Wheelchair Use & Public Transportation in Amsterdam: Master Thesis Josephine Rees (2022) by Josephine Rees

GraduateSchoolofSocial&BehaviouralSciences MScSocialPolicy&PublicHealth MasterThesis “You’reinadifferentworldifyouhaveadisability” Exploringwheelchairusers’livedexperienceofpublictransportationin Amsterdam,TheNetherlands JosephineRees 3956520 DateSubmitted: July6th,2022 Course: MasterProjectSocialPolicy&PublicHealth CourseCode: 201800158 UtrechtUniversitySupervisor: RoyGigengack InternshipOrganisation: Disability Studies in Nederland InternshipSupervisor: AnnicaBrummel

Thankyoutoeachparticipantforsharingyourstorywithme.Yourwillingnesstocontribute allowedmetomakethisthesiswhatitistoday.IhopeyoucanrecogniseyourselfinwhatI have Thankwritten.youtomythesissupervisor,RoyGigengack,andmyinternshipsupervisor,Annica Brummel,foryouradviceandenthusiasmduringtheresearchprocess. Thankyoutomyfamily—Mama,Papa,andConnie—forallyoursupport. ThankyoutoKishahNicholson,EsmeeGrift,andNinadeBakkerforyourfriendshipand gezelligheid.Icouldnothavewishedforabetterthesisgroup. Lastbutnotleast,thankyoutomyfriendEvaFijenforthatparticularconversationover dinnerin2020.Yourwordsofencouragementinspiredmetoapplyforthisprogrammeand getmyMaster’sdegree.

Acknowledgements

*Titlepagequote:“You’reinadifferentworldifyouhaveadisability”(Annelies)

3 Abstract

Theoryemphasisesthatdifferentactantsinteracttoshapeanexperience,Latour’sapproach furtherguidedtheanalysis.Themethodologyincluded11semi-structuredinterviewswith12 manualandelectricwheelchairuserslivinginAmsterdam.Interviewsweresupplementedby participantobservationtrips,a Gemeente Vervoerbedrijf (GVB)accessibilityworkshop,and relevantphotos.Findingssuggestthatwheelchairusers’livedexperienceofpublic transportationinAmsterdamisshapedbythebuiltenvironment(platforms,lifts,and accessibilitysignage),staffandpassengers(provisionofhelp,staffknowledge,andalackof passengerawareness),andpolicies(thewheelchairassistancepolicy,thewheelchairpriority policy,andprohibitedescalatoruse).Thisresearchthusconcludesthatwheelchairusers' experiencesofpublictransportationinAmsterdamarebasedontheinteractionofdifferent actantsinrelationtothebuiltenvironment,staffandpassengers,andpolicies.Whilepublic transportationcanbeexperiencedpositively,acombinationofelementsfrequentlyconspires

Publictransportationhasbeenrecognisedasacrucialmeanstoparticipateinsociety. Researchindicates,however,thatwheelchairusersacrosstheglobestillfacearangeof physicalandsocialbarrierstopublictransportationuse.WhileTheNetherlandsratifiedthe UnitedNationsConventionontheRightsofPersonswithDisabilitiesin2016—which includesanemphasisonaccessibletransportation—sourceshighlightthatAmsterdam’s publictransportationstilldoesnotmeettheneedsofitswheelchairusers.Withthisinmind, thisthesisexploreshowwheelchairusersexperiencepublictransportationintheDutch capital.Thisthesisaddressesthefollowingquestion: How do wheelchair users experience public transportation in Amsterdam? Toprovideaframeworktounderstandthese experiences,aphenomenologicalapproachwasadopted.AsBrunoLatour’sActor-Network

4 tocreatemajorchallengesforwheelchairusers.Amsterdam’spolicymakersandpublic transportationauthorities,withtheinputofwheelchairusersthemselves,mustthereforework togethertoachieveanaccessiblepublictransportationexperienceforeveryone.

Chapter3:Policies p.34-39 Discussion p.40-46

FindingsinRelationtoOtherResearch p.41-43

EmpiricalChapters p.25-39

ListofFigures&Tables p.8

5 TableofContents

Introduction p.9-20 WheelchairUse&PublicTransportation p.9-11 LiteratureReview p.11-15

TheoreticalFramework p.15-19 ResearchQuestion p.19-20 Methods p.21-24 StudyDesign p.21-22 Participants p.22-23

Chapter1:TheBuiltEnvironment p.25-29

Chapter2:Staff&Passengers p.29-34

OverviewoftheFindings p.40-41

Definitions p.7

Sampling&Recruitment p.23 DataCollectionInstruments p.23-24 DataAnalysis p.24

Strengths&LimitationsoftheStudy p.43-44

ImplicationsoftheFindings p.45-46

Appendix3:ParticipantObservationSummaries p.60-65

Conclusion p.46 References p.47-54 Appendix p.55-71

Appendix2:Reflexivity p.57-59

Appendix1:PublicTransportationPhotos p.55-56

Appendix4: Gemeente Vervoerbedrijf WorkshopSummary p.66-67

Appendix5:TopicList p.68-69 Appendix6:CodeTree p.70-71

Electricwheelchair Awheelchairthatiselectric-powered ormotorised.

Definitions

Disability A“physicalormentalimpairmentthat hasa ‘substantial’and‘long-term’negativeeffectonyour abilitytodonormaldailyactivities”(UnitedKingdom Government,2022,para.1).

Socialaccessibility Aplaceorexperienceissocially accessiblewhen wheelchairusersfeelwelcome,aretreatedrespectfully, andareproperlyhelped.

Accessibility Ifsomethingisaccessible,itmeansthatpeople“cando whattheyneedtodoinasimilaramountoftimeand effortassomeonethatdoesnothaveadisability.It meansthatpeopleareempowered,canbeindependent, andwillnotbefrustratedbysomethingthatispoorly designedorimplemented”(Duggin,2016,para.6).This thesisfocusesonaccessibilityinthecontextof wheelchairuse.

Manualwheelchair Awheelchairthatismanually powered.

Physicalaccessibility Aplaceorexperienceis physicallyaccessiblewhenthe builtenvironment(i.e.human-madeinfrastructure) caterstotheneedsofwheelchairusersandallowsthem toindependentlymanoeuvreandusethespace.

Publictransportation InthecontextofAmsterdam, publictransportation referstothetrams,metros,buses,andferriesoperated bythe Gemeente Vervoerbedrijf (‘Municipality TransportCompany’)andthetrainsoperatedby the Nederlandse Spoorwegen (‘DutchNational Railway’).

8 ListofFigures&Tables Figure1:TheActor-NetworkTheory p.18 Table1:Participants p.22 Table2:ANT,WheelchairUsers&PublicTransportation p.42

Alsoknownas“transportdisability”(Pyer&Tucker,2017,p

9 Introduction

Recentresearchsuggeststhatwheelchairusersstillfacearangeofphysicalandsocial barrierstotheuseofpublictransportation.Inaccessiblelayouts,brokenlifts,crowdedspaces, andnegativeattitudesofpublictransportationstaffarejustafewexamples(Chowdhury& Park,2018;Stjernborg,2019;Velho,2019).Thiscombinationofinadequateaccessibility

Alackofsuitable,affordabletransportationdenieswheelchairusersthechanceofmobility andfullparticipationinsociety(Lucas,2012).

AkeytargetoftheSustainableDevelopmentGoalsfor2030isproviding“accesstosafe, affordable,accessibletransportsystemsforall”(GlobalGoals,2022,Target11.2).Partofthis targetincludescreatingpublictransportationsystemssuitedtothecapabilitiesofpeoplewith aphysicaldisability,includingwheelchairusers.Withover1billionpeopleworldwide experiencingsomeformofdisabilityandapproximately65millionpeople(1%oftheglobal population)whouseawheelchair,theimportanceofmakingpublictransportationinclusive forpeoplewithreducedmobilityisgainingtractiononaninternationalscale(WorldHealth Organisation,Public2008).transportationhasbeenrecognisedasacrucialmeanstoparticipateinsociety (Lucas,2012).Publictransportationprovidesaccesstoopportunitiesforeducation, employment,medicalservices,leisureactivities,andcommunityengagement(Chatterjeeet al.,2019;Stjernborg,2019).Usingpublictransportationcanbeespeciallyimportantfor wheelchairusers,astheiraccesstootherformsofprivatetransportisoftenlimited(Jollyet al.,2006;Stjernborg,2019).Whenaccessibilityofpublictransportationislacking,therefore, thisexacerbates“transportdisadvantage”(Lucas,2012,p.105) forpeoplewithadisability1

WheelchairUse&PublicTransportation

1)orthe“travel gap”(Jollyetal,2006,p 8)

Thisthesisexploreswheelchairusers’livedexperienceofpublictransportationinthecontext ofAmsterdam,TheNetherlands.TheNetherlandsratifiedtheUnitedNationsConventionon theRightsofPersonswithDisabilities(UNCRPD)in2016(UnitedNations,2016).This includesacommitmenttothe“identificationandeliminationofobstaclesandbarriersto accessibility[of]...transportation”(UNCRPD,2006,Article9).Italsoensuresaccess“onan equalbasiswithothers”(UNCRPD,2006,Article9). InthespiritoftheUNCRPD,the Gemeente Vervoerbedrijf or‘MunicipalityTransport Company’(GVB)operatingAmsterdam’smetros,buses,trams,andferriesclaimstobe “hospitable,connecting,andreliable”(GemeenteVervoerbedrijf,2022a,para.1)and“is workinghardtomakepublictransportationaccessibletoalltravellers''(Gemeente Vervoerbedrijf,2022b,para.1).Similarly,the Nederlandse Spoorwegen or‘DutchNational Railway’(NS)operatingAmsterdam’strainsstrivesfor“equaltravelpossibilities” (NederlandseSpoorwegen,2022a,para.1)forallcommuterswithadisability.Inpractice, however,severalsourcesindicatethatDutchpublictransportationstilldoesnotmeetthe needsofwheelchairusersinAmsterdam(NetherlandsInstituteforHumanRights,2017; Beumkes,2018;Lauria,2021).

10 infrastructureand(lackof)publicawarenesscreatesa“disablingenvironment”(Imrie& Kumar,1998,p.372),whichlimitswheelchairusersintheirabilitytotravelindependently andperpetuatessocialexclusion(Wilson,2003;Lucas,2012).Disabilityisthereforeseenas farmorethanjustaphysicalimpairment.Rather,itisan“interactionbetweenindividual capacitiesandaperson’sphysicalandsocialenvironment”(Jaffe&deKoning,2016,p.47).

AFocusonAmsterdam,TheNetherlands

Thefirstrelevantthemeaddressedthroughouttheliteratureisthebuiltenvironment.

Ifthebuiltenvironmentisinaccessible,itis“difficulttouse[publictransportation]in thefirstplace”(Chowdhury&Park,2018,p.3).Examplesofinaccessibilityincludeuneven streetsurfaces,inadequatedisabledparkingspaces,andobstructedfootpaths—allofwhich

Thissectionhighlightsthemostrelevantliteraturetodate.Itiscategorisedinto:the (disabling)builtenvironment,barrierstotheaccessibilityofpublictransportation,and literaturefocusedonTheNetherlands.

The(Disabling)BuiltEnvironment

Referringtohuman-madestructuresandfacilitiesthatpeopleencounterintheirdailylives, thebuiltenvironmentcaneitherhelporhinderwheelchairusersandhasa“significantimpact ontheeaseofjourneysmadebypeoplewithdisabilities”(Chowdhury&Park,2018,p.3). Scholarshighlightthatthebuiltenvironmentplaysaroleintheexperienceofpublic transportationnotjustatthesiteofpublictransportationitself(e.g.insideatrainstationora traincarriage),butfromthemomentawheelchairuserleavestheirstartingpointtothe momenttheyarriveattheirdestination(Wilson,2003;Chowdhury&Park,2018).

