Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences 116.1

&

Family conSumer ScienceS J O U R N A L O F

2024 Volume 116 Issue 1

FCS Past, Present and Future

INSIDE THIS ISSUE:

• Family Resource Management • HIPPY Mothers’ Family Structure and Process on their Parenting • Consumer Power in Influencing the Marketplace • Experiential Learning in Textile Science Curriculum • Historical review on FCS • Connecting to the Global Cutting Edge A M E R I C A N

A S S O C I A T I O N

O F

family & Consumer Sciences

NATIONAL

Vol. 116 - NO.1 - 2024

Table of Contents POINT OF VIEW Inspiring Inclusion in FCS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 Karin Athanas, AAFCS Executive Director Generating a Growth Mindset in FCS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6 Debra Andres, CFCS-HDFS, AAFCS Board President Parental Priorities in Parenting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 Scott Hall, JFCS Editor

FEATURE Family Resource Management: Past, Present, Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 Rebecca Smith; Portia Johnson; Sheri Worthy; Bryce L. Jorgensen

SCHOLARSHIP HIPPY Mothers’ Family Structure and Process on their Parenting Efficacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 Lionel K. Asare

PRACTICE Consumer Power and Implied Responsibility in Influencing the Marketplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28 Sue L. T. McGregor “Absolutely Hands On!”: Experiential Learning in Textile Science Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34 Jennifer Harmon A Historical Review of FCS: Recommendations to Address Current Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39 Elizabeth A. Ramsey; Melinda Swafford

REFLECTIONS Connecting to the Global Cutting Edge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48 Gwendolyn Hustvedt

1410 King Street, 2nd Floor, Alexandria, VA 22314 | www.aafcs.org | 703-706-4600

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Editor Scott S. Hall, PhD, CFLE Professor of Family Studies Chair, Dept. of Early Childhood, Youth, and Family Studies Ball State University Muncie,IN

Journal Reviewers For reviewer's affiliations visit our Web site at www.aafcs.org Ann Vail Axton Betz-Hamilton Barbara Stewart Caryl Johnson Detri Brech Donna Long Frances Andrews Francine Hultgren Jacqueline Holland Jana Hawley Jennifer Martin, Ph.D. Jody Roubanis Joice A. Jeffries, Ph.D. Julia Miller Arline Julia Miller Arline Kim Kamin Leigh Southward Lisa Kennon Lorna Saboe-Wounded Head

Marilyn (Marty) Martin Rossmann Mia Russell Pamela Schulze Patricia (Trish) Manfredi Rebecca Lovingood Sandra Evenson Sandra Evenson Sharon A DeVaney Sharon Hoelscher Day Tammy Kinley V. Ann Paulins Virginia Vincenti

Associate Editors Carol L.Anderson, PhD, CFCS College of Human Ecology Cornell University

Carole J.Makela, PhD, CFCS School of Education College of Health & Human Sciences Colorado State University

Kerry Renwick, PhD Department of Curriculum and Pedagogy Faculty of Education University of British Columbia

Managing Editor Debbie Johnson, CFCS

AAFCS Board of Directors

2023-2024

President 2023-2024 Debra K. Andres, CFCS-HDFS

Counselor, Immediate Past President 2023-2024 Ex-Officio

The Journal of Family & Consumer Sciences: (ISSN: 1082-1651) is published four times a year (Winter, Spring, Summer, Fall) by the American Association of Family & Consumer Sciences (AAFCS), 1410 King Street, 2"' Floor, Alexandria, VA 22314. Member subscriptions are included in AAFCS membership dues of $150, effective May 1, 2016, of which $64.50 is designated for this publication. Institutions $350 (Online only, both domestic and foreign). No discounts for multiple-year subscriptions. Periodicals postage paid at Alexandria, VA and addi­ tional mailing offices. POSTMASTER: please send address changes to Journal of Family & Consumer Sciences, AAFCS, 1410 King Street, 2"' Floor, Alexandria, VA 22314

Lorna Wounded Head, CFCS, CPFFE

Advertising: Contact Toni Wiese at 703-706-4606. Advertisement of a product, service, or viewpoint should not be construed as an endorsement by the Association. The opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not necessarily reflect the policies or opinions of the Association, its officers, or its members.

Landon Calderwood, CFCS-HDFS

Submissions: See Guidelines for Authors at www.aafcs.org.

Indexing/Abstracting: Family Index Dat abase, Family and Societ y St udies Worldwide. Educat ional Resources Information Center (ERIC) Membership and other inquiries: Main number (703) 706-4600; Fax: (703) 706-4663 email: staff@aafcs.org Copyright (c) by the American Association of Family & Consumer Sciences, 2024. Materials may not be reproduced without written permission. Printed in the United States of America.

Treasurer 2023-2024 Deborah Handy, CFCS

Director-at-Large 2023-2026 Director-at-Large 2023-2026 Margaret Jenkins

Director-at-Large 2022-2025 Sharon Pate

Director-at-Large 2021-2024 Martha Ravola

Director-at-Large 2021-2024 Meeshay Williams-Wheeler

Important Information for Readers Journal of Family & Consumer Sciences JFCSTransitioning to Online Only

AAFCS has joined many others in academic publishing by transitioning JFCS from print to online only. This began with the I 13,3 issue in 2021. We are embracing this change as a catalyst for growth and sustainability and to disseminate information more rapidly and widely.

JFCS Main Page

Executive Director, Ex-Officio Karin Athanas

, View journal themes • View Submission Guidelines and Deadlines , Subscribe to JFCS , Advertise

JFCS Online

Access is free to AAFCS members at www.aafcs.org

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Athanas, K. (2024). “Inspire Inclusion” in FCS Programs. Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences.

Point of View

“Inspire Inclusion” in FCS Programs Karin Athanas1 1 AAFCS Executive Director

Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences In recent news, the Florida State Department of Education issued a ruling to prohibit Florida College System (FCS) Institutions from using state or federal funds on Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion programs (Florida Board Bans Use of State, Federal Dollars for DEI Programs at State Universities, 2024). This trend is not unique. As of January 31, 2024, over 30 legislative proposals across the United States were being considered which would limit funding for DEI programs, practices, and the promotion of DEI initiatives.

This creates a unique challenge for Family & Consumer Sciences professionals to ensure their programs are inclusive without running afoul of state legislation. The Cambridge Dictionary defines ‘Inclusion’ as “the act of including someone or something as part of a group, list, etc., or a person or thing that is included.” (“Inclusion,” n.d.) A simple enough ideal, to ensure that everyone is invited, able to attend, and that the content provided is an appropriate fit for all. However, some groups of people face unique challenges that may prevent them from participating. This could include a lack of transportation, inability to perform the planned FCS activities (e.g., due to a disability or lack of access to supplies), or a need for activities to be held at different times of the day (e.g., after or before work).

Additionally, colleges and universities may no longer use race-conscious admissions and hiring programs to attract people of diverse backgrounds to their programs (DEI Bans at Colleges: What Students Should Know, 2023). It’s suggested that this may lead to colleges and universities that lack diversity. With multiple studies suggesting that diversity leads to new and innovative ideas, the lack of diversity on campus could have the opposite effect, leading to stalled research initiatives that lack creativity and depth.

The Family & Consumer Sciences has a unique role to play in this space. Educators in schools and communities can look for unique ways to be inclusive and equitable in their classrooms to ensure the people from diverse backgrounds feel included and are able to fully participate. FCS researchers can study the effects of diversity and the lack of diversity on communities to inform public policy on this issue. FCS professionals working in industry can promote DEI within their organizations, pushing for their companies to implement hiring practices that attract people from diverse backgrounds. FCS professionals working in government can help bring visibility to research on the value of diversity and to implement programs which support DEI. And FCS professionals across the United States can help to educate legislators on the value of DEI and to promote the adoption of more DEI programs, not less. This year the theme for International Women’s Day is “Inspire Inclusion” (Inspire Inclusion: International Women’s Day, 2024).

In many businesses and industries, there is a lack of women, and we must work together to promote the inclusion of women in these areas. And where there is a lack of people of color, those with different gender identities, socioeconomic levels, lived experience, and more, we must do the same. The FCS community can speak with one voice that all people are important contributors to communities and should be included.

