

3. Programming for students with physical disabilities is not expanding rapidly enough.

4. Students with traumatic brain injuries are classified as having physical disabilities. [correct] 3 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This statement is true. About 500,000 children are classified as having physical disabilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement is true. Acute illness can be very serious or severe, but it either resolves on its own or with treatment.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement is true. Unfortunately, the services currently available to serve students with disabilities cannot meet the growing demand.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Traumatic brain injuries are in a separate classification for special education purposes.

Learning Outcome 14.2: Identify the issues associated with neuromotor impairments, orthopedic and musculoskeletal disorders, and other conditions affecting health and physical ability, and learn how physical disabilities can be prevented.

[Q1] How is cerebral palsy (CP) classified?

1. By the time period in which brain damage occurred 2. By the severity of the symptoms 3. By the effect on intellectual functioning 4. By the limbs involved and the type of motor disability [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The two most widely accepted means of classification of C P specify the limbs that are involved and the type of motor disability.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The two most widely accepted means of classification of C P specify the limbs that are involved and the type of motor disability.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The two most widely accepted means of classification of C P specify the limbs that are involved and the type of motor disability.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Common classifications by extremities involved are quadriplegia (all four limbs are involved), and paraplegia (only the legs are involved), and hemiplegia (one side of the body is involved). Common classifications by type of movement include spastic, atonic, and choreothetoid.

[Q2] 4 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Which of the following procedures should not be followed when a person has a seizure?

1. Inserting an object between their teeth [correct] 2. Turning them on their side 3. Loosening restrictive clothing around the neck 4. Putting something soft under their head [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] When a person is having a seizure, it’s important not to do anything that could damage their teeth, introduce a choking hazard, or restrict their airflow. Contrary to a popular myth, people can’t swallow their tongues during seizures.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Turning the person on their side will help them breathe.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Loosening restrictive clothing around the neck and chest will help the person breathe.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Putting something soft under the person’s head reduces the chance of injury during the seizure.

[Q3] Harris has a congenital midline defect resulting from failure of the bony spinal column to close completely during fetal development. What condition do these characteristics indicate?

1. Muscular dystrophy 2. Spina bifida [correct] 3. Epilepsy 4. Cystic fibrosis [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Muscular dystrophy (MD) is an umbrella term that includes a group of genetic disorders that damage and weaken your muscles over time. Harris’s characteristics are typical of spina bifida.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Spina bifida is a neural tube defect in which the spinal cord can protrude, resulting in damage to the nerves and paralysis and/or lack of function or sensation below the site of the defect.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] A person with epilepsy has a chronic neurological condition involving abnormal brain activity that results in seizures. Harris’s characteristics are typical of spina bifida.

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[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Cystic fibrosis is the most common autosomal recessive disease that leads to death. C F affects the lungs and the pancreas when the exocrine system produces a thick mucus that blocks the pancreatic ducts, the bronchi, and the intestines. Harris’s characteristics are typical of spina bifida.

[Q4] Which of the following statements about preventing physical disabilities is false?

1. Reducing the number of childhood vaccinations has reduced the number of cases of autism. [correct] 2. Many or most physical disabilities are preventable.

3. Preventing adolescent pregnancies would keep many babies from being born with disabilities.

4. Children with disabilities are at a greater risk for abuse than are those without disabilities.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Science is clear on the lack of any relationship between vaccinations and autism.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Physical disabilities and health impairments can be caused by toxic substances, careless storage of firearms, alcohol and drug use during pregnancy, and a host of other unsafe and unhealthful practices.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Teenage mothers are more likely than older women to be physically battered. Teens are also more likely than older women to give birth to premature or low-birthweight babies, and these babies are at high risk for a variety of psychological and physical problems when they reach school age.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Some of the characteristics of children with disabilities are sources of additional stress for their caretakers and may be contributing factors in physical abuse. Parenting any child is stressful; parenting a child with a disability can demand more than some parents are prepared to give.

[Q5] Which factor is most commonly associated with academic disabilities among students with physical disabilities and other health impairments?

1. Erratic school attendance [correct] 2. Discrimination and prejudice 3. Poor executive function and study skills

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4. Inadequate motivation [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Because of the frequent interruptions in their schooling, some fall considerably behind their same-age peers in academic achievement, even though they have normal intelligence and motivation.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Erratic school attendance can have significant negative effects on students’ academic outcomes.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Erratic school attendance can have significant negative effects on students’academic outcomes.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Erratic school attendance can have significant negative effects on students’academic outcomes.

Learning Outcome 14.3: Understand some psychological and behavioral characteristics of people with physical disabilities and other health impairments; and learn about prosthetics, orthoses, and other adaptive devices used by people with these conditions.

[Q1] Aspen has an artificial leg. What term is used to describe this sort of support?

1. Prosthetic [correct] 2. Orthotic 3. Adaptive device 4. Assistive device [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Prosthetics can vary in sophistication and must be chosen based on a careful evaluation of the child’s particular needs.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Orthotics enhance the partial functioning of a part of a person’s body.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Adaptive devices are adaptations of ordinary items that make performing the tasks required for self-care and employment easier for the person who has a physical disability.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] A prosthetic is a replacement for a missing body part.

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[Q2] Which of the following is not an important principle to keep in mind when considering the appropriate orthotics, prosthetics, and adaptive devices for individuals with physical disabilities?

1. Potential public reaction to the device or support [correct] 2. Residual function in the area of the body that needs support 3. Simplicity of the device or support 4. Reliability of the device or support [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Public reaction to the device or support used is a minimal consideration; if a certain support helps the person and is simple, reliable, and usable, it should be considered.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Residual function is a critical factor in considering orthotics, prosthetics, and other physical supports.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Simplicity is a critical factor in considering orthotics, prosthetics, and other physical supports.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Reliability is a critical factor in considering orthotics, prosthetics, and other physical supports.

[Q3] Which of the following statements about psychological and behavioral characteristics of people with physical disabilities and other health impairments is false?

1. It’s impossible to make many valid generalizations about academic achievement across the group of people identified with physical disabilities and other health impairments.

2. The psychological development of children with physical disabilities is fundamentally different from the psychological development of children without physical disabilities. [correct] 3. Children with neurological impairments are, as a group, more likely to have intellectual and perceptual deficits than their same-age peers.

4. How children adapt to their physical limitations, and how they respond to socialinterpersonal situations depends greatly on the others with whom they interact.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This statement is true. The nature and severity of people’s conditions vary widely, and so do their academic outcomes.

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[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] This statement is false. Children with physical disabilities are responsive to the same factors that influence the psychological development of other children.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement is true and is one of the few generalizations that can be made about this group.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The approach taken by others in the child’s life is critical to the levels of independence, confidence, and self-esteem they develop.

[Q4] Which of the following questions is least important when thinking about the psychological development of children with physical disabilities?

1. How have they been made to feel about their disability?

2. Have the people in their lives encouraged independence and self-sufficiency?

3. Have they overcome the inevitable psychological trauma of hospitalization? [correct] 4. What cultural values might affect their psychological development?

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Students’ perceptions typically reflect the reactions they have had from others, whether that is receiving approval and encouragement or being shamed and blamed.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The approach of the people in the child’s life plays a critical role in their psychological development, their independence, and their self-sufficiency.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Psychological trauma isn’t a necessary effect of hospitalization. The hospital environment may, in fact, be better than the child’s home, as in the case of abused and neglected children.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The family and its cultural roots are important determinants of how and what children with physical disabilities will learn.

[Q5] When thinking about children’s reaction to their own physical disabilities, which of the following statements is true?

1. Their reaction is primarily dependent on the nature and degree of their disabilities.

2. Their reaction is primarily dependent on whether or not they use a wheelchair for mobility.

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3. Their reaction is primarily dependent on how others respond to them. [correct] 4. Their reaction is primarily dependent on how well they achieve academically.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Children’s thoughts about themselves and their disabilities are, first and foremost, a reflection of the attitudes and behaviors of other people.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Children’s thoughts about themselves and their disabilities are, first and foremost, a reflection of the attitudes and behaviors of other people.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] To the extent that other people can see children with physical disabilities as people who have certain limitations but are otherwise just like everyone else, children and youths with disabilities will be encouraged to become independent, productive members of society.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Children’s thoughts about themselves and their disabilities are, first and foremost, a reflection of the attitudes and behaviors of other people.

Learning Outcome 14.4: Learn about some educational considerations for people with physical disabilities and other health impairments.

[Q1] Which of the following statements about education for most children with physical disabilities is false?

1. Students with physical disabilities often receive instruction in an extended curriculum that includes objectives beyond those set out for their peers without disabilities.

2. Objectives for the education of students with physical disabilities should include both autonomy and self-advocacy.

3. Students with physical disabilities should receive educational intervention that is the same as that provided for other, younger children. [correct] 4. Changing the environment to help students with physical disabilities succeed is important in planning and delivering an educational experience that fosters independence and success.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The curriculum often includes a focus on learning to do many or all of the things that most people without disabilities can do, although sometimes students with physical disabilities must perform these tasks in different ways.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Children with physical disabilities typically want to be self-sufficient, and they should be encouraged and taught the skills they need to take care of themselves to the maximum 10 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

extent possible. Helping them meet this goal requires knowledge of the physical limitations created by the disability and sensitivity to the child’s social and academic needs and perception.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Like any other student receiving special education services, students with physical disabilities should receive an education tailored specifically for them. The skills to be taught should be identified based on specific needs, not on age.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] People with physical disabilities solve many of their own problems, but their lives are often needlessly complicated because people without disabilities give no thought to what life is like for someone with specific physical limitations. Design adaptations in buildings, furniture, household appliances, and clothing can make it possible for someone with a physical disability to function as efficiently as a person without disabilities in a home, school, or community.

[Q2] What is the main goal of adapted physical education?

1. To provide physical rehabilitation and strength training to students with physical disabilities in hopes of building their coordination and mobility 2. To allow students with physical disabilities time to interact with their same-age peers without disabilities in a typical educational setting 3. To allow students with physical disabilities access to activities that support their physical, recreational, and leisure goals [correct] 4. To respond to the fact that students with physical disabilities cannot engage in the same physical education activities that their peers without disabilities can [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The overarching aim for A PE is for students to have access to activities that will support physical, recreational, and/or leisure goals. An A PE plan may include activities that support mobility and coordination, but it will also include other goals and objectives.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The overarching aim for A PE is for students to have access to activities that will support physical, recreational, and/or leisure goals. Remember that determinations of when and how students with disabilities interact with their peers who don’t have disabilities are made based on individual needs.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] APE can be part of an integrated program for students with and without physical disabilities or can be a stand-alone program for students with disabilities only.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The overarching aim for A PE is for students to have access to activities that will support 11 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

physical, recreational, and/or leisure goals.

[Q3] Which of the following statements does not reflect a reason that most students with physical disabilities are served in public schools?

1. Advances in medical treatment and bioengineering allow greater mobility and functional movement.

2. A new stipulation in federal law now defines the least restrictive environment as the general education classroom. [correct] 3. Decreases in architectural and transportation barriers make public schools more accessible.

4. The increased availability of adaptations and assistive technology has made full participation and access to the general curriculum more attainable.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This statement is true. Continuous progress in the medical interventions that students with physical disabilities receive has made participation in public schools less difficult.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] This statement is false. Children with physical disabilities may be educated in any one of several settings, depending on the type and severity of the condition, the services available in the community, and the medical prognosis for the condition.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement is true. Increasing accessibility is part of the movement toward public education for all children.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This statement is true. Advances in bioengineering continue to reduce barriers to public school placements.

[Q4] Which of the following terms describes a person who provides support for daily living skills and fine motor skills?

1. Physical therapist 2. Cognitive therapist 3. Behavioral therapist 4. Occupational therapist [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] A person who provides support for daily living skills, and fine motor skills is an occupational therapist. Sometimes laypeople confuse the roles of occupational therapists and physical therapists (P Ts). PTs focus on gross motor skills, whereas 12 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

occupational therapists focus on fine motor skills.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] A person who provides support for daily living skills and fine motor skills is an occupational therapist.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] A person who provides support for daily living skills, and fine motor skills is an occupational therapist.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Sometimes laypeople confuse the roles of occupational therapists and physical therapists. PTs focus on gross motor skills, whereas occupational therapists focus on fine motor skills.

[Q5] Which of the following statements about the education of students with physical disabilities and other health impairments is false?

1. A physical disability may deprive a child of the experiences and opportunities that children without physical disabilities might have.

2. Educational goals for students with severe or profound disabilities must be related to their functioning in everyday community environments.

3. Children who have physical disabilities and are under the age of three are served according to the goals of an I FSP rather than an I EP. 4. Children with physical disabilities are not eligible for educational services during their hospital stays or home stays as they recover from medical procedures. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This statement is true. Severe and chronic disabilities, particularly ones that limit mobility, can have a significant effect on the educational experiences a child has.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement is true. Special educators and other professionals need to analyze community tasks (e.g., crossing streets, using money, riding public transportation, and greeting neighbors), and plan efficient community-based instruction for individuals with severe disabilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement is true. Involving the family in interventions is an important part of educating very young children with disabilities.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] This statement is false. If children with physical disabilities must be hospitalized for more than a few days, they may be included in a class in the hospital itself. If they must be confined to their homes for a time, a visiting or homebound teacher can provide 13 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

tutoring until they can return to their usual school placement.

Learning Outcome 14.5: Learn about issues that should be considered with respect to early intervention and transition to adulthood for individuals with physical disabilities and other health impairments.