LiteratureReview

Tounderstandhowwheelchairusersexperiencepublictransportation,itiscrucialto understandwheelchairusers’ownperspectives.Byfocusingonthepersonallivedexperience ofwheelchairusers,therefore,thisthesisaimstoexplorewhatusingawheelchairin Amsterdam’spublictransportationsystemislikeandwhatfactorsshapetheseexperiences.In doingso,IhopetoguideDutchpolicymakerstoimprovetheopportunitiesforwheelchair users’mobility,independence,andfreedomtoparticipateinsociety

Scholarsalsoemphasiselimited“personalandmanoeuvrablespace”(Velhoetal., 2016,p.29),especiallyduringpeaktraveltimes.Forwheelchairusers,limitedspacecan fosterfeelingsofinsecurityandalackofsafety(TransportforLondon,2010;Stjernborg, 2019).Pooraccessibilityinformationprovisioninpublictransportationhasalsobeen discussedthroughoutpastpublications(Jollyetal.,2006;Chowdhury&Park,2018). Withinthebuiltenvironment,literaturefurtherpointstotheroleoftechnology.

Technicalfaultsandchallengesintransportdesigncanmakepublictransportationuse particularlydifficultforwheelchairusers(Asplundetal.,2012;Velhoetal.,2016).Examples includebrokenrampsorrampswithanexceptionallysteepinclinethatmakeboarding“more difficultandalightingmoredangerous”(Velhoetal.,2016,p.28).Thoughrampsaremeant

12 canmakeitchallengingorimpossibleforwheelchairuserstoindependentlyreachtheir desiredmodeoftransport(Chowdhury&Park,2018).Aninaccessiblebuiltenvironmentis thusarguedtobe“disabling”(Imrie&Kumar,1998,p.372),discriminatingagainst wheelchairusersbyneglectingtheiraccessibilityneeds.Ratherthanonlyfocusingonthe accessibilityofactualmodesofpublictransportation,wemustthereforeconsidertheentire “transportchain…[including]alltheproblemsdisabledpeoplemightexperiencealongthe route”(Wilson,2003,p.11). BarrierstotheAccessibilityofPublicTransportation Buildingonthedisablingenvironment,severalstudieshighlightphysicalaccessibility barriersofpublictransportation.Physicalaccessibilitybarriersincludepoorinfrastructure designandgapsbetweenthetrainandplatform(Jollyetal.,2006;TransportforLondon, 2010).Otherliteraturepointstoalackoflifts,steepramps,andinadequate wheelchair-friendlytoiletsatstations(Chowdhury&Park,2018).

Inadditiontophysicalbarriers,researchbyVelhoetal.(2016)highlightssocial barrierstopublictransportationuse.Socialbarriersariseviainteractionswithother passengersorpublictransportationstaff.Thefactthatdesignatedwheelchairareasareoften occupiedbyotherpassengersorprams,forexample,exacerbatesalreadylimited manoeuvrabilityandcaninduceanxietyinwheelchairusers(Velhoetal.,2016).

Othersocialbarriersincludepassengersrefusingtostepasideforwheelchairusers; passengersfailingtomovetheirprams;busdriversforgettingwheelchairusersneedtogetoff ataparticularstop;andalackofknowledgeofpublictransportationstaffonhowtocorrectly usethebusramp(TransportforLondon,2010;Velhoetal.,2016).Negativereactionsof otherpassengerscanformanadditionalbarrier,including“nosyquestions…pushingtheir wheelchairwithoutasking,orevenoutrightverbalandphysicalabuse”(Velhoetal.,2016,p. 30).Manyoftheseexperienceshavebeenfoundtoincreasewheelchairusers’feelingsof “stigma[and]publichumiliation”(Velhoetal.,2016,p.28),influencingtheirtravelchoices andtransportmodes(TransportforLondon,2010).Overall,theliteraturehighlightsthatthese physicalandsocialaccessibilitybarriershavenegativeconsequencesandthepotentialto excludewheelchairusersevenfurther(Velhoetal.,2016;Stjernborg,2019).

13 tohelpwheelchairusers,rampswithasteepinclinecanresultinaccidentsandshoulder injuriesduetothepushforceneededtogetup(Velhoetal.,2016). Imrie&Kumar(1998)furtherarguethatthebuiltenvironmentcanhavedirect emotionalimplications,leavingwheelchairuserstofeel“humiliatedanddegraded”(Imrie& Kumar,1998,p.365).Overall,scholarsargueitiscrucialtoremovephysicalbarriersfor“the fullparticipationofdisabledpeopleinthetransportsystem”(Stjernborg,2019,p.4).

LiteratureFocusedonTheNetherlands

LiteratureaboutwheelchairuseonpublictransportationinTheNetherlandsislimited.One notablereportincludesa2019publicationbythe Alliantie VN Verdrag Handicap (‘Alliance oftheUNCRPD’).Thereportarguesimprovementsmustbemadetopublictransportation acrossTheNetherlands.Althoughgoalsweresettomakeallbusandtrainstationsaccessible by2011,forexample,thishasnotbeenachieved.Trainwheelchairassistancewasreportedly onlyavailableataquarterofDutchstations(AlliantieVNVerdragHandicap, 2019).Bus accessibilitywasconsideredinadequate,withdriversdrivingpastwheelchairusers; unwillingnessofdriverstoproviderampassistance;“andaquarterofDutchbusramps reportedlybroken”(AlliantieVNVerdragHandicap, 2019,p.18).Thereportalsohighlights theneedformoreaccessibilitytrainingforpublictransportationstaff(AlliantieVNVerdrag Handicap,2019). AfurtherstudycommissionedbytheNetherlandsInstituteforHumanRights(2017) investigatedwheelchairaccessibilityofbustransportationinTheNetherlands.Basedonover 450anonymous‘mysteryguest’wheelchairtestdrives,thestudyfoundpatternsof inadequateassistanceprovision(14%ofjourneys);brokenwheelchairramps(11%of journeys);andunpleasantordisrespectfultreatmentbyothers,oftenthedriver(7%of journeys)(NetherlandsInstituteforHumanRights,2017).Whiletherewasacertain “reluctance…totravelbybus”(NetherlandsInstituteforHumanRights,2017,p.1), wheelchairusersstillreported“manypositiveexperiences”(NetherlandsInstituteforHuman Rights,2017,p. Recently1).,theCityofAmsterdam(2021)researchedhowpublictransportationin Amsterdamcanbemademoreaccessibleforpeoplewithaphysicaldisability.Thisresearch

wasdoneasparttwoprototypesofassistivemobileapps, Halteknop and Haltebuddy. The2 studiesfoundthatthereisaneedformoreinformationprovisioninpreparationfortravel,a needforbetterpersonalisedtraveladvicebasedonindividualdisabilities,andaneedfor frequentupdatesabouttraveldisruptions(Baas&Faber,2021).Interviewsfurther emphasisedthatparticipantsvaluedtheirindependence,treatmentbytransportstaffwasoften experiencednegatively,andvariousinfrastructurecharacteristics(e.g.theheightandwidthof tramplatforms)createdbarrierstotheuseofpublictransportation(Baas&Faber,2021).

TheNeedforFurtherResearch

nonehavefocusedsolelyonthelivedexperienceofmanualandelectricwheelchairusers livinginAmsterdam.Thisinsightintoavarietyofwheelchairusers’experiencesiscrucialto ultimatelyunderstandhowAmsterdam’spolicymakersandpublictransportationauthorities canfosteramoreaccessiblepublictransportationsystem.

Phenomenologicalanalysis“attemptstoexplorepersonalexperienceandisconcernedwith anindividual’spersonalperceptionoraccountofanobjectorevent”(Smith&Osborn,2003, 2 Haltebuddy offerstraveladviceforpeoplewithadisability.In Halteknop, travellerscanindicatethattheyneed assistanceeg toenteraspecificbusfromeg thespecificbusdriver Eventuallytheresearchofbothappsled tothecreationof Haltehulp,integratedintotheGVB’sgeneraltravelapp(Haltebuddy,2022)

Thisthesistakesaphenomenologicalapproach.Phenomenologyrefersto“thestudyofan individual’slivedexperienceswithintheworld”(Neubaueretal.,2019,p.90).

Whilevariousstudieshaveexaminedtheexperiencesofwheelchairusersonpublic transportation(Jollyetal.,2006;Asplundetal.,2012;Velhoetal.,2016;Stjernborg,2019)

TheoreticalFramework APhenomenologicalApproach

16 p.53).Phenomenologyalso“seekstodescribetheessenceofaphenomenonbyexploringit fromtheperspectiveofthosewhohaveexperiencedit”(Neubaueretal.,2019,p.91).As such,aphenomenologicalapproachisappropriatetoresearchwheelchairusers’personal experiencesofpublictransportationinAmsterdam. TheActor-NetworkTheory Tocapturethe“essenceofaphenomenon”(Neubaueretal.,2019,p.91),itiscrucialto exploreallthedifferentelementsthatshapeanexperience.BrunoLatour’sActor-Network Theory(1999)wasthereforeselectedasthetheoreticalframeworkinordertodemonstrate thecomplexityofexperience.Originatinginthe1980s,Actor-NetworkTheory(ANT) proposesthatforanexperiencetobeunderstood,itiscrucialtoexaminehowallofitsparts interact(Cresswelletal.,2010).Latourarguesthatsocialnetworksaremadeupofhuman andnon-humancomponentsandthatexperienceisformedby“amultitudeofpeopleand things”(Bencherki,2017,para.1).It“considershumanagency[aswellas]...thepowerof objectsandthewayinwhichtheinanimatecaninfluencesocialprocesses”(Payne,2017,p. 120).Withoriginsinscience&technology,ANTisalsohelpfulindemonstratingthe“roleof technology”(Cresswelletal.,2010,p.1). ANThasseveralcomponents(seeFigure1).An actant,firstly,referstoanodeinthe network,“somethingthatacts…[and]modifiesastateofaffairsbymakingaperceptible difference”(Dolwick,2009,p.39).Anactantcan“beanythingprovideditisthesourceof action”(Latour,1996,p.373).Actantscanbehuman(e.g.atrainpassengerorastaff member)ornon-human(e.g.awheelchair,alift,orapolicy),andcan“onlyactin combinationwithotheractantsandinconstellationsthatgivethe[actant]thepossibilityto act”(Cresswelletal.,2010,p.2).Whileanon-humanactant(e.g.awheelchair)maynothave

17 an intention,itstillmakesadifferencewhetheritisinthewidernetworkornot.Actantsmay alsohavemanycomponentsthemselves,meaningtheycansometimesbeatypeofsmaller networkwithinthebiggernetwork(Latour,2005).Actantscanbe mediators —thosethat causesignificantchangesinthenetwork—and intermediaries —thosethatdonotmakea difference,simplyproviding“informationandconnections”(Goodchild&Ferrari,2021,p. 5).

Theinteractionofdifferentactantsleadstoan assemblage (Elder-Vass,2019), referringto“anassemblyof[actants]”(Dolwick,2009,p.39)thatmakesupanexperience. Assemblagesconsistofmultipleactantsandcanbeconnectedtootherassemblages.To understandeachactant,therefore,itiscrucialtolookatthesub-actants(andsub-networks)it iscomposedof(Latouretal.,2012).Assemblagescontinuouslyevolve,as“socialrealityis… bothcomplexandfluid”(Cresswelletal.,2010,p.3).

CrucialtoANTisthenotionof“generalised symmetry” (Latour,1996,p.15),3 referringtotheassumptionthatallhumanandnon-humanactantshaveequalimportancein socialexperiences(Lezaun,2017)(e.g.atramconductor,thetypeofwheelchair,andapolicy holdequalweight).Actantsalso“influenceeachother”(Payne,2017,p.121).Ifanyactantis changed,added,orremovedintheassemblage,thenthe“functioningofthewholenetwork willbeaffected”(Cresswelletal.,2010,p.3).