To learn about the AAFCS’ advocacy work, visit www.aafcs.org/aafcs-advocacy Submitted: May 09, 2024 EDT

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“Inspire Inclusion” in FCS Programs

References

DEI Bans at Colleges: What Students Should Know.

(2023). US News. https://www.usnews.com/ education/best-colleges/articles/dei-bans-atcolleges-what-students-should-know Florida board bans use of state, federal dollars for DEI programs at state universities. (2024). CBS News. https://www.cbsnews.com/miami/news/floridaboard-bans-use-of-state-federal-dollars-for-deiprograms-at-state-universities/

Inclusion. (n.d.). In Cambridge Dictionary. https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/ english/inclusion Inspire Inclusion: International Women's Day. (2024). https://www.dentons.com/en/insights/articles/2024/ january/29/inspire-inclusion-international-womensday

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Andres, D. K. (2024). Moving Forward with a Growth Mindset. Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences.

Point of View

Moving Forward With a Growth Mindset Debra K. Andres1 1 AAFCS President

Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences While many reading this article might associate Carol Dweck’s body of research regarding the “growth mindset” theory to the field of education, it also applies to workplace settings, organizations, or individuals seeking to adopt a growth mindset that leads to positive change in attitude, behavior and outcomes.

During the recent Past Presidents Unit and Leadership Council meetings I participated in, I reported that our 2023-2024 AAFCS Board of Directors and AAFCS Staff have adopted a “growth mindset” in guiding the decisions made for the Association and its many valued members. Our mindsets are what guide our actions, reactions and behaviors.

Dr. Dweck’s research on growth mindset establishes that those who have a growth mindset believe that their abilities, intelligence, and talents can be molded. This same group of people (i.e. those with a growth mindset) tend to achieve more than those who believe abilities are innate (i.e. those with a fixed mindset.)

In this article, I ask the reader to reflect on where they feel they fall on the continuum between a growth mindset and that of a fixed mindset. Perhaps you are fresh out of phD program a see yourself in a forward trajectory of growth with a recent publication added to your vitae. Conversely, you might feel you have been in your current workplace setting for so long that you have achieved all that you can and are comfortable in your position and appreciate the predictable routine it affords. In reality, each person rests on a different place of the mindset continuum depending on the setting they are considering. Homelife, community involvement, spiritual journey, physical well-being are all areas where we can reflect on our mindset. However, I am asking you to focus on your professional mindset. Are you feeling complacent, comfortable, edgy with anticipation or excited with positivity and optimism?

This is where you stop reading and really ruminate on your professional mindset. Give yourself several contemplative moments to explore if you are where you want to be, doing what you want to be doing, and satisfied with the outcomes.

You might be wondering why it matters what a person’s mindset is. While current research regarding the impact of growth mindset interventions in student learning has proven mixed results, in the professional realm, growth mindset can unlock the potential in each professional within an organization or group, leading to a diverse and adaptable workforce that can be more creative, productive, and satisfied.

In a recent article of the Forbes Nonprofit Council, Leonard Freeman, JR, MPA shared the following skills a person can adopt that will foster a growth mindset: 1) ongoing learning – working to broaden knowledge base; 2) receptive to feedback – a willingness to hear things with an open mind and choose to use it constructively; 3) acknowledging failure – recognizing that failure leads to learning and should not be seen as a barrier but rather an opportunity to grow; 4) flexible and adaptable – being nimble in our everchanging world and pivot as needed; and 5) problem solver – using creative ways to approach challenges and produce innovative solutions.

Our Association and the members therein value a growth mindset as our AAFCS value statement resonates a growth mindset: Through research, experiential education, and technology, our professionals help people develop the essential knowledge and skills to: • • • •

Lead better lives Be work and career ready Build strong families Make meaningful contribution to our communities

I am excited about the forward-thinking growth mindset of our organization and look forward to continuing the positive trajectory we are on together as members of the American Association of Family and Consumer Sciences.

Submitted: May 09, 2024 EDT

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Hall, S. (2024). Parental Priorities in Parenting. Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences.

Point of View

Parental Priorities in Parenting Scott Hall1 1 Editor

Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences Did you see the results of the most recent The World Values Survey? Data spanning from 2017-2022 across 24 countries highlighted some interesting perspectives across the world regarding what parents should encourage in their children. How did adults in the United States compare regarding what they think is “especially important” for children “to learn at home”? Are you surprised that we ranked the lowest for good manners at only 52%? Or that this percentage dropped from 77% since 1990? At the other extreme, 96% of the adults in Egypt highly prioritized this trait. The US was also toward the lower end on feeling of responsibility (59%, vs 89% for South Korea and 40% for Nigeria).

Conversely, the US was relatively high on adults’ lists for promoting imagination (30%, vs South Korea at 52% and Egypt at 6%), religious faith (32%, vs 82% for Egypt and 2% for China), independence (56%, vs Norway at 85% and Egypt at 14%), and hard work (68%, vs Poland at 81% and Sweden at 8%). We were in the midrange for unselfishness (28%), obedience (21%), thrift (27%), tolerance and respect for others (71%), and determination (39%). Of course, these rankings represent relative standings with other countries, which might be particularly interesting for teachers who have international students or who are looking to transfer to where children have better manners.

Looking just at the US, our priorities appear to rank from high to low as follows: tolerance and respect for others, hard work, responsibility, independence, good manners, determination, religious faith, imagination, unselfishness, thrift, and obedience. Some of these attributes varied by age or generation of the respondents. Larger proportions of younger adults mentioned imagination and independence, and larger

proportions of older adults mentioned religious faith, thrift, and responsibility.

What does this all mean for FCS professionals? You probably have your own ideas about that, but I suspect that these findings might provide a preview of what the coming generations of consumers, producers, students, leaders, and parents might be like. We also get a glimpse of the world that in some ways is becoming smaller and more interconnected, helping us understand potential cultural clashes and convergence. You might also notice that what you think parents should be teaching their children at home is not necessarily what most parents believe. If so, you might reflect on why that is—and I suggest avoiding the age-old temptation of simply chalking up modern trends to the cluelessness of generation (fill in the blank). Even though you could be onto something (as could have been your parents’ generation), but that’s an easy way out.

What are your experiences working with rising generations of children and parents? How have those experiences helped inform how professionals can support individuals, families, and communities in their daily lives? Care to write about and submit your ideas?

Of course, all this presumes that we even have future generations. The US ranked second lowest in believing it is a duty towards society to have children (10%, vs 82% for Philippines and 8% for Sweden…and 65% for Egypt in case you missed hearing about them).

Submitted: May 09, 2024 EDT

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Smith, R., Johnson, P., Worthy, S., Jorgensen, B. L., & Schindler, K. A. (2024). Family Resource Management: Past, Present, Future. Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences, 116(1).

Features

Family Resource Management: Past, Present, Future Rebecca Smith, Ph.D., FFC1, Portia Johnson, Ph.D.2, Sheri Worthy, Ph.D., CFCS, CFLE3, Bryce L. Jorgensen, Ph.D., AFC4, K. A. Schindler, Ph.D., CFP(R)5 1 Mississippi State University Extension, 2 Alabama Cooperative Extension System, Auburn University, 3 College of Family and Consumer Sciences, University of Georgia, 4 Department of Extension Family and Consumer Sciences, New Mexico State University, 5 College for Business Administration, University of Puerto Rico

Keywords: Family Resource Management

Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences Vol. 116, Issue 1, 2024

This feature addresses issues related to family resource management (FRM) by building on two panel presentations given at the 2022 and 2023 Family Economics and Resource Management Association (FERMA) virtual conferences. During the panel discussions, each contributor used their unique perspective to describe changes to the field of FRM and responsibilities of professionals. Hands-on, practical ideas for application of current FRM concepts to various audiences were shared. Trends for the field were predicted.

Given the significant economic, environmental, and social changes of the past few years, this is an ideal time to reconsider FRM and prepare professionals for the future.

Introduction This article aims to discuss issues related to family resource management (FRM), incorporating relevant research and expertise from a diverse array of professionals who bring different perspectives based on their professional and academic trajectories. A panel discussion entitled “Family Resource Management: Past, Present, and Future,” was held at the August 2022 Family Economics and Resource Management Association (FERMA) virtual conference. Panelists were asked to speak about what constitutes “family resource management” today, discuss trends and patterns in the field they have experienced throughout their careers, and predict where the field is headed. The discussion was rich with ideas about what can be learned from those trends and patterns to help consumers and FCS professionals reach their goals.

