Stylistic development of

Bhubaneswar: Laksmanesvara Temple, Deul, Doorframe;

S t y l i stic Development o f O r issan Classical S c u l pt ure T homas E . Dona l d s on

Fig.1. Bhubaneswar: Laksmanesvara Temple, Deul, Doorframe; Siva-Linga in sanctum flanked by Dvarapalas (18 inches high) representing saumya (peaceful) and ugra (terrifying) aspects of the deity; late 6th century.

Despite the rich religious and cultural heritage of the state of Orissa, very little in the way of scholarly interest has been directed to the study of its art. Until recently the majority of art books, or articles, have confined their study to the temples of Bhubaneshwar and the Surya Deul at Konarak, possibly due to the relative difficulty of access to temples outside these two sites, there being very few roads which bridge the many rivers and canals which traverse the landscape. The major books, as their titles affirm, have generally approached

the subject from a purely archaeological standpoint rather than stylistic analysis1. For the most part, as pointed out by Panigrahi, Chanda and others, the architectural features of the temples have received the bulk of study while the wealth of sculpture which they possess has been almost unanimously neglected. Part of this neglect is due to the fact that the writers have not looked at the works with an appreciative eye. Chanda, for example, was of the opinion that the “sculptures that adorn the well-know temples

Fig.2. Bhubaneswar: Parasuramesvara Temple, Jagamohana,

of Bhubaneswar, Puri and Konarak are, with few exceptions, of little independent artistic value.�2 In other cases the authors have dwelled almost exclusively on erotic imagery, obviously because of its appeal to the general public, and completely ignore the aesthetic aspects of the sculptures.3 There are, however, many sculptures in Orissa which can vie with the best works produced at the same time anywhere in India. Unfortunately some of the most exquisite carving, particularly from later temples, is badly eroded due to the poor quality of stone available to the sculptors. In

addition, due for the predilection for dark, plain interiors, very few sculptures were protected from the elements, the images almost exclusively decorating the exterior walls of the temples. The images which were placed within shrines and are still in situ, usually images of the Devi, are obscured by the almost total darkness of their surroundings so that their beauty, even when not covered by modern garments, escapes even the most appreciative eye.

In the earliest surviving temples, datable stylistically to the late 6th and to the 7th

Fig.2. Bhubaneswar: Parasuramesvara Temple, Jagamohana, south-east corner; vajra-mundi niches (21 inches high) housing Umamahesvara flanked by dancing Ardhanarisvara and Hari-Hara c. second quarter 7th century

however, and it generally approximates the height of the pabhaga division, which is half the height of the jangha, a ratio which remains fairly constant throughout the history of temple construction.

Towards the end of the 9th century two sculptural techniques are introduced which greatly affect Orissan images. In the first technique, possibly influenced by metalworking traditions, the back-slab of the image partially cut-out behind the figure so that it serves as a frame. The earliest surviving examples appear to be from northern Orissa where the local stone, muguni or varieties of chlorite, is harder than the typical sandstone utilized at Bhubaneswar and elsewhere and thus more conducive to this technique. By the 11th century, in fact, this stone was often used for the parsva-devatas throughout Orissa and in some cases, as at Konarak and visnupur, was even employed for images in the subsidiary paga niches. In the earliest examples, as in the Saptamatrika images at Jajpur (S.D.O. compound), the upper corners of the backslab are merely rounded off and the cut-out section is rectangular in shape (fig. 3). At other sites, such as Khiching where this technique was more firmly established, the sides of the back-slab are decorated with scrollwork.

Vidyadharas and attendant figures are added at the upper and lower corners respectively and an ornate halo is carved behind the head of the deity. Gradually the decoration becomes more ornate and the back-slab frequently is designed

Fig. 3. Jajpur; S.D.O. compound

Fig. 3. Jajpur; S.D.O. compound; 4-armed matrka Varahi from destroyed Candi temple housed in small pavilion; 106 x 70 inches c. second half 10th century

centuries, the major sculptural images are carved from a single slab of stone and placed in a niche; hence, the images being easily removable, many of the sculptures are now missing. Yet, probably more than anywhere in India. Orissan images are closely associated with their setting. The centre or raha niche on each side of the deul, housing the parsvadevata, cuts through the base mouldings to simulate a door. The pedestal beneath the parsva-devata is small and undeveloped while vidyadharas and attendant figures are actually carved on the niche jambs rather than on the slab from which the deity is carved (fig.1). In the 8th and 9th century, possibly influenced by Buddhist sculptural traditions current in the Assia Hills and popularized by the Bhaumakara rulers, the niche sculptures are generally built in sections and form part of the temple walls so that most of the images remain in situ (fig. 2).4 The raha niche is gradually elevated and a rudimentary tala-garbhika design is inserted beneath so that by the end of the 9th century, except on temples displaying archaistic features, the niche invariably begins above the pabhaga mouldings and is thus aligned with the niches of the subsidiary pagas, though obviously larger. By this time the enshrined images are no longer carved in sections forming the wall but from a single stone slab as on early temples. These niches are each crowned by a vimanika design so that each paga or vertical projection simulates a miniature shrine mundi, an arrangement which enhances the overall clarity of the total design. The raha on these early temples is designed as a truncated rekha-mundi whereas the subsidiary or flanking pagas in the tri-ratha plan are designed as vajra-mundis.

In the 9th century, however, the vimanika or crowning elements of the vajra-mundi, originally consisting of a chhajja (eave) and miniature vajra-mastaka (two superimposed caitya-medallions), becomes elongated by the addition of horizontal mouldings and is gradually transformed into a khakhara-mundi.

With the increased height of the vimanika, and the insertion of an urdhva-garbhika above the enshrined image, the niche size becomes gradually reduced on the subsidiary pagas.

For a brief period, in the late 9th century and throughout most of the 10th century, an urdhva-garbhika is added above the raha niche, replacing the truncated rekha design, so that the vajra-mastaka at the base of the gandi servers visually as its crowning member, the overall design thus being a vajra-mundi. The size of the raha niche is not greatly affected,

Fig. 4. Bhubaneswar: Meghesvara temple

as athrone, incipient examples of which appear at Paikapada and Mukha-lingam (somesvara temple). The back-slab thus incorporates auxiliary figures which originally were carved

on the niche jambs. The cut-out section soon extends up the height of the figure with the upper portion assuming a trefoil design which frames the head of the deity and replaces the halo. The upper portion of the back-slab is decorated with a makara-torana with a kirtimukha at the apex and an outward facing makara at the base on either side. Eventually a gana blowing a conch is added on either side of the kirtimukha and accessory figure are frequently added above the makaras or ring the borders of the trefoil design. The attendant figures at the base of the back-slab are placed in front of a mundi design with virala motifs or a smaller set of attendants added above.

The pedestal is generally decorated with lotus rhizomes, kneeling devotees and respective mount of the deity. The entire back-slab is thus decorated with motifs which frame the

Fig. 5. Bhubaneswar: Vaital Deul temple

enshrined deity (fig-4).