3 Toclarifyhowthissymmetryshouldbeinterpreted,Latourhasstated:“ANTisnot,Irepeatisnot,the establishmentofsomeabsurd:'symmetrybetweenhumansandnon humans'.Tobesymmetric,forus,simply meansnottoimposeapriorispuriousasymmetryamonghumanintentionalactionandamaterialworldof causalrelations”(Latour,2005,p 76)

18 Figure1:TheActor-NetworkTheory

Ascanbeseeninthediagram,thelivedexperienceisshapedbydifferentactants,whicheachbranchoutintootheractants (andsoon)tocreateassemblages.Theseassemblagesformanetworkandinteracttoproduceanexperience. Ratherthanviewingdisability(andbyextension,wheelchairuse)solelyasan individualmedicalproblem(seenintheMedicalModelofDisability),orsolelyasasocial productwherebysociety“disablesphysicallyimpairedpeople”(Shakespeare,2017,p.197) (seenintheSocialModelofDisability),ANTcanhelptohighlightthatexperiencesare complexandcannotbereducedtosimplymedical,social,ortechnicalfactorsalone.

Inthepast,scholarshavelookedintoANTasaframeworkfordisabilitystudies (Rudnicki,2018;Zhao&Shen,2020)andtheroleofmobilitytechnologiesinenablingor disablingthemobilityofwheelchairusers(Gaete-Reyes,2015).WhileANThasbeenbriefly toucheduponinrelationtowheelchairuseonLondonbuses(Velhoetal.,2016),ANThas

Source:Author’sown (AdaptedfromLatour,2005;Dolwick,2009;andCresswelletal.,2010)

SeeAppendix2forreflectionsonthecontributionofmyownexperiencetothisresearch

Basedonpriorliteratureandmypersonalexperienceasawheelchairuser, my4 expectationbeforestartingthedatacollectionprocesswasthatthebuiltenvironment,staff andpassengers,andpolicieseachhavethepotentialtoshapeexperiencesbothpositivelyand 4

3) Howdopoliciesshapewheelchairusers’livedexperienceofpublictransportation?

1) Howdoesthebuiltenvironmentshapewheelchairusers’livedexperienceofpublic transportation?

Thisthesisaddressesthefollowingresearchquestion: Howdowheelchairusersexperience publictransportationinAmsterdam?

Here,‘publictransportation’referstoAmsterdam’strains,trams,buses,ferries,and metrosystem.Thechoiceofsub-questionswasbasedontheirabilitytodemonstratearange ofdifferentactantsthatmakeupthe‘network’ofwheelchairusers’experiences.Eachtheme persub-question(thebuiltenvironment,staffandpassengers,andpolicies)canbeviewedas anassemblageinthewidernetwork(i.e.thepublictransportationexperience).Furthermore, byfocusingonthelivedexperienceandperspectivesofwheelchairusersthemselves,the researchquestionsprovideinsightintopersonalperceptionsinlinewithaphenomenological approach(Smith&Osborn,2003).

Threesub-questionshavebeenembeddedintheresearch:

notbeenwidelyusedasaframeworkforwheelchairusersinthecontextofpublic transportation. ResearchQuestion

2) Howdostaffandpassengersshapewheelchairusers’livedexperienceofpublic transportation?

20 negatively.Inaddition,Iexpectedthatallthreethemesinteracttoformwheelchairusers’ overallexperienceofpublictransportation.

Elevensemi-structuredinterviewswereconductedwithatotalof12participants(1 interviewinvolvedtwofriends).Interviewsrangedbetween40minutes-2½hours(15hours total),someofwhichwereprecededand/orfollowedbyinformalchatsof1hourormore. Dependingonparticipantpreferences,mostinterviews(9)wereconductedin-person,atthe participants’home(7),orinacafé(2).Otherinterviews(2)wereconductedviaZoom. Interviewsalsoincludedphotoelicitation(e.g.usingmyownphotosofmetrocarriages)as thiscould“enhancetheparticipation… oftheintervieweesand…[help]thegatheringof richerdata”(Meo,2010,p.155).Eachinterviewwasrecorded,transcribed,coded,and analysed.Participantsweregivenacopyoftheirtranscript,whichenhancedrespondent validationand“memberchecking”(Birtetal.,2016,p.1802).Allparticipantsremained anonymousandchosetheirownpseudonym(seeTable1).

21 Methods

StudyDesign

Thisthesisaimstounderstandhowwheelchairusersexperiencepublictransportationin Amsterdam.Aqualitativeapproachwasthereforechoseninorderto“gaininsightinto... subjectiveexperiences”(Busettoetal.,2020,p.3).

Thestudydesignalsoincludedtwoparticipantobservationpublictransportation journeys.Participantobservationwasconsideredanappropriatemethodasitcould“generate anin-depth,multi-facetedunderstandingofacomplexissueinitsreal-lifecontext”(Croweet al.,2011,p.1).IaccompaniedCarry(anelectricwheelchairuser)onametrojourneyfrom ReigersbostoAmsterdamCentralStation,andlaterPieter(amanualwheelchairuser)ona tramjourneyfromHugodeGrootpleintoAmsterdamCentralStation.Thesepublic

22 transportationjourneysprovidedfurtherinsightintoexperiencespreviouslytalkedaboutin interviews.Inaddition,IattendedaGVBaccessibilityworkshopfortramdriversinAmsterdam.5 Theworkshopshowedpublictransportationauthorities’effortstoeducatestaffandimprove wheelchairusers’experiences.Ialsotookphotosofpublictransportation(seeAppendix1). Table1:Participants Participant Name6 Age Sex Typeofwheelchair 1 Ari 30 F Manual 2 Marion 54 F Manual 3 Annelies 34 F Manual 4 Emma 31 F Manual 5 Elisabeth* 31 F Manual 6 Pieter* 29 M Manual 7 Felix 50 M Manual 8 Rick 47 M Electric 9 Carry 56 F Electric 10 Laura 29 F Electric 11 Pip 41 F Electric 12 Abel 67 M Manual Source:Author’sown (*ElisabethandPieter,twofriends,wereinterviewedtogether). Participants ParticipantsforthisresearchwereadultwheelchairuserslivinginAmsterdam.Participants included12wheelchairusersagedbetween29-67yearsold(8femalesand4males).Eight 6 Allnamesarepseudonyms,chosenbytheparticipantsthemselves 5 SeeAppendix4foranoverviewoftheGVBaccessibilityworkshop

Datawascollectedusingin-depthsemi-structuredinterviews.Interviewswereguidedbya listof6themes(seeAppendix5).Allinterviewswererecordedwitharecordingdevice. Additionaldatawascollectedbytakingphotosinthefieldandtypingoutreflectionnotesfor interviews,participantobservationjourneys,andfortheGVBaccessibilityworkshop.Data 7 Able Amsterdam (www.ableamsterdam.com)isawebsiteaboutwheelchair

DataCollectionInstruments

Asthisresearchrequiredwheelchair-usingparticipantslivinginAmsterdam,apurposive samplingtechniquewasused.Theinclusioncriteriaformyresearchwereindividualswho usedamanualorelectricwheelchair;wereeitherfull-timeorpart-timewheelchairusers; livedinAmsterdam;andwere18+yearsold.

Sampling&Recruitment

Participantsrecruitedthrough Able Amsterdam werenotpeopleIknewpersonallypriortotheinterviews

Participantswererecruitedbycontactingrelevantorganisations(e.g. Cliëntenbelang Amsterdam),via LinkedIn,andbyapproachingwheelchairusersin-persononpublic transportation.Eventually,withpermissionfrommyuniversitysupervisor,Irecruited participantsviasocialmediapostslinkedtomyownwebsite, Able Amsterdam Snowball7 samplingledtoadditionalparticipants.

23 participantsusedamanualwheelchairand4usedanelectricwheelchair.Participants includedindividualswithdifferentphysicalabilities(forexample,variationbetween participants’abilitytowalk)andparticipantswithalifelongdisabilityoroneacquiredlaterin life.Thesamplesizeallowedforavarietyofresponseswithinthetimeconstraintsofthe research.

friendlyplacesinAmsterdam.I createdthisplatformin2018aftermyownexperienceasawheelchairuser

DataAnalysis Interviewtranscriptswereanalysedaccordingtoinductivethematicanalysis.Thisincluded “codingthe[transcript]datawithouttryingtofitintoapreexistingcodingframe”(Braun& Clarke,2006 in Nowelletal.,2017,p.8)and“organising,describing,andreporting”(Braun &Clarke,2006 in Nowelletal.,2017,p.2)emergentthemes.Codingwasdoneusing ATLAS.ti dataanalysissoftware.Acodetreewasmade with Lucidchart software(see Appendix6).

24 wasoperationalisedbydefiningkeyconcepts,eitheratthestartofthethesis(seepage6)or astermscameupthroughouttheanalysis.

EmpiricalChapters

Chapter1:TheBuiltEnvironment

InordertoexplorehowwheelchairusersexperiencepublictransportationinAmsterdam,this sectionisorganisedaccordingtothreemainthemesthatemergedfromthedata:1)Thebuilt environment,2)Staffandpassengers,and3)Policies.

Platforms

Firstly,anumberofparticipantsemphasisedthatthedesignofplatformsshapedtheirlived experienceofpublictransportationinAmsterdam.Animportantfactorwastheextentto whichthecarriagefloorandplatform“seamlesslyconnect”(Rick).Themetroplatformwas, forexample,describedtobethe“most”(Ari)accessible,asitisoften“equalinheight”(Ari) withthecarriageentrance.Thismeansthatwheelchairuserscanindependentlymanoeuvre and“don’thavetoputinanyeffort”(Pieter).DuringmypublictransportationtripwithCarry, forexample,shesmoothlyrolledintothemetrocarriageatReigersbosandexitedjustas easilyatAmsterdamCentralStation(seeAppendix3). However,itis“notthecase”(Rick)thatthemetroplatformandcarriagearealwaysat anequalheight.Lauradescribedthattheycanhavea“biggapinbetween”.ForAri—a manualwheelchairuser—thegapmeansshe“wouldnotbeabletogeton[themetro]by [herself]”andneedsherboyfriendtohelppushherinandout.ForLauraandCarry—both electricwheelchairusers—thegapmeanstheir“littlerearwheelssometimesmove

Thefirstthemethatemergedthroughoutinterviewswasthecontributionofthebuilt environmenttowheelchairusers’livedexperienceofpublictransportation.The‘built environment’referstohuman-madeinfrastructureandfacilitiesinpublictransportation.