An effort was made to get a diverse panel across geography, types of institutions, training and certification, as well as rank and roles. Getting representation from 1890 and 1994 Land-Grant institutions proved to be a challenge.

Panelists and their affiliations are listed in Table 1.

A subsequent panel, “Family Resource Management Past, Present, and Future: Lessons We are Learning” was conducted at the May 2023 FERMA virtual conference. The authors of this paper were the panelists (also listed in Table 1). This discussion “connected the dots” by furthering the themes in the prior session. These panel discussions and this paper seek to “future-proof” the discipline by taking inventory, and anticipating and preparing for future trends.

Past Much has been written about the history of our profession, starting with Ellen Richards and the 1888 through 1908 Lake Placid Conferences, which investigated the application of scientific principles to the management of the

household and ultimately named the profession home economics or home management (Abel‐Ghany, 2001; Nickols, 2008). Scholars have also identified home economics as the beginning of the financial planning profession, citing the Morrill Act or Land-Grant College act of 1962 (Yeske, 2016).

Gross et al. (1973) named six stages in the development of home management as a discipline: 1) dumping ground period, 2) resource-centered emphasis, 3) human-centered period, 4) process emphasis, 5) values and decision-making emphasis, and 6) holistic approach. Vickers (1984) further identified three phases: 1) efficiency and work simplification of tasks, 2) management of human and material resources for the optimal development of individual family members and the family, and 3) systems framework emphasizing the relationship within the larger environment.

According to Abel-Ghany (2001), “consumer sciences is facing an identity crisis” (p. 223). This identity crisis was apparent to many in the discipline from its inception, and in 1978, the North Central Regional Committee on Family Economics (NCR-52) created definitions of consumer economics, family economics, and consumption economics to help clarify.

Consumer economics is “the study of economic interactions of consumers with their external environments. It involves economic analysis of market and nonmarket consumption activities, incorporating relevant social, psychological, political, and ecological considerations” (Ritchey, 1978, p. 84). A subset of consumer economics is the consumer economics of financial markets and decisions (Widdows & Bryant, 1993). Widdows and Bryant posit that financial counseling, financial management, and financial planning programs are derived from this subset and focus on consumer behavior in financial markets. These programs prepare graduates for professional certifications such as the Certified Financial Planner (CFP®), Accredited Finan-

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Family Resource Management: Past, Present, Future

Table 1. FERMA Panelists and Affiliations.

Panel

Name

Title

Institution

August 2022

Ann Berry

Professor and Extension Specialist

University of Tennessee

Portia Johnson*

Assistant Professor and Extension Specialist

Auburn University

Bryce Jorgensen

Family Resource Management Specialist/Associate Professor

New Mexico State University

Tami Moore

Professor

University of Nebraska at Kearney

Maria Pippidis

County Director and Extension Educator

University of Delaware

Kurt Schindler

Professor and Faculty of Business Administration

University of Puerto Rico – Rio Piedras

Becky Smith*

Associate Extension Professor

Mississippi State University

Sheri Worthy

Associate Dean for Academic Programs

University of Georgia

Portia Johnson

Assistant Professor and Extension Specialist

Auburn University

Bryce Jorgensen

Family Resource Management Specialist/Associate Professor

New Mexico State University

Kurt Schindler

Professor and Faculty of Business Administration

University of Puerto Rico – Rio Piedras

Becky Smith

Associate Extension Professor

Mississippi State University

Sheri Worthy

Associate Dean for Academic Programs

University of Georgia

May 2023

*Convened panels and served as facilitators.

cial Counselor (AFC®), and the Certified Retirement Counselor (CRC®).

Family economics is “concerned with the determinants of levels of living of families and individuals and with the possibilities for changing these levels to better meet personal and societal needs. It is based on principles and concepts of allocation related to the development, acquisition, maintenance, and conservation of scarce resources in productive activity and end uses by families and individuals as they interact with other social and economic systems to achieve their standards of living” (Ritchey, 1978, p. 86).

Consumption economics is the analysis of consumption patterns and behavior of households on both the macro and micro levels (Ritchey, 1978).

According to Abel-Ghany (2001), all these definitions focus on resource generation and use and involve “purposeful choice” when there are scarce resources, and all demands cannot be met. All focus on the household and recognize the interaction with the broader environment.

Because of these things, all three definitions are unique from the broader discipline of economics.

A review of FRM textbooks by Nickols (2008) revealed that the discipline is founded in multiple theories or conceptual frameworks, including economic theory, industrial engineering theory, organization and process framework, family life cycle/life course development theory, human resource theory, systems theory, and ecosystems theory. According to Goldsmith and Goldsmith (2003) and Overton (2008), FRM involves the allocation of time and value to non-work activities as well as the dynamics of family decision-making. Overton (2008) and Altfest (2004) describe the underlying theories of the personal finance profession and the search for theory to understand how the financial decision-making process is carried out in the household

environment. Altfest (2004) traces the origins of financial planning theory to the classical economics of choice.

Home economics or family and consumer sciences is broader than FRM. The International Federation of Home Economics (IFHE) defines home economics as a field of study concerned with achieving the following for individuals, families, and communities: 1) optimal and sustainable living, 2) empowerment and well-being, and 3) lifelong learning for paid, unpaid and voluntary work (IFHE Think Tank Committee, 2005–2007). The American Association of Family and Consumer Sciences (AAFCS) defines family and consumer sciences as a “field of study focused on the science and the art of living and working well in our complex world” (American Association of Family & Consumer Sciences, n.d.). Both IFHE’s and AAFCS’s definitions encompass FRM. The history of our discipline has involved the challenge of defining what was included in the field and what it should be called. The research focus has shifted over time, bringing us to where we are today.

Present Financial Education Financial literacy rose to national and international prominence as a policy solution in response to the 2008 Great Recession. This time period revealed that consumers were buying products and taking risks they did not understand (Miller et al., 2015). Persistent measurement of low levels of financial literacy, and trends of low personal savings and assets for retirement and high personal debt raised doubts about the impact of financial education. This led to a proliferation of research on the effectiveness of financial education and resulting new approaches to improve longterm outcomes (Fernandes et al., 2014; Lin et al., 2016).

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Family Resource Management: Past, Present, Future

The traditional model of delivering personal finance education has changed given the need to show impact beyond content knowledge. A higher standard of behavior change is expected. Given the extent of the research being done in behavioral economics and behavioral finance, educators and researchers now understand much more about the neuroscience behind why many individuals have low savings (Klontz et al., 2016). We are still at the beginning of finding solutions through both automatic (“system 1”) and nudge policies that require deliberate decision-making (“system 2”; R. C. Smith et al., 2020). The field has also recently seen the growth of financial coaching (Consumer Finance Protection Bureau, 2016; Lienhardt, 2019) and the emergence of financial therapy (Grable et al., 2010).

The Asset Funders Network “Moving Beyond Financial Education, A Grantmaker’s Guide to Investing in Impactful Financial Capability Programs” (Baker & De La Rosa, 2018) and the CFPB’s “Effective Financial Education: Five principles and how to use them” (2017) provide direction on best practices for improving personal finance behavioral outcomes. Effective financial education requires a transition from a “sage on the stage” - delivering rules everyone should follow to attain financial “success” identified primarily by white middle-class norms - toward a client-focused model where client values and motivations are central in providing tools and techniques for behavior change.

This new model requires different skills of educators and consultants, be they financial coaches, financial counselors, or financial planners. Building meaningful relationships with clients includes being authentic and empathetic, seeing the client with “unconditional positive regard,” and releasing judgment of client decision-making. This includes good listening and questioning skills and the ability to manage oneself, including the willingness and ability to self-examine (Sage Financial Solutions, n.d.).

The customization process currently impacting FRM education requires understanding the many different cultural ideas of financial wellness and the traditional markers of white middle-class financial success do not connect with many audiences’ values and motivations (National Endowment for Financial Education and Council for Economic Education, 2021a, 2021b).