Whereas the first technique applies mainly to the parsva-devatas or cult images placed within the jagamohana or sanctum, the second technique, the carving of figures in high-relief rather than housing them in niches, pertains to images on the subsidiary pagas.

The earliest surviving examples of figures carved in high-relief are those on slabs placed at intervals in the pillared mandapas situated in the upper Mahanadi valley, at Baidyanath, Partnagarh and Belkhandi, which follow the architectural traditions of Chattisgarh with the surface details often carved on a thin veneer of stucco overlaying the stone figure (fig. 6). This technique of carving figures in high-relief was soon incorporated into the decorative program of the exterior walls with the development of a pancha-ratha plan wherein the kanika, or corner paga, is designed as an engaged pilaster rather than a mundi. Although the mundi

designs on numerous 8th and 9th century

Fig. 4. Bhubaneswar: Meghesvara temple, deul, north raha niche, only feet of parsva-devata Parvati and her makara-torana back-slab remain intact; 47 x 24 inches; fourth quarter 12th century Fig. 5. Bhubaneswar: Vaital Deul temple; alasa-kanya in niche of projecting vajra-mundi forming shaft of kumbha-stambha design of paga, offsets decorated with ratikera scrollwork; late 8th century

temples were often flanked on one or either side by a thin engaged pilaster or stambha, as at Badgaon, Bajrakot. Padmapur and Simhanatha, these stambhas were decorated primarily with scrollwork and were conceived mainly as space fillars. An exception appears on the west end of the Vaital Deul where the plan, consisting of five spaced pilasters, is obviously based on a pillared-mandapa, though in typical Orissan fashion the interstices between each pilaster are filled in with stone so that the interior is dark. The pilasters, all the same size, combine the indigenous vajra-mundi design with that of an engaged kumbha-stambh. The figures are not carved in high-relief but are enshrined in the niche of the vajra-mundi which decorates the shaft of the stambha, the purna-ghata capital being surmounted by addorsed gajakranta motifs (fig. 5). In the earliest examples where the kanika is designed as a pilaster or engaged stambha, as at Gandharadi, Charda and Ganeswarpur, there is a small ornamental vajra –mundi at the base as in examples in Chattisgarh. There are no figure motifs and

the major decoration is scrollwork with an overlaying alamba motif near the top of the shaft. At Baudh, however, and on later temples at Bhubaneswar, including the Tirthesvara, Gauri and Muktesvara, the decoration consists of an alasa-kanya (indolent female) carved in high-relief, scrollwork with an overlying alamba motif (kirtimukha with dripping festoons) and a square capital containing an atlantid gana in a shallow niche. In the earliest examples, as at Baudh and on the Tirthesvara, the figures

Fig.6. Baidyanath: Kosalesvara temple, jagamohana interior; alasa-kanya carved in high-relief on stone pilaster; 50 inches high c. late 9th century Fig.7. Bhubaneswar: Rajarani temple, deul; two-story jangha with figures carved in high-relief on center facet of projecting pagas early 11th century

Fig.7. Bhubaneswar: Rajarani temple

Fig.6. Baidyanath: Kosalesvara temple

in high-relief appear on blocks which project out from the pilaster and thus are not fully integrated into the overall decorative program of the stambha. On the Muktesvara and the later Purnesvara Siva temple at Bhillideuli they are more completely integrated.

The technique of carving figures in high-relief is further developed on the Rajarani temple where both the anartha and kanika are designed as pilasters rather than mundis. The jangha is additionally divided into two stories so that there is a figure on each story. The stambha design is eliminated, allowing the figures to be increased in size, and multiple offsets decorated with scrollwork are added which effectively serve as a foil to the rounded curves of the figures (fig. 7).

On the Brahmesvara and Lingaraja temples the pagas are again designed as mundis, khakhara-mundis on the lower story and pidha-mundis on the upper story, so that the images are housed in niches in the indigenous tradition. Due to the two-story division of the jangha, however, the sculptures housed in the niches of the kanika and anartha are proportionately smaller than on earlier temples despite the increased height of the temple. The largest niche sculptures, excluding the parsva-devatas, are thus not from the large temples of the Somavamsi or Ganga periods, but from late temples of the Bhauma period which have a large single-story design, as at Kualo where they are even larger than those on the Surya Deul at Konarak. By the 12th century the images on the temple walls are no longer njche figures but the virala motifs and alasa-kanya or mithuna figures in the recesses separating the paga designs. With the development of sapta-rath and nava-rath plans, the width of the pagas decreases so that on the thin pagas there is frequently a return to the technique of carving in high-relief, there not always being enough space to provide frames for the images. The crowning vimanika remains, however, to server as a canopy above the figures in the same manner as creepers on 10th and 11th century images. There are also examples of archaizing, as on the Parvati temple, where figures are carved in high-relief at the base of the corner pilasters in the single-story design. In typical Orissan

fashion, however, the images are surrounded by scrollwork. The type of scrollwork changes from period to period and in many cases is a better stylistic indicator than the figure motifs. The setting is thus intimately related to the image and is an important factor, when present, in developing a stylistic chronology (fig. 8).

In addition to niche figures, there are also frieze motifs, particularly on early temples where there is a predilection for story-telling narratives. These are carved primarily in the

Fig.8. Banpur: Daksaprajapati temple, deul; two story jangha with khakhara-mundids on center facet of lower story pagas and pidhamundis on center facet of upper story pagas; c. 13th century

Fig.8. Banpur: Daksaprajapati temple, deul

Fig.9. Bhubaneswar: Satrughnesvara temple, deul

Fig.9. Bhubaneswar: Satrughnesvara temple, deul; baranda recess with frieze illustrating Siva’s Marriage Procession c. late 6th century Fig.10. Bhubaneswar: Parsuramesvara temple, deul; lintel above east raha niche with frieze depicting the Marriage of Siva and Parvati with Brahma performing the homa ceremony; c. second quarter 7th century

Fig.10. Bhubaneswar: Parsuramesvara temple, deul

baranda recess, on lintels above major niches and on the vertical face of the projecting cornice of the jagamohana roof. On the early temples the themes are generally mythological and include such motifs as the Marriage Procession of Siva (fig. 9), the Marriage of Siva and Parvati (fig. 10), Siva and Parvati Playing Chess, the Seed of Siva Being Received by Agni (Kumarasambhava), Kaliya-mardana, scenes from the Ramayana and Mahabharata, along with occasional hunting and battle scenes. Although the figures are small in scale, and treated with a child-like naivete, they exude a vigor and charm unmatched by the more refined later narrative scenes which are usually more hieratic in nature.

Although some scenes, including the Marriage of Siva (fig. 11), remain popular on later temples, the majority of the narrative themes become increasingly secularized, in keeping with the changing overall decorative program, and include specific Tantric rituals, siksadana motifs of a guru instructing disciples, palace scenes of a king or queen with their retinue, royal processions and battle scenes. For the most part, particularly in the battle scenes or animal processions carved on the upana supporting the pitha, on baranda mouldings and on the vertical face of the pidha mouldings of the jagamohana roof, the figures are repetitive in pose and lack the

animation, vigor and variety of the earliest works.