26 horizontally”(Laura)or“turninalldirections”(Carry)whichmakesit“scaryto[goinand out]alone”(Laura). Platforminfrastructurethusshapestheextenttowhichwheelchairusers8 canbeindependent.Whetherornotthemetroplatformislevelwiththecarriagewas describedto“differdependingonthestation”(Carry). Participantssharedsimilarexperienceswiththedesignoftramplatforms.“Many [tram]platformsarenotadapted,”Anneliesexplained.Sometramplatformswereconsidered “toolow”(Emma),whichcreatesabig“heightdifference”(Emma)betweentheplatformand thetram.Asaresult,wheelchairusers“needtousearamp”(Rick)—makingthem dependentonthehelpandskillofothers, and whethertheramptechnologyactuallyworks (Rick). Asidefromtheplatformheight,Emma,Carry,andMarionalldescribedchallenges thatcancomewiththeplatformwidth.“Sometimesyoucan’tevengetonto[theplatform] becauseit’ssonarrow,”Carrysaid.Emmaadded:“Often,whenit’sbusy,youcan’tpassina wheelchair.I’mconstantlyaskingpeopleiftheycanmoveaside”.Insomecases,thetram platformwassonarrowthat“youarebasicallyonthebicyclepath”(Emma)bythetimeyou reachtheendoftheramp.Marionrecalledasimilarexperience: There’sastopjustpast[the]AlbertCuypMarket.Whentheyputtherampdownto getoffthe[tram],you’reontotheroad…There’snowhereforyoutogetdown…it comesdownontothekerb,butthere’snokerbleft…[andyouendup]infrontof Duecars.tothevariationinplatforms,severalparticipantshavelearnedtotakeparticular routesforaneasierexperience.DuringmypublictransportationtripwithPieter—amanual wheelchairuser—hehadthechoiceoftwotramstopstogetfromHugodeGrootpleinto 8 WhileotherpeoplecannotphysicallyhelpLauramoveherelectricwheelchairduetoitsweight,theycan provideinstructionsaboutwhichdirectionsheneedstoturn

27 AmsterdamCentralStation.Pieterdeliberatelychosethelowerplatform,asheknewthis wouldallowhimtoenterthetramindependently(seeAppendix3).Learningtonavigatethe accessibilityofpublictransportationwasechoedbyFelix,whosaid“[you]gettoknowyour wayaround”.Rickalsoexplainedthathispastexperiencewithpublictransportationhas taughthimwhattoanticipateandwheretogo. Lifts Participantsalsoemphasisedthatliftsshapedtheirlivedexperienceofpublictransportation. Overall,participantsexplainedthatstationliftsinAmsterdamare“brokenquiteoften” (Elisabeth).Pieter,forexample,said“theliftatAmsterdamZuid[Station]fromthetramto thetrainisbasicallyalwaysbroken”.CarrymentionedtheIJPassageplatformliftin AmsterdamCentralStationoftendoesnotwork.Abelsimilarlyrecalledthat“oneofthelifts is[usually]broken”attheAmstelveensewegmetrostop.AccordingtoAnnelies,aparticular liftatSloterdijkStationwas“brokenformorethantwoyears”.Therecurrenceofbrokenlifts wasreiteratedduringbothpublictransportationjourneyswithPieterandCarry,duringwhich atotaloffourliftswereoutoforder(seeAppendix 3).9

Brokenliftsmaketheexperienceofpublictransportationconsiderablymore challenging(Ari;Rick).Thisispartlybecausebrokenliftscanmakeorbreakthe accessibilityofamodeoftransport.Rickexplained:“I’dconsiderthemetrotobethemost accessible,butthenthelifthastowork.Themomenttheliftdoesn’twork,[themetro]isa terribly inaccessiblething”.Anneliessimilarlysaid, “Imean,Iwanttogo[withpublic transportation]moreoften,butiftheliftsdon’tworkthenIstillcan’tgettothemetro”.

9 Fortunately,PieterwasabletousetheescalatorandCarrycoulduseanalternativelift

Anneliesthusemphasisedthe“wholesystem”hastoworkproperlyinorderforwheelchair userstoutilisepublictransportation. ForAri,brokenliftshavebeenupsetting,“stressful”,andcan“ruin[her]day”.Ari explained:“[It’sbecause]youwerejustgoingsomewhereandthensuddenly…Ohmy God…Icannotgetout[ofthestation]”.Rickexplainedthatwhenthingslikethishappenit “makeshimfeelreallydisabled,becausethen[he]can’tparticipate”. Whenthereisnoalternativeworkinglift,brokenlifts“generallymeanhavingtotake amuchlongerroute”(Rick).Pieterhasarrivedlatetoappointmentsasaresult,whileArihas hadtocancelplansalltogether.ThehighfrequencyofbrokenliftshasledAnneliesto “consciouslyleavethehouseearlier”andmeansher“trustinpublictransportationis completelygone”. Signage Severalparticipantsalsodiscussedtheimportanceofaccessibilitysignageinshapingtheir livedexperienceofpublictransportation.Thisincludeswheelchairiconsmarkingaccessible routesorsignsfordesignatedwheelchairspaces.Goodsignagecanhelpwheelchairusersto know“where[they]shouldbegoing”(Ari)andcaneaseinteractionswithotherpassengers byremindingothersthataparticularcarriagehas“awheelchairarea”(Ari).

Someparticipantsfeltthat“signagecanbebetter”(Marion),particularlystation signageindicatinghowtogettothelift(Marion;Pieter).Pieter,forexample,hasoften “reallyhadtolookforthelift”,especiallywhenheisatastationhehasnotbeentobefore. Marionechoedthissentimentandelaboratedonhowinadequatesignagehasshapedher experienceofpublictransportation:

Signageisnotalwaysverygoodaboutwheretheliftis.Youcomeoffandthenyougo onewaydownthemetroandthenyoudiscoveralltheelevatorsareat that endofthe metro…Ifyou’vegottowheelalongthelengthoftheplatform,itissmooth…Butto tryandgettotheotherend,Imean,itallcostsenergy…Ittakesawayfromthe enjoymentofwhatyou’regoingtodo. Anneliesfurtherhighlightedthatthemerepresenceofsignageisnotenough—ithas tobelegibleinordertoactuallyhelp.Thestickerthatindicateswhotocontactintheeventof abrokenlift,forexample,isoftenplacedtoohighforwheelchairusersandhas“largerletters andsmallerletters”(Annelies).Thesmallerlettersinparticularareimpossibletoreadifyou areseatedinawheelchair(seeAppendix1,Photo7).

Chapter2:Staff&Passengers

Thesecondthemethatemergedthroughoutinterviewswasthecontributionofstaffand passengerstowheelchairusers’livedexperienceofpublictransportation.Participants emphasisedthatinteractionswithpublictransportationstaffandpassengersshaped perceptionsof“socialaccessibility”(Rick),concernedwithwhetherwheelchairusersare treatedrespectfully,arehelpedproperly,and“feelwelcome”(Pip). ProvidingHelp Participantshighlightedthatstaffandpassengerspartlyshapedlivedexperiencesofpublic transportationbywhetherornottheyprovidehelp.Staffweredescribedtobe“helpful”(Pip) and“positive”(Emma).Passengerswereperceivedasequally“kind”(Abel)and“friendly” (Pip).Helpwasregularlyoffered,which—whenneededandconsentedtobywheelchair users—hashelpedparticipantsoutofchallengingsituationsandmadeforaneasierpublic transportationjourney(Abel;Emma;Pieter).

Thoughstaffandpassengerscouldbehelpful,however,“theyaren’talwaysequally adept”(Abel).Sincebecomingawheelchairuserafewyearsago,therefore,Abelhaslearned toinstructthosewhohelphimonpublictransportation.Elisabethagreed,explainingthat “[you]learntogivepeopletasks.Youjusthavetobeveryclear”. Participantsmadeadistinctionbetweenthepeoplethat offer tohelpandpeoplethat assumeyouneedhelpandact without asking.Mostparticipantsdidnotwelcomethelatter Marion,forexample,describedhow“peoplejustgrabthewheelchairandmoveyouback, becausetheyseethatsomeoneelseneedsspace.It’slikeyou’vegotnobrainbecauseyou’re sittinginawheelchair”.ForCarry,peopleunnecessarilypushingher“made[her]nervous”. Elisabethwasleftfeeling“unhappy”asthisunwantedhelpfuelledherinsecuritiesabout beingperceivedbyothersas“helplessanddependent”.ForFelix,theseencountershaveled toangerandmadepublictransportationjourneysfrustrating.“Youcan’tjustgrabme,”Felix reiterated,“Thiswheelchairisanextensionofmybody.So[ifyoumovemywheelchair], you’retouching me…It’snotmychair,it’s part of my body”.

SometimesIhavemywheelchairbehindme,Igrabitinacertainwaywithonehand andapolewiththeother,andthenIkindofpushmyselfoutandlandinthe wheelchair.Butthensomeonewho thinks they’rebeinghelpfulpicksupmy wheelchair.Firstly,they’vemademelosemybalance.Secondly,Ican’tlandin thewheelchairanymore.Thenthepersongrabsmychairandputsitsomewhere.It’s really

Thoughirritating.theseexperiencesweredescribedbybothelectricandmanualwheelchair users,participantspointedoutthathavingawheelchairwithpushhandlesencouraged

Inaddition,Pieteremphasisedthatmomentswhenpassengersorstaffunnecessarily stepinarepreciselywhen“thingscangowrong”.Pieterexplained:

PastexperienceswithpassengershavealsotaughtPieterhowtorespondtounwanted help.Pieterexplained: Iimmediatelysay“no”. Really clearly.Idon’tsay“no,thankyou”anymore, becausewith“no,thankyou,”[I’velearnedthat]sometimestheydon’thearthe“no” andonlythe“thankyou”andtheythinkit’sa“yes”.SonowIjustsay“no”.

Incontrasttoallotherparticipants,Abelwastheonlyonewhosepublictransportation experienceswerenotnegativelyshapedbypeopletouchinghiswheelchairwithouthis permission.“Ialwaysthink,ifpeoplewanttogivemealittlepush, go on, just do it. Then youcanfeelgoodtoo,”Abelsaid.

31 unwantedassistance.“Handlesareaninvitation,”Marionexplained.Marion,Elisabeth,and Pieterallspeculatedtheyhavelesspeoplemovingtheirwheelchaironpublictransportation now,since—duetothese“really irritating”(Elisabeth)interactions—theypurposely acquiredawheelchairwithouthandles(Marion;Elisabeth;Pieter).

Inthesesituations,Laurahasfeltespecially“humiliated”whenbystandersalsodid notoffersupport.Laurarecountedaparticularlyupsettingexperience: …Andthen[thetramconductor]said,“Idon’tfeellike[puttingtherampout]”. Ofcourse,Iwas really triggered…soIstartedcrying.ButIwasreallyangrytoo,so

Whiletheparticipantsmentionedabovedescribedpassengersandstaffofferinghelp, otherssharedexperiencesinwhichpeoplefailed toassistwhenhelpwasneeded.“Youhave [staff]thatwanttohelpyou,and[staff]thatdon't,”Carryexplained.Staffhave,forexample, refusedtoputthewheelchairrampout.Whilesomejust“didn’tfeellikeit”(Annelies; Laura),othersdidnotwanttorisk“breakingtheirfakenails”(Pip).Forcertainstaff,refusal stemmedfromfeelingpressuretokeeptothetimeschedule,worriedthattherampwould taketoolongandcausethemtobelate(Laura;Rick).

32 Isaid,“You can’t do this.You have totakeme.Thisisagainstthelaw”.Andthena passengersaidtome,“Ma’am,youshouldn’tcomplainsomuch”. Asaresultoftheseexperiences,Laurahaslearnedtodevelop“thickskin”.Elisabeth similarlytalkedaboutputtingup“atypeofarmour”.ForLaura,pastpassengerinteractions nowmeanshegoesintopublictransportationwithacertainmentality,anticipating challengingsocialinteractions: I’venoticedthatI’vegotastrongmindset.It’spartlysomethingIhaveinme,and partlysomethingI’vetaughtmyself.Becausewithoutit,yougetnowhere.So,I alreadygoin[topublictransportation]withtheideaof, Okay, here we go.I’malready preparedfortheworst. Knowledge InAmsterdam’sbusesandtrams,staffmembersoperatetherampthatallowswheelchair userstoenterandexit.Oneofthemostrecurringexperiencessharedbyparticipantswasthat stafflackedtheknowledgeofhowtousetheseramps. WhileEmma“oftenencounteredbusdriversthatdon’tknowhowtherampworks”, Anneliesclaimedthat“some[staff]don’tknowhowitworksatall”.Officially,driversand conductorshavetoensuretheprovisionofhelpforwheelchairusers,i.e.theuseoftheramp —orfindsomeoneelsewhocan(Rick)—butthisisnotalwaysthecase.Whilemanual wheelchairusersmaystill“havethepowertorollin…andout[withhelp]”(Rick),the weightofelectricwheelchairsmeansitisrarelypossiblewithoutaramp.Carryhas, therefore,beentoldbydriversto“justwaitforthenexttram”.Rick,however,oftenchooses towaitforthenextvehicleinthesesituations,asit“coststheleastamountofenergy” comparedtoinvolvingexternalsupport.Whicheveroption,thislackofstaffknowledge

33 meanswheelchairusers’publictransportationjourneysareextendedordelayedandcancost “alotofenergy”(Carry). ForEmma,thefrequencyofthesesituationsmeansshe“[avoids]10 thebusasmuchaspossible”.11 Staffweredescribedtohaveshapedwheelchairusers’experienceofpublic transportationmorepositivelythroughtheknowledgethatthey do haveandshare.This knowledgeallowsparticipantstomakeinformeddecisionsthatreducecomplications throughouttheirjourney.