Enhancing Quality of Life According to one panelist, FRM has become more of a combination of financial education, coaching, counseling, and life coaching. FRM is about using our resources to enhance the quality of life. Previously the focus has been on personal/family finance focused on goal setting and time management. The life coaching part – aligning goals and values, self-care, quality of life/success principles, happiness, mindfulness, productivity, and technology - has become more prevalent. These topics have a tremendous influence on the stress level in our life, our mental and physical health, and living a life of fulfillment, meaning, and contribution.

Universities across the country offer courses in happiness or positive psychology that are very popular. For example, a Yale “happiness” course taught face-to-face in

2018 grew to 22,522 online enrollments in 2019 and 860,494 by April 2020 (Elassar, 2022). Many of these courses are in psychology departments, but business schools have also incorporated these concepts (Ellis, 2022). Many concepts being taught in these courses have also been incorporated into FRM courses, providing education to equip individuals with the resources and tools they need to be resilient and thrive. For example, taking personal ownership and responsibility provides hope and empowers individuals to make choices that positively influence their lives. Selfreflection, meta-cognition, and mindfulness are taught to FRM students to help them clarify what is most important and what living a life of meaning means to them.

Another panelist focuses on establishing hope, dignity, and agency for her students in FRM classes. These three concepts directly impact student mental health and wellbeing. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), rates of depression and anxiety increased by more than 25% in the first year of the pandemic worldwide (WHO, 2022).

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), symptoms of anxiety or depressive disorder in the US continue - currently affecting 32.3% of the US population (National Center for Health Statistics, 2023). Those 18-29 are faring the worst at 47.2% reporting symptoms.

Most college campuses now provide multiple mental health and well–being resources for students. FRM courses are the perfect place to create hope and agency in our students by teaching them the skills to manage these issues. In FRM classes taught by one panelist, helpful tips are incorporated for students, including: expressing gratitude, cultivating optimism, avoiding overthinking/social comparison, practicing acts of kindness, nurturing affirming social relationships, developing coping strategies, practicing forgiveness, living in the present by increasing flow experiences and savoring joy, committing to goals, meditating, and physical activity (Lyubomirsky, 2008).

Sustainability Another important topic included in today’s FRM courses is sustainability. The United Nations’ 17 Sustainable Development Goals (see https://sdgs.un.org/goals) offer an opportunity to provide a synergistic focus using Goal 3: Good Health and Wellbeing and Goal 12: Responsible Consumption and Production. In one panelist’s course, students set an environmental goal at the beginning of the semester and then report back at the end of the semester about how it went, how much of an impact that one change made, and what they may do going forward. Student goals have ranged from putting a brick in their toilet tank to going vegetarian.

Participant Input During the panel discussion, participants offered several insights about the current state of FRM including that colleges, departments, roles, and functions vary significantly across institutions. Names of colleges housing these programs included family and consumer sciences (FCS), home

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Family Resource Management: Past, Present, Future

economics, human ecology, and human sciences, among others.

Some of the chat comments during the FERMA session expressed uncertainty about our profession: • “Few degree programs available in FRM and FCS as a whole” • “Some states are doing virtually zero Extension work in FRM these days” • “we struggle with no on-campus department, specialist or support. And hiring is now an issue in FCS in general not just FRM.” • “[Crowded by influencers & social media] I feel like any career in the “helping” field has a more modest income, which can be an influence with hiring in that area.”

• “[Key takeaway] Financial Resource Management is everywhere, and no where -> referring to changes in the profession” However, other comments illustrated positive changes that have been made in the profession.

• “We are doing more work in workforce development” • “[A name/role title] Financial fitness coach” • “The current FCS workforce spans generations (Millennial, Generation X, and Boomers).”

Delivery methods for financial education have changed dramatically in recent years. Programs and resources can be shared live via Zoom or asynchronously on demand instead of in-person only. These changes have expanded accessibility for audiences.

In Extension, more focus has been on evaluation and impacts. Instead of information and how many were in attendance, we now focus on changing attitudes and behaviors. Behavioral finance/economics has become more popular with techniques and tools to make changes and create habits.

Future Given the impact of the recent COVID-19 pandemic on the economy, individual health and well-being, and household resources, FRM is highly needed and relevant. Several participants noted that “financial capability is an ongoing battle” for many Americans. FRM professionals are responsible for ensuring the viability and longevity of the profession and its disciplines by continually meeting the future needs of its constituents. Across the two panel discussions described above, panelists and participants reflected on future key pathways and considerations for FRM professionals in light of the likely factors shaping the future of FRM. Three themes emerged: forecasting future trends, communicating FRM’s value, and an increased emphasis on belonging and well-being. These themes relate internally to operations within the FRM profession and externally to interacting with clients, customers, and other stakeholders.

Forecasting Trends Supporting the future of the FRM profession entails anticipating future trends and challenges and taking actions now that both minimize negative consequences and seize emerging opportunities (Pendergast et al., 2012). Many of the factors influencing the future of FRM relate to emerging changes in US consumer demographics. Specifically, consumer behaviors and preferences (Kim & Lee, 2019), rising consumer debt, namely student loan borrowing (Jain, 2021), income inequality (McKernan et al., 2016), and low financial literacy (Lusardi, 2020). Other external factors impacting the FRM professions include environmental and climate changes (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2014), global economic instability, digital currency, competition (MarketLine, 2018; World Bank, 2021; World Economic Forum, 2020), rapid technological changes, and cybersecurity concerns (World Economic Forum, 2015, 2021). The adoption rate and capacity of artificial intelligence, though yet to be fully realized, “will have a significant impact on how we do our jobs and the niche we fill,” asserted one convening participant. Reflecting on these emerging and expectant trends, convening participants noted potential future programming needs: culturally sensitive and whole-person-based curriculum, expanded use of technologies like client relationship management software, content on sustainability issues, psychological and behavioral aspects of FRM, quality of life, and more content relevant to needs of entrepreneurs and non-traditional workers. They also discussed the need to integrate positive psychology and behavioral sciences (“nudges”), and for programming to be driven by consumer needs rather than the topics in which professionals choose to specialize. To remain relevant, “we must always adapt and update,” said one panelist.

Communicating and Expanding Value Other comments capture the critical importance of communicating and expanding FRM value and stem from a continued concern among professionals about the perceived visibility and value of the profession to policymakers, funders, academic administrators, and the general public. This sentiment is expressed by a participant who noted, “…FRM is not getting the attention that other HHS [human and health services] program areas get…if we don’t do a good job explaining the importance of our program area, I’m afraid it could all go away.” Reductions in the enrollment of students in FRM academic majors, underfunded outreach and Extension programs, and Extension staffing shortages are all unfortunate outcomes associated with a failure to communicate value. Improving the value proposition means exploring new ways of communicating and expanding FRM value. Participants noted that better communication may mean engaging in strategic planning at the individual organizational level and national discipline level, and hiring a media brand marketing and communications firm to market and effectively tell the FRM story as an essential component of individual and family well-being. As financial and housing markets change in the future, FRM

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Family Resource Management: Past, Present, Future

professionals can continue to expand their value through professional development and continued education. Some organizations discussed during the session were the Association for Financial Counseling and Planning Education (AFCPE) and Sage Financial Solutions. Expanding the value of FRM might also be achieved by leveraging strategic partnerships with subject matter experts. Collaborating with experts increases the capacity to serve more clients and helps FRM professionals better respond to emerging or niche needs of the audiences served.

Belonging and Well-being An intentional focus on health and wellness, both in program or curriculum design and as it pertains to the wellbeing of academics, educators, and other professions in the field, is a prominent theme emerging from this work. Although governmental, state, and charitable organizations offer resources specifically for consumers with low incomes or those from underrepresented populations, stigma, shame, or fear of judgment often prevent people from seeking resources (Dickerson, 1998). FRM professionals can help destigmatize talking about and utilizing assistance programs. Further, distrust of others or outsiders also inhibits the uptake of community programs. To help overcome such barriers, “there is a clear need for Extension programs to become even more diverse in terms of participants, volunteers, and staff” (Guion & Diehl, 2010, p.

4). Increased diversity of race, ethnicity, experience, background, and thought among the FRM workforce helps clients feel the belonging and connection needed to build hope, dignity, and agency to improve their lives.