On the earliest surviving temples, such as the Satrughnesvara, there is a wide discrepancy in craftsmanship due to the lack of an established tradition and scarcity of competent master-carvers.

The best carving appears on the major niche images, the doorframe and the vajra-mastaka on the front façade of the gandi, the most important motifs on the temple. On the sides and back, or motifs high up on the temple, the carving is crude and obviously produced by workshop assistants. 5 Although the overall quality of the imagery is more consistent on the later Parasuramesvara temple, suggesting better trained assistants, there is still a discrepancy that is most noticeable in the minor motifs of the jagamohana which are at eyelevel.

The rather folk-like character of these motifs has led numerous scholars to suggest that the jagamohana was built at an earlier date than the existing deul.6 These are the work of assistants, however, and the major figure motifs are by the same master-carver who created the parsva-devatas on the deul.

Some of the figure motifs, particularly on the gandi, are the work of a junior mastercarver who most likely took over after the death of the senior master-carver, so that there are two distinct styles on the temple in addition to workshop participation.

Fig.11. Visnupur: Somanatha temple

Fig.11. Visnupur: Somanatha temple; detached panel depicting the Marriage of Siva (Kalyanasundaramurti) with Bhrikuti presenting Parvati while the lower register has Brahma pouring libations; 27 x 32 ½ inches. C. 14th century Fig.12. Bhubaneswar: Parsuramesvara temple, deul; caitya-medallion with Umamahesvaramurti scene of Siva playing the vina and embracing Parvati; secong quarter 7th century Fig.13. Suklesvara: Mamikesvara Siva temple; detached slab with (badhra) Trimukha Sadyojata Siva in caitya-medallion with Aghora (ugra) face on sinister side and no shoulders visible; c. 9th century Fig.14. Mukhalingam, Andhra Pradesh: Madhukesvara temple, jagamohana, east; 2-armed (badhra) Trimukha Tatpurusa Siva in caityamedallion with Aghora (ugra) face on dexter side; c. mid 8th-early 9th century Fig.15. Bhubaneswar: Bhavani-Sankara temple compound; caturmukha-linga retrieved from Bindusarovara depicting Sadyojata and Aghora faces 21 ½ x 13 inches; c. 7th century

Fig.12. Bhubaneswar: Parsuramesvara temple, deul;

Workshop participation is also evident on later temples, such as at Suklesvara where the major figure motifs are masterful creations. Many of the smaller motifs, on the other hand, including a Trimukha-Siva originally forming part of a vajra-mastaka design on the gandi of one of the corner

shrines, is rather crudely carved (fig. 13). In an identical motif at Mukhalingam, from approximately the same date, the image is more refined despite being a minor motif on a rekha-shrine at the northeast corner of the jagamohana (fig. 14). The workshop engaged on the Madhukesvara temple

Fig.13. Suklesvara: Mamikesvara Siva temple Fig.14. Mukhalingam, Andhra Pradesh Fig.15. Bhubaneswar: Bhavani-Sankara temple

obviously had more competent assistants, resulting in a greater overall consistency in respect to artistic quality, even though the major images are not as masterful as those at Suklesvara. At Bhubaneswar in the second half of the 8th century, with workshops well established, there are three temples: the Markandeyesvara, Sisiresvara and Vaital Deul, most likely built by the same workshop, which exhibit a consistently high degree of artistic quality throughout and display a gradual evolution and refinement of architectural motifs which allows us to establish a chronological sequence. Yet a few yards north of the Sisiresvara, and obviously of the same date, is a small temple which exhibits rather crudely-carved imagery throughout its decorative program. Even the parsvadevatas, when compared to the examples on the neighboring Sisiresvara and Vaital Deul, appear clumsy in craftsmanship (fig.

2, 29). It is obvious that this small temple was constructed by workshop assistants or

apprentices, possibly for lesser members of the family responsible for the construction of the larger adjacent temples. It is thus essential, when developing stylistic evolution, that we are aware of workshop participation as well as regional variations.

Even on the monumental Surya Deul at konarak, obviously the work of hundreds of craftsmen, there is a huge disparity in style ranging from rather clumsy, poorly articulated images to powerfully carved figures with exquisite details.

In a minor motif of Hara-Parvati on the Parasuramesvara temple, with Siva playing the vina and Parvati seated on his left thigh, the handling of details is clumsy throughout. Facial features are sharply delineated with little concern for transitional planes while other details, such as fingers, coiffure, body ornaments or the decoration of the vina, are extremely abbreviated and coarse. Despite the shortcomings, however, the work exudes a lot of vigor and effectively conveys the idea of Siva playing the vina and Parvati enthralled by its music (fig. 12). In the image of Karttikeya serving as a parsva-devata in the east niche, on the other hand, the master-carver has carefully delineated the minute details of body ornamentation and has created an imposing image of the deity seated on a throne. The fingers, though better articulated than on the workshop image of Hara-Parvati, are still rather clumsily carved and the legs are overly long for the torso. Thus, though he is the master-carver responsible for most of the major images, the sculptor has not yet completely mastered his craft. In most of these early images there is generally a lack of refinement in minute details and in body proportions (fig. 1).

One of the best indices for developing a stylistic chronology, even more reliable than major images such as the parsvadevatas which tend to be conservative, is the sanctum doorframe which incorporates figure motifs, mundi designs and scrollwork.

In addition to being better preserved than most niche figures, having been protected by the jagamohana constructed in front of it, it also displays gradual changes, stylistic and iconographic, which often may not appear on exterior images. Also, in contrast to major rich niches, the imagery, being smaller in scale, is less apt to exhibit individual stylistic peculiarities of the sculptor or archaizing tendencies possibly preferred by the patron. In that it serves

Fig.16. Khiching; rebuilt Candrasekhara temple

a frame for the puja image within the sanctum, being virtually an extension of it, it is one of the most important decorative features of the temple and its carving is of a consistent high quality.

The imagery combines complimentary dual propitious-apotropaic characteristics, with the dvarapalas at the base representing the saumya (peaceful) and ugra (terrifying) aspects of the enshirined image (fig. 16), which, in the case of a caturmukha-linga, may itself display these contrasting aspects (fig. 15). In the earliest temples the dvarapalas are generally housed in a makeshift niche with the ceiling frequently notched at the top to accommodate the head or halo of the figure. One of the principal hands holds a lotus while the other is placed on the thigh where it often fondles the loose end of the lower garment. The other two hands usually hold a rosary and a trident. The dvarapalas are richly

ornamented but are generally somewhat squat in body proportions. They wear a sarpa-kundala in the right ear and their hair is braided in a broad chignon on top of the head. The terrifying Mahakala, on the sinister or proper left side, has a short beard, open mouth with bared teeth and usually has a skull-medallion in his coiffure. The benign aspect on Nandi, on the dexter or proper right side, is evident by his pleasant countenance. They are invariably flanked by a diminutive male attendant on either side (fig. 17).