Laura,forexample,explainedthatshecannotusealltramstopsastheydonotall haveadroppedkerb. Toknowwhichstopisaccessible,LauracaneitherchecktheGVB12 appor“asktheconductorwhereyouneedtogetout”.Staffknowledgecanalsoinform wheelchairuserswhenroadworksmeanthatstopsthatarenormallyaccessiblesuddenlyare not.Rickexplained:“Youoftenhavetemporary[tram]stops.Thoseconcretethingstheyput down.Ican’tdoanythingwiththat.So,I’drather[thestaff]tellmeinadvance,thenI’ll chooseadifferentroute”.WhenRickwasoncenot informed,hesuddenlyfoundhisintended stopwasinaccessibleandhadtomakeadetour.“Ihadtodrivebackfromthenextstop,” Ricksaid,“LuckilyIcoulddrivebackquiteeasily.Mywheelchaircandrivereasonablywell, but[thesituation]isn’thandy”. LackofAwareness DescribedbyFelixas“obliviousness”,severalparticipantsalsotalkedabouthowpassengers’ “lackofawareness”(Marion)madepublictransportationlesspleasant.Thisreferredto 12

Thisreferstoaloweredpartofthepavement,allowingwheelchairuserstorollupanddown 11 ItwasencouragingthattheGVBworkshopIattendedfocusedpartlyonteachingstaffhowtosafelyand correctlyusethetramramp(seeAppendix4)

Thesepublictransportationdelayscanleadtofurthernegativeconsequences,suchasmissingimportant medicalappointments(Laura;Felix)

ForMarion,passengerinteractionshaveshapedherexperiencesonegativelythatshe hasalmoststoppedusingpublictransportationentirely.Treatmentbyotherpassengers“adds tothestressand…diminishesmyuseofpublictransport,”Marionexplained.“Myworldhas shrunkmassively,”Marioncontinued,“Mylifeissmall…And[Ihave]thatpermanent feelingofmissingout.BecauseIcan’tdothings”.

34 situationswhereotherpassengerswerenotmindfulofwheelchairusers,especiallyduring peaktraveltimes.Emmasaid: Peopleherejustaren’tveryconcernedwiththefactthatsomeoneisusinga wheelchair…so…evenifthey see me,Ireallyhavetoask,“Canyoupleasestep aside?”Andeventhen,itcanstillbedifficult.

Sittinginawheelchairalsomeansyourheadisatotherstandingpassengers’“butt [and]backheight”(Rick).Whencrowded,Rick“regularly[gets]backpackshitting[his]face, becausepeopleforgetthey’rewearingabackpack.Theyturnaround,and bam”.Marion describedsimilarexperiences:“Peopleareholdingstuffandtheyjustturnaroundandbash you”withoutapologising.ToFelix,theseequallyfamiliarapology-lessencountersfelt “disrespectful[and]rude”.

Rickdescribedthislackofawarenesswasalsocommoninsidetransportvehicles: “Whenthedooropens,peopleare…ontheirmobilephones.Theydon’tevenlooktoseeif someoneisalreadythere…passengersalmostclimb over youasyourollin”.

Chapter3:Policies

Thethirdthemethatemergedthroughoutinterviewswasthecontributionofpoliciesto wheelchairusers’livedexperienceofpublictransportation.‘Policies’referstotheprocedures

35 andregulationsimplementedbytheNSandGVBregardingwheelchairusers’useoftheir services. WheelchairAssistance Numerousparticipantssharedexperiencesaboutthewheelchairassistancepolicy Thispolicy requireswheelchairuserstobookassistancefromanNSstaffmemberatleastanhourin advance(viaanapporphonecall)toboardAmsterdam’sInterCitytrainswithaportable ramp,astheplatformheightisnotequaltothetrainentrance(NederlandseSpoorwegen, 2022b).Severalparticipantsexperiencedthepolicytopre-bookassistancenegatively. Participantsdescribedthepolicyas“notverypractical”(Elisabeth),“ahassle”(Abel)and— althoughanimprovementtoseveralyearsagowhenassistancehadtobebookeddaysin advance—“notthatnicetoorganise”(Rick),partlyasitremovedspontaneity.Itwasalso perceivedbysomeparticipantstotakeawayasenseof“autonomy…[as]youreallyhaveto livebythemeasuresinplace”(Rick)and“yourlifeisdecidedbythetimesthat[theNS] agreeson”Others(Carry).describedthatwhentheybookedassistanceasperthepolicy,itwasunreliable. ThiswashighlightedbyAbelwhenhesaid: Thetrainisalotmoredifficult.You’vegottoorganiseeverythingbeforehand.Call them.Organiseyourtrip.Usually[theNSstaff]arethere,but…I’vehadtwo experiences[outofthelast5or6]wheretheyweren’ttherewiththewheelchairramp. Lauraechoedthis,stating:

Ihavetofindpeopletodoit,theyhavetoputtherampinplace.Forme,it’san awkwardinteraction.Independenceispartofit.Andthebookingitselftakestime too.

I’vehadexperienceswhere[theNSstaff]forgottotakemeoutandIhadto keeptravelling.Ofcourse,Iaskedotherpassengers“Canyoumaybecallsomeonefor me?”Butthetrainisn’tgoingtowaituntilI’mout. Animportantfactorinthesesituations,Lauraexplained,washeruseofan electric wheelchair This“makesabigdifferenceintermsofaccessibility[asit]weighs120kilosand youcan’tpickitup”(Laura).Unabletoenterthetrain,Laurahashadtomissimportant universitylecturesand“justhadtogohome”.Unabletoleavethetrain,Laurahasbeen forcedtotravelmuchfurtherthanintended,sometimeswaitingformorethan4hours “becausetherewasn’tanyassistanceavailable”. Incontrast,failingassistanceservicesmeantElisabeth,amanualwheelchairuser, couldstillgetinandoutwithhelp.“Idon’tweighverymuch,”Elisabethexplained,“You couldpickmeup[inmywheelchair]andcarrymeintothetrainwithsomeoneelse…That makesitaloteasier”. WhenIaccompaniedPietertoAmsterdamCentralStation(seeAppendix3),itwas clearthatwheelchairusers’physicalcapabilitiesalsoshapetheirdependenceon,andchoice touse,thewheelchairassistancepolicy.WhileboardingthetrainfromAmsterdamtoBerlin, Pieter(whohasalimitedabilitytowalk)chosenottobookwheelchairassistance.Instead,he stoodup,carefullywalkedupthesteps,andhoistedhiswheelchairintothetrain.This,Pieter explained,was Wheelchairbecause:assistancetakesmoretimethanjustputting[thewheelchair]inmyself.

Interviewsrevealedthatthispolicyoftenputparticipantsinanuncomfortable position.Pipfoundit: …[Difficult]that...thewheelchairspaceisalsoaspaceforprams,andthatifapram isthere,youstillhavepriority.Becausethenthepramhastobesentout Youmight bewelcome,butyoudon’tfeelgoodaboutitbecauseyou’vehadtopushsomeone elseout. Forsomeparticipants,thepolicyhasbeenareasontowaitforthenexttram.Felix said:

37 Whenassistancewasprovidedasperthepolicy,however,participantsemphasisedit canfacilitateanefficient,pleasant,publictransportationexperience.Thiswasexpressedby Annelies,whenshesaid:“AtAmsterdamCentralStationit’swellorganised…theyreally take[wheelchairaccessibility]intoaccount”.Participantswerevariedintheiropinions,as Elisabeth—whopreviouslymentionedtheimpracticalityofthepolicy—wentontoexplain thattheassistanceserviceactually“worksquitewell…Thestaffarequitehelpful…When youarrivetheyarethereimmediately,yourolloff[theramp]andjustsay,‘Bye!’,soit’squite efficient”.

WheelchairPriority Thewheelchairprioritypolicywasalsodescribedbyseveralparticipantstohaveshapedtheir livedexperienceofpublictransportation.ThispolicyreferstoAmsterdam’strams,buses,and metrocarriageshavingadesignatedwheelchairspacewhich,intheabsenceofawheelchair user,canbeoccupiedbyotherpassengers.Wheelchairusershaveprioritytousethisspace, evenifanotherpassengerwastherefirst.Intramsandbuses,passengerswithapramthen havetoexitthevehicle(GemeenteVervoerbedrijf,2022b).

InAmsterdam’strainandmetrostations,wheelchairusersareprohibitedfromusing escalatorsforsafetyreasons(seeAppendix1,Photo8).Thispolicymakespublic transportationusedifficulthowever,whenliftsarebroken.Withoutaworkinglift—and unabletousethestairs —wheelchairusersneedanotherwaytoaccessplatforms,station entrances,orexits.Formanualwheelchairusers,escalatorssometimesoffertheonlysolution

Surely,theycan’tjustkickoutamotherandchild?Look,asawheelchairuser,evenif thelawsays,“Thenoneoftheladieshastoleave”,Iwouldsay,“Come on,let’sberealaboutthis.Closethedooranddriveoff.I’llgetthenextone”. Attimes,however,choosingtowaitforthenexttramtoallowotherstostaycreated unpleasantinteractions.Rickrecountedanincidentatthetramstop: Iwaswaitingatastop…Itwascompletelyfull...So,Idecided,‘Youknow what?I’llgetthenextone’.Buttheconductorthought,‘No,you’recoming.’So,he startedtellingawoman,“Getout,becausethewheelchairhastogetin”.Ofcourse, thatwentcompletelywrong.Thewomanfeltlike,‘ButIwasherefirst!’...Ijust thought,‘Please keepdriving.I’llgetthenextone,Idon’tneedthis’.Itmademefeel so Forsmall.otherparticipants,thewheelchairprioritypolicyshapedpublictransportationuse morepositively.Lauradescribedthat“mostpeoplereactfineto[thepolicy]”,whileArisaid “ithasn’tbeennegative”.“Dependingonhowstricttheconductoris”(Pip),itcansometimes beacaseofsimplymaking“itworkhoweverwecan...byscooch[ing]somewhereinthere” (Ari)andmakingspaceforboth.

ProhibitedEscalatorUse

scarytotry(Rick)

ParticipantsdescribedthatatAmsterdamCentralStation,“nobody[ofthestaff]bats aneyelid”(Elisabeth)attheirescalatoruse,and“overall,it’s…okay”(Ari). Atother14 stations,however,thepolicyhasledtodisagreementswithpublictransportationstaff. Elisabethrecalledaparticularexperience: IoncetooktheescalatoratVijzelgracht[MetroStation].[Publictransportationstaff] gotreallyangry,[but]theliftwasbroken.Isaid,“Yeah,whatelsecanIdo?”Ifindit reallyirritating,especiallywhenpeoplegetangry…Ijusthaveto[findaway]togo towork.