[Q1] Which of the following is not one of the top concerns of teachers who work with young children with physical disabilities?

1. Teaching communication skills to the student 2. Handling the student in ways that minimize risk 3. Positioning the student for comfort and increased efficacy 4. Using aversion therapy with the student [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Communication skills are difficult for some children with physical disabilities, and they are a critical objective of any preschool program. Communication is one of the first concerns of a teacher who works with young children with physical disabilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Handling refers to how the child is picked up, carried, held, and assisted. Proper handling makes the child more comfortable and receptive to education. It is one of the first concerns of a teacher who works with young children with physical disabilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Positioning refers to providing support for the child’s body and arranging instructional or play materials in certain ways. Proper positioning maximizes physical efficiency and ability to manipulate materials; it also inhibits undesirable motor responses while promoting desired growth and motor patterns. It is one of the first concerns of a teacher who works with young children with physical disabilities.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] The top three concerns of teachers who work with young children with physical disabilities are communication, handling, and positioning.

[Q2] Which of the following actions reflects a gross motor skill?

1. Rolling over in bed [correct] 2. Pointing to a desired object 3. Releasing grip on a toy 4. Grasping a pencil [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] 14 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Teachers must know how to teach gross motor responses and must understand how abnormal reflexes that may be a part of developmental disabilities can interfere with learning basic motor skills.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Pointing is an example of a fine motor skill.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Grasping something and releasing it are fine motor skills.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Grasping something and releasing it are fine motor skills.

[Q3] How is transition planning for children with physical disabilities different from that of students with other types of disabilities?

1. Teachers of students with physical disabilities focus primarily on transitions from one developmental stage to another during the school years.

2. Teachers of students with physical disabilities must plan not only for transition from adolescence to adulthood but also transitions into and out of care facilities, hospitals, and home stays. [correct] 3. Teachers of students with physical disabilities must plan for integration into adulthood and employment, while teachers of students with other disabilities do so less frequently.

4. Teachers of students with physical disabilities must invite family participation in the transition planning process, but teachers of students with other disabilities are not required to do the same.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] While they also must focus on transitions from adolescence to adulthood and, when appropriate, into the working world, teachers of students with physical disabilities must also focus on transitions among school, home, and medical/care facilities throughout the students’ school careers.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Children with physical disabilities are much more likely to experience periods of absence from school; their teachers must navigate these educational transitions carefully.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] While they also must focus on transitions from adolescence to adulthood and, when appropriate, into the working world, teachers of students with physical disabilities must also focus on transitions among school, home, and medical/care facilities throughout the students’ school careers.

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[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] IDEA requires that teachers and other school personnel make attempts to involve family members in the transition planning process regardless of the nature of the student ’s disability.

[Q4] Which of the following statements about careers and employment for people with physical disabilities is false?

1. A majority of individuals with ambulatory disabilities are employed. [correct] 2. Helping students with physical disabilities attain a realistic employment outlook can be difficult.

3. The outlook for employment of students with physical or multiple and severe disabilities has improved dramatically.

4. In supported employment, an individual is a regular employee, performs a valued function in the same workplace as employees without disabilities, and receives fair remuneration.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] This statement is false. Unfortunately, in the United States, only 26% of individuals with ambulatory disabilities are employed compared to 78% of Americans without disabilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement is true. Intelligence, emotional characteristics, motivation, and work habits must be assessed at least as carefully as physical limitations. Furthermore, the availability of jobs and the demands of certain occupations must be taken into account.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement is true. More accessible transportation and buildings, increased skill in using technology to allow people to accomplish tasks at work, and greater commitment to preparing people with disabilities for work are resulting in more personal independence, economic self-sufficiency, and social acceptance.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This statement is true. Training and continued support are necessary—hence the term supported employment.

[Q5] Which of the following statements regarding sociosexuality and individuals with physical disabilities is true?

1. Teaching youths with physical disabilities about sex may involve teaching them about or providing them with alternative means of sexual stimulation. [correct] 2. People with physical disabilities are uninterested in or unable to engage in sex.

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3. Sociosexual education of students with physical disabilities should be introduced when students enter late adolescence.

4. People with severe physical disabilities are unable to achieve sexual gratification.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] This statement is true. With sensitive education and rehabilitation, satisfying sociosexual expression can be achieved by all but a small minority of people with disabilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement is false. Disabilities in and of themselves do not preclude sexual desire or prevent sexual gratification.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement is false. As with all students, sociosexual education for students with physical disabilities should begin early and continue through adulthood.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This statement is false. With sensitive education and rehabilitation, satisfying sociosexual expression can be achieved by all but a small minority of people with disabilities.

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Application Exercises Application Exercise 14.1: Working with Students with Juvenile Rheumatoid Arthritis Learning Outcome 14.2: Identify the issues associated with neuromotor impairments, orthopedic and musculoskeletal disorders, and other conditions affecting health and physical ability, and learn how physical disabilities can be prevented.

[Q1] Walkup: Review the section of the text called Up Close with Jessica Richards and Pearson e-Text Video Example 14.7.

Question: Why is it so critical for teachers and others to remember that disabilities like Jessica’s are not always obvious or visual? What potential problems could arise if teachers do not acknowledge “invisible” disabilities?

[Q1 Model Response] A teacher’s role is to consider and meet the individual needs of their students to the greatest extent possible—to become and remain aware of each student as a whole person with a full life both in and out of the classroom. This includes being knowledgeable about and sensitive to any disabilities—visible or invisible—that may affect a student’s school experience.

When teachers and others fail to realize that not all disabilities are visible, they may develop inappropriate expectations for students. They may also fail to consider the role an invisible disability might play in a student’s school experience and performance on any given day. For instance, if a teacher is not paying conscious attention to the fact that a student has a condition like Juvenile Rheumatoid Arthritis (JRA), that teacher may ask the student to do things that are beyond what they are capable of at any given moment. The student may be distracted by pain, or exhausted from the effort of simply being present in school. The student may not be well-rested, which could affect their ability to engage fully in class activities. They may need accommodations to allow them to access the curriculum more readily; a teacher who fails to recognize an invisible disability may not consider what instructional actions would best support the student.

Ultimately, a teacher may add to the discomfort—physical or emotional—of students if they fail to take into consideration how invisible disabilities may manifest in the classroom.

[Q2] Walkup: Review the section of the text called Up Close with Jessica Richards and Pearson e-Text Video Example 14.7.

Question: Imagine that you are a general education teacher and that one of your students, Neville, has J RA. What aspects of a typical classroom day could be particularly problematic for Neville during a flare-up? What accommodations might you need to be prepared to make in order to best meet Neville’s needs in the general education classroom? Describe at least three.

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[Q2 Model Response] It’s actually plausible that most aspects of the classroom day could be problematic for Neville during a flare-up. Not only might his chronic pain sap his energy, lower his mood, and make movement difficult; it might also reduce his ability to concentrate on course content or to engage fully in instructional activities. Three particular areas that might be affected are task completion, group work, and physical comfort and mobility in general.

Neville’s teacher may find that Neville is exhausted or distracted by his pain and thus unable to fully engage with his assignments or class activities. Giving Neville flexibility in how and when he completes work is one possible accommodation; allowing him to do smaller chunks or to complete work at home may help him fit his work into the flow of his pain management.

Group work is another area in which Neville might struggle because of his J RA; he may be in too much pain to be fully participatory, or he may be disinclined to work with others. The opposite is also true. He might prefer group work as a way of allowing him to participate with the support of his peers; group work could also serve as a distraction from the pain. A teacher could allow Neville to choose whether to work individually or in a group.

Physical comfort and mobility in general may be problematic for Neville. A teacher can allow flexible seating choices (desk, floor, sofa, table, etc.) to maximize Neville ’s comfort. The teacher may also consider how to minimize the need for Neville to move if mobility is an issue; for instance, if students change places in the classroom for group work, other students could go sit near Neville instead of asking him to move to a different space in the room.

[Q3] Walkup: Review the section of the text called Up Close with Jessica Richards and Pearson e-Text Video Example 14.7.

Question: Imagine that you are a general education teacher and that one of your students, Neville, has J RA. As you prepare to teach Neville at the beginning of the year, you realize you need some help with learning about/thinking through his disability and providing appropriate accommodations. What other people would you want to meet with/consult as you considered the best ways to accommodate and support Neville?

[Q3 Model Response] I would want to consult with the special education teacher to learn more about how best to accommodate and support Neville in the classroom. I would definitely want to talk with Neville’s parents and tap into their expertise and experience with regard to what works and doesn’t work for Neville at school. His past teachers might also have insights into the accommodations they used for him and whether there were specific activities or times of day that required more or less support. Finally, school health personnel would be a resource to help understand more about the condition.

Application Exercise 14.2: Making Decisions in a Student’s Best Interest 19 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Learning Outcome 14.3: Understand some psychological and behavioral characteristics of people with physical disabilities and other health impairments; and learn about prosthetics, orthoses, and other adaptive devices used by people with these conditions.

[Q1] Walkup: Review the section of the text called Prosthetics, Orthoses, and Adaptive Devices for Daily Living and view Pearson e-Text Video Example 14.8.

Question: For most of her life, Charlotte used crutches, an orthotic, to ambulate. We know that decisions about how best to address a student’s individual needs for daily living require consideration of the ideas of residual function, simplicity, and reliability. In what ways are those principles more or less evident in the decision Charlotte ’s parents and medical support team made to start her off learning to walk using crutches?

[Q1 Model Response] Having Charlotte use crutches initially allowed for both simplicity and reliability.

Crutches are inexpensive, easily replaced, and adjustable, making it simple for Charlotte to adjust their length as she grows in height. Her parents and her team of doctors, therapists, educators likely also considered residual function; since her leg was amputated so close to her hip, residual function in that limb may not have played a large role in the decision, but her other leg was fully functional, as were her torso, arms, and hands, so the team agreed that crutches were appropriate.

[Q2] Walkup: Review the section of the text called Prosthetics, Orthoses, and Adaptive Devices for Daily Living and view Pearson e-Text Video Example 14.8.

Question: About a year prior to the shooting of the video, Charlotte’s support team decided to move her from using crutches, an orthotic, to walking with a prosthetic leg.

They also opted to surgically alter her hand to address the negative effects walking with crutches was having on it. In what ways are the principles of simplicity, reliability, and residual function more or less evident in this decision?

[Q2 Model Response] Charlotte’s move to a prosthesis and the surgery on her hand reflect a shift to a more complex approach to her mobility, but it was clearly one that her team agreed was indicated, especially given her scoliosis and the problems that she was encountering with her hand as a result of the crutches. The prosthesis she uses is more complex and more expensive than crutches.

Residual function of the amputated leg itself may not have played a big role in this decision, given that it was amputated up near her pelvis. However, residual function in her hand was definitely a consideration in the move to a prosthesis; had she not shifted away from solely using crutches, her hand would have deteriorated. Maintaining its function was critical, so they performed the surgery. Charlotte’s scoliosis also played a role in this decision; we can infer that the prosthetic is a better choice for sustaining the 20 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

health of her torso.

[Q3] Review the section of the text called Children’s and Families’ Reactions and the one called Prosthetics, Orthoses, and Adaptive Devices for Daily Living, then view Pearson e-Text Video Example 14.8.

Question: Compare and contrast prostheses, orthoses, and adaptive devices. In what ways are they alike? In what ways do they differ?

[Q3 Model Response] Orthoses are devices that enhance the partial functioning of a particular body part, while prostheses are artificial replacements for missing body parts. Adaptive devices are modified versions of everyday items that are intended to make it easier for people with disabilities to perform tasks. Orthotics, prosthetics, and adaptive devices are all intended to increase the independence of the person using them.

Adaptive devices are typically simple and inexpensive; for instance, one might use a shower chair to facilitate bathing or a hook to pull one’s pants on. Devices are chosen for each specific task that the individual needs to perform.

Orthoses are typically simpler and less costly than prosthetics, though they may rely heavily on residual function in order to be useful and practical.

Prosthetics are typically more expensive and complex than orthoses, but they may be more practical and allow more independence than orthotics for some users. Prostheses are often viewed as more socially accepted than orthoses.

[Q4] Review the section of the text called Children’s and Families’ Reactions and the one called Prosthetics, Orthoses, and Adaptive Devices for Daily Living, then view Pearson e-Text Video Example 14.8.

Question: In the video, Charlotte is using a prosthesis. She and her teacher talk about why she has it and how it is constructed, and then Charlotte demonstrates how she walks with the prosthesis. Given what you know about the role parental and family reactions play in a child’s reaction to their disability, what approach do you believe that Charlotte’s parents have taken to helping her come to terms with her disability? Why do you say so?

[Q4 Model Response] It seems highly likely that Charlotte’s parents have been very matter-of-fact in dealing with Charlotte’s disability and that they have encouraged her independence and selfsufficiency. It is apparent that Charlotte is used to talking about the challenges she has faced; she is very direct about it and doesn’t play the victim or try to elicit sympathy. Her teacher says she is working hard to master the challenging prosthetic; she reflects an “I can do this” attitude. Taken together, these behaviors seem to indicate that she is not experiencing shame and guilt or other negative feelings about her disability.

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Application Exercise 14.3: Accommodating a Student with Physical Disabilities Learning Outcome 14.4: Learn about some educational considerations for people with physical disabilities and other health impairments.

[Q1] Walkup: Review the section of the text called How Can I Help? Students with Physical Disabilities in the General Education Classroom and review Pearson e-Text Video Example 14.10.