In the 8th and 9th centuries a second niche, housing either a standing naga holding a vessel with both hands (fig. 18) or a female attendant holding a chauri diagonally in front of her body, is frequently added on each side of the door. Gradually the niches housing the dvarapalas become more ornate in design, having either a flat or gracefully arched roof, and, beginning in the 10th century, are slowly transformed into

Fig.17. Bhubaneswar: Satrughnesvara temple

Fig.16. Khiching; rebuilt Candrasekhara temple; doorframe with dvarapalas at base and Gaja-Laksmi on lintel second half of 10th century Fig.17. Bhubaneswar: Satrughnesvara temple; benign dvarapala Nandi on dexter side of door; 17 inches high; c. late 6th century Fig.18. Bhubaneswar: Sisiresvara temple; terrifying dvarapala Mahakala and naga on sinister side of door; 16 inches high; c. late 8th century Fig.19. Chaudar: Kapalesvra temple, doorframe; terrifying dvarapala Mahakala accompanied by river goddess Yamuna on sinister side of door 26 ½ x 14 inches; c.

12th century

Fig.18. Bhubaneswar: Sisiresvara temple

a mundi design. The coiffure is changed to a tall jata-mukuta and the lotus is generally replaced by a kapala (fig. 16). For a brief period, in the 10th and 11th centuries, a diminutive naga is carved at the base of the inside jamb, above the mundi niche, while a lion motif is added beneath the niche on either side of the nandavarta step, both features being introduced from Central India along with the cursive-type kirita

Fig.19. Chaudar: Kapalesvra temple

which serves as the crowning member of the vajara-mundi. In the late 11th century, and throughout most of the 12th century, the river goddesses are standard attendant figures and share the mundi niche with the dvarapalas (fig. 19). It is also at this time that the vajra-mundi is generally replaced by a pidha-mundi design, or occasionally a khakhara-mundi. By the mid-13th century attendant figures are eliminated and the

Fig.20. Bhubaneswar: Ananta-Vasudeva temple

dvarapala, usually two-armed, bends one knee and crosses one arm in front of his waist where it rests on a gada standing vertically in front of his body. The pose, introduced from South India, and the changing iconography suggest Vaisnava influence. Vaisnava dvarapalas, however, have four arms and place both major arms on the weapon in front of the body, one hand being in abhaya, while the uplifted back hands hold the cakra and conch.

Their hair is arranged in a kirita-mukuta in contrast to the coiffure on late Saivite dvarapalas which rises up in serpent-like coils that radiate in tiers around the head (fig. 20).

The wealth of female imagery on Orissan temples affords ample opportunity to trace the stylistic evolution of the ideal female figure in respect to body proportions, ornamentation, coiffure and pose. On the earliest temples there are no major images, only small attendant figures carved on the niche jambs or on the wings of caitya-medallions crowning the niches. In general the poses are rather limited with the female holding a chauri or resting one hand a sword or tall pedestal.

The figures are squat in body proportions, have a doll-like face with the hair arranged in a broad chignon on top of the head and frequently wear a kucha-bandha around the breasts. Facial features are sharply delineated and only a small amount of

jewelry is worn. Fingers and toes are poorly articulated and details, particularly in body ornaments and coiffure, are abbreviated and lack refinement (fig. 21). In the 8th century, influenced by Tantrism, female figures are introuduced in the Paga niches as major motifs. On Sakta shrines, such as the Vaital Deul, they completely dominate the decorative program and function as avarana-devatas. They are not specific deities but alasa-kanyas, ideal female figures. Included among the themes is the salabhanjika (tree-woman motif), padmagandha (smelling a lotus), darpana (looking into a mirror, frequently applying cosmetics), ketakibharana (placing a ketaka flower in her hair) and the ubiquitous torana-kanya (leaning in a half-open door).

They generally assume a very lanquid pose with one leg crossed behind the other, or slightly bent, and tilt their head so that the figure is depicted in three bends (tribhanga).

Though seductive and enticing, they are somewhat aloof, confined within niches and framed by lush scrollwork, and betray no signs of emotion. Conscious of their charms they are seemingly lost in selfabsorption. In terms of execution, they are characterized by a “soft plasticity of modeling, delicacy of features and perfect equipose, strongly reminiscent of the classical tradition.�7 They are more lithe in body proportions than 7th century figures and the breasts, though somewhat small in ratio to the wide hips, are no longer bound by a kuchabandha. The lower garment is nearly diaphanous so that the legs are likewise fully exposed, the loose ends of the garment generally forming a backdrop.

Jewelry is more refined and enhances the curves of the female form by contrasting the softness and warmth of flesh with the metallic harness and precision of jewelry. A long pendant hangs between the breasts and is fastened to a waist-chain. The girdle is formed of interlocking links with a tasseled fringe on the lower edge. The loose ends of the girdle are looped through a center clasp and hang part way down each thigh. A diadem at the base of the coiffure supports looping braids ornately arranged on top of the head (fig. 5, 22).

The alasa-kanyas on 10th century temples, being carved in high-relief and generally not isolated by scrollwork, appear less aloof and more earthy. They are more rounded, the busts fuller, but are somewhat stocky in body proportions as the torso

Fig.21. Bhubaneswar: Svarnajalesvara temple Fig.22. Bhubaneswar: Vaital Deul

Fig.21. Bhubaneswar: Svarnajalesvara temple; female figure with lotus and resting one hand on post or sword; first quarter 7th century Fig.22. Bhubaneswar: Vaital Deul; alasakanya smelling flower and resting one hand on post or tall pedestal; 27 x 8 ½ inches; late 8th century Fig.23. Hirapur: Causat-yogini pitha; yogini no.3 eating from a kapala; 20 x 10 inches c. mid-10th century Fig.24. Bhubaneswar: Rajarani temple; alasa-kanya standing in relaxed pose resting on the trunk of a meandering creeper; 48 inches high including lotus pedestal; early 11th century

Fig.23. Hirapur: Causat-yogini pitha

is short. They often assume as pose with a pronounced bend in the body, one hip being pushed out, and frequently turn the head to one side rather than looking straight out. No longer constrained by niches, they are generally more active. Included among the new motifs is the gunthana (viewed from behind), the dalamalika (garlanding herself with a creeper), the sukasarika (playing with a parrot or a maina), matrmurti (holding a child, either on the hip or above the breasts), playing a vina and the motif of a mischievous monkey attempting to disrobe her. In the padmagandha motif the flower is on a long stem which meanders diagonally from the lower left corner to the upper right, thus counterbalancing the pose of the female. The chain which fastens to the pendant hanging from the necklace hugs the lower contour of the breasts rather than encircling the waist. The girdle generally has a rope design, rather than interlocking links, and the loose end hangs straight down between the legs rather than being looped on the thighs. The clasp or buckle usually has a cluster design. The hair is arranged in a large bun on one side of the head, rather than on top, and is ornately braided and studded with jewels. A jeweled tiara is worn at the base of the coiffure and the halo is replaced by a meandering creeper or a large flower which serves as a canopy. The face is illumined by a sweet smile (figs. 6, 2).