Strategically aligning FRM to health and well-being and articulating how FRM fits into the Extension Committee on Organization and Policy (ECOP) Health Equity and Wellness (HEW) model (R. H. Smith, 2022) creates promising opportunities for the future as funders are investing more in health programming. Conceptualizing and articulating where FRM fits within this framework and the other strategic goals of NIFA was noted by a retired FRM professional during one of the panel discussions. Small Steps to Health and Wealth™ by Rutgers New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station (NJAES) Cooperative Extension is an example of programming that connects FRM to the HEW model. See this and other suggested materials for FRM professionals in the section titled Resources for Educators (Appendix).

Next Steps/Discussion Family Resource Management: Past, Present, Future session participants highlighted the need for a “validity check” of the profession to address questions such as “do FRM professionals agree on the content?”, “what has changed?”, and “what is emerging?”. Future research could survey cur-

rent FRM practitioners and academics to investigate answers to these questions.

Researchers might also conduct a systematic review of: 1) the current academic foci at different levels of education and different institutions, 2) topics being covered within the discipline and Extension, and 3) print and digital resources being used by governmental, corporate, non-profit or foundational partnerships, and Extension and outreach programs.

The national community of practice for FRM Extension specialists and educators Financial Security for All (FSA) is building a survey to identify experts across different specialties within the field as well as catalogue resources. FSA is working with FERMA and USDA NIFA program officers to capture as many individuals working in the field as possible.

This database could be the basis for answering these important questions.

Conclusion Using our history as a lens to inform current FRM programming and education is instructive. The issues families experience related to resource development and management have changed dramatically in some ways, but not in others. Identity issues for the profession persist with lack of consistent naming or placement of programs nationwide.

Our discipline has always been future focused. In 1990, Flossie Byrd predicted trends related to: the global economy, technology, accessible information, quickening rate of change, environmental stress, changing family structures, improved nutrition and wellness, increasing life expectancy, US world agriculture leadership, advanced farming/food production, bioengineering, increasing elderly population, diversity and cultural values, increasing standard and level of living, and increased need for community (Byrd, 1990). Twenty-five years later, AAFCS held a future summit where the following future issues that would influence our field were compiled: time-poverty/lifestyle overload, societal need for FCS, threats to FCS as a profession, lack of economic equity, political and cultural divisiveness, globalization, media influence, and technology.

FCS continues to look for ways to stay current and relevant with plans to hold a panel discussion on “FutureProofing Family and Consumer Sciences: Back to the Future” at the summer 2024 AAFCS annual conference.

Reassessing the current state of FRM is also a valuable exercise. As we emerge from the pandemic and face an uncertain future, now is the ideal time to analyze patterns and predict likely trends in FRM in order to better prepare professionals for the future of this field.

Submitted: February 21, 2024 EDT

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Appendix - Resources for Educators The discussion amongst panelists and participants revealed a rich body of knowledge for professional development. Some suggested resources for FRM professionals shared during the FERMA sessions: • Aspen Institute. (2020). Framework for Recovery and Resilience. https://assets.aspeninstitute.org/content/ uploads/2020/06/Aspen-Framework-for-Recoveryand-Resilience-FINAL-06-16-2020.pdf • Association for Financial Counseling and Planning Education. (2022). https://www.afcpe.org/ • Dreilinger, D. (2021). The Secret History of Home Economics: How Trailblazing Women Harnessed the Power

• • • •

•

of Home and Changed the Way We Live. W. W. Norton & Company.

Goldsmith, E. B. (2023). Foundations of Family Resource Management (6th ed.). Sage Publications.

Moore, T., J., & Asay, S. M. (2021). Family Resource Management (4th ed.). Sage Publications.

Sage Financial Solutions. (2022). http://sagefinancialsolutions.org/ Small Steps to Health and Wealth, Rutgers New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station (NJAES) Cooperative Extension. See https://njaes.rutgers.edu/sshw/ and https://njaes.rutgers.edu/sshw/internal Smith, M.G. (2022). Decolonization of the Home Economics profession. International Journal for Home Economics, 15, 1.

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Asare, L. K. (2024). HIPPY Mothers’ Family Structure and Process on Their Parenting Efficacy. Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences, 116(1).

Scholarship

HIPPY Mothers’ Family Structure and Process on Their Parenting Efficacy Lionel K. Asare, Ph.D.1

a

1 Department of Sociology, Anthropology, Human Development and Family Science, University of Louisiana at Lafayette

Keywords: Home visiting, parenting, family structure, family process

Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences Vol. 116, Issue 1, 2024

This study looks at the relationships between family structure (organization and control), family process (cohesion, expressiveness, and conflict) with maternal sense of competency for mothers (n=138) engaged in a home visiting program. Research questions were answered using multivariate analysis of canonical correlational analysis (CCA) to determine associations between the study variables. Results showed significant relationship between family structure variables of control and organization and maternal self-report of their general efficacy and their task specific efficacy for teaching and nurturing. Results further showed an inverse relationship between process variable of conflict and overall parenting efficacy of mothers. Study provided directions on how family professionals and home visitors can empower mothers to become efficient, thereby fulfilling Family and Consumer Science’s (FCS) goal of equipping professionals to develop essential knowledge and skills to build stronger families.

Introduction Because of the invaluable role parents’ play in the successful development of their children, their influence cannot be ignored by Family and Consumer Science (FCS) practitioners and researchers (Jeong et al., 2021). Parents are most often the first point of socialization for the child (Baker, 2014; Dorsch et al., 2015). It is, therefore, important to take a critical look at the process of parenting and the skills that parents adopt in their quest to achieving a better outcome for their children.

The positive role mothers play in children’s early development is central to the Home Instruction for Parents of Preschool Youngsters (HIPPY) program (BarHava-Monteith et al., 2003). Skills are taught through role-playing with mothers until a desired level of competence is achieved.

Resource materials, including books, learning enrichment packets, and games, to foster children’s cognitive development and preparation for school entry are given to mothers.

Presentation of parenting information and skill demonstrations of role-play activities are provided to mothers during monthly group meetings of mothers and home visitors (Kfir & Elroy, 2003).

Analyses of the effectiveness of the HIPPY program have demonstrated impact on learning-related parenting skills (Brown & Joohi, 2014; Palladino, 2015). For example, HIPPY mothers are more involved in home literacy activities, such as reading (Black & Powell, 2004; Brown & Joohi, 2014), increased parental involvement in their children’s school (BarHava-Monteith et al., 2003; Brown & Joohi, 2014; Cuenca, 2003; Palladino, 2015), have greater confidence in their abilities to engage their children in school (Jacobson, 2003), and greater involvement in activities involving learning stimulation outside the home (Brown & Joohi, 2014). However, there is little research looking at parenting efficacy and family related variables for families served by the HIPPY program. Understanding this relationship provides one step toward assuring that HIPPY, as well as other home visiting programs meet families’ needs in a way that continues development of important family dynamics. In consonant with one of the values of FCS, an understanding of these relationships will equip FCS professionals to better help people develop essential knowledge and skills to build stronger families through home visiting programs. Given the need for research attention to this issue, it is worthwhile understanding the relationship between family structure, family process, and parenting effi-

a Lionel K. Asare, PhD. Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology, Anthropology, Human Development and Family Science, Uni-

versity of Louisiana at Lafayette.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Lionel Asare, Department of Sociology, Anthropology, Human Development and Family Science, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, P.O Box 43632, Lafayette, LA 70504 Phone: 337-482-6165 Email: lionel.asare@louisiana.edu

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HIPPY Mothers’ Family Structure and Process on Their Parenting Efficacy

cacy in a sample of Latino and African American mothers who happened to be the predominant demographic groups for the sample selected for this study. This will better help FCS professionals engaged in home visiting related activities understand and support mothers during their home visitations and parent education programs. The study will further assist family professionals and home visitors to empower mothers to become efficient thereby fulfilling the FCS goal of equipping professionals to develop the essential knowledge and skills to build stronger families.

Home Instruction for Parents of Preschool Youngsters (HIPPY) The HIPPY home visiting program involves a 30-week structured curriculum that requires mothers to vigorously engage in daily reading and parent-child activities across three major focus areas: (a) language development, (b) problem solving, and (c) perceptual discrimination (Westheimer, 2003). Lessons are taught through role play where home visitors provide parents with feedback until they achieve a certain level of competence. Mothers’ involvement in HIPPY home visiting programs has helped close the achievement gap for families of lower socioeconomic background by serving more than 15,000 families in almost 140 communities across the United States (Brown & Joohi, 2014).