39 tocontinueajourneyataparticularstation. Ifunabletotaketheescalator,Aridescribed13 thatheronlyotheroptionwas“tryinganotherstation”,whichwouldtake“longer”andcause more“stress”.Severalparticipantsdescribedthattheyhadlearnedtouseanescalatorintheir wheelchair(Ari;Elisabeth;Marion;Pieter).Thehighfrequencyofbrokenliftsmeantthis skillwasoftenputintopracticedespiteprohibitedescalatoruse.Duringmypublic transportationtripwithPieter,forexample,thelifttoPieter’splatformatAmsterdamCentral Stationwasbroken.TheonlywayforPietertogettohistrainwasbytakingtheescalator, whichhedid(seeAppendix3).

DuringmypublictransportationtripwithPieter,nobodycommentedonhisescalatoruse Electricwheelchairusersdidnotusetheescalator,partlybecausetheweightofthewheelchairmakesittoo

Passengersandstafffurthershapedpublictransportationexperiencesthroughsocial accessibility.Emphasiswasplacedonhelpthatwas provided withoutaskingratherthan offered.Mostparticipantsdidnotappreciatetheformer.Staffknowledgeofdetourscould positivelyshapepublictransportationjourneys,whilelimitedstaffunderstandingabout wheelchairramps,andalackofpassengerawareness,increasedstressanddelays.

OverviewoftheFindings

Thepurposeofthisstudywastounderstandhowwheelchairusersexperiencepublic transportationinAmsterdam.Theresearchfocusedonhowthebuiltenvironment,passengers andstaff,andpoliciesshapewheelchairusers’livedexperience.Theexpectationspriorto researchwereconfirmed—thatvariousthemes(i.e.thebuiltenvironment,passengersand staff,andpolicies)interactandshapeparticipants’livedexperiencebothpositivelyand negatively.Thefindingsindicatethatwheelchairusers’livedexperienceofpublictransportation isshapedbypeople,thebuiltenvironment,andpolicies.Thoughexperienceswereoften similarbetweenparticipants,therewasvariationfromonewheelchairusertothenext dependingonindividualcharacteristics,suchaswheelchairtype,physicalabilities,learned wheelchairskills,orpersonalperceptions. Withinthebuiltenvironment,platforms,lifts,15 andsignage—whenworkinganddesignedproperly—facilitatedtheeaseofpublic transportationandtheabilityforwheelchairuserstomanoeuvreindependently.

40 Discussion

Finally,thewheelchairassistancepolicy,thewheelchairprioritypolicy,andthe escalatorprohibitionpolicyshapedparticipants’livedexperienceofpublictransportation. 15 AnexampleincludesAbelnotmindingothersmovinghiswheelchairwithoutpriorpermission,whilemost otherparticipantsexperiencedbeingmovedwithoutpermissionnegatively

FindingsinRelationtoOtherResearch

Thecontributionofthesepolicieswasfoundtodependonthepositiveornegativenatureof interactionswithothersandhowstronglyeachpolicywasenforced.

ThroughtheframeworkofActor-NetworkTheory(ANT),itispossibletounderstandthata rangeofhumanandnon-humanelementsinteracttoshapewheelchairusers’livedexperience ofpublictransportationinAmsterdam.Thebuiltenvironment,passengersandstaff,and policiescanallbeseenaswider assemblages, withvarious actants ineach:platforms,lifts, andsignage,(inthebuiltenvironmentassemblage);differenttypesoftrain,tram,ferry,bus, metro,andstationstaff(inthestaffassemblage);differenttypesofpassengers,including strangers,familymembers,orfriends(inthepassengersassemblage);andthewheelchair assistancepolicy,thewheelchairprioritypolicy,andtheescalatorprohibitionpolicy(inthe policiesassemblage).Otherassemblages,likethetypeofwheelchair,interactwithmultiple assemblagesandcanfurtherhelporhinderthelivedexperience.

Findingsofthisresearchsupporttheviewthatchanginganyoneactantmeansthe “functioningofthewholenetworkwillbeaffected”(Cresswelletal.,2010,p.3).The experienceoftheescalatorpolicy,forexample,dependsonthefunctioningofthelift,the typeofwheelchair,whetherwheelchairusersthemselveshavenecessaryescalator-using skills, and whetherornotpublictransportationstaffenforcethepolicy.Theexperienceofa hightramplatform,forexample,dependsonstaffwillingnesstohelp,staffwheelchairramp knowledge, and iftherampactuallyworks.Aswas emphasisedbyAnnelies—andinline withANT— the“wholesystem”(i.e.network)hastoworkinorderforwheelchairusersto successfullyutilisepublictransportation(seeTable2).Thefactthateachactantplaysan

Source:Author’sown. (PleasenotethatTable2is notanexhaustivelist).

Findingsofthisresearchalsoalignwithwiderliteratureabouttheimportanceofthe builtenvironment(Chowdhury&Park,2018)andthepotentialforinfrastructuretobe “disabling”(Imrie&Kumar,1998,p.372).Findingsaboutparticipants’negativeinteractions

Passengers Human ● Strangers ● Fellowtravellers includingfamily membersorfriends Human ● Publictransportationstaff Non Human ● Typeofwheelchair(manual or electric)

42 arguablyequallyimportantrolefurthersupportsthenotionof“generalised symmetry” (Latour,1996,p.15). Table2:Actor-NetworkTheory,WheelchairUsers&PublicTransportation TheNetwork Assemblages ActantsintheAssemblages OtherAssemblagesInteractedWith

Policies Non Human ● Wheelchair assistancepolicy ● Wheelchairpriority policy ● Escalatorprohibition policy Human ● Publictransportationstaff ● Publictransportation passengers Non Human ● Typeofwheelchair(manual or electric) ● Thebuiltenvironment (particularly lifts)

Wheelchair users’lived experienceof public transportationin Amsterdam Thebuilt environment Non Human ● Lifts ● Platforms ● Signage Human ● Publictransportationstaff ● Publictransportation passengers Non Human ● Typeofwheelchair(manual or electric) Staff Human ● Train,tram,ferry, bus,andmetro drivers/conductors ● Otherstationstaff Human ● Publictransportation passengers Non Human ● Typeofwheelchair(manual or electric)

StrengthsandLimitationsoftheStudy

Strengths Oneofthestrengthsofthisstudyismypersonalhistory.Havingusedawheelchairbetween 2017-2020,Ihavemyownlivedexperience‘inthefield’.Mypastexperiencemotivatedme throughoutthisresearch;guidedmyresearchquestions;enabledmetorecruitparticipants through Able Amsterdam;andledtoadeeperunderstandingofwhatitmeanstobea wheelchairuseronpublictransportation.Thoughmyownexperiencewouldneverbeexactly thesameasparticipants’,Icouldempathiseandconnectwithparticipantsonapersonallevel. Sharingmyownexperiencesthroughoutinterviewsalsocontributedtoparticipant-researcher rapport,helpingparticipantstofeelateaseby“havingtraitsorthingsincommonwhichmake communicationeasier”(Zakaria&Musta’amal,2014,p.2).

Participantrepresentativenessreferstowhether“thesampleisinclusiveoftherange ofpeopletowhichthescientistswanttheirfindingstogeneralise”(Afifi&Cornejo,2020,p. 238).Theparticipantsamplewasastrengthasitreflectedthediversityofwheelchairusers. Participantsincludedmanualandelectricwheelchairusers;differentagegroups;malesand females;individualswithdifferentphysicalabilities;andthosewhohadalifelongdisability

43 withpassengersandstaffechoVelhoetal.’s2016studyhighlightingsocialbarrierslikea lackofstaffknowledge,movingwheelchairuserswithoutasking,andthepotential consequenceofdiminishedpublictransportationuse.Findingsadditionallysupport Netherlands-specificliteratureregardingbrokenlifts,inadequateassistanceprovision,andthe valuewheelchairusersplaceontheirindependence(NetherlandsInstituteforHumanRights, 2017;AlliantieVNVerdragHandicap, 2019;Baas&Faber,2021).

Althoughtheparticipantsamplewasdiverse,itdidnotcapturethefullheterogeneityof Amsterdam’swheelchairusers.Itdidnot,forexample,includeparticipantswhowere quadriplegic,orparticipantsbelowtheageof29orabove67yearsold.Addingtothefact thatthestudyfocusedspecificallyonAmsterdam—whichhasadifferentpublic transportationsystemtootherDutchcities—itisquestionabletowhatextentthefindings aregeneralisableonanationalscale. Inaddition,timeconstraintslimitedtheamountofparticipantobservations.Public transportationtripswithCarryandPieteraddressedbothmanualandelectricwheelchairuse, aswellasthemetro,tram,andtrain.However,furtherparticipantobservationswouldhave increasedthestudy’svalidityandenabledgreaterdatatriangulation.

44 oroneacquiredlaterinlife.ParticipantsalsolivedacrossAmsterdamandvariedintheiruse ofpublicThetransportation.validityoftheresearchwasanotherstrength,referringtothe“appropriatenessof thetools,processes,anddata…foransweringtheresearchquestion”(Leung,2015,p.325). Aqualitativeapproachincreasedthevalidityasthismethodisusedto“gaininsightinto... subjectiveexperiences”(Busettoetal.,2020,p.3).Purposivesamplingfurtherstrengthened theresearchasthestudyrequiredaspecifictargetgroup.Semi-structuredinterviews additionallygaveparticipantstheflexibilitytosharewhatthey feltwasimportantand allowedfollow-upquestions,whichhelpedtohighlightparticipants’perspectivesinmore depth.Therangeofmethodsalsoencourageddatatriangulationandconfirmedwhatwas discussedininterviews. Limitations

1. Ensuringthatpolicymakersandpublictransportationauthoritiesinvolvewheelchair usersininterventionsassessingaccessibilityneedsandimprovements.Involvementof thetargetgroupwouldmakeitimmediatelyclear,forexample,thatimportantlift stickersareactuallyoutofsightifseated.

3. ImprovingaccessibilitysignagethroughoutAmsterdam’sstations,especially regardingthelocationoflifts.

Finally,asthisresearchfocusedsolelyonperspectivesofwheelchairusersinpublic transportation,itisnecessarytounderstandhowpublictransportationaccessibilityis experiencedbyothersaswell—specifically,publictransportationdrivers,conductors,and thewiderNSandGVB.Incorporatingtheseperspectivescouldhelptounderstandwhy,for

FindingsalsoemphasisethatpoliciesmustbeimprovedtomakeAmsterdam’spublic transportationsystemmoreaccessible.Recommendationsinclude:

ImplicationsoftheFindings

2. Continuingtoincreasetheheightandwidthoftramplatformsandincreasingthe presenceofdroppedkerbs,wherepossible.

Findingsdemonstratethataphenomenologicalapproach,combinedwiththeANT framework,highlightsthecomplexityofactantsinvolvedinwheelchairusers’lived experienceofpublictransportation.TheuseofANTfurtherdemonstratesthevalueofhuman and non-humanactantsandreiteratesthatthelived experienceofwheelchairusersmustbe examinedinthecontextoftheentirenetwork.

4. IncreasingthereachandfrequencyofGVBandNSstaffaccessibilityworkshops. Educatingpublictransportationstaffwillensurebetterknowledgeaboutdisability, socialaccessibility,andtheskillsneededtooperateramps.Wheelchairusersmust alsobeinvolvedinthisprocess,asisthecaseincurrentGVBworkshops.

Conclusion

46 example,liftsbreakdownsofrequentlyorcannotalwaysberepairedquickly.Futureresearch shouldthusincludeadditionalperspectivesforawiderunderstandingoftheactantsinvolved.