The alasa-kanyas of the 11th and early 12th centuries are some of the most beautiful figures created anywhere in India and, particularly those on the Rajarani, are the loveliest of all Orissan creations.

They are more lithe in body proportions, having long and pliable limbs, and assume extremely graceful poses, their supple bodies softly bending like meandering vines. Though more animated than their earlier counterparts, their actions are controlled and pleasingly seductive rather than violent or provocative. Due to their higher placement from ground-level, stemming from the greater height of the temple and the addition of a pitha, and the manner in which they are isolated in recesses or set-off against lush scrollwork, they are more celestial in appearance and take on an almost heroic aspect which belies the mundane activities in which they are engaged. Among the new motifs introduced is the nupurapadia (adjusting ankle-bells), nartaki (dancer with hands joined above

Fig.24. Bhubaneswar: Rajarani temple

Fig.20. Bhubaneswar: Ananta-Vasudeva temple, bhoga-mandapa; Vaisnava terrifying dvarapala Vijaya with mustache and one front hand resting on a standing mace; c.

15th century

the head), the motif of wringing water from long tresses with a hamsa catching the drops and the motif of riding on the shoulders of a smiling, bearded male. The body ornamentation is similar to that on 10th century images though more ornate.

Festoons, for example, hang from the lower strand of the girdle and the lower garment is frequently gathered in a floral ruffle at each hip. The most noticeable feature, however, is the fully developed “Somavamsi� smile which softly illumines the face and seemingly envelopes the entire body in an aura of sensuous warmth (fig.

24).

In the latter part of the 12th and throughout the 13th centuries the repertoire of poses is reduced, the activities becoming more repetitive, and there is a gradual diminishing of artistic skill. The smile slowly hardens and the bodies lose their suppleness. Body proportions vary from temple to temple and in some cases, as on the Surya Deul at Konarak, there is a wide diversity in body build, some figures being

Fig.25. Konarak: Surya Deul

plump and others attenuated (figs. 7, 25).

Fluttering scarfs are often added and the lower garment is ornamented with tassels on the hips. The necklace pedant is no longer fastened to a waist chain and the earrings are invariably patra-kundalas which are generally lacking in ornamental detail.

The hair is tightly braided in a large plain bun at the back of the neck so that the hair closely follows the rounded contour of the head, giving an almost bald appearance which is relieved only by the drooping festoons of a jeweled tiara. Except for the figures carved on the balusters of the gavaksa window, the alsas-kanyas are almost entirely confined to the anuraha-recesses of the upper jangha where they alternate with mithuna motifs, exceptions appearing at Konarak where female musicians are placed in the terraces separating the potalas of the jagamohana roof. In the 14th century there is a further reduction of artistic creativity and by the mid-15th century the figures

are not only rigid in pose but squat in body proportions as well. They generally hold a chauri and stand in a frontal pose. The drapery becomes heavy and facial features appear frozen (fig. 26).

With few exceptions, the parsvadevatas housed in the raha niches of Saiva temples are Parvati or Mahisamardini on the north, Ganesa on the south and Karttikeya on the back. In general the image of Parvati changes very little aside from the normal stylistic evolution of the female figure and the development of the back-slab as discussed above. She usually assumes a standing frontal pose and is four-armed. Her major pair of hands are extended downward, the right hand always displaying varada, while the back arms are uplifted. In the earliest images she is in a rigid samabhanga pose with both the deer and lion placed near her feet. The major left hand generally holds a small vase while the uplifted hands hold a rosary and ketaka flower. She is flanked on either side by a small attendant bearing offerings or holding a chauri (fig.27). On later images, after the 10th century, she assumes the more relaxed tribhanga pose and only the lion appears as her mount. The lower left hand normally holds the stalk of a lotus with the flower blooming near her shoulder. The rosary is switched to the lower right hand displaying varada while the uplifted back hands hold a naga-pasa and ankusa. She is flanked on either side by a small two-armed duplicate of herself rather than chauri-bearing attendants (fig. 28). There are thus two basic iconographic forms of Parvati as a parsvadevata with one being chronologically earlier. Exceptions appear on Sakta shrines where she appears in several variant forms, in the upper Mahanadi valley, as at Belkhandi and Patnagarh where Central Indian influences are evident, and at Charda and Motia where she assumes a seated pose.

During the 8th-10th centuries, possibly due to the influence of the Bhaumakara rulers and the emergence of Saktism, the image of Mahisamardini generally replaces that of Parvati as the parsva-devata in the north raha niche. Although earlier images of this form of the Devi exist, they were not enshrined in the raha niche. In the Somavansi period, with new rulers from the upper Mahanadi valley assuming power, Parvati is returned as the parsva-devata.

There are, in fact, no surviving images of Mahisamardini as the parsva-devata at

Fig.26. Bhubaneswar: Papanasini temple

Fig.27. Bhubaneswar: Paschimesvara temple (destroyed)

Fig. 28. Garadipancana: Buddhanatha Siva temple

Bhubaneswar on post-Bhauma temples nor are there any surviving large images which may have been housed in a special shrine.

Her image virtually disappears from the decorative program, an exception being a small image on the jagamohana of the Lingaraja. Outside of Bhubaneswar, on the other hand, the image of Mahisamardini continued to be popular, though only in a few cases is she enshrined as a parsvadevata. For the most part her image was housed in a special shrine on the north part of the compound or placed within the sanctum, .ext to the linga or, on later Vaisnava temples, next to Visnu. In a few cases, as at Tangi and Garudipanchana, the image is placed in a paga niche where she serves as an avarana-devata.

Iconographically these Orissan

images do not appear to conform exactly to any specific canonical text in respect to the weapons or attributes wielded by the goddess in her fight against the buffalodemon. In general the number of arms of Durga varies from four to twelve.8 The images can be placed into three modes or groups based on the shape or form of the buffalo-demon. In group (I), the demon is represented with a human body and buffalo-head; in group (2) the demon is depicted in human form issuing from the decapitated carcass of the buffalo; while in group (3), the demon is represented in animal form with the goddess lifting it by the tail. The first mode is the earliest surviving form at Bhubaneswar where it is popular throughout the Sailodbhava and Bhauma periods. The second mode

Fig.25. Konarak: Surya Deul, platform; alasa-kanya standing in relaxed tribhanga pose with her hands clasped above her head third-quarter 13th century Fig.26. Bhubaneswar: Papanasini temple, jagamohana, transept; alasa-kanya on baluster standing in front of a creeper with her hands above her head; mid 15th century Fig.27. Bhubaneswar: Paschimesvara temple (destroyed); detached image of 4-armed Parvati standing in samabhanga pose 30 ¼ x 18 ¼ inches; late 7th or early 8th century Fig. 28. Garadipancana: Buddhanatha Siva temple, deul, north raha niche; 4-armed Parvati standing in tribhanga pose 40 x 19 ¼ inches; first half 13th century Fig.29. Bhubaneswar: Vaital Deul, north raha niche; 8-armed Durga Mahisamardini with demon in human form with buffalo head 44 x 22 ¾ inches; late 8th century

Fig.29. Bhubaneswar: Vaital Deul, north raha niche

Fig.30. Simhanatha (island) temple

is introduced in the 9th century on temples outside of Bhubaneswar and becomes the standard mode for most later images though it was never popular at Bhubaneswar. The third mode is rare but examples appear sporadically on both early and late temples.