One goal of the HIPPY home visiting program is to provide mothers’ with a sense of parental efficacy. This sense of efficacy is related to positive outcomes for both mothers and children (Giallo et al., 2013). Outcomes include increased maternal involvement in the activities of their children (BarHava-Monteith et al., 2003), greater confidence in their abilities to engage their children at home (Murdock, 2013), and greater involvement in activities involving learning stimulation outside the home (Brown & Joohi, 2014; Palladino, 2015). Mothers who are involved in HIPPY programs, like every other mother often face challenging family contexts and other contextual factors that can significantly affect their parenting sense of efficacy (Black & Powell, 2004). However, it is expected that the mothers enrolled in the HIPPY program will demonstrate improved competence and skills in the processes of parenting (Schaub, 2015). Mothers enrolled in HIPPY programs are expected to be involved in their children and home literacy activities of their children, such as reading. One other outcome of the program is to bolster maternal confidence and parenting self-efficacy.

Given the fast growth of the Latino population in the last two decades, enrollment of Latino families in this home visiting program has increased. This provides support and educational tools to these mothers in an effort to support them to prepare their children for school (Black & Powell, 2004; Falconer et al., 2011; Jacobson, 2003). Latino children (under 18 years) are the largest minority group in the United States currently comprising 25% of the United States’ child population (National KIDS COUNT, 2020).

This shift in demography among the U.S. child population calls for studies that can help improve understanding of

Latino children’s preschool environment and how best to support parents in preparing their children for school entry.

Theoretical Framework In understanding the relationship between the family structure (organization and control) and family process (cohesion, expressiveness, and conflict) on parenting efficacy, and task-specific efficacy for teaching and nurturing of mothers involved in the HIPPY home visiting program, Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1979) will provide the theoretical framework.

Ecological Theory Bronfenbrenner (1979) theorized that humans encounter different environments throughout the lifespan and these environments have the potential to influence behavior in various ways. Bronfenbrenner and Morris (2006) used a model called the person-process-context-model, which incorporates characteristics of the developing person (in this case, mother-child dyad), the environmental context in which they participate, and the processes involving interaction between the developing person on one hand and persons, objects, and symbols in his or her environment.

Ecological theory posits that, the developing person cannot be understood independent of the environment in which they function and the processes that take place within those environments. That is why to understand the relationships between family structure (control and organization) and family process (expressiveness, cohesion, and conflict) on parenting efficacy, the processes that take place in the contextual environment, and the interaction between mothers and children must be put into consideration to better understand these relationships.

Finally, ecological theory views the developing person’s environment as hierarchical and nested structure of four systems, which includes the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macro system and later added chronosystem.

(Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006).The microsystem consists of the developing person as well as the persons with whom they are in contact and deal with during everyday life. An example relating to this study is the mother-child interaction. The mesosystem can simply be explained as the situation where microsystems interact. For example, when the microsystem of the family interacts with other family members or other family environment such as social support available to the members of the family, that interaction becomes the mesosystem.

The exosystem contains such relationships as mothers’ interaction at work or with friends and neighbors both of which will indirectly affect the developing person who in this situation is the child. The macrosystem is defined as the characteristics of culture, subculture, and life course option opportunity structures among others. The microsystem, mesosystem, and exosystems are contained within the macro system.

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HIPPY Mothers’ Family Structure and Process on Their Parenting Efficacy

Intervention and Home Visiting Programs Home visiting programs are administered in various ways based on criteria such as the frequency of the home visits, the curriculum that is used in the program, personnel that provide the services (that is, whether it is a professional or paraprofessional) and finally, how effectively the program is implemented. In essence, home visiting programs aim at promoting positive impact among families where it is expected that these positive changes may have long-term effects on the development of the child.

Home visitors who administer home visiting programs may be professionals or paraprofessionals. They serve as sources of support, providers of resources, and intermediaries for families to social supports and sometime refer them to other resources in the community. Home visiting programs seeks to improve parenting skills (Middlemiss & McGuigan, 2005), mitigates child abuse and neglect (Falconer et al., 2011), and increases parenting self-efficacy (Nievar et al., 2011).

Objective/Purpose This study examined the relationships between family structures (organization and control) and mothers’ parenting efficacy on one hand, and family process (cohesion, expressiveness, and conflict) and mothers’ reported parenting efficacy on the other hand for mothers’ engaged in HIPPY related activities. Family structure was assessed as how the family system is organized regarding clarity of family rules and control regarding the rigidity or flexibility in the family system. Family processes were assessed as daily family routines and interactions. In the analysis, cohesion was assessed as concerns and commitment of family members to each other, as well as levels of familial emotional support. Expressiveness was assessed as the feelings and interactions in the family system and conflict relates to the level of anger and aggression in the family subsystems. Family structure and family process variables were examined in relation to measures of maternal efficacy. Parenting efficacy enables mothers not only responds to and engage with their children but also cope with stressful and challenging situations.

General parenting efficacy, task-specific self-efficacy for nurturance, and task-specific self-efficacy for teaching were assessed, representing measures of the degree to which mothers feel competent and capable of solving problems related to these processes in the mother-child relationship.

Task-specific self-efficacy as related to teaching examined mothers’ ability to provide instruction to assist their preschoolers in learning. Task-specific efficacy in relation to nurturance was assessed as efficacy in providing support, empathy, and overall nurturing care.

Research Questions To contribute information about these parenting characteristics, and thereby provide information useful in adapting family visitations and materials to best support mothers

in the HIPPY programs, this study focused on answering the following questions: 1. Is there an association between HIPPY mothers’ reports of their family structure and their reports of parenting efficacy?

It was hypothesized that there will be a statistically significant positive association between mothers’ report of their family structure, which includes measures of control and organization, and reports of parenting efficacy, including measures of general, task specific self-efficacy for nurturing, and task specific parenting efficacy for teaching.

2. Is there an association between HIPPY mothers’ reports of family process, and their reports of parenting efficacy as related to general and task-specific efficacy?

It was hypothesized that there will be a statistically significant positive association between mothers’ reports of their family process characteristics, measured as cohesion, expressiveness, and conflict, and their reports of parenting efficacy, including measures of general, task specific for nurturing, and task specific for teaching parenting efficiency.

Methods Participants A total of 138 mothers enrolled in a southwestern HIPPY program were recruited to participate in this study. These mothers were nearing the completion of the 30-week, structured curriculum designed for HIPPY participants. Of the 138 participating mothers, 102 identified as Hispanic and 36 identified as African American, reflecting the ethnicity represented by the program population.

Country of origin was not recorded for Hispanic mothers, thus, limiting the ability to further describe family ethnicities and explore related differences based on family ethnicity. The age range of participants was 17 to 53, with a mean age of 31.42 (SD = 6.65). The range of number of children was from 1 to 10, with a mean of 2.73 (SD = 1.15). Educational levels varied for mothers with 47.7% (n = 65) of mothers having completed middle school-level education; 23.4% (n = 32), elementary school level or less education; and 15% (n = 22), high school education. In addition, 13.9% (n = 19) completed vocational training or a certification program.

All mothers reported low socioeconomic levels.

Following Institutional Review Board’s approval at the researcher’s university, HIPPY home visitors gave recruitment flyers to mothers during home visits. Mothers who were interested in learning more about the study agreed to have home visitors forward their names to the director of the HIPPY program. The director forwarded the list to the team of researchers who then contacted the mothers by telephone to describe the research and set up an appointment for visiting. One trained student researcher and one or more home visitors visited mothers interested in participation. After further description of the research, all participating mothers read, understood, and signed informed consent forms before completing the study questionnaires.