Overall,thisresearchhighlightsthatthebuiltenvironment,passengersandstaff,andpolicies interacttoshapewheelchairusers’livedexperienceofpublictransportation.Asawheelchair user,evenashorttriponAmsterdam’spublictransportationrequiressubstantialplanningand preparation.Wheninfrastructureworksasintendedandthenecessaryhelpisprovided,public transportationcanbeapositiveandstress-freeexperience.Frequently,however,a combinationofelementsconspirestocreatemajorchallengesforwheelchairusers,including inaccessibledesign,brokenequipment,incorrectlytrainedstaff,andnegativeinteractions withotherpassengers.Amsterdam’spolicymakersandpublictransportationauthorities,with theinputofwheelchairusersthemselves,mustworktogethertoachievecontinuously improvedphysicalandsocialaccessibilityandcreateaninclusivepublictransportation experienceforeveryone.

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55 Appendix Appendix1:PublicTransportationPhotos16 Photo1 Photo2 Photo3 Photo4 Photo5 Photo6 Photo7 Photo8 16 Source:Author’sown

Photo9: ContrarytotheInterCitytrains,Amsterdam’s metrocarriagesarelevelwith theheightoftheplatform(thoughsometimesagapstillexists).

Photo10: Thedesignatedwheelchairareaonametro, withthewheelchairstickerfrom Photo5onthewall.

Photo7: Oneofmanystickerswithimportantinformationregardingthelifts.The stickerisplacedtoohighforwheelchairuserstoread.

Photo4: Thesharedwheelchair/pramspaceinanAmsterdamGVBtram.Wheelchair usershavepriorityoverprams.

Photo3: StepsleadinguptothedesignatedNSwheelchair traincarriage.

Photo2: TheportablewheelchairrampprovidedbytheNSwheelchairassistance service.Thiscanonlybeoperatedbyamemberofstaffandmustbereserved atleastanhourinadvance.

Photo6: AwheelchairrampofaGVBbusatAmsterdam CentralStation.This particularrampwasstuck,soeveryonehadtogetoutandchangebuses.

Photo8: TheescalatoratAmsterdamCentralStation withastickerindicating wheelchairsarenotallowedtouseit.

Photo5: Astickerinthedesignatedwheelchairarea ofanAmsterdammetro.Itsays: This space is for a wheelchair. The wheelchair space may also be used for prams, rollators, suitcases, and folding bikes. Wheelchairs have priority

Photo9 Photo10

Photo1: OneofthemanybrokenliftsatAmsterdam CentralStation.Thiswasoneof thebiggestchallengesmentionedbyparticipants.

Appendix2:Reflexivity

MyownexperiencewouldneverbeexactlythesameastheindividualsIinterviewed.

Withmysupervisor’spermission,Ieventuallyrecruitedparticipantsthrough Able Amsterdam (whomIotherwisewouldnothavebeenabletoreach).

Wheelchairusersare,afterall,adiversegroupofpeople.Nonetheless,having‘livedit’ meantIcouldempathiseandconnectwithparticipantsonapersonallevel.Myown experiencetaughtmethatusingawheelchairisfarmorethanjust using a wheelchair.Ifyou acquireadisabilitylaterinlife,usingawheelchairmeanslearningtonavigatetheworldyou knowfromanewperspective.Usingawheelchairalsocomeswitharangeofinteractions— fromstrangerspushingyouwithoutasking,strangerspryingaboutyourmedicalcondition, andstaresinpublic,toyoungchildrenaskingfunnyquestions,teachingyourfriendshowto pushyourwheelchair,orstrikingupaconversationwithanotherwheelchairuser Thereare manypositiveandnegativeinteractionsandemotionsthatcomewithwheelchairuse.No matterhowmuchIdescribeit,thefeelingsassociatedwithbeingawheelchairusercanonly betrulyunderstoodifyouhaveusedawheelchairyourself.

Havingusedawheelchairmyselfbetween2017and2020,Ihavemyownlivedexperienceof disabilityandwheelchairaccessibility(ofpublictransportation).Inmanyways,mypersonal historyisastrengthtomyresearch.Mypastexperiencewithwheelchairuseprovidedcrucial backgroundknowledgeonthetopic;informedmethatpublictransportationcanstillbea majorchallengetowheelchairusers;motivatedmetopursuethisresearch;guidedmy researchquestions(alongwiththeliterature);andinspiredmyinterviewtopiclist.Withover 7,000uniquemonthlyvisitorstomy Able Amsterdam websiteandmanymoreonsocial media,myownpositionastheresearchermeantIhadaccesstoawiderrangeofparticipants.

HavingbeenawheelchairuseralsomeantIcouldsharemyownexperiences throughoutinterviews.Fromthestart,Iwasopenaboutmy2017trafficaccidentand resultingwheelchairuse.Someparticipantsaskedaboutmyaccidentandinjuries,voluntarily openingupabouttheirsinreturn.Someofthemostspecialmomentsininterviewswerewhen Iandtheparticipantbothwent“Exactly!”whenwefeltmutuallyunderstood.Ihadamoment withMarion,forexample,whenshesaid:“Youknowjusthow difficult itis”.Anothersuch momentwaswhenFelixsaid:“Nobodyunderstandsus,dothey?Nottobedramatic.But nobodyisin…ourreality”.Sharingthesemutualexperiencesandfeelingscontributedto participant-researcherrapportandhelpedparticipants,andme,feelatease.

Whenconductingresearchonatopictheresearcherisalreadyfamiliarwith,scholars highlightthepotentialforconfirmationbias(Bos,2020).Confirmationbiasrefersto“the tendencyforindividualstojudgenewinformationinawayconsistentwiththeirpreexisting ideasorconvictions”(Bos,2020,p.120).Withatopicsopersonaltome,itwasunavoidable

MypastexperienceasawheelchairusermeantIcouldnotapproachtheresearch objectively(thougharguablyallresearchershavealevelofsubjectivity).However,Itriedto remainasopen-mindedaspossible,awarethatmyownexperiencesmaynotbereflectiveof others’.Iwassurprised,forexample,whenAbelsharedhisfeelingstowardsstrangers pushinghiswheelchairwithouthispermission.Abelsaid:“Ialwaysthink,ifpeoplewantto givemealittlepush, go on, just do it. Thenyoucanfeelgoodtoo”.Thiscontrastedwithmy ownfeelings.Ifanyone—strangers,familymembers,orfriends—movedmywheelchair withoutmypermission,Ifeltfrustratedandupset.Ifeltlikemyautonomyhadbeentaken away,likeachildbeingpushedinapram.WhenAbeldescribedhowhedidnotmind,itwas difficultformetocomprehend.Contrastslikethiswereareminderthatthesameexperience canbeperceiveddifferentlydependingontheindividual.

59 thatmyownexperienceswouldshapemydatainterpretation.MyreactiontoAbel’scomment isjustoneexample.However,Iwasawareofmyownpositionality.Asaresult,Imadean efforttoasknon-suggestiveinterviewquestionsandportrayexperiencesreflectiveof,and differentto,myown. Felixwastheonlyparticipanttocommentonhowmy pastexperienceshapedtheway heansweredquestions.Felixexplainedthatinsomeways,mypositionalitywasalimitation: Ontheonehand,it’seasytotalktoyoubecauseyou’reanex-wheelchairuser yourself.Butontheotherhand,forsomethingsitmighthavebeeneasierforbothof usifyoudidn’thavesomuchknowledgeaboutthesituation.Forsomethings,[your experience]is only positive…Infact,[theexperiencesI’msharing]arereallyobvious foryou…You’veexperienceditallyourself.Butsometimesthat’s exactly what makesitdifficult…IcanfeelandIcanseeandInoticethatyouunderstandthings I’msaying.Atacertainpoint,Ijuststopexplaining.IfIseethatyoudon’t understand,Ineedtoelaborate.So,it’sabitofgiveandtake. However,Felixalsopointedoutthebenefitofmypastexperience:“A‘walker’who hasalwaysbeena‘walker’andneverusedawheelchairbeforewillneverhavethedriveyou have”.Overall,Iconsidermypastexperienceastrength—aslongasIamawareofhowit canshapemyresearch.

60 Appendix3:ParticipantObservationSummaries

Vignette1:AmetrojourneywithCarry Carry Carryis56yearsold,female,andhasusedanelectricwheelchairfor21years.InApril2022, CarryandImetupat18:00totravelfromReigersbosMetroStationtoAmsterdamCentral Stationtogether Thetriplastedaround1hourintotal. The Journey Carryemailedmeafewdaysbeforeourtrip,askingmetomeetheratthe‘winkelzijde’of ReigersbosMetroStation—thesidewiththeshops.Iarrivedatthestationafewminutes early.Carryarrivedsoonafter.Havinginitiallyforgottenwhereweweregoingtomeet,Carry hadfirstaccidentallygonetotheothersideofthestation.“WhenIgotthere,theliftwas broken…We’dhavehadtocomehereanyway[becausetheliftwasbrokenontheother side],” Carrysaid.Ourtriphadbarelybegun,buttherewasalreadyabrokenlift. Carryexplainedtomethatthiswasherfirsttimeusingpublictransportationinover twoyears.Sincelosingherhusbandafewyearsago,Carrynolongerhadsomeonetotravel withanddidnotfeelconfidentusingpublictransportationbyherself.Thistripwasa significantoccasion.IaskedCarrywhattheaddedbenefitwasofhavingmethere.“WouldI actuallybeabletodosomethingtosupportyou?”Iasked.“No,”Carryanswered,“ButIfeel strongerbecauseyou’rehere”.

ImentionedtoCarrythatIcouldsomewhatrelatetothesignificanceofthisday After myaccident,ittooktwoyearsformetousepublictransportationagain.Myfirstpublic transportationtripasawheelchairuserwaswithafriendin2019.Ihopedthatmyown experiencecouldhelpmeunderstandwhatCarrywasfeeling.

ArrivingatAmsterdamCentralStation,themetroalsoalignedwiththeheightofthe platform.Carrywasabletowheelherselfoutofthemetrosmoothlyandalongtheplatformto thelift.Theliftbuttonwaslow,locatedtothefarleft.Forsomewheelchairusers—Carry included—thebuttonwasatanawkwardangle.Carrymentioneditwouldhavebeenbetter

AswewentintotheReigersbosMetroStation,Carrywheeledherselfthroughthe wheelchairaccessibleticketgates.Thesegatesarewiderandhaveawheelchairicononthe gates(andonasignabove).Signageinthemetrostationdidnotindicatewheretheliftwas. Wehadtoheadinadirectionandhopeforthebest.Fortunately,thelifton this sideofthe stationwaseasytofindandworkedproperly.Carryfeltnervousatthethoughtofthatlift beingbrokentoo. Aworkmanwasusingahosenearthelift.Carryhadtogobackandforthafewtimes untilshewasabletogooverthehose.Incontrast,Ieffortlesslysteppedoverit.Carryrolled intothelift.Therewasjustenoughspaceforthetwoofus.Theplatformfloorwassmooth. Thestationwasalmostempty,whichmeantCarryhadamplespacetomanoeuvreacrossthe platform.Carrydecidedtogotothemiddleoftheplatform,notknowinghowlongthe carriagewouldbeandwherewewouldneedtowait.Carryexplainedshedidnotfeelthe needtogetinatthedesignatedwheelchairdoor,asthespaceinthemetrocarriagemeantshe couldparkherwheelchairalmostanywhere. Aswewaitedforthetram,Carrytoldmeshefeltworriedaboutwhetheritwouldbe anoldornewcarriage.Theoldcarriageshavelessspaceandan“annoying”poleinthe middleofthecarriagewhichmakesithardertomanoeuvre.Themetroendedupbeinga newercarriage,whichwasarelieftoCarry Themetrowasalmostemptyandthecarriage alignedwiththeheightoftheplatform.Carryrolledinsideeasily.IsatonachairandCarry parkedherwheelchairnexttome,choosingtostayinanon-wheelchairarea.