In mode (I) the demon is generally depicted from the rear with his legs spread and his buffalo-head forcibly bent back by the major left hand of Durga, the arm of the goddess curving inward under great exertion. Durga plants her uplifted right foot on the shoulders of the demon and with her major right hand plunges a trident into its neck. In the eight-armed images popular in the 8th century, her uplifted back right hand holds a sword horizontally above her head while the corresponding left hand holds a circular shield. Her remaining right hands hold an arrow and vajra while the other left hands hold a bow and nagapasa, the latter snapping at the head of the demon. The demon usually holds a looped-cloth in one hand and a sword in the other. The lion is often included in one of the lower corners attacking the demon (fig. 2, 29).

In the ten-armed images of mode (2), popular in the 9th century, the major left hand of the goddess pushes demon on the

Fig.31. Khiching: 10-armed Durga Mahisamardini

chest of the demon attempting to escape from the decapitated buffalo-carcass.

Her uplifted right foot is planted on the rump of the carcass while her major right hand plunges a trident into the demon’s head. Her additional hands hold a cakra and ankusa. The arrow is no longer held in the hand near the uplifted knee but is being plucked from a quiver.

The shield is frequently held in one of the lower left hands and the naga-pasa is now choking the demon. Other objects which may be held in the hands include a bell, severed head and kartri. Female attendants often join the goddess in defeating the demon (fig. 30). This tenarmed version of mode (2) continues to be popular through the 10th and 11th centuries with slight variations. The shield, rectangular rather than circular, is strapped to the major left arm of Durga and often strikes the chest of the demon. The lower right hand usually plunges a sakti into the head of the demon near the trident. Her left leg is now planted on the back of her lionFig.32. Vatesvara: Bhagavati temple, sanctum mount. A parasu frequently replaces one of the other weapons. She is more ornately bejeweled and a yajnopavita is added to her body ornaments (figs. 31-32). Beginning in the 13th century the trident is frequently held vertically in front of her body and the pose becomes increasingly stiff. By the end of the century the number of arms is reduced to four with the major two hands holding the trident. The uplifted back hands hold a conch and cakra and testify to the growing influence of Vaisnavism.

The images of Ganesa as a parsvadevata can be grouped into three broad modes according to his pose; (1) seated; (2) dancing; (3) standing, each with variations.

There is in addition a rare example, at Charda, where he is riding on his over sized mount and two examples where he has five heads and holds his consort on his left thigh, though it is not known if the latter two were parsva-devatas as they are not in Fig.30. Simhanatha (island) temple, north situ (fig. 34). In most cases he has four arms raha niche; 10-armed Durga Mahisamardini in the seated and standing modes and eight with demon in human form emerging from decapitated buffalo carcass; 31 ¾ x 22 ½ arms when he is dancing. In four-armed inches; late 9th century images his attributes are standardized with Fig.31. Khiching: 10-armed Durga the only major change being the broken Mahisamardini inserted into north raha niche of modern Kinchakesvari temple built tusk which replaces the radish on later from earlier ruins 53 ½ x 31 ½ inches; c. late images. The mouse-mount is generally 10th-early 11th century missing on early images but is a standard Fig.32. Vatesvara: Bhagavati temple, sanctum; 10-armed Durga Mahisamardini feature by the 10th century. The seated pose with broken arms restored 75 x 39 ½ inches; is most popular on early temples while the c. late 11th-early 12th century

Fig.33. Bhubaneswar: Sisiresvara temple

Fig.33. Bhubaneswar: Sisiresvara temple, deul, south raha niche; 4-armed Ganesa seated in ardhaparyanka wearing a yogapatta 28 x 20 ½ inches; c. late 8th century Fig.34. Puri: Siddha Mahavira (Hanuman) temple, jagamohana; 5-headed, 10-armed Sakti-Ganesa inserted into niche next to entrance 34 x 20 inches; c. mid-13th century Fig.35. Vatesvara: Bhagavati temple compound; deached parsva-devata image of 4-armed standing Ganesa from a nearby destroyed temple 46 x 23 inches; c.12th century

Fig.34. Puri: Siddha Mahavira (Hanuman) temple

dancing or standing pose is standard on most later temples.

When seated, Ganesa usually assumes an ardhaparyanka pose with the right knee uplifted, frequently held in place by a yoga-patta, except when accompanying the Saptamatrikas or embracing his Sakti, in which case he is in lalitasana with one leg pendant. The major left hand invariably holds a modaka-patra from which his proboscis is plucking sweets. In some variants, particularly popular in the 8th and 9th centuries, the proboscis is curled-up and placing a sweet in his mouth (fig. 33). The uplifted back left hand generally holds a kuthara (hatchet). In several late images the hand is lowered, rather than uplifted, and rests on the handle of the kuthara which stands upright on the pedestal, the blade down, an iconographical change influenced by standing images. The right hands hold a rosary and radish or broken tusk. When seated in ardhaparyanka the lower left hand rests on the uplifted knee whereas when seated in lalitasana it is extended in varada.

In the earliest examples the coiffure of Ganesa is generally flat in treatment while throughout the 8th and 9th centuries it is arranged in a karanda-mukuta, resembling an inverted jar, consisting of tightly coiled curls neatly aligned in rows and fringed by a string of pearls on the upper forehead. At the end of the 9th century, and continuing on most later images, the hair is arranged in a jata-mukuta with jatas fanning out on either side of a center diadem frequently ornamented with a kirtimukha mask. There is generally a crescent moon in the coiffure and festoons of pearls decorate the upper forehead. A tassel hangs from the top of each ear while bells usually fringe his necklace and anklets. On early images the yoga-patta is formed from a serpent while on latter works, beginning at the end of the 9th century, it is the yajnopavita and in some cases the armlets and anklets, that are formed from serpents. Attendant figures are generally confined to the niche jambs or to the pedestal as the massive body of Ganesa fills the entire niche. The pedestal on early images is decorated with a center tripod, filled with fruits and offerings , and an outward-facing lion at each corner. In the 8th century the lions are replaced by jackfruit and jars while, in numerous examples, a squatting atlantid gana is added in front of, or replaces the tripod. In the 9th century jack-fruits on either side of the tripod are

carried by rodent-like figures and a mouse is generally added by the tripod from which it is eating sweets. By the 10th century tripod and jack-fruits disappear from the pedestal and with the introduction of the lalitasana pose only the mouse remains as decoration.