Mothers had the option of selecting Spanish or English packets and complete the study questionnaires regarding

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HIPPY Mothers’ Family Structure and Process on Their Parenting Efficacy

Table 1. Sociodemographic Characteristics of HIPPY Mothers Demographic Variable

n

%

Married

86

62.3

Cohabiting

25

18.1

Remarried

0

0

Divorced

1

0.72

Separated

4

2.9

Single/Never Married

15

10.9

Other

7

5.0

Full time: One job

14

10.1

Full time: Two or more jobs

1

0.7

Part-time: One job

9

6.5

Part-time: Two or more jobs

2

1.4

Unemployed

11

7.97

Unemployed Stay home by choice

74

53.6

Stay home by necessity

27

19.5

Less than $10,000

30

21.7

$10,000

11

7.9

$15,000

24

17.3

$20,000

38

27.5

$30,000

13

9.4

$35,000

9

6.5

$40,000

6

4.3

$45,000

2

1.4

More than $45,000

5

3.6

Marital Status

Job Status

Income Level

Note. N=138. Participants were on average 31.4 years old.

family structure, process, and parenting efficacy. Researchers were available to answer any questions that mothers had concerning the study questionnaires. Participating mothers were given $10 in compensation for their time. On the average, mothers completed the questionnaires in 60 minutes.

Measures Mothers were offered the option of completing questionnaires in English or in Spanish.

Family Structure The Family System Maintenance Dimension Scale (Moos & Moos, 1994) was used to measure family structure. This instrument consists of two subscales: Organization and Control. The Organization subscale measures how well the family system is structured and organized with clarity of family rules. Example items included, “Each person’s duties are clearly defined in our family” and “People change their minds often in our family” (reverse coded). Moos and Moos (1994) reported an alpha coefficient of 0.76 and a two-

month test-retest reliability coefficient of 0.76 for the organization subscale in a validation sample. The Control subscale measured rigidity of family rules and procedures and the hierarchical structure present in the family. Example items included, “There is a strong emphasis on following rules in our family” and “We can do whatever we want in our family” (reverse coded). Moos (1994) reported an alpha coefficient of 0.67 and a two-month test-retest reliability coefficient of 0.77 for the control subscale in a validation sample.

Family Process Family process was measured using three subscales from the Family Environment Scale (Moos & Moos, 1994). All questions on this Scale were in a dichotomous true/false format. The Cohesion subscale of this instrument measured concern and commitment of family members to each other, as well as levels of familial emotional support. All nine items on this subscale were used for the purpose of this study. Example items include, “Family members really help and support one another,” and “There is a feeling of togetherness in our family.” Moos and Moos (1994) reported an alpha coefficient of 0.78 and a two-month test-retest reliability coefficient of 0.86 for then cohesion subscale in a validation sample. The Expressiveness subscale measured the extent to which family members openly express feelings. Eight out of nine items were used on this scale. One of the items was not accurately translated to Spanish for the Spanish version of the scale, resulting in elimination of that item in the analyses. Example items included, “Family members keep their feelings to themselves” (reverse coded) and “We say anything we want around our home.” Moos and Moos (1994) reported an alpha coefficient of 0.69, and a two-month test-retest reliability coefficient of 0.73 for the expressiveness subscale in a validation sample. The Conflict subscale measured the level of anger and aggression in the family subsystem. There are 9 items for this scale.

Example items included, “We fight a lot in our family” and “Family members rarely become openly angry” (reverse coded). Moos and Moos (1994) reported an alpha coefficient of 0.75, an average item-total correlation coefficient of 0.43, and a two-month test-retest reliability coefficient of 0.85 for the conflict subscale in a validation sample.

Mothers’ Sense of Competence Efficacy Subscale General mother efficacy was defined as the degree to which mothers felt competent as parents and how they perceived themselves as capable of solving problems that may arise during parenting. The General Parenting SelfEfficacy subscale (Johnston & Mash, 1989) measured the degree to which mothers felt competent, capable of problem solving, and familiar with parenting (Johnston & Mash, 1989, p. 173). This provided a measure of mothers’ generalized sense of confidence in parenting. This scale contains seven items scored on a 6-point Likert scale, ranging from “Strongly Disagree” to “Strongly Agree” where 6= strongly agree and 1= strongly disagree. Example items include, “Being a parent is manageable, and any problems are easily

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HIPPY Mothers’ Family Structure and Process on Their Parenting Efficacy

solved” and “If anyone can find the answer to what is troubling my child, I am the one.” Johnston and Mash (1989) reported sufficient internal consistency reliability for the subscale (alpha = .76). The Self-Efficacy for Parenting Tasks Inventory Subscale (SEPTI) measured mothers’ Teaching and Nurturance (Coleman & Karraker, 2003). All items on this instrument were scored on a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 6= strongly agree and 1= strongly disagree. The Teaching subscale (nine items) reflected mothers’ confidence in their ability to provide instruction to assist their toddler in learning. It contains items such as “I believe my toddler learns a great deal from my efforts to show him/her things.” and “I am probably not great at teaching my child about the world” (reverse scored). This subscale showed sufficient internal consistency reliability in Coleman’s and Karraker’s work (alpha =0.76). The Nurturance subscale (eight items) assessed mothers’ confidence in their abilities to provide support, empathy, and overall nurturing care to their toddler. It contains items such as, “I am able to sense when my child is starting to become distressed” and “I think my child knows by my behavior how much I really adore him/her.” This subscale showed sufficient internal consistency in Coleman and Karraker (2003)'s validation study (alpha = .71). Coleman and Karraker (2003) presented discriminant validity evidence for total scores on the SEPTI, which were moderately correlated with the Efficacy scale of the Parenting Sense of Competence Scale as well as measures of domain-specific confidence in parenting infants and a measure of general self-efficacy.

Results SPSS version 22 was used to analyze the data collected.

Descriptive statistics were computed to describe the demographic characteristics of the participating mothers. Table 1 shows the sociodemographic characteristics of the research participants. Research questions were answered using multivariate analysis of canonical correlational analysis (CCA) to analyze the associations between variables. According to Sherry and Henson (2005), CCA is most appropriate when a researcher desires to examine relationships between two variables sets. That is, CCA can be conceptualized as a simple bivariate correlation (Pearson r) between two synthetic variables as in this current study.

Research Question 1 The first research question was whether there is an association between mothers’ report of their family structure and mothers’ self-reports of parenting efficacy. Family structure variables of organization and control for all the HIPPY mothers (Hispanic and African American mother) were entered in one predictor set. Outcome variables of general self-efficacy, task specific efficacy for teaching, and task specific efficacy for nurturing for all the HIPPY mothers (Hispanic and African American mothers) were entered into the criterion set. The analysis yielded two functions with squared canonical correlations Rc2 of .623 for Function 1 and .075 for Function 2. In CCA, this Rc2 is directly analogous to the R2 effect in multiple regression.

Collectively, the full model across all functions was statistically significant using the Wilk’s λ=.348 criterion, F (6,266) = 30.76, p < .001. In CCA, because Wilks’s λ represents the variance unexplained by the model, 1-λ yields the full model effect size in an r2 metric. Therefore, for the set of two canonical functions, the r2 type effect size was .652, which indicated that the full model explained an approximately 65% of the variance shared between the parents’ structure variables and reported parenting efficacy.

This showed a very large effect size for the model. The dimension reduction analysis in multivariate studies enable researchers to test the hierarchical arrangement of functions for statistical significance.

As already noted, the full model (functions 1 to 2) was statistically significant. Function 2, although tested separately, did explain a statistically significant amount of shared variance between the variable set, F (2,134) =5.43, p< .005. However, given the Rc2 effects for each function, only Function 1 was considered noteworthy in the context of this study with a significant amount (62%) of the explained variance between the variable sets. The Rc2 effect for Function 2 which was 7.5% of the remaining variance in the variable sets after the extraction of the prior functions were too small to be considered noteworthy in the context of this study. Therefore, only Function 1 was considered. The standardized canonical function coefficients (analogous to beta weights in multiple regression) for both functions 1 and 2 are presented in Table 2. The squared structure coefficients are given as well as the communalities (h2) across the two functions for each variable. Based on the communalities across the two functions for the criterion variables, 100% of the variance in the outcome variable of parenting efficacy for nurturing could be reproduced by both functions whereas 73% of the variance in general parenting efficacy and 84% of the variance in parenting efficacy for teaching could be reproduced by functions 1 and 2. This indicated that all the dependent variables were useful in determining the associations within the entire model.