Question: José is a kindergartener with a physical disability. The teacher says that acquiring a wheelchair opened up a whole new world for José. Think about what José’s life might have been like before he got his wheelchair. What limitations might Jos é’s transition to the wheelchair have helped him overcome?

[Q1 Model Response] Despite his ability to scoot around, mobility would have been a significant challenge for José prior to receiving his wheelchair. It would have been more difficult, timeconsuming, and potentially painful for him to move himself, and that might have limited his ability to perform tasks independently or to socialize with other children. At times, his scooting would undoubtedly have been infeasible—for instance, if he wanted to go outside and it were raining, scooting would not be a comfortable alternative.

José’s wheelchair not only gave him more independence, but leveled the playing field for him in many respects. He can now move quickly—keeping up with his friends on a walk or in other physical activities. He is closer to his peers in height and puts less stress on his body while moving. While he still must scoot sometimes, and he still has to climb into and out of his chair, it’s likely that he is putting less wear and tear on his body.

[Q2] Walkup: Review the section of the text called How Can I Help? Students with Physical Disabilities in the General Education Classroom and review Pearson e-Text Video Example 14.10.

Question: Imagine that you are a general education kindergarten teacher and you are going to have José in your class next year. What considerations, both logistical and instructional, would you need to make to be able to best meet his needs? What recommendations from the text segment align with the recommendations you would make?

[Q2 Model Response] I would need to think about the physical arrangement of the classroom, both so José could get around easily in his wheelchair and so he could be seated comfortably while using the wheelchair or when he chose not to use the wheelchair (like sitting on the carpet during morning circle time). I would also need to be sure he was seated in places where he could see all instructions easily. I would want to put him in a group with children who were natural helpers and who were kind and friendly.

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From an instructional perspective, I would have to carefully consider how to engage him in activities that require fine-motor skills. Since we know he is learning to write with his feet, it seems likely that he could use them for some activities, but other activities might be less accessible. I would need to figure out how to differentiate instruction so he could be fully participatory and engaged with the curriculum and his peers.

[Q3] Walkup: Review the section of the text called How Can I Help? Students with Physical Disabilities in the General Education Classroom and review Pearson e-Text Video Example 14.10.

Question: If you were a general education teacher and José were in your class, what personality traits would you need to call on in order to best meet his needs? What resources (including human resources) might you tap into to help you identify and utilize appropriate strategies and accommodations?

[Q3 Model Response] I would need to be empathetic and patient both with José, being sure to be welcoming and inclusive and to make him feel like one of the gang. I would also need to be patient and empathetic with myself because there would be a definite learning curve for figuring out how best to engage him fully in class experiences and activities. I would need to think carefully about each aspect of the school experience and how to make it positive and accessible for José. I would need to rely on my own emotional intelligence as I worked with José and as I built community in the classroom. It would help to have a sense of humor and a willingness to be open and to learn. .

I would definitely be consulting with special education teachers and with José’s parents for advice about how best to meet his needs and to learn about adaptations that would support his success.

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Test Items 14.1 Multiple-Choice Questions 1. What is the primary distinguishing characteristic of children with physical disabilities? a. intellectual and health problems b. intellectual and medical problems c. physical limitations or health problems d. medical or cognitive problems 2. Impairments that a child is born with are referred to as a. primary characteristics. b. congenital anomalies. c. secondary problems. d. acquired disabilities.

3. A condition that may be severe but resolves with treatment is a. progressive. b. episodic. c. chronic. d. acute.

4. A condition that recurs but does not necessarily become more severe overtime is a. progressive. b. episodic. c. chronic. d. acute.

5. A condition that becomes more and more severe over time is a. progressive. b. episodic. c. chronic. d. acute.

6. Which statement is true? a. The number of people with physical disabilities is declining and the availability of service programs is improving. b. The number of people with physical disabilities is growing along with the availability of service programs.

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c. The number of people with physical disabilities is growing but the availability of service programs is not. d. The number of people with physical disabilities is declining so the availability of service programs is decreasing.

7. What effect have advances in medicine had on the need for special education due to physical disabilities? a. They have eliminated the need for special education for students with all but the most severe physical disabilities. b. They have increased the need to serve students with physical disabilities in special education. c. They have made it more difficult to identify students with physical disabilities. d. They have not affected the number of students with physical disabilities needing special education services.

8. Impairments that are the result of injury to the brain that also affect the ability to move parts of one's body are best typified as a. neurological impairments. b. mobility impairments. c. orthopedic impairments. d. neuromotor impairments.

9. When a child's nervous system is damaged, no matter what the cause, which of the following is often one of the symptoms? a. muscular weakness or paralysis b. cognitive deficits c. seizures d. missing or malformed limbs 10. Cerebral palsy is a. a neurological disease. b. subject to frequent remission. c. contagious, but not highly so. d. a nonprogressive disorder.

11. Cerebral palsy is classified by the a. limbs involved and type of motor disability. b. time period during which brain damage occurred. c. severity of the symptoms. d. effect on intellectual functioning.

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12. Andre's legs are paralyzed, but he has full use of his arms. His condition is a. diplegia. b. hemiplegia. c. paraplegia. d. quadriplegia.

13. Abrupt, involuntary movements and difficulty in maintaining balance are known as a. spastic movements. b. atonic movements. c. choreoathetoid movements. d. atonic spasticity.

14. The intelligence of children with cerebral palsy is a. almost always in the range of severe or profound intellectual disabilities. b. typically higher than the average for the general population. c. nearly the same as for the general population. d. difficult to assess due to difficulties in perception, movement, or response speed.

15. When there is an abnormal discharge of electrical energy in certain brain cells, the result is a. diplegia. b. a choreoathetoid movement. c. spasticity. d. seizure.

16. Seizures may differ on all of the following dimensions except a. duration. b. latency. c. frequency. d. causes.

17. All of the following procedures should be followed if a student has a seizure in school except a. moving the child onto his/her side. b. inserting an object between the teeth. c. loosening clothing. d. putting something flat and soft under the head.

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18. Harris has a congenital midline defect resulting from failure of the bony spinal column to close completely during fetal development. His condition is known as a. scoliosis. b. spinal meningitis. c. spina bifida. d. cleft palate.

19. Any malformation of the spine, spinal cord, or brain is a a. choreoathetoid defect. b. neural tube defect. c. type of spina bifida. d. defect of the angular gyrus.

20. The extent of the paralysis in spina bifida depends on a. the stage of development during which it occurs. b. the success or failure of the surgery to close the opening. c. the success or failure of the surgery to repair the nerve damage. d. how high or low the injury on the spinal column is.

21. Catheterization is necessary for individuals with a. lack of bladder control. b. poor blood circulation. c. poor oxygen exchange. d. hyperproduction of saliva.

22. Tim has a hereditary disease characterized by ongoing damage to and weakening of his muscles, but he is expected to live a productive life and have a typical lifespan.

His condition is most likely to be a. muscular dystrophy. b. spina bifida. c. cerebral palsy. d. multiple sclerosis.

23. Juvenile rheumatoid arthritis is a potentially debilitating disease that a. causes rapid deterioration of muscle tissue. b. is characterized by pain in and around the joints and muscles. c. is associated with neurological degeneration. d. does not respond to medical treatment.

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24. The intelligence of students with conditions affecting the musculoskeletal system is a. lower than average. b. higher than average. c. unaffected. d. indeterminate.

25. Chronic diseases and health conditions of children have a. begun to wane because of medical advances. b. surpassed childhood accidents as a cause of death. c. remained constant in recent decades. d. increased dramatically during recent decades.

26. A lung disease characterized by episodic inflammation or obstruction of the air passages such that the person has difficulty breathing is a. allergic rhinitis. b. bronchitis. c. asthma. d. dystrophic inhalation.

27. In addition to its effect on the immune system, AIDS poses all of the following threats to children except a. intellectual disability. b. emotional or behavioral disorders. c. seizures. d. muscular dystrophy.

28. What causes more deaths in children than all childhood diseases combined? a. AIDS b. accidents c. suicide d. abuse 29. Which of the following statements about preventing physical disabilities is false? a. Many or most physical disabilities are preventable. b. Reducing the number of adolescent pregnancies would reduce the number of physical disabilities. c. The trend of forgoing childhood vaccinations has reduced the number of physical disabilities.

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d. Children with disabilities are at a greater risk for abuse than are those without disabilities.

30. Which statement about phenylketonuria (P KU) is true? a. It requires a life-long special diet for treatment. b. It can cause intellectual disabilities. c. It is the only known genetically determined metabolic disorder. d. It goes away in late childhood.

31. For children with most physical disabilities and other health impairments, a common cause of academic difficulties is a. discrimination and prejudice. b. erratic school attendance. c. poor study skills. d. inadequate motivation.

32. Children's reactions to their own physical disabilities are largely a. a reflection of how others respond to them. b. dependent on the nature and degree of their disabilities. c. dependent on whether they use a wheelchair for mobility. d. a reflection of how well they achieve academically.

33. Jim has an artificial leg. This is an example of a(n) a. orthosis. b. prosthesis. c. adaptive device. d. assistive device.

34. Which principles are most important to keep in mind when considering prosthetics and orthotics? a. residual function, simplicity, reliability b. age of person, length of limb, intelligence of person c. residual function, length of limb, cost of device d. residual function, simplicity, health of person 35. The greatest challenge with regard to technology use among people with physical disabilities is a. developing strategies to teach them how to use the technology effectively. b. evaluating their needs and available technological supports accurately. c. designing increasingly sophisticated assistive technology.

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d. covering the high cost of assistive technology.

36. Which of the following statements about education for most children with a physical disability is false? a. It should be similar to that for children without disabilities but at a lower developmental level. b. It is often extended beyond that typically provided to include self-help skills. c. Objectives should include autonomy and self-advocacy. d. Attention should be given to environmental changes that allow them to respond more effectively.

37. The primary goal of adapted physical education is a. to eliminate physical education as a requirement for students with physical disabilities. b. to provide physical education in a separate setting for students with physical disabilities. c. to give students with physical disabilities more time in physical education to catch up to their peers. d. to allow access to activities that support physical, recreational, and leisure goals.

38. A person who provides support for daily living skills and fine motor skills is a(n) a. physical therapist. b. occupational therapist. c. adaptations specialist. d. cognitive therapist.

39. Mr. Kent has a child in his class who has a terminal illness. Which of the following actions should he take? a. He should avoid discussing his personal feelings about death and dying. b. He should discourage conversations about students’ feelings in the classroom. c. He should be sensitive, direct and open in discussing the situation. d. He should adopt a positive and optimistic stance and suggest that the child will be cured.

40. Providing support for the child's body and arranging instructional or play materials in certain ways is known as a. positioning. b. handling. c. assisting. d. adapting.

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41. The difference between physical therapy and occupational therapy a. is that the latter focuses more often on adults in job-related situations. b. is that the former focuses on sensory and gross motor functions, the latter on support for daily living skills. c. is a matter of degree, not type. d. is no longer relevant since the passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act (A D A).

42. A situation in which a person with a disability becomes a regular employee, performs a valued function in a regular work setting, and receives fair pay while receiving training, social skills instruction, and other services is a. job coaching. b. job shadowing. c. supported employment. d. partial employment.

43. Sociosexual education for students with physical disabilities includes instruction in all of the following except a. structure and functions of bodies. b. suppression of sexual desire. c. alternative modes of sexual gratification. d. human relationships and responsibilities.

14.2 True/False Questions 1. Physical disabilities of all kinds are decreasing because of medical advances.

2. Although cerebral palsy is not contagious, it is progressive.

3. Seizures occur more often in children with developmental disabilities than in children without disabilities.

4. Children with epilepsy are more disposed to learning disabilities than are children who do not have epilepsy.

5. Even though a person's brain may be intact and functioning properly, he or she may have neurological impairment because of damage to the spinal cord.

6. In most students with orthopedic or musculoskeletal disorders, intelligence is unaffected.

7. Teenage mothers are more likely than older women to give birth to premature or low-birth weight babies.

8. In general, academic achievement of children with physical disabilities is below that of their nondisabled peers.

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9. Motor skills should be taught in isolation to avoid confusing the learner.

10. Most physical disabilities, even if severe, do not in and of themselves prevent sexual gratification.

14.3 Short Answer Questions 1. Discuss the relationship between medical advances and the prevalence of physical disabilities.

2. Define the three categories of physical disabilities described in the chapter (neuromotor impairments, orthopedic and musculoskeletal disorders, and other conditions that affect health or physical ability) and provide one example of each.

Define each condition.

3. Define cerebral palsy and discuss the range of effects that this condition can have on functioning.

4. Describe the procedures to be followed when a child has a seizure.

5. Describe ways that physical disabilities can be prevented.

6. Discuss possible reasons for negative reactions to people with physical disabilities, negative feelings people with physical disabilities may have about themselves, and factors that may result in greater acceptance of people with physical disabilities.

7. Distinguish among prostheses, orthoses, and adaptive devices and provide an example of each.

8. Explain what is meant by the statement: "Educating students with physical disabilities is not so much a matter of special instruction for children with disabilities as it is of educating the nondisabled population." Think about your own home, school, and community and provide three examples of limitations imposed on a person with a physical disability and how those limitations could be eliminated.

9. Why is it important for teachers to know about and to practice proper positioning and handling of students with physical disabilities?