Standing images of Ganesa are less varied in iconography, because most of them date from after the 10th century when cult images become increasingly standardized. In a few surviving early examples, Ganesa generally faces to his left and his proboscis is curled-up and placing a sweet in his mouth. He holds the standard attributes in four hands with the kuthara generally being uplifted as on seated images.

Fig.35. Vatesvara: Bhagavati temple compound

Beginning in the 10th century, with the pose gradually replacing the seated pose for parsva-devata images, Ganesa assumes a more hieratic frontal pose rather than facing to one side as on early images. He invariably plucks sweets with his proboscis from a modaka-patra held in his major left hand. The lower left hand rests on the handle of the kuthara which is placed in the lower corner with the blade end down.

The right hand hold a rosary and broken tusk. Attendants generally occupy the lower corners of the niche and the mouse is

placed at the lower right (fig.35).

The motif of Nritta-Ganesa was not popular with Orissan artists until the 10th11th centuries, suggesting it was probably popularized by the Somavamsi-kesaris moving into Orissa from Chattisgarh, with the earliest surviving examples at sites far removed from Bhubaneswar, such as Baidyanath, Paikapada and Khiching. There is, in fact, only one survinving example at Bhubaneswar where the dancing mode serves as a parsva-devata, on the Patalesvara temple in the Lingaraja compound, though missing image on the Brahmeswara temple was probably a Nritta-Ganesa (as evidenced by the smaller duplicate in the upper raha niche) while a later image is inserted into the compound wall of the Papanasini temple. This motif was popular outside of Bhubaneswar, however, and parsva-devata examples appear at Algum, Ghorodia, Kosalesvara, Kundesvara and Parahat while detached images are at Champeswar, Maninagesvara, Pedagadi and Kisenpur.

Nritta-Ganesa generally has six or eight arms with the upper two hands holding a serpent over his head and the proboscis plucking sweets from a modakapatra held in one of his left hands. The major right or left arm crosses the body in gaja-hasta, the hand holding a rosary on six-armed images, while one of the hands on the opposite side is held in kataka-hasta.

The remaining right hands hold a rosary and broken tusk while the other left hand usually holds the kuthara. The feet are generally in the lalita or chatura mode with one uplifted slightly, only the heel raised, so that there is only a slight deviation in the bend of the knees. He is generally accompanied by a dancing attendant on either side while the mouse-mount and devotees are carved on the pedestal (fig.

36). In a few examples he is dancing on the back of the mouse though these are smaller images and not parsva-devatas.

The images of Karttikeya as a parsvadevata can be divided into three broad groups with variations in each; (1) seated on a throne; (2) seated on his mount; (3) standing. In general the seated modes are more popular on early temples and are replaced by standing images by the mid10th century. Except for the rare twelvearmed image at Simhanatha, which serves as an avarana-devata, the seated images usually have only two arms. Early standing images

have two arms while later examples have four arms, He usually holds the sakti (spear) in one of his hands while the other holds a vija-puraka, Towards the end of the 9th century the kukkuta (rooster-cock) is added as an attribute while in several late examples the sakti is replaced by trident. His hair is usually arranged in the sikhandaka mode, consisting of three looped meshes, and he is richly bejeweled with the most notable ornament being the vyaghranakha necklace of tiger-claws and tortoise pendants.

When seated on a throne he is generally in lalitasana. His right hand holds a vija-puraka while his left hand holds the sakti, an exception appearing on the Svarnajalesvara temple where the left hand has lotus. The peacock-mount is carved on the pedestal, moving to the right or left, with a serpent beneath its claws (fig.1).

When seated on his mount the iconography is more varied and the images can be divided into two modes based on the pose of the peacock, whether depicted frontally or in profile. When it is represented frontally, Karttikeya assumes several seated poses. In the earliest surviving examples he is seated in paryanka or padmasana with the legs crossed either behind or in front of the peacock’s neck. In 8th and 9th century images he is seated on the mount in lalitasana or in bhadrasana with both legs pendant. In a few cases he holds a bell in one of his hands.

In early standing images the deity is two-armed and generally places one hand on the hip in katyavalambita while the other holds the sakti. When not in Katyavalambita, the hands holds a vijapuraka or fruit. He is usually flanked in the lower corners by a female figure, or Devasena, and the peacock. Towards the end of the 9th century the number of arms is increased to four and the kukkuta is added as an attribute. By the mid-10th century the four-armed image becomes standardized and deviates very little on later images. The major right hand holds the sakti while the lower right is extended in varada. The major left hand is placed on the back of the kukkuta while the back hand is either raised in abhaya or is likewise placed on the back of the kukkuta. Devasena stands in the lower left corner and supports the feet of the kukkuta with her uplifted right hand. A small groom is usually added in front of the peacock in the lower right corner (fig. 37).

Fig.36. Bhubaneswar: Lingaraja temple compound

Fig.37. Tangi: Candesvara temple, deul

Among the few deviations is a sixarmed image, with three (visible) heads, at Algum.9 He stands on the back of his mount with his lower right hand in varada and the lower left hand placed on the back of the kukkuta. The major right and left hands are now missing. They most likely held a sakti and either a sword or a trident.

The uplifted back hands hold a gada or

Fig.38. Algum: Gartesvara temple, deul, west raha niche

Fig.36. Bhubaneswar: Lingaraja temple compound; 8-armed Nritta-Ganesa as parsva-devata in the south raha niche of the Patalesvara temple; 47 x 23 ¼ inches; c. 12th century Fig.37. Tangi: Candesvara temple, deul; west raha niche; parsva-devata Karttikeya flanked by his peacock mount and his consort Devasena 61 x 33 inches; c. late 11th- early 12th century Fig.38. Algum: Gartesvara temple, deul, west raha niche ; 3- headed, 6-armed parsva-devata Karttikeya standing on his peacock-mount 39 ½ x 21 inches; c. end of 11th century

Thise paper is based on research conducted in Orissa as part of the second Orissa Research Project (ORP II) from 1999-2005.

I am grateful to the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) in Bonn for giving me an opportunity to study the history and culture of Orissa in greater depth.

For a detailed discussion of the goddess Tarini, see Mallebrein, Stietencron 2008, 172-179; Mallebrein 2004 (a); further Das, H.C. 1999, 155-164, Brighenti 2001, 156-158.

On the various Hindu deities, demi-gods, godlings, demons and heroes worshipped in India, see Brunce 2000; on the folklore of Orissa, see Das, K. B. 1991 and Das, Mahapatra 1979, Mishra 2002.

Skoda 2005, 239-250, discusses the worship of the village goddess by the Gauntia of the Aghria community in Orissa. For the worship of Manikesvari and Dokri, widely worshipped in villages of Western India, see Mallebrein 2007 (b), 203-234., For Patkhanda, see Mallebrein 2004 (b).