62 ifthebuttonwasjuststraightonatthedoor.Arrivingupstairs,wemadeourwayviathe metro’saccessibleticketbarrierstothelifts.Carryhadachoiceoftwolifts,oneofwhichwas broken.Fortunately,thesecondliftworked. TheliftopenedoutsideinfrontofAmsterdamCentralStation.AsCarrywheeled herselfoutside,shepointedouttherewasaliftbutnodroppedkerbinthepavementleading downtotheroad.Carrycould just manageitsheightwithherwheelchair Thesameobstacle occurredontheothersideofthestreet(nearAmsterdamCentralStation).Again,therewas nodroppedkerb.Whilethepavementwas‘only’aroundtwocentimetreshigher,Carryfound thisheightchallenginginherelectricwheelchair.Thankfully,Carrywasabletogetupthe pavement.Wemadeourwayinsidethestation.Alloftheticketbarriersweinitiallysawhad severalsteps.Asaccessibilitysignagewasunclear,ittookCarryafewminutestorealisethat theaccessibleticketbarrierwastothefarleftofthestation.CarryhadbeentoAmsterdam CentralStationoften,buthadforgottenwheretheaccessibleticketbarrierwasasithadbeen yearssinceshewaslastthere.Meanwhile,wepassedathirdbrokenlift. Around19:30(aftereatingsomedinneratthestation’s New York Pizza)wemadeour waytotheIJRiversideofAmsterdamCentralStation.Carryplannedtoattendanevent nearby.Ittookaround20minutestowalk(andwheel)there.Thepavementwaswideenough andthereweredroppedkerbswhereneeded.Atacertainpoint,however,Carrychosetotake thebicyclelaneinsteadofthezebracrossing,asthezebracrossinghadaslightlyraised pavement.Soonafter,wearrivedatourdestination.

Vignette2:AtramjourneywithPieter Pieter Pieteris29yearsold,male,andhasusedamanualwheelchairfor12years.InMay2022, PieterandImetupat16:00nearHugodeGrootpleintotraveltoAmsterdamCentralStation together Thetriplastedaround1hourintotal. The Journey PieterhadplannedthetramjourneytoAmsterdamCentralStationinordertoboardanNS InternationaltraintoBerlin.UnlikemytripwithCarry,thistripwasonePieterwould normallydobyhimself.Duringourinterviewafewweeksearlier,Pieterhademphasisedthat hefeltconfidentusinghiswheelchairandrarelyneededhelpfromothers. Duringourshortjourneytothetramstopweencounteredseveralobstacles.Alady, forexample,stoodinthewayofourpathwithabicycle.Pieteraskediftheladycouldplease stepaside,whichshedid(inafriendly,apologeticmanner).Furtheralongthepath,several workmenwereusingmachinery.Therewereallsortsofcordsacrosstheground.Pieter manoeuvredaroundthemwithease. AswenearedHugodeGrootplein,Pietercouldchoosebetweentwotramstops.Both hadtramsinthedirectionofAmsterdamCentralStation.Pietertoldmehepreferredchoosing oneparticularstopovertheotherastheplatformwasmoreaccessibleinheightandwidth.“If peoplearestandingthere,youusuallydon’thavetoaskanyonetogetoutoftheway.Youcan justrollpast,”Pietersaid.Attheotherstop,Pieterwouldhaveconstantlyhadtoaskpeopleto stepaside.Thetramarrivedwithinafewminutes.Itwasquitebusyandtherewaslittlespace. Pieterdidnotaskfor(orneed)thetramwheelchairramp.Beforetheconductorcouldeven

WhenwearrivedatAmsterdamCentralStation,Pieterwheeledhimselfoutofthe tramjustaseasilyashehadwheeledhimselfin.Asthisplatformwasnarrower,Pieterhadto askseveralpeopletomoveoutoftheway.Pieterheadedtowardthestation.Heknewexactly wheretogofortheaccessibleticketbarriers. WemadeourwaytoPieter’splatform.The only liftleadingtoPieter’splatformwas broken Apasser-bywaskindenoughtopointoutthat “there[was]anotherliftoverthere”, butdidnotrealisethatthelift“overthere”wenttoacompletelydifferentplatform.AsPieter hadlearnedhowtousetheescalatorinhiswheelchair,hehadasolution. Iwentuptheescalatorfirst.Pieterwentupinhiswheelchairbehindme,holdingonto eithersideoftheescalator.Hedidnotaskfor,orneed,myassistance.Aswehadextratime, Pieterwentupanddowntheescalatortoshowmewhatitwasliketogoinbothdirections.

Therewerenostaffmemberspresentatthetime,andnootherpassengerscommentedon Pieter’suseoftheescalator

64 offertohelp,Pietereffortlesslywheeledhimselfinviatheaccessiblemiddleentrance.Once inside,anelderlymanwasstandinginthedesignatedwheelchairarea.Pieteraskedifhe couldpleasemove.Themandidnotmakespaceatfirst(Ibelievethiswasmoredueto confusionthanreluctance).Itseemedthemanwasunawareofwherehewasstanding.Afew secondslater,theelderlymanwenttostandsomewhereelse.Pieterwheeledhimselftothe wheelchairareaandputthewheelchairbrakeson. Pieterthentoldmethat“it’snicethatthereissomeone[inthetramconductorbooth] forpramsandsuch.It’snicerif[theseinteractionsare]organisedviatheconductor,rather thandoingit[himself]”becauseconductorshavemoreauthority.Pieterremarkedthatother passengersaremorelikelytoactiftheconductorstepsin.ItalsosavesPietereffort.Inoticed thattheconductorhadnotsteppedintoasktheelderlymantomove.

Pieter,whohasalimitedabilitytowalk,haddeliberately not bookedwheelchair assistance.Instead,hegotupoutofhiswheelchair,heldontothecarriagedoorframe, carefullywalkedupthesteps,andpulledhiswheelchairinbehindhim.WhenIaskedPieter whyhehadnotbookedwheelchairassistance,hereplied: Ittakesmoretimethanjustputting[mywheelchair]inmyself.Ihavetofindpeople doingit,theyhavetoputtherampinplace.Forme,it’sanawkwardinteraction. Independenceispartofit.Andthebookingitselftakestimetoo. OncePieterwasinthetraincarriage,wesaidgoodbye.

Onceontheplatform,Pieterrolledalongthetraintofindhisaccessiblecarriage.The accessibilityofthetrainwasnotclearlysignposted.Pieteraskedastaffmemberforhelp, whotoldhimwheretogo. Every traincarriagehadsteps.Iexpectedthewheelchaircarriage tobestep-free.However,the‘accessible’carriagejustmeantthatithadawheelchairareaand atoilet.Wheelchairuserswhocouldnotwalkwouldstillneedrampassistancetogetinside.

InApril2022,Iattendeda3-hourtramaccessibilityworkshopledbythe Gemeente Vervoerbedrijf (GVB).Theworkshopwasheldfora groupof7newtramdriversat Amsterdam’stramdepotatLekstraat.Theworkshopwaspresentedby3people:twoelectric wheelchairusersandoneindividualwhohadavisualimpairment.Severalrepresentativesof theGVBleddiscussions.Theatmospherewaswarmandwelcoming.Therewasaclearsense ofcommunityandfriendshipamongsttheGVBcolleagues. Theworkshopranfrom9:00to12:00.Topicscoveredincludedwheelchair accessibility(forbothmanualandelectricwheelchairusers)andaccessibilityforindividuals withvisualimpairments.Theworkshopconsistedofthefollowing:

1. Groupintroduction:Theworkshopstartedwithcoffee,tea,andanintroduction round.Thisgaveeveryoneachancetogettoknoweachother

66 Appendix4:

2. Presentations:Presentationscoveredwheelchairuseandvisualimpairments. Presentersdiscussedthediversityofdisability,socialaccessibility,andexamplesof disabilityetiquette.Therewasampleopportunitytoaskquestions(whichmanytram driversdid).Atthisstageoftheworkshop,Ialsosharedsomepersonalinsightsand experiencesasawheelchairuseronpublictransportation(forexample,thefrustration Ifeltwhensomeonemovedmywheelchairwithoutmypermission).

Gemeente Vervoerbedrijf WorkshopSummary

3. Tramaccessibilityworkshop:Thegroupwasthensplitinhalf.Eachgrouptook turnsgoingtoademonstrationofthetramramp.Eachtramdriverhadtheopportunity tousetherampandtheopportunitytoenterandexitthetraminamanualwheelchair Tramdriverswerealsotaughthowtohelpwheelchairusers—bothelectricand manual—inandoutofthetram.

5. Debriefing:Theworkshopendedwithadebriefing.Thisgaveallparticipantsa chancetoreflectontheday’sactivitiesandaskquestions. Overall,theworkshopwasavaluableadditiontothisresearchasitaddedadifferent perspective.Theworkshopprovidedinsightintothestepsbeingtakentoeducatepublic transportationstaffabout(wheelchair)accessibility.Eachdriverwasabletolearnskillsthat facilitateapositivepublictransportationexperienceforwheelchairusers(andindividuals whohaveavisualimpairment).Itwaspromisingtoseetheenthusiasmofboththeworkshop leadersandthetramdrivers.Istronglyrecommendthatsimilarworkshopsexpandtoexisting tramdrivers(ratherthanonlynewdrivers)andAmsterdam’swiderpublictransportationstaff (includingthe Nederlandse Spoorwegen).

4. Visualaccessibilityworkshop:Thisworkshopaddresseddifferenttypesofvisual impairments,whitecanes,andhowtocorrectlyofferhelp.Therewerevarioustypes ofwhitecanes(whichwegottotest).Glasseshadbeenadaptedby,forexample, beingpartlyobscuredbypaint.Theseglassescreatedawayto‘experience’whatit mightbeliketohaveavisualimpairmentandhowmuchyoumay(ormaynot)be abletosee.

1. UseofpublictransportationinAmsterdam

Thefollowingtopiclistwasusedtoguidesemi-structuredinterviews.Participantswere encouragedtoelaborateandshareexamplesofeach:

4. Barrierstoaccessibility a. Challenges&barriersexperiencedinAmsterdam’spublictransportation system

68 Appendix5:TopicList

a. Useofpublictransportation,includingthefrequency b. Typesofpublictransportationused c. Alternativestopublictransportation d. Placesoractivitiesattended/travelledtowithpublictransportation e. Describeatypicalpublictransportationjourney

b. Whatmakespublictransportationwheelchairaccessible c. FeelingsaboutaccessibilityofpublictransportationinAmsterdam

2. Accessibility a. Define‘wheelchairaccessible’(inthecontextofpublictransportation)

3. Facilitatorsofaccessibility a. ExamplesofexperienceswithpublictransportationinAmsterdam b. Arecent/typical/extremeexperienceofgoodaccessibilityofpublic transportation c. Comparisonoftheaccessibilityofdifferenttypesofpublictransportationin Amsterdam d. Accessibilityimprovements

7. Additionalcomments a. Anythingelseparticipantswouldliketoadd

6. Improvements

69 b. Arecent/typical/extremeexampleofadifficultexperienceonpublic transportation c. Thecontributionofpublictransportationchallengestodailylife d. ThebiggestbarriertopublictransportationaccessibilityinAmsterdam e. SharingconcernswiththeGVBandNS

5. Staffandpassengers a. Experiencewithstaffonpublictransportation b. Experiencewithpassengersonpublictransportation c. Arecent/typical/extremeexperienceofstaffinteraction d. Arecent/typical/extremeexperienceofpassengerinteraction e. Thecontributionoftheseinteractionstoyourcommute

a. Howtheexperienceofpublictransportationcanbeimproved b. Theinfluenceoftheseimprovementsonyourabilitytotakepartinactivities (ifatall) c. Typesofactivitiesoropportunitiesthatwouldbemadepossiblewith improvements

70 Appendix6:CodeTree CodeTree

Inordertomakethecodetreelegible,Ihaveincludedabiggerversionofeachsectionbelow: TheBuiltEnvironment

71 Staff&Passengers Policies