10. Discuss the factors that have led to expanded employment opportunities for individuals with physical disabilities.

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Test Answer Key 14.1 Multiple-Choice Questions 1. c 2. b 3. d 4. b 5. a 6. c 7. b 8. d 9. a 10. d 11. a 12. c 13. c 14. d 15. d 16. b 17. b 18. c 19. b 20. d 21. a 22. a 23. b 24. c 25. d 26. c 27. d 28. b 29. c 30. a 33 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

31. b 32. a 33. b 34. a 35. b 36. a 37. d 38. b 39. c 40. a 41. b 42. c 43. b 14.2 True/False Questions 1. False 2. False 3. True 4. True 5. True 6. True 7. True 8. False 9. False 10. True 14.3 Short Answer Questions 1. Part of the increase in prevalence of physical disabilities may be due to improvements in the identification of and medical services to children with certain conditions. Ironically, medical advances have not only improved the chances of preventing or curing certain diseases and disorders; they have also assured the survival of more children with severe medical problems. Many children with severe and multiple disabilities and those with severe chronic illnesses or injuries, who in the past would not have survived long, today can have a normal lifespan. So, improvements in medical care may not lower the number of individuals with disabilities unless there is also a lowering of risk factors in the environment 34 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

(accidents, toxic substances, poverty, malnutrition, disease, and interpersonal violence).

2. Answers will elaborate on the following: neuromotor impairments (cerebral palsy, seizure disorder-epilepsy, spina bifida); orthopedic and musculoskeletal disorders (muscular dystrophy, juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, scoliosis); other conditions affecting health or physical ability (asthma, fetal alcohol syndrome, A IDS).

3. A condition characterized by paralysis, weakness, lack of coordination, and/or other motor dysfunction because of damage to the brain before it has matured. It is part of a syndrome that includes motor dysfunction, psychological dysfunction, seizures, or emotional or behavioral disorders due to brain damage. Symptoms may be so mild that they can be detected only with difficulty, or so profound that the individual is almost completely incapacitated. Its effect on motor functioning ranges from barely noticeable to obvious, sometimes debilitating paralysis of different parts of the body (quadriplegia, paraplegia) or problems with voluntary movement (spasticity, choreoathetoid). The effects on strength and the ability to move parts of the body normally do not necessarily mean damage to intelligence or emotional development (though a high proportion of persons with C P have hearing impairments, visual impairments, perceptual disorders, speech problems, emotional or behavior disorders, and/or intellectual disabilities). Average tested intelligence is lower than average for the general population but ranges from significantly below average to higher than average, even gifted. However, standardized testing may be inappropriate considering the difficulties in perception, movements, and response speed.

4. Remain calm and let the seizure run its course without trying to revive the child.

Ease the child to the floor and loosen clothing. Try to prevent from hitting head on anything that could hurt, but otherwise don't interfere with movement. Turn the child's face to the side so saliva can flow out. Do not insert anything between the teeth. Do not panic if the child stops breathing momentarily. Allow the child to sleep after the seizure, if he or she wishes. Don't call the doctor unless the seizure is followed quickly by another or if it lasts longer than 10 minutes. Notify parents or guardian that a seizure has occurred. If child seems groggy, confused, or weak, he or she may need to be taken home. Or, he or she may want to carry on.

5. Many, or even most, physical disabilities can be prevented. Some examples of preventative practices are: use safety gear (seat belts, helmets); do not drive under the influence of alcohol or drugs; store drugs and toxic substances away from children; do not use alcohol or drugs during pregnancy; refrain from a host of other unsafe or unhealthful practices. Find ways to reduce the number of teenage mothers (they are more likely to be battered and to give birth to premature or low-birthweight babies, and babies at risk for psychological and physical problems); provide adequate prenatal care to all expectant mothers; immunize against preventable childhood diseases. Take action against child abuse of all kinds.

6. Answers will vary but will address possible reasons for reactions such as fear, rejection, or discrimination (mistrust of anyone different from the accepted norm) or pity and an expectation of helplessness (stereotypes). Certainly, such reactions 35 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

have an effect on persons with physical disabilities (they may spend a great deal of energy trying to hide their stigmatizing differences or avoiding social contact). In other words, their reactions to their own physical disabilities are largely a reflection of how they have been treated by others. The wish to be nondisabled and to participate in the same activities is to be expected. To the extent that other people see children with physical disabilities as persons with certain limitations but who are otherwise just like everyone else, children with disabilities will be encouraged to become independent and productive members of society. Professional and civic groups encourage support and decrease fear of people with disabilities through information and education. Government laws help decrease discrimination and bring more people without disabilities into contact with people with disabilities.

7. A prosthesis is an artificial replacement for a missing body part (e.g., an artificial leg); an orthosis is a device that enhances the partial function of a part of a person's body (e.g., leg braces); and adaptive devices are devices that make performing tasks required for self-care and employment easier for the person who has a physical disability (e.g., specially designed implements that are easier to hold for eating with).

8. People with physical disabilities solve many of their own problems, but their lives are often needlessly complicated because people without disabilities give no thought to what life is like for someone with specific physical limitations. Examples will vary but should suggest that design adaptations in buildings, furniture, household appliances, and clothing can make it possible for someone with a physical disability to function as efficiently as a person without disabilities in a home, school, or community.

9. Probably the first and most pervasive concern of teachers of children with physical disabilities, in addition to communication, should be handling and positioning.

Handling refers to how the child is picked up, carried, held, and assisted. Positioning refers to providing support for the child's body and arranging instructional or play materials in certain ways. Proper handling makes the child more comfortable and receptive to education and is respectful of the child's body and person (e.g., don't handle a person like a sack of potatoes). Proper positioning maximizes physical efficiency and ability to manipulate materials; it also inhibits undesirable motor responses while promoting desired growth and motor patterns. More importantly, it can reduce or eliminate pain and discomfort (persons without physical disabilities certainly do not stay in one position all day).

10. The outlook for employment of students with physical or multiple and severe disabilities has been improved dramatically by legislation and research demonstration projects. The Americans with Disabilities Act requires that reasonable accommodations be made to create equal employment opportunities for people with disabilities. More accessible transportation and buildings, increased skill in using technology to allow people to accomplish tasks at work, and greater commitment to preparing people with disabilities for work are resulting in more personal independence, economic self-sufficiency, and social acceptance. Transition planning is now required in the IEP and transition programs are constantly growing and improving in providing knowledge of and experience with careers and work behaviors. Programs like supported competitive employment are especially useful.

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New technologies offer great promise for enabling people with physical disabilities to achieve independence, acquire educations and training for employment, and find employment.

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Chapter 15 Test Item File Daniel P. Hallahan

Exceptional Learners: An Introduction to Special Education Fifteenth Edition Daniel P. Hallahan, University of Virginia Paige C. Pullen, University of Florida James M. Kauffman, University of Virginia Prepared by Karen M. Cole, University of North Carolina Asheville

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Table of Contents

Chapter 15: Learners with Special Gifts and Talents .......................................... 1 Learning Outcome Quizzes ................................................................. 1 Application Exercises ......................................................................... 16 Test Items .......................................................................................... 29 Test Answer Key ................................................................................ 38

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Chapter 15: Learners with Special Gifts and Talents Learning Outcome Quizzes Learning Outcome 15.1: Learn about the definition and prevalence of giftedness.

[Q1] Which of the following statements about the definition of giftedness is false?

1. Students with special gifts excel in some way compared to other students of the same age.

2. School systems have widely differing practices regarding the education of students with special gifts or talents.

3. The federal government does not require schools to provide special education services for a student identified as gifted or talented unless they also have another disability.

4. Educators generally agree on what it means for a student to be gifted. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This statement is true. Beyond this almost meaningless statement; however, little agreement exists among educators about how giftedness should be defined.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement is true. Widely varying definitions of giftedness, along with the fact that schools aren’t required to provide special education to students in this category unless they have a concomitant disability, result in tremendous differences in the way students with gifts and special talents are served.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement is true. Most states, however, mandate programs for students with special gifts and talents.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] This statement is false. School systems have widely differing practices regarding the education of students with special gifts or talents, because the term gifted has no clearcut definition.

[Q2] Which of the following is not one of the primary points of disagreement regarding the definition of giftedness?

1. The age at which giftedness can be identified [correct] 2. The domains in which gifted children excel 3. The way giftedness is measured 1 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

4. The degree to which a child excels [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Although some researchers may question how old a person should be before being identified as gifted, more common debates concern the domains in which gifted children excel, how giftedness is measured, and the degree to which a child must excel in order to be considered gifted.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Other points of disagreement include how giftedness is measured and the degree to which a child must excel in order to be considered gifted.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Other points of disagreement include the domains in which gifted children excel and the degree to which a child must excel in order to be considered gifted.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Other points of disagreement include the domains in which gifted children excel, and how giftedness is measured.

[Q3] Which of the following statements about the prevalence of students with special gifts and talents is false?

1. If giftedness were defined as the top x percent on a given criterion, the question of prevalence would be answered.

2. Federal reports and legislation indicate that 1–2% of the U.S. school population could be considered to have special gifts and talents. [correct] 3. In 2018-19, an organization that focuses on gifted education reported prevalence rates for gifted/talented students ranging across states from 2% to 19%.

4. The prevalence of giftedness is a function of the definition that is used.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This statement is true. However, this method of determining prevalence is not practical because in practice, no single criterion can best be used to determine giftedness.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Actually, federal reports and legislation indicate that 3–5% of the U.S. school population could be considered to have special gifts and talents. The N AGC, on the other hand, posits that the number of gifted students across states ranges from 2 to 19%.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement is true. The National Association for Gifted Children published a report called State of the States in Gifted Education that named this statistic.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4]

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This statement is true. Given the wide variation in definitions and criterion, precisely determining the number of school-age students who are gifted and talented is difficult.

[Q4] Which of the following elements is not included in the National Association for Gifted Children’s definition of giftedness?

1. Giftedness is most common among upper-class, White Americans. [correct] 2. Students with special gifts and talents perform or have the capability to perform at higher levels compared to others of the same age, experience, and environment in one or more domains.

3. Gifted students can also have learning and processing disorders.

4. It is important to provide support and guidance to help students with special gifts and talents develop socially and emotionally.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] This statement is not a part of the N AGC definition. According to that definition, students with special gifts and talents come from all racial, ethnic, and cultural populations, as well as all economic strata.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement is part of the N AGC definition. The NAGC definition goes on to say that students with special gifts and talents require modifications to their educational experiences to learn and realize their potential.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement is part of the N AGC definition. Gifted students can have disabilities that require specialized intervention and accommodation.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This statement is part of the N AGC definition. It is important to remember, though, that needing support and guidance in social and emotional development does not distinguish gifted students from other students. It is a myth that people with special intellectual gifts are prone to emotional instability and early decline. Most are healthy, well adjusted, socially attractive, and morally responsible.

Learning Outcome 15.2: Understand the origins of giftedness, how students with special gifts and talents are identified, and some psychological and behavioral characteristics of people with special gifts and talents.

[Q1] Which of the following statements about characteristics of students with special gifts and talents is false?

1. Some, but not all, gifted individuals are predisposed to mental illness.

2. Students with high intellectual potential often demonstrate anxiety.

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3. Some students who are gifted demonstrate poor interpersonal relationships and social-emotional development.

4. Teachers perceive leadership to be an important characteristic when determining giftedness, but students see that quality as less important. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This statement is true. The idea that giftedness and insanity are linked is a very unfortunate misconception.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement is true. Students who are intellectually gifted often have perfectionistic strivings, which lead to anxiety and the feeling that they are not able to meet their own high expectations.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement is true. Some data suggest that students who are highly intellectually capable have risk factors such as anxiety, depression, suicidal ideation, poor self-image and self-esteem, and a sense that they are never able to meet their own expectations for themselves.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] This statement is false. Both teachers and learners identify leadership as one of the main behaviors exhibited by gifted students.

[Q2] Which of the following factors is not commonly viewed as contributing to the development of special gifts and talents?

1. The physical environment 2. Genetics 3. Parental levels of education [correct] 4. Social factors [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Other elements associated with the development of special gifts and talents include genetic and social factors.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Other elements associated with the development of special gifts and talents include environmental and social factors.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] While the behaviors of parents and teachers do have considerable influence on the outcomes of children who are highly capable, parental level of education is not commonly or directly associated with the development of special gifts and talents.

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[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Other elements associated with the development of special gifts and talents include genetic and environmental factors.

[Q3] Which of the following methods for identifying giftedness is most equitable?

1. Relying on IQ scores 2. Using a multifaceted definition [correct] 3. Taking recommendations from teachers 4. Asking students to self-identify [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Identification that assumes a multifaceted definition results in a more equitable process for students from all cultural and ethnic groups and all social classes.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Using a multifaceted approach results in a more equitable process for students from all cultural and ethnic groups and all social classes.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Identification that assumes a multifaceted definition results in a more equitable process for students from all cultural and ethnic groups and all social classes.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Identification that assumes a multifaceted definition results in a more equitable process for students from all cultural and ethnic groups and all social classes.

[Q4] Which of the following is not a facet of Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence?

1. Analytic giftedness 2. Creative giftedness 3. Practical giftedness 4. Social giftedness [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Other types of giftedness described by Sternberg include creative giftedness and practical giftedness.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Other types of giftedness described by Sternberg include analytic giftedness and practical giftedness.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] 5 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Other types of giftedness described by Sternberg include creative giftedness and analytic giftedness.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] Sternberg suggests three main types of giftedness: analytic, creative, and practical.