On the tribal community in India, see Singh 1994. With more than 8.1 million people, the ādivāsi in Orissa constitute 22.2% of the total population of the State (Census 2001). A short description of the tribes of Orissa is given in Senapati 1990.

See on this topic v. Stietencron 2005 (b).

Eichinger Ferro-Luzzi 1987.

For Khambesvari, see Mallebrein, v. Stietencron 2008, p. 45.

See Schnepel 2002.

See Eschmann 1978 (a); on Durga and Camunda, see Brighenti 2001, 214-251, Mallebrein 1999, 2004 (c).

See Stietencron 2005 (a).

On village gods, see Brubaker 1978, Elmore 1925, Feldhaus 1995, Fuller 1992, Kinsley 1986, Whitehead 1921.

See Kapp 1983. On Manasa, see Brighenti 2001, 307-313, on Laksmi, ibid., 327-334, 389; Thierry 1965; Donaldson 1982.

See Skoda 2005, 377-392; Skoda 2003, 25-44; Tandon 1966, Tripathi 1972.

See Fischer and Pathy 1996.

See Mallebrein 2007 (a), Mallebrein, v. Stietencron 2008, 106107.

For an introduction to Orissan history and culture, see v. Stietencron 2009. Whether Buddhism was able to gain prominence in this coastal part of Orissa after the disastrous Kalinga war is debated. On the Asoka inscriptions, see more recently Falk 2006. For more information about the archaeology of Orissa, see Basa (et al.) 2000, Brandt¬ner 2001, Brandtner (et al.) 2007, Pradhan, 2000.

For more information about the Udayagiri and Khandagiri constructed during Kharavelas time , see Mohapatra 1981. [what’s the link with the text? Not clear.]

For an overview on the history and culture of Orissa, see Samal, Mishra (et al.) 2008. For an overview of the cultural centres of Orissa, see Rath 2004, see also Dash 1981 for a bibliography of Orissa till 1980 Donaldson, 1985-87; 2002, Behera, Donaldson 1998.

On the Sakti cult in Orissa in the historical period, see Brighenti 2001, 67-169, Donaldson 2001 (a), 64-77; Donaldson 2002.

Buddhism in Orissa is discussed by Bandyopadhyay 2004, Mitra 2001, Patnaik 2000, Sahu, N.K. 1958.

For more information about the goddess Virajā, see Arp 2006, Mishra, S. P. 2007, Donaldson 2001.

See Pradhan, B.C. 1997(Date) See Mallebrein, v. Stietencron 2008, 185; Eschmann 1978, 214; Kulke 1992, 56-78; Jena (et al.) 2002, 204; Biardeau (et al.) 2004; Brighenti 2001, 58-64.

Under the Bhauma-Karas the image of Parvati, wife of Siva, was replaced by her terrifying aspect as Durga-Mahisasuramardini

ankusa and an indistinct object decorated with a peacock-feather on its handle. The coiffure is arranged in a tall karanda-mukuta rather than the conventional sikhandaka mode (fig. 38). In two late examples dating to the 15th century, one in the Lingaraja compound and the other on the Kapilesvara temple, the uplifted back hands hold the trident and damaru.10

as a result of their tantric leanings. The orthodox Somavamsis returned Parvati, the peaceful aspect of the goddess, back to her original place; see Mallebrein, v. Stietencron 2008, 220 (fn. 16).

On the early Orissan temples, see Parida 1999; on the Lingaraja temple, see Behera, K.S. 2008.

On this topic, see Berkemer 1993, Kulke 1992, 1993, Schnepel 2002.

On this topic, see Falk 1973, 4. As Marglin (1989, 300) noted in relation to the Gajapati, royal power is śakti power, and each Gajapati is ‘symbolically infused with the female procreative powers’.

For the most important royal goddesses, see Brighenti 2001, 155-167; Kulke 1992; Mallebrein 2010 (a); 2008, 39-62; Das, H.C. 1999.

Kulke 1978.

According to Kulke 1992, 58-59, ‘the system of encircling the coastal and particularly the central court region in the Mahanadi delta with a protective semi-circle of small semi-autonomous principalities must have gone back to the period of the imperial Gajapati kings who had ruled eastern India from the Ganges to the Godavari till 1568.’

On the ex-Khorda kingdom, see Tanabe 1998, 1999 (b), 2003; on Ranpur, see Gutschow, 2003, 2004.

Tanabe 1999 (a) analyses in detail the yearly worship of the goddess Ramacandi at Garh Manitri in the ex-Khorda kingdom, and he shows the close relationship between the king and the goddess. He also notes the privatisation of the goddess’s power for individual welfare after 1971. On the Durga festival, see Schnepel 2002, Mallebrein, v. Stietencron 2008, 44-45. On the coronation rituals, see Mallebrein 2010 (b).

For a detailed overview, see Brighenti 2001, 171-207, Das H.C. 1999. For a classification of goddesses in southern Orissa, see Hauser 2007.

See Brighenti 2001, 172-179, Donaldson 2001, Arp 2006, Behera 1967, Mishra 2007.

On the goddess Mangala in Orissa, see Hauser 2004.

On Hingula, see Mallebrein, v. Stietencron 2008, 62-67.

See Mallebrein, von Stietencron ibid., 49-57.

See Donaldson 2001.

Among the other famous Shaktapitha are, for example,e Kiching - Kichakesvari; Sambalpur - Samleshvari; Cuttack - Chandi; Badamba - Bhattarika; Sonepur - Lankeshvari; Purusottampur - Tara-Tarini; Bhadrak - Bhadrakali; Kantilo - Narayani; Aska - Stambeshvari; Kuladha - Vyaghra Devi; Chilika - Narayani; Chandbali - Dakeshvari; Konarak - Ramchandi; Belkhandi Chandi; Mulajhargarh - Ugratara; Soroda - Kandhuni Devi; Chourasi - Varahi; Manikesvari - Bhavanipatna, Parlakhemundi; Khurda - Arunei-Barunei; Chilika - Kalijai; Piteipur - Kanak Durga; Ranpur - Maninaga; Berhampur - Budhi Thakurani, see Das, H.C. 1999. On the Chandi temple in Cuttack, see Preston 1980.

See Donaldson 2001.

On the eyes of the goddess, see Masilamani-Meyer 1996.

See Mallebrein 2000, 2001.

In many village shrines, like the Burha Raja shrine at Banbir in Nuapada District, a sword represents the deity. For discussion of the importance of the sword of the king and his relation to the goddess, see Tanabe 1999 (a), 155. On the change from sign to icon, see Eschmann 1994.

Lidia Guzy has intensively studied the relationship between music and the divine; see Guzy 2008, 2006.

On the snake cult in India, see Brighenti 2001, 307-313, Donaldson 1982, Maity 1966, Thierry 1965, Panda 1986.

See Mallebrein, v. Stietencron 2008, 84-92; See Kapadia 1996.