[Q5] Which of the following statements does not reflect the text authors’ assertions about the identification of students with special gifts and talents?

1. Gifted and talented programs reflect racial and ethnic disproportionality.

2. Renzulli asserts that when students are identified with standardized assessment measures, we are focusing on comparison rather than on individual characteristics.

3. Even when students from underrepresented groups score in the top percentiles on standardized tests, they are less likely to be referred for gifted evaluation.

4. Identification should focus only on those students whose capabilities are markedly above average. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This statement is true. Even when students from underrepresented groups score in the top percentiles on standardized tests, they are less likely to be referred for gifted evaluation.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement is true. The need to be nominated or recommended for evaluation is perhaps the biggest barrier to equitable identification of gifted students.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement is true. Gifted and talented programs reflect racial and ethnic disproportionality.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] This statement is false. The authors recommend balancing concern for identifying only those students whose capabilities are markedly above average with concern for including all who show promise for gifted performance.

Learning Outcome 15.3: Learn about the effect of cultural values on students with special gifts and talents and groups of students with special gifts and talents who are neglected.

[Q1] All but which of the following statements capture reasons why U.S. society tends to be ambivalent about students with special gifts and talents?

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1. Some believe that it is inhumane and un-American to segregate gifted students for instruction and to allocate special resources for the education of students who are already advantaged.

2. American society loves the benefits of the good things that people with extraordinary gifts produce but tends to dislike acknowledging superior intellectual performance.

3. It is common for some children who might be extraordinarily gifted and talented to be excluded, intentionally or unintentionally, from special educational opportunities.

4. In U.S. society, the broadly accepted emphasis is on meeting the needs of the whole rather than focusing on the needs of individuals. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This statement reflects a reason that U.S. society is ambivalent about students with special gifts and talents.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement reflects a reason that U.S. society is ambivalent about students with special gifts and talents.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement reflects a reason that U.S. society is ambivalent about students with special gifts and talents.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] This statement is largely untrue; in the United States, there is significant societal focus on individual rights and freedoms.

[Q2] Which of the following factors is not considered to contribute to underachievement in school?

1. Grade acceleration [correct] 2. Schoolwork that is unchallenging and boring 3. Negative student self-image 4. Social or cultural barriers [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Advancing a student by one or more grade levels is a common practice that is generally implemented to discourage underachievement.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] When students have already mastered most of the material being taught, or when teachers have low expectations for students, underachievement is a common result.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] When students show negative attitudes toward school and self, any special abilities they 7 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

have can easily be disregarded.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Students can fail to achieve at a level consistent with their abilities for a variety of reasons (e.g., low expectations, lack of motivation, the influence of peers, family trauma), including social and cultural barriers. For instance, many females achieve far less than they have the ability to achieve because of barriers to their selection or progress in certain careers.

[Q3] All but which of the following reasons explain the underrepresentation of students from low-wealth and rural homes in gifted programs?

1. Lack of school funding 2. Uncaring parents [correct] 3. Poor nutrition and medical care 4. Lack of opportunities and early experiences to foster talent [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Even when rural and inner city schools have gifted and talented programs, they are often an easy target for elimination in tight state or local budgets and in some cases, their expenditure per student is half that of more wealthy districts.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Educators make a mistake when they assume that parents don ’t care about their children just because they may not engage with the school community in ways that teachers value. Frequently it is the lack of financial and educational resources that plays a large role in disproportionality in gifted programs.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Children who are reared in poverty often lack toys, reading materials, opportunities for travel and exploration, good nutrition and medical care, and many other advantages that more affluent families typically provide. Unmet basic needs and lack of opportunities for learning can mask intelligence and creativity.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Many families of children in rural and inner city areas don’t have the financial resources to provide such opportunities.

[Q4] Which of the following statements about students with special gifts and talents who also have coexisting disabilities is false?

1. Parents have to choose whether their child’s education addresses the gifts and talents or the disability. [correct]

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2. Little research has been done to determine the comorbidity of various disabilities and giftedness.

3. ADHD among gifted and talented students frequently results in underachievement.

4. A coexisting disability may cause gifts and talents to be overlooked.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] This statement is false. Twice exceptional students can be served for both their gifts/talents and their disabilities.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement is true, although it seems that learning disabilities and A DHD are more prevalent among students with gifts and talents.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement is true. Boredom is another factor that contributes to underachievement among students with special gifts and talents.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This statement is true. Our stereotypical expectations of people with disabilities frequently keep us from recognizing their abilities. For instance, students with A DHD and learning disabilities may exhibit slower processing speeds and poor fluency, which may in turn mask their talents and gifts.

[Q5] Which of the following statements about students with special gifts and talents is false?

1. Giftedness is found as often among students with disabilities as among those who do not have disabilities. [correct] 2. Females comprise the largest group of neglected students with special needs and talents.

3. Gender identity is an issue in the identification of individuals with special gifts and talents.

4. Students with physical characteristics typically associated with severe intellectual disabilities may be extraordinarily gifted.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] This statement is false. However, it is important to note that students with special gifts or talents as well as disabilities have been a neglected population.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] This statement is true. Cultural factors work against the development and recognition of females with special gifts or talents.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This statement is true. Outstanding achievement may be stereotypically male or female, 9 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

carrying suspicion that an individual who excels in an activity that has been dominated by the opposite gender is gay, bisexual, or transgendered.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] This statement is true. Our stereotypic expectations of people with disabilities frequently keep us from recognizing their abilities.

Learning Outcome 15.4: Learn about some educational considerations for people with special gifts and talents.

[Q1] Leaders in the field agree that all but which of the following characteristics should be part of special education for every student with gifts and talents?

1. Enrichment experiences provided without placing the student in a higher grade [correct] 2. A curriculum designed to accommodate the student’s advanced cognitive abilities 3. Instructional strategies consistent with the learning of students with extraordinary abilities in each content area 4. Administrative arrangements facilitating appropriate grouping of students for instruction [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] In some cases, enrichment experiences will meet an individual student ’s needs, but in other cases, acceleration may be the best choice. Effective instruction should be a greater concern than keeping a student in a classroom with age peers.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Students need special school experiences and supports if they are to achieve their full potential.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Students with special gifts and talents need teachers who are well versed in meeting their unique needs.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] As schools determine how to best meet students’ needs, logistical considerations must be made.

[Q2] Which of the following terms is used to describe additional educational experiences provided to students with gifts and talents without advancing them to a higher grade level?

1. Acceleration 2. Enrichment [correct] 10 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

3. Least restrictive environment 4. Mentoring [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] Enrichment consists of additional experiences provided to students without placing them in a higher grade, whereas acceleration means placing the students ahead of their same-age peers.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] An alternative to enrichment is acceleration, where students are placed in a grade level ahead of that of their same-age peers.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] The practice of providing additional experiences to students with gifts and talents without placing them in a higher grade is referred to as enrichment.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The practice of providing additional experiences to students with gifts and talents without placing them in a higher grade is referred to as enrichment.

[Q3] Cear, a student who is gifted, skipped third grade. This is an example of which type of programming strategy?

1. Independent study 2. Enrichment 3. Acceleration [correct] 4. Resource support [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The practice of moving a student with gifts and talents to a higher grade level is called acceleration.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The practice of moving a student with gifts and talents to a higher grade level is called acceleration.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Along with enrichment, acceleration is a common strategy for meeting the needs of students identified as having gifts and talents.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The practice of moving a student with gifts and talents to a higher grade level is called acceleration.

[Q4] 11 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Which of the following statements regarding educational considerations for students with special gifts and talents is false?

1. Advances in computer technology have offered significantly enhanced learning opportunities.

2. Highly talented young people frequently suffer boredom and peer pressure in heterogeneous classrooms.

3. The focus of education is now on talent development across the full spectrum of abilities in particular areas of functioning.

4. The use of acceleration as a strategy for meeting the needs of students with special gifts and talents is widely accepted. [correct] [Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This statement is true. Using software tutorials, accessing data banks, playing or inventing intellectually demanding computer games, writing and editing in English and foreign languages, learning computer languages, and solving advanced problems in mathematics are only a few of the ways computers can enrich the education of students with gifts and talents.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Students whose talents are at significantly higher levels than those of their peers should have access to instructional resources and activities commensurate with their talents.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] This point of view includes the recognition that equity for many students with special gifts and talents may require special educational opportunities.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 4] This statement is false. The use of acceleration is highly controversial. Even so, acceleration and advanced placement seem to be particularly effective approaches to meeting the needs of students with special gifts and talents.

Learning Outcome 15.5: Learn about issues that should be considered with respect to early intervention and transition to adulthood for individuals with special gifts and talents.

[Q1] Which of the following is not a barrier that inhibits the development of programs for preschool children who are gifted?

1. Conflicting philosophies among the many parents advocating for such programming [correct] 2. Financial constraints 3. Lack of appropriate teacher training 4. An emphasis on older students of extraordinary ability 12 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 1] In fact, lack of parental advocacy is one of the barriers to the development of preschool programming for children who are gifted.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] Financial constraints impede the development of programs for preschool children with special gifts and talents.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] Preschool teachers are not typically trained in methods for serving very young children with special gifts and talents.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The emphasis on serving older students with gifts and talents has been an impediment to the development of preschool programming for gifted children.

[Q2] In which of the following opportunities do preschool children with special gifts and talents need more freedom than their same-age peers?

1. Access to full and appropriate use of school system resources [correct] 2. Demonstrating social competence and interacting with peers 3. Developing verbal and text-based communicative ability 4. Making autonomous decisions and having agency in their own lives [Feedback for Correct Answer 1] Such children need to be able to get around the usual eligibility rules so that they can go through the ordinary curriculum at an accelerated rate.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] What many young children with special abilities need most is the freedom to make full and appropriate use of school systems as they now exist. They need the freedom to study with older children in specific areas in which their abilities are challenged. Such children need to be able to get around the usual eligibility rules so that they can go through the ordinary curriculum at an accelerated rate.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] What many young children with special abilities need most is the freedom to make full and appropriate use of school systems as they now exist. They need the freedom to study with older children in specific areas in which their abilities are challenged. Such children need to be able to get around the usual eligibility rules so that they can go through the ordinary curriculum at an accelerated rate.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] What many young children with special abilities need most is the freedom to make full and appropriate use of school systems as they now exist. They need the freedom to 13 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

study with older children in specific areas in which their abilities are challenged. Such children need to be able to get around the usual eligibility rules so that they can go through the ordinary curriculum at an accelerated rate.

[Q3] Which of the following statements about transition planning for youths with special gifts and talents is false?

1. The problems they have tend to mirror the problems in transitions faced by adolescents and young adults with disabilities.

2. They rarely need personal and career counseling. [correct] 3. Acceleration programs and early entrance to college have worked well for many adolescents with gifts and talents.

4. Students with gifts and talents may benefit from opportunities to socialize with and learn from other students who have similar characteristics and face similar challenges.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] This statement is true. Not all adolescents and young adults with special gifts or talents take transitions in stride.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 2] Many adolescents with gifts and talents need personal and career counseling and a networking system that links students to school and community resources.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 3] As long as they are handled with care and sensitivity to the needs of individual students, acceleration and early entrance to college can be quite successful. It ’s important to provide counseling and support services for students who enter college early to ensure that they have appropriate, rewarding social experiences that enhance their selfesteem, as well as academic challenges and successes.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] Adolescents with special gifts or talents often need attention to social and personal development if they are to make successful and gratifying transitions to adulthood and careers.

[Q4] What is the most common decision to be made in educational and transition planning for adolescents with special gifts and talents?

1. Whether they should focus on vocational or academic outcomes 2. Whether they should be served in public schools or attend special schools 3. Whether they should be provided with enrichment or acceleration [correct] 4. Whether they should be given career counseling or individual counseling 14 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 1] The central issue in the education of adolescents with special gifts and talents is that of acceleration versus enrichment.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 2] The central issue in the education of adolescents with special gifts and talents is that of acceleration versus enrichment.

[Feedback for Correct Answer 3] Careful consideration of the student’s goals and needs can help determine which of these approaches is most appropriate.

[Feedback for Answer Choice 4] The central issue in the education of adolescents with special gifts and talents is that of acceleration versus enrichment.

15 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Application Exercises Application Exercise 15.1: Considering Identification Models Learning Outcome 15.2: Understand the origins of giftedness, how students with special gifts and talents are identified, and some psychological and behavioral characteristics of people with special gifts and talents.

[Q1] Walkup: Review the different identification models described under the main heading Identification of Giftedness.

Scenario: Consider the following students.

•

Ahmad has a high score on a conventional intelligence test and is a particularly skilled member of the debate team. Ahmad’s grades are among the highest within his peer group, and he particularly excels in classes that involve speaking and writing.

•

Elijah’s grades are uniformly high. He has superior organization and problemsolving skills. Elijah consistently scores above grade level on standardized tests.

•

River’s grades are average in all her classes. She is a talented artist and has won several state-level art competitions with her charcoal drawings. River was recently tapped to design the logo for a highly successful local business.

•

Lucas has high grades in math and science but his grades in language arts and social studies are average. Lucas is highly invested in mindfulness practices and sees protecting the environment as a mission to which all people should feel committed.

•

Amelia has above-average grades and is exceptionally popular among all members of the school community. Amelia has a high level of emotional intelligence and communicative ability; is a member of the school mediation team and works to help students resolve conflicts.

•

Mia’s grades are not exceptional but are consistently above average. Mia is a skilled and prolific poet whose work reflects her musings on the meaning of human life. Mia completes any project or assignment with thoroughness and attention to detail.

•

Alex’s grades are average across the board, but he is a highly talented athlete who excels at football, baseball, and tennis, captaining all three teams. Alex earns better grades on activities that involve kinesthetic/tactile elements than he does on ones that involve reading and writing.

Question: Given the limited information presented in the scenario, which of these students most clearly demonstrate abilities that align with Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence? Why do you say so?

[Q1 Model Response] 16 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Sternberg’s theory focuses on three kinds of giftedness: analytic giftedness, creative giftedness, and practical giftedness. With the limited information available, it seems that Ahmad, River, Mia, and Elijah would be identified as gifted under Sternberg ’s model.

Ahmad displays both analytic and practical giftedness; he has a high I Q score, which typically reflects analytical intelligence. He is also a member of the debate team, an activity that requires him to pick apart topics and understand how their pieces relate to one other, then synthesize those pieces into a meaningful argument.

River displays a high level of creative intelligence. Academically, she performs well across the board, but her art is particularly notable in that it has gained attention in state-level competitions and in the business world.

Like River, Mia displays a high level of creative intelligence. As a skilled writer and successful poet whose grades are above average, she might well be identified as gifted using Sternberg’s model.

Elijah’s superior organizational and problem-solving skills might reflect practical giftedness in Sternberg’s model. His strengths parallel those held by people who go on to have successful careers.

[Q2] Walkup: Review the different identification models described under the main heading Identification of Giftedness.

Scenario: Consider the following students.

•

Ahmad has a high score on a conventional intelligence test and is a particularly skilled member of the debate team. Ahmad’s grades are among the highest within his peer group, and he particularly excels in classes that involve speaking and writing.

•

Elijah’s grades are uniformly high. He has superior organization and problemsolving skills. Elijah consistently scores above grade level on standardized tests.

•

River’s grades are average in all her classes. She is a talented artist and has won several state-level art competitions with her charcoal drawings. River was recently tapped to design the logo for a highly successful local business.

•

Lucas has high grades in math and science but his grades in language arts and social studies are average. Lucas is highly invested in mindfulness practices and sees protecting the environment as a mission to which all people should feel committed.

•

Amelia has above-average grades and is exceptionally popular among all members of the school community. Amelia has a high level of emotional intelligence and communicative ability; is a member of the school mediation team and works to help students resolve conflicts.

•

Mia’s grades are not exceptional but are consistently above average. Mia is a skilled and prolific poet whose work reflects her musings on the meaning of

17 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

human life. Mia completes any project or assignment with thoroughness and attention to detail.

•

Alex’s grades are average across the board, but he is a highly talented athlete who excels at football, baseball, and tennis, captaining all three teams. Alex earns better grades on activities that involve kinesthetic/tactile elements than he does on ones that involve reading and writing.

Question: Which of the students would be most likely to meet the criteria for giftedness using Stanley’s Talent Search Model? Why do you say so?

[Q2 Model Response] Elijah would be most likely to be identified using the Talent Search model, as it is based primarily on standardized test scores. Ahmad is another potential candidate for the Talent Search model, given his high I Q score and outstanding grades we might infer that his scores on standardized tests are also exceptional.

[Q3] Walkup: Review the different identification models described under the main heading Identification of Giftedness.

Scenario: •

Ahmad has a high score on a conventional intelligence test and is a particularly skilled member of the debate team. Ahmad’s grades are among the highest within his peer group, and he particularly excels in classes that involve speaking and writing.

•

Elijah’s grades are uniformly high. He has superior organization and problemsolving skills. Elijah consistently scores above grade level on standardized tests.

•

River’s grades are average in all her classes. She is a talented artist and has won several state-level art competitions with her charcoal drawings. River was recently tapped to design the logo for a highly successful local business.

•

Lucas has high grades in math and science but his grades in language arts and social studies are average. Lucas is highly invested in mindfulness practices and sees protecting the environment as a mission to which all people should feel committed.

•

Amelia has above-average grades and is exceptionally popular among all members of the school community. Amelia has a high level of emotional intelligence and communicative ability; is a member of the school mediation team and works to help students resolve conflicts.

•

Mia’s grades are not exceptional but are consistently above average. Mia is a skilled and prolific poet whose work reflects her musings on the meaning of human life. Mia completes any project or assignment with thoroughness and attention to detail.

18 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

•

Alex’s grades are average across the board, but he is a highly talented athlete who excels at football, baseball, and tennis, captaining all three teams. Alex earns better grades on activities that involve kinesthetic/tactile elements than he does on ones that involve reading and writing.

Question: Which of these students would be most likely to be identified as gifted and talented using the Universal Screening model? Why? [Q3 Model Response] Any of these students might be identified as gifted if Universal Screening were used, because Universal Screening relies on multifaceted assessment to evaluate all students who show promise for giftedness. Recommendations for effective screening programs include defining gifts and talents broadly, using separate and appropriate strategies and tests, and not limiting a student’s eligibility for gifted programming to any one single measure.

[Q4] Question: Reflect on the models described in the text. Which one do you consider to be the most effective way to identify students who are gifted? Why? [Q4 Model Response] Answers will vary; most will likely respond that Universal Screening is the best model because it is the most broad-based and equitable one. Other answers are acceptable if they are well-defended.

Application Exercise 15.2: Giftedness and Underachievement Learning Outcome 15.2: Understand the origins of giftedness, how students with special gifts and talents are identified, and some psychological and behavioral characteristics of people with special gifts and talents.

[Q1] Walkup: Review the section of the text called Underachievers and watch Pearson eText Video Example 15.6.

Scenario: You are observing Mr. Paxton, who teaches an Honors history class in high school. As the class opens, most students move to their desks and get their materials out, reviewing the day’s learning targets on the board and turning to talk excitedly to one another about the project they are working on. The students have been put in groups and are in the process of creating a digital portfolio of information about a historical event that they have chosen. You note that Ethan is slow to get his materials out and slow to move to the area where his group is working. As you continue to observe, you notice that he seems content to sit back and wait for others to try to engage him; after a couple of attempts at engaging him, they shrug and go ahead with their work without his input. Ethan sits there, watching. You are taken aback because Mr. Paxton has told you that Ethan has a very high I Q and has created some great digital projects independently.

19 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

You circulate to another group in the room when you hear the beginnings of an argument between two of the students. Haley and Mason disagree about how to present a particular piece of their research; what began as a mild discussion escalates into a loud and unproductive conversation. Mason stands over Haley and says, “You know, you don’t actually belong in this class; your ideas are stupid and so are you.”

Haley says, “Fine. Do what you want to do” and sits back. The group proceeds with Mason’s leadership; Haley contributes ideas here and there but never in direct opposition to anything Mason is suggesting. You note that many of her ideas reflect a deep understanding of the material and a significant creative bent. You know from Mr. Paxton that Haley has just transferred in from a prior school and that her academic record there was merely average. You also know that despite his seeming confidence, his grades up to this point in the academic year have ranged from average to below average because he rarely submits work unless he feels it is of the highest quality.

The next group you visit includes Luis, Zoey, LaDonna, and Aiden. This foursome is working well together. They have set out goals and action steps for their project and are checking each item off the list as they complete it. You are surprised to see that Aiden is contributing significantly to the work; when you observed him in his mathematics class, he struggled with the material and did not participate in either the whole-group or smallgroup activities. In this setting, however, he is volunteering ideas, working diligently, encouraging others, and demonstrating leadership. You know that Aiden is popular and that he makes good grades in all of his classes except math.

Question: Consider Ethan, Haley, Mason, and Aiden, none of whom have yet been officially identified by the school as gifted or talented. What clues do you have that any or all of them might have special gifts and talents?

[Q1 Model Response] We know from Mr. Paxton that Ethan has a very high I Q score and that he is highly motivated to complete projects independently, behaviors that are often associated with giftedness.

Haley is clearly very bright and capable, despite Mason’s assertion that she doesn’t belong in the Honors class. Her well-reasoned and deep contributions to the group are also an indication that she might be gifted.

Mason is demonstrating the strong leadership and self-confidence common among many gifted students; he is also demonstrating some inappropriate social interactions, which may or may not be indicative of giftedness.

Aiden’s presence in the Honors class and his inclusive leadership style may be clues that he has some special gifts and talents.

[Q2] Walkup: Review the section of the text called Underachievers and watch Pearson eText Video Example 15.6.

Scenario: You are observing Mr. Paxton, who teaches an Honors history class in high school. As the class opens, most students move to their desks and get their materials 20 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

out, reviewing the day’s learning targets on the board and turning to talk excitedly to one another about the project they are working on. The students have been put in groups and are in the process of creating a digital portfolio of information about a historical event that they have chosen. You note that Ethan is slow to get his materials out and slow to move to the area where his group is working. As you continue to observe, you notice that he seems content to sit back and wait for others to try to engage him; after a couple of attempts at engaging him, they shrug and go ahead with their work without his input. Ethan sits there, watching. You are taken aback because Mr. Paxton has told you that Ethan has a very high I Q and has created some great digital projects independently.

You circulate to another group in the room when you hear the beginnings of an argument between two of the students. Haley and Mason disagree about how to present a particular piece of their research; what began as a mild discussion escalates into a loud and unproductive conversation. Mason stands over Haley and says, “You know, you don’t actually belong in this class; your ideas are stupid and so are you.”

Haley says, “Fine. Do what you want to do” and sits back. The group proceeds with Mason’s leadership; Haley contributes ideas here and there but never in direct opposition to anything Mason is suggesting. You note that many of her ideas reflect a deep understanding of the material and a significant creative bent. You know from Mr. Paxton that Haley has just transferred in from a prior school and that her academic record there was merely average. You also know that despite his seeming confidence, his grades up to this point in the academic year have ranged from average to below average because he rarely submits work unless he feels it is of the highest quality.

The next group you visit includes Luis, Zoey, LaDonna, and Aiden. This foursome is working well together. They have set out goals and action steps for their project and are checking each item off the list as they complete it. You are surprised to see that Aiden is contributing significantly to the work; when you observed him in his mathematics class, he struggled with the material and did not participate in either the whole-group or smallgroup activities. In this setting, however, he is volunteering ideas, working diligently, encouraging others, and demonstrating leadership. You know that Aiden is popular and that he makes good grades in all of his classes except math.

Question: Let’s assume that Ethan, Mason, Hailey, and Aiden meet the criteria to be considered eligible for the program for students with special gifts and talents at their school. At the same time, they each exhibit some behaviors at school that indicate they are not necessarily realizing their full potential. What explanation can you give for why each one may be underachieving?

[Q2 Model Response] Ethan may be the classic case of a gifted student who is bored and uninterested in academic work. It is possible that he already can do all the tasks Mr. Paxton expects him to do with his group, so he isn’t motivated to engage.

Haley’s gifts and talents may be overshadowed because as a female, she is less likely to be recommended for the gifted program. She may allow her ideas and thoughts to be pushed out by more dominant students like Mason; we have evidence that she backed 21 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

down and simply allowed Mason to dictate the group’s moves. Experiencing the sort of cruel dismissal, he subjected her to certainly be a reason Haley isn’t fully reaching her potential.

The reason for Mason’s underachievement may be more difficult to pin down conclusively, but it is possible that he struggles with social-emotional skills and/or has perfectionistic tendencies that lead him to want to control all the work. His refusal to submit work that doesn’t rise to his own standards from himself is a behavior sometimes associated with underachieving gifted students.

Aiden seems to be achieving at high levels in Mr. Paxton’s class and yet is struggling significantly in his math class. It is possible that he is twice exceptional—he might actually have a learning disability in math. The uneven performance in math might be demotivating for him; whatever problems he has in understanding mathematics are surely exacerbated by his reluctance to participate.

[Q3] Walkup: Review the section of the text called Underachievers and watch Pearson eText Video Example 15.6.

Scenario: You are observing Mr. Paxton, who teaches an Honors history class in high school. As the class opens, most students move to their desks and get their materials out, reviewing the day’s learning targets on the board and turning to talk excitedly to one another about the project they are working on. The students have been put in groups and are in the process of creating a digital portfolio of information about a historical event that they have chosen. You note that Ethan is slow to get his materials out and slow to move to the area where his group is working. As you continue to observe, you notice that he seems content to sit back and wait for others to try to engage him; after a couple of attempts at engaging him, they shrug and go ahead with their work without his input. Ethan sits there, watching. You are taken aback because Mr. Paxton has told you that Ethan has a very high I Q and has created some great digital projects independently.

You circulate to another group in the room when you hear the beginnings of an argument between two of the students. Haley and Mason disagree about how to present a particular piece of their research; what began as a mild discussion escalates into a loud and unproductive conversation. Mason stands over Haley and says, “You know, you don’t actually belong in this class; your ideas are stupid and so are you.”

Haley says, “Fine. Do what you want to do” and sits back. The group proceeds with Mason’s leadership; Haley contributes ideas here and there but never in direct opposition to anything Mason is suggesting. You note that many of her ideas reflect a deep understanding of the material and a significant creative bent. You know from Mr. Paxton that Haley has just transferred in from a prior school and that her academic record there was merely average. You also know that despite his seeming confidence, his grades up to this point in the academic year have ranged from average to below average because he rarely submits work unless he feels it is of the highest quality.

The next group you visit includes Luis, Zoey, LaDonna, and Aiden. This foursome is working well together. They have set out goals and action steps for their project and are 22 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

checking each item off the list as they complete it. You are surprised to see that Aiden is contributing significantly to the work; when you observed him in his mathematics class, he struggled with the material and did not participate in either the whole-group or smallgroup activities. In this setting, however, he is volunteering ideas, working diligently, encouraging others, and demonstrating leadership. You know that Aiden is popular and that he makes good grades in all of his classes except math.

Question: Let’s assume that these students have all been identified as eligible for their school’s gifted and talented program and that Mr. Paxton cuts them a lot of slack when they are unengaged or argumentative. Clearly these four students are not all excelling and demonstrating appropriate behavior in every class all the time.

Why might a teacher be less vigilant about monitoring the work and behavior of students in programs for gifted and talented students? What are the drawbacks of simply assuming that students identified as gifted and talented are going to excel in all areas of school?

[Q3 Model Response] It would be easy to assume that students with gifts and talents are always going to excel because they often seem highly capable; once teachers view a student as highly capable, they may interpret that student’s actions in light of their already-favorable impression. It is also easy to adopt the mindset that gifted students need less attention from the teacher than students who struggle; this is an erroneous assumption.

Gifted students face challenges just like other students do, and if teachers do not carefully consider each student as an individual each day, they may miss important opportunities to help students grow academically, develop socially, find motivation, manage anxiety, and have realistic expectations of themselves. Gifted students can be prone to depression and other mental health struggles; when teachers assume that being gifted is synonymous with being happy, productive, and well-adjusted, significant problems can arise.

Application Exercise 15.3: The Role of Student Characteristics in Program Eligibility Learning Outcome 15.3: Learn about the effect of cultural values on students with special gifts and talents and groups of students with special gifts and talents who are neglected.

[Q1] Walkup: Review the section of the text that begins with the heading Equitable Practices for Learners with Special Gifts and Talents and ends just before the section called Educational Considerations.

Scenario: Consider the following middle school students.

•

Ava is a student of Chinese heritage who was adopted by an affluent U.S. couple and brought to America when she was less than a year old. Ava’s teachers indicate that she is a model student—quiet, respectful, kind, and dependable. Her grades are outstanding in all subjects except in math, where she is two grade 23 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

levels behind her same-age peers. She goes to a resource room for intensive math instruction for 30 minutes each day. Ava demonstrates a high level of emotional intelligence and relates well with her peers; she is also highly creative.

•

Wren is a White student from a middle-class home. Wren’s birth certificate shows that at birth she was identified as a male child named William, but she has always viewed herself as having been given the wrong body. Wren’s parents supported her female identity from a very early age and her peers have never known her as anything other than a girl in their class. Wren loves animals and competes in canine agility shows with her dog, Luna. Wren gets excellent grades but tends to keep to herself in class.

•

Eric is an African-American student who comes from an upper-middle-class home and who is fascinated by forensic science. Eric has won several S TEM competitions and is interested in going to medical school. Eric’s teacher describes him as a leader who consistently gets high grades. Eric has extremely high expectations of himself and thus feels a great deal of pressure to achieve at high levels.

•

Penelope is a White student who comes from a lower-wealth home and who is not involved in any extracurricular activities. Penelope is suspicious of authority and has been suspended from school for being aggressive and disrespectful to her teachers. Penelope’s teacher describes her as very bright but failing to reach her full potential. Penelope spends most of her time watching videos on her phone.

•

Sybilla is a native Spanish-speaker student of Mexican heritage whose family immigrated to the United States several years ago. Her English, while not flawless, is fluent and she is a voracious reader. Sybilla’s family moves to different parts of the country as they work harvesting various crops, so her schooling has been somewhat disrupted, yet she works hard and has excellent grades. Sybilla has four younger siblings and takes care of them each day after school.

•

Edie is an African-American student who comes from a middle-class home and who is a talented musician. She started taking violin lessons when she was five and she is now first chair in the school symphony. Several hundred people follow her on social media and she has just released an album of classical violin pieces.

Edie’s teachers describe her as hardworking and ambitious but also anxious and prone to mood swings. Edie wants to go to a private performing arts school for high school and is actively seeking scholarship money to allow her to do so.

•

Marcus is a White student from a middle-class home located in a sparsely populated county. He has had perfect attendance since kindergarten and is a quiet but pleasant student whose grades are excellent. Marcus has always wanted to go to an academic summer camp for students who love math, but he has not had the opportunity to do so yet. He would also like to take Latin when he gets to high school, but at the present time his school only offers Spanish.

24 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

•

Javella is an African–American student who lives in subsidized housing in a large city. She lives with her mother, Kitty, who works two jobs to make ends meet.

Javella is frequently absent from school because she sleeps through her alarm, but the work she does in class is of good quality when she is present. Javella is friendly and funny; she is popular in her class.

Question: Which two students, in your estimation, have the best chance of being identified as students with special gifts and talents? Why do you say so? What attributes of those students work in their favor and which ones work against them?

[Q1 Model Response] Answers will vary.

•

It is likely that most people will identify Marcus, as a White male student with excellent grades, as a likely candidate, despite the fact that he lives in a rural area and has missed some opportunities. We know that male students, White students, and students from better-resourced homes are often identified as gifted.

•

Eric, as a male student coming from an upper-middle-class home and excelling in a STEM field is also likely, though his race might be a hindrance in some schools.

•

If Ava were excelling across the board, she would practically be a shoe-in for gifted programming, particularly because of her socioeconomic status and the fact that students of Asian heritage are often selected to participate in gifted programming. As Ava is twice exceptional, she might, sadly, be overlooked.

•

Edie is a strong candidate for a gifted program—she is a strong and motivated student whose musical talent is notable, and she comes from a middle-class home. However, again, her race and gender might be a factor in whether or not she was identified as eligible for a gifted program.

[Q2] Walkup: Review the section of the text that begins with the heading Equitable Practices for Learners with Special Gifts and Talents and ends just before the section called Educational Considerations.

Scenario: Consider these four middle school students.

•

Wren is a White student from a middle-class home. Wren’s birth certificate shows that at birth she was identified as a male child named William, but she has always viewed herself as having been given the wrong body. Wren’s parents supported her female identity from a very early age and her peers have never known her as anything other than a girl in their class. Wren loves animals and competes in canine agility shows with her dog, Luna. Wren gets excellent grades but tends to keep to herself in class.

•

Penelope is a White student who comes from a lower-wealth home and who is not involved in any extracurricular activities. Penelope is suspicious of authority 25 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

and has been suspended from school for being aggressive and disrespectful to her teachers. Penelope’s teacher describes her as very bright but failing to reach her full potential. Penelope spends most of her time watching videos on her phone.

•

Sybilla is a native Spanish-speaker student of Mexican heritage whose family immigrated to the United States several years ago. Her English, while not flawless, is fluent and she is a voracious reader. Sybilla’s family moves to different parts of the country as they work harvesting various crops, so her schooling has been somewhat disrupted, yet she works hard and has excellent grades. Sybilla has four younger siblings and takes care of them each day after school.

•

Javella is an African-American student who lives in subsidized housing in a large city. She lives with her mother, Kitty, who works two jobs to make ends meet.

Javella is frequently absent from school because she sleeps through her alarm, but the work she does in class is of good quality when she is present. Javella is friendly and funny; she is popular in her class.

Question: The students in this list each have at least one characteristic that may work against them when the schools are identifying students who should be in the gifted and talented program. Evaluate each student and identify the characteristic(s), if any, that you believe might put them at risk of being excluded from programs for students with special gifts and talents.

[Q2 Model Response] •

The fact that Wren is a transgender student puts her at risk of being excluded from programming for students with special gifts and talents.

•

Penelope comes from a lower-wealth home and exhibits difficult behaviors.

These characteristics put her at risk of being excluded from consideration for gifted programming.

•

The transient nature of Sybilla’s parents’ employment and the frequent moving might keep Sybilla from being identified as gifted and talented, as might her immigrant status.

•

As a Black student living in a low-wealth home in an inner city, Javella is less likely than many other students to be evaluated for special gifts and talents.

Teachers might interpret her absences as meaning that neither she nor her mother value her education—which may be a completely erroneous assumption, but would not be an uncommon one.

[Q3] Walkup: Review the section of the text that begins with the heading Equitable Practices for Learners with Special Gifts and Talents and ends just before the section called Educational Considerations.

Scenario: Consider the following middle school students.

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Ava is a student of Chinese heritage who was adopted by an affluent U.S. couple and brought to America when she was less than a year old. Ava’s teachers indicate that she is a model student—quiet, respectful, kind, and dependable. Her grades are outstanding in all subjects except in math, where she is two grade levels behind her same-age peers. She goes to a resource room for intensive math instruction for 30 minutes each day. Ava demonstrates a high level of emotional intelligence and relates well with her peers; she is also highly creative.

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Wren is a White student from a middle-class home. Wren’s birth certificate shows that at birth she was identified as a male child named William, but she has always viewed herself as having been given the wrong body. Wren’s parents supported her female identity from a very early age and her peers have never known her as anything other than a girl in their class. Wren loves animals and competes in canine agility shows with her dog, Luna. Wren gets excellent grades but tends to keep to herself in class.

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Eric is an African-American student who comes from an upper-middle-class home and who is fascinated by forensic science. Eric has won several S TEM competitions and is interested in going to medical school. Eric’s teacher describes him as a leader who consistently gets high grades. Eric has extremely high expectations of himself and thus feels a great deal of pressure to achieve at high levels.

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Penelope is a White student who comes from a lower-wealth home and who is not involved in any extracurricular activities. Penelope is suspicious of authority and has been suspended from school for being aggressive and disrespectful to her teachers. Penelope’s teacher describes her as very bright but failing to reach her full potential. Penelope spends most of her time watching videos on her phone.

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Sybilla is a native Spanish-speaker student of Mexican heritage whose family immigrated to the United States several years ago. Her English, while not flawless, is fluent and she is a voracious reader. Sybilla’s family moves to different parts of the country as they work harvesting various crops, so her schooling has been somewhat disrupted, yet she works hard and has excellent grades. Sybilla has four younger siblings and takes care of them each day after school.

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Edie is an African-American student who comes from a middle-class home and who is a talented musician. She started taking violin lessons when she was five and she is now first chair in the school symphony. Several hundred people follow her on social media and she has just released an album of classical violin pieces.

Edie’s teachers describe her as hardworking and ambitious but also anxious and prone to mood swings. Edie wants to go to a private performing arts school for high school and is actively seeking scholarship money to allow her to do so.

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Marcus is a White student from a middle-class home located in a sparsely populated county. He has had perfect attendance since kindergarten and is a quiet but pleasant student whose grades are excellent. Marcus has always 27 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

wanted to go to an academic summer camp for students who love math, but he has not had the opportunity to do so yet. He would also like to take Latin when he gets to high school, but at the present time his school only offers Spanish.

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Javella is an African-American student who lives in subsidized housing in a large city. She lives with her mother, Kitty, who works two jobs to make ends meet.

Javella is frequently absent from school because she sleeps through her alarm, but the work she does in class is of good quality when she is present. Javella is friendly and funny; she is popular in her class.

Question: Which student in this list has the most potential to be identified as twice exceptional? If you were that child’s teacher, what would your priorities be in terms of meeting their individual needs? Why do you say so?

[Q3 Model Response] Ava has the most potential to be considered twice exceptional; the fact that she excels in all areas but math may indicate she has a learning disability in that area.

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Test Items 15.1 Multiple-Choice Questions 1. Which one of the following statements reflects a common misconception about giftedness? a. Children who are gifted usually like school. b. Motivation and creativity can be as much of an indicator of giftedness as I Q. c. Some people are gifted in one area only. d. Individuals who are gifted intellectually tend to be socially inept.

2. Today, there is an emphasis on a. developing talents of all students, with less attention to those who might be gifted. b. helping gifted students distinguish themselves further by fulfilling their potential. c. eliminating giftedness as a category for special education services. d. downplaying giftedness so children will not be stigmatized or rejected because of their talents.

3. School systems have widely differing practices regarding the education of students with special gifts and talents because a. states get different amounts of money based on the number of students they identify. b. cultural beliefs about the existence of giftedness are regional. c. the term "gifted" has no clear-cut definition. d. systems have differing numbers of students from economically advantaged families.

4. Typical points of disagreement regarding the definition of giftedness include all but which of the following? a. the domains in which gifted children excel b. how giftedness is measured c. the degree to which a child excels that is necessary to be considered gifted d. the age at which giftedness can be identified 5. Claudia has an exceptional ability to understand the parts of a problem and how they are interrelated. Sternberg would be likely to say that Claudia demonstrates which type of giftedness? a. analytic b. creative c. practical 29 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

d. insightful 6. Paige is adept at applying analytic and synthetic abilities to the solution of everyday problems. Sternberg would say that she displays which type of giftedness? a. analytic b. practical c. creative d. mathematical 7. What services are mandated by federal law for students who are gifted? a. Students who are gifted are protected by I DEA and have the right to an appropriate education in the least restrictive environment. b. Students who are gifted must be provided with enrichment or acceleration but do not receive an I EP. c. Schools must provide programs for enrichment but can opt whether or not to provide acceleration programs. d. Services are not required by federal law.

8. Which of the following statements does not describe a characteristic that is regularly associated with students with special gifts and talents? a. They are typically good at many things. b. They typically like school. c. They typically learn to read at an early age. d. They typically exhibit behavior problems.

9. The concept of multiple intelligences a. is no longer popular. b. has been validated by research. c. is scientifically untenable. d. has proven application to teaching.

10. Sternberg's theory of intelligence suggests three kinds of giftedness a. analytic, creative, and practical. b. verbal, quantitative, and spatial. c. academic, artistic, and interpersonal. d. abstract, concrete, and intuitive.

11. Jasmine is a successful business woman. In 2001, she started a small bookstore that, within 10 years, grew to a national chain of bookstores. Jasmine demonstrates high performance in which aspect of intelligence in Sternberg's model? a. analytic 30 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

b. practical c. synthetic d. self-management 12. Which of the following statements about Renzulli’s Three-Ring Conception of Giftedness is false? a. It is based on the assumption that no single criterion can be used to identify giftedness. b. It leaves room for students of above average but not superior ability to be identified as gifted. c. It is considered a schoolwide acceleration model. d. It increases the inclusion of minorities, English Language Learners, and students living in rural areas.

13. Which model of identification of gifted students relies most heavily on standardized test scores? a. Stanley’s Talent Search Model b. Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences c. Renzulli’s Three-Ring Conception of Giftedness d. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence 14. Which of the following characteristics is most accurately associated with gifted individuals? a. They tend to be highly opinionated about controversial topics such as religion and politics. b. They are generally not susceptible to mental health concerns and only rarely demonstrate behavioral problems. c. They typically have high levels of emotional intelligence and concern for the feelings of others. d. They are more prone to be overtly biased against students from underrepresented groups or students who are from lower S ES backgrounds.

15. Federal reports and legislation have assumed that the prevalence of giftedness in the school population is about a. 1 to 2%. b. 3 to 5%. c. 10 to 19%. d. 20 to 22%.

16. According to research, what is the relationship between giftedness and genetics?

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a. Only IQ scores are affected by genetics; practical intelligences are not subject to genetic influence. b. Nongenetic, biological influences have a more powerful effect on giftedness than genetics. c. Giftedness is determined by heredity and other physiological factors. d. Giftedness is determined by a combination of genetic, social, and environmental factors.

17. In addition to IQ and achievement tests, what other method is commonly used to identify students who may be gifted? a. nominations b. interest inventories c. interviews d. functional behavioral analysis 18. One of the most common misconceptions in the field of gifted education is the idea that a. gifted students are more likely to be bullies. b. gifted students are superior in every way, including strength and beauty. c. giftedness and mental illness are linked. d. gifted students are physically stronger and more socially adept.

19. Which statement is true? a. Intellectually gifted children are often insensitive to the feelings of others. b. Intellectually gifted children are rarely self-aware, socially skilled, and/or morally responsible. c. Students with advanced cognitive abilities often exhibit poor emotional adjustment. d. Intellectually gifted students are often highly anxious, perhaps due to their perfectionistic tendencies.

20. Which one of the following statements is true? a. Gifted students tend to be far ahead of their agemates in both academic and social accomplishment. b. Gifted students tend to be bored with and antagonistic toward school. c. Gifted students tend toward occupations that demand greater than average intellectual ability, creativity, and motivation. d. Gifted students tend to perceive themselves in negative terms.

21. Children whose development and accomplishments meet or exceed those of adults with extraordinary talent are known as 32 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

a. precocious. b. prodigies. c. geniuses. d. super-gifted.

22. Which of the following statements has not been used as an argument against providing special education for children who are gifted? a. It is inhumane and un-American to segregate students for instruction. b. It is not fair to allocate special resources for those who are already advantaged. c. Students labeled as gifted develop more emotional problems than students with similar abilities who are not labeled. d. There is a danger of leaving some children out when only the ablest are selected for special programs.

23. Which of the following factors is least likely to promote underachievement among gifted students? a. high-quality instruction learning and high but attainable teacher expectations b. cultural barriers to success in certain fields c. chaotic, neglectful, or abusive home environments d. bias against identifying students from some minority groups as gifted 24. Which of the following least likely reflects a reason for the low numbers of rural students and students from lower socioeconomic status identified as gifted? a. lack of access to materials b. lack of interest on the part of the parents c. lack of basic necessities d. lack of opportunities for travel 25. Which of the following strategies is not a recommended strategy for making gifted identification more equitable? a. recognizing the limits of using a single score to determine giftedness b. basing identification and placement on individual students’ needs, not on the numbers who can be served c. implementing separate and appropriate identification strategies to identify different aspects of giftedness d. setting a specific percentage of students in each ethnic group that will be identified as gifted 26. Which of the following statements does not reflect research on students with disabilities who are also gifted?

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a. Their educational programming tends to target their areas of deficit rather than their areas of strength. b. There is often a lack of consideration of Advanced Placement (A P) enrollment as part of transition planning. c. Students often do not receive their required I EP accommodations or are discouraged from requesting them. d. Advocacy by students' parents often backfires, resulting in the students not receiving the support they need.

27. Which of the following statements about students with special gifts and talents is false? a. Cultural factors work against the development and recognition of giftedness among some groups of students. b. Giftedness is found as often among students with disabilities as among those who do not have disabilities. c. Gender identity is a factor in the identification of students with special gifts and talents. d. Gifted females tend not to pursue courses of study or careers involving science, engineering, and math.

28. The largest group of neglected students with gifts is a. females. b. students with disabilities. c. students from lower socioeconomic levels. d. students from culturally diverse backgrounds.

29. All but which of the following factors helps to explain the underrepresentation of females in programs for giftedness? a. People often hold stereotypical beliefs about gender roles. b. Teachers tend to pay less attention to high-achieving girls. c. Parental expectations for girls are usually higher than expectations for boys. d. Educators often expect lower levels of independence from girls.

30. Leaders in the field agree that special education for students with gifts or talents should have each of the following characteristics except a. a curriculum designed to accommodate advanced cognitive skills. b. instructional strategies consistent with the learning of students in particular content areas. c. administrative arrangements facilitating appropriate grouping of students for instruction.

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d. a program that values educating gifted students alongside their same-age peers throughout their school experience.

31. Additional experiences provided to students without placing them in a higher grade are known as a. acceleration. b. resource programs. c. enrichment. d. mentor programs.

32. All but which of the following developments have implications for improved education of students with special gifts and talents? a. increases in the importance of high-stakes accountability measures b. advances in telecommunication c. availability of computers in home and classroom d. calls for excellence in American education 33. Which of the following is not a characteristic of differentiated instruction? a. It has a reduced focus on assessment. b. It is based on student readiness. c. It leads to variation in activities and assignments. d. It encourages active exploration of topics at varying levels.

34. Which of the following statements is not a myth about acceleration? a. The majority of students are not socially mature enough to advance grades. b. Holding students to their grade level is a safer educational route. c. Acceleration results in significant gaps in students' knowledge. d. Students who are accelerated into grades beyond their agemates are more likely to be bullied.

35. Which of the following is not a barrier inhibiting the development of programs for preschool children who are gifted? a. laws preventing early admission to school b. inability to measure the intelligence of the very young c. lack of appropriate teacher training programs d. lack of parental advocacy 36. Probably the central issue in the education of adolescents with special gifts and talents is that of a. vocational focus versus academic focus.

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b. acceleration versus enrichment. c. inclusion versus separate schools. d. grade-skipping versus acceleration.

37. Early enrollment in college courses has worked particularly well for adolescents who are gifted in a. writing. b. the arts. c. math. d. science.

15.2 True/False Questions 1. Students who are gifted are not likely to achieve their full potential without education tailored to their advanced abilities.

2. Gifted students come from all racial, ethnic, and cultural populations, as well as from all economic strata.

3. Students may be exceptionally capable in one area of intelligence but not in others.

4. Leadership is included in all but two states’ definitions of gifted and talented learners.

5. There are many proven applications of the theory of multiple intelligences to teaching.

6. Genetic factors contribute to giftedness.

7. Environmental factors such as socioeconomic level have little effect on intelligence.

8. Students in all non-White racial or ethnic groups are underrepresented in gifted education.

9. Twice exceptional students are more likely to have A DHD than to have autism.

10. Many gifted adolescents struggle significantly with the transition from high school to higher education or employment.

15.3 Short Answer Questions 1. Why is there so much emphasis on developing the talents of all students with less special attention to those who may be identified as gifted or talented? What are some pros and cons of this position? (Provide at least two "pros" and two "cons.")

2. What factors seem to influence intelligence? How do each contribute to giftedness?

3. Why is it difficult to identify giftedness in school-age children, especially when considering multicultural differences? List three principles that should be followed to help ensure fairness in identification.

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4. Describe what is meant by the statement, "America is ambivalent toward students with special gifts or talents."

5. Describe three strategies that could be used to promote identification of equal proportions of all ethnic groups as having special gifts or talents.

6. Describe three possible reasons why females are underrepresented in programs for giftedness.

7. Describe acceleration and discuss the advantages of this approach in meeting the educational needs of students who are gifted or talented.

8. List four barriers to developing better education for young children who appear to have special gifts or talents and the early identification and programming for these children.

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Test Answer Key 15.1 Multiple-Choice Questions 1. d 2. a 3. c 4. d 5. a 6. b 7. d 8. d 9. c 10. a 11. b 12. c 13. a 14. c 15. b 16. d 17. a 18. c 19. d 20. c 21. b 22. c 23. a 24. b 25. d 26. d 27. b 28. a 29. c 30. d 38 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

31. c 32. a 33. a 34. d 35. b 36. b 37. c 15.2 True/False Questions 1. True 2. True 3. True 4. False 5. False 6. True 7. False 8. False 9. True 10. False 15.3 Short Answer Questions 1. There is an underlying philosophical question regarding giftedness that makes many reluctant to provide services to those who seem to be at an advantage already. Most people seem to feel a moral obligation to help those who have a difference that prevents them from achieving ordinary levels of competence unless they are given special help. In the case of a person with special gifts, we may question our moral obligation to help someone who is already accelerated become even better. The emphasis today is on programs to develop gifts and talents of all students, but some people feel the trend toward downplaying giftedness may not be very wise.

Reactions will vary: "pros" might include that we should spend our limited resources on those most in need; "cons" might include that we should expend more energy on those most likely to make significant, useful contributions to society.

2. We are all combinations of the influences of our genetic inheritances and social and physical environments; therefore, we must focus on environments that foster gifted performance. Researchers used to try to assign quantitative values to genetics and environment to say how much each contributed to intelligence. Most professionals today agree that this is pointless, as it is impossible to separate the effects of one on the other. Genetic and other biological factors (e.g., neurological functioning and nutrition): Although giftedness may be determined in part by one's genetic 39 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

inheritance, genetic combinations are exceedingly complex and not distributed by race or socioeconomic level. Genetic differences in abilities apply within groups, not between them. Children who are obviously born with exceptional capabilities are subject to many social influences and must interact with their environmental context.

Social factors (e.g., family, school, peer group, community): Stimulation, opportunities, expectations, demands, and rewards for performance all affect children's learning. There is a correlation between socioeconomic level and I Q, due in part to biased tests.

3. Measurement is a complicated matter: some components of giftedness cannot be assessed by traditional means; in addition, the particular definition of giftedness will determine how test scores are interpreted. Too often, best practices have been ignored and educators have not taken into account the varied definitions of giftedness nor recognized the effects of cultural variation on children's behavior.

Principles include: assessments go beyond a narrow conception of talent; separate and appropriate identification strategies used to identify different aspects of giftedness; reliable and valid instruments and used with underserved populations; each child is viewed as an individual and the limits of a single score are recognized; a multiple-measure/multiple-criteria approach is followed; identification and placement are based on individual students' needs and abilities rather than on numbers who can be served.

4. In American culture, it is difficult to elicit sympathy and next to impossible to arrange sustained public support for education that meets the needs of gifted and talented students. American society seems to enjoy the good things that people with extraordinary gifts produce, but dislike acknowledging superior intellectual performance. People argue that it is un-American to segregate students to give them extra instruction and resources.

5. Appropriate identification and programming for students with special gifts or talents will result in including approximately equal proportions of all ethnic groups. This proportionality may be achieved if efforts are made to: devise and adopt culturally sensitive identification criteria; provide counseling to raise educational and career aspirations of students in underrepresented groups; make high-achieving models from all ethnic groups available; retain underrepresented ethnic students in programs; adopt a workable system to ensure inclusion of underrepresented groups; build relationships with the families of minority children.

6. Females comprise the largest group of neglected students with special gifts or talents. Cultural factors work against the recognition of females with special gifts or talents: females simply have not been provided with equal opportunity and motivation to enter many academic disciplines or careers. Some factors that contribute to this situation may include lower parental expectations for females, overemphasis on and glamorization of gender differences, school and societal stereotypes of gender roles, and educational practices detrimental to achievement such as expectations of less independence for girls.

7. Acceleration involves moving a student ahead of her or his age peers in one or more areas of the curriculum. Examples are skipping one or more grades, attending 40 Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

classes with students in higher grades for one or a few specific subjects, early entrance to school, curriculum compacting (rapid, focused curriculum), college course enrollment while in high school, advanced placement, credit by examination, telescoping curriculum, and early enrollment in college. Advantages are that appropriate curricula and instructional methods are available only in settings for students who are older and that by being grouped with older students who are their academic peers in classes in which they are not always first or correct, students acquire more realistic self-concepts and learn tolerance for those whose abilities are not as great as their own.

8. Barriers inhibiting development of better education include: lack of parental advocacy, lack of appropriate teacher training, an emphasis on older students with extraordinary ability, financial constraints, and legal roadblocks such as laws preventing early admission to school. Barriers to early identification and programming include school policies and ideologies that refuse to advance students in grade beyond their chronological age peers.

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