Similarly, the predictor variables showed 100% of the variance in the family structure variable of organization could be reproduced by both functions together with 99% of the variance in control reproduced by Function 1 and 2. The coefficients for Function 1 on parenting efficacy variables of teaching and nurturing (most especially), made noteworthy contributions to the synthetic criterion variable. This conclusion was supported by the squared structure coefficients of 83% and 67%, respectively. Task specific efficacy for teaching tended to have a relatively large canonical function coefficient (beta weight). Task specific efficacy for nurturing had a modest function coefficient but large structure coefficient. Furthermore, all these variables’ structure coefficients had the same sign, indicating that they were all positively related.

Regarding the predictor variable set in Function 1, structure variables of control and organization made an almost equal noteworthy contribution to the predictor synthetic variable based on coefficients. This conclusion was supported by the squared structure coefficients of 94% and 87% respectively. These structure variables of control and or-

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HIPPY Mothers’ Family Structure and Process on Their Parenting Efficacy

Table 2. Canonical Solution for Family Structure Predicting Parental Self-Efficacy for Function 1 and 2

Variable

Coef

Function 1 rs

rs2 (%)

Coef

Function 2 rs

rs2 (%)

h2 (%)

General PE

-.407

-.609

37

.594

.596

36

73

PE(Nurt)

-.313

-.819

67

-1.27

-.574

33

100

PE(Teach)

-.545

-.910

83

.749

-.115

1

84

Rc2

62

Organization

.414

.932

87

1.69

.361

13

100

Control

.631

.972

94

-1.63

-.236

5

99

7.5

Note. Structure coefficients (rs) greater than |.45| are in bold. Communality coefficients (h2) greater than 45% are in bold. Coef = standardized canonical function coefficient; rs = structure coefficient; r 2= squared structure coefficient; h2 = communality coefficient.

ganization also tended to have a larger canonical function coefficient (beta weights). In addition, the structure coefficients of the structure variables of control and organization had the same sign, indicating that they were all positively related. The structure variables (control and organization) were, however, inversely related to reported parents’ sense of general parenting efficacy, parenting efficacy for teaching and nurturing. The implication for this inverse relationship was that with the presence of higher levels of control and organization in mothers’ structure variables, there would be a high level of general parenting efficacy, selfefficacy for teaching and nurturing present in parents’ response. This result was generally supportive of the theoretically expected relationships between parenting mothers’ sense of efficacy.

Research Question 2 Using CCA, process variables of cohesion, expressiveness, and conflict for all HIPPY mothers were entered in one predictor set. Outcome variables of general parenting efficacy, and task specific efficacy for teaching, and task efficacy for nurturing for all HIPPY mothers were entered into the criterion set. The analysis yielded three functions with squared canonical correlations Rc2 of .465, .0301 and .002 for each successive function. Collectively, the full model across all functions was statistically significant using the Wilk’s λ =.518 criterion, F (9,321) = 11.08, p<.001. Because Wilks’s λ represents the variance unexplained by the model, 1-λ yields the full model effect size in an r2 metric. Thus, for the set of three canonical functions, the r2 type effect size was .482, which indicated that the full model explained a substantial portion of about 48% of the variance shared between the parents’ process variables and reported parenting efficacy.

The dimension reduction analysis in multivariate studies enabled testing the hierarchical arrangement of functions for statistical significance. Functions 2 and 3, although tested separately, did not explain a statistical significance amount of shared variance between the variable set, F (4,266) =.968, p< .05 and F (1,134) =.998, p< .05, respectively. Given the Rc2 effects for each function, and altogether given the fact that only the first function yielded a statistically significant amount of variance shared, only Function 1 was considered noteworthy in the context of this

study with a significant amount (47%) of explained variance between the variable sets. Functions 2 and 3 explained 3% and .2%, respectively, of the remaining variance in the variable sets after the extraction of the prior functions.

The standardized canonical function coefficients for both functions 1 and 2 are presented in Table 3. The squared structure coefficients are also given as well as the communalities (h2) across the two functions for each variable. Based on the communalities across the two functions for the criterion variables, 100% of the variance in the outcome variable of parenting efficacy for teaching could be reproduced by both functions together, whereas 79% of the variance in general parenting efficacy and 72% of the variance in parenting efficacy for nurturing could be reproduced by functions 1 and 2. These larger communalities indicated that all the parenting efficacy variables for the mothers were useful in explaining the relationships. For the predictor variables, about 95% of the variance in family process variable of conflict could be reproduced by both functions together with 36% of the variance in expressiveness and about 64% of the variance in process variable of cohesion could be reproduced by Functions 1 and 2. This also indicated the usefulness of the process variables of conflict and cohesion in explaining the relationships because of their large communality coefficient. The coefficients for Function 1 on maternal efficacy variables of teaching and nurturing, made noteworthy contributions to the synthetic criterion variable, which were also supported by the squared structure coefficients of 84% and 71%, respectively. These variables also tended to have the larger canonical function coefficients (beta weights). In addition, structure coefficients of general self-efficacy and self-efficacy for teaching and nurturing had positive correlation, indicating that self-efficacy for teaching and nurturing, and general self-efficacy was positively related to the parenting process of cohesion, expressiveness, and conflict.

Regarding the predictor variable set in Function 1, the parenting process variable of conflict (94%) was the only contributor to the predictor synthetic variable based on coefficients. Process variables of cohesion (7%) and expressiveness (9%) did not make any noteworthy contribution to the entire model. This was supported by the communality coefficients for these variables. The conflict process variable also tended to have a larger canonical function coefficient. In addition, the structure coefficients of the process

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HIPPY Mothers’ Family Structure and Process on Their Parenting Efficacy

Table 3. Canonical Solution for Family Process Predicting Parental Self-Efficacy for Function 1 and 2

Variable

Coef

Function 1 rs

rs2 (%)

Coef

Function 2 rs

rs2 (%)

h2 (%)

General PE

-.379

-.582

34

.896

.673

45

79

PE(Nurt)

-.358

-.841

71

.713

-.129

1

72

PE(Teach)

-.521

-.916

84

-1.22

-.399

16

100

Rc2

47

Cohesion

-.186

-.261

7

.866

.757

57

64

Expressiveness

-.139

-.292

9

-.658

-.519

27

36

Conflict

.940

.969

94

.035

.073

1

95

3

Note. Structure coefficients (rs) greater than |.45| are in bold. Communality coefficients (h2) greater than 45% are in bold. Coef = standardized canonical function coefficient; rs = structure coefficient; r 2= squared structure coefficient; h2 = communality coefficient.

variables of cohesion and expressiveness had the same sign, indicating that they were all positively related. Conflict, however, was inversely related to the maternal report of sense of general parenting efficacy, parenting efficacy for teaching and nurturing. The implication for this inverse relationship is that, with the presence of lower levels of conflict reported by mother’s, there would be a high level of parenting efficacy for teaching and parenting efficacy for nurturing presented in mothers’ response.

Family process variables of cohesion and expressiveness were positively related to the outcome variables of general parenting efficacy and parenting efficacy for teaching and nurturing. More so, due to the comparatively modest function coefficient and small structure coefficient of the parenting process variables of cohesion and expressiveness, these variables could be regarded as suppressor in the predictor set for Function 1. These results were generally supportive of the theoretically expected relationships between parenting and parenting sense of efficacy in situations where parents reported lower levels of conflict. Extant literature places much emphasis on the need to reduce conflict within the family and more especially, when parenting younger children.

Analyses for Hispanic and African American Mothers Separately Initially, this study was designed to examine the associations between family structure, family process, and parenting efficacy for nurturing for mothers engaged in the HIPPY intervention program. Mothers’ participating in this study were from two main racial groups: African Americans and Hispanics. However, because these two groups of mothers were from different racial backgrounds, with each background centered on different belief systems and values, analysis completed for all mothers was then completed within culture group. Conducting separate analysis for the two different racial groups enabled the researcher to better identify similarities/differences in relationships between the dependent and independent variables across these two groups.

Hispanic Mothers The full model for the relationships between both process and structure variables and parent’s self-efficacy variables for the Hispanic mothers were all statistically significant. Firstly, with respect to the association between process variables and mothers reported self-efficacy variables, the analysis yielded three functions with squared canonical correlations Rc2 of .360, .034 and .000 for each successive function. Collectively, the full model across all functions was statistically significant using the Wilk’s λ =.617 criterion, F (9,233) = 5.69, p<.001. Because Wilks’s λ represents the variance unexplained by the model, 1-λ yields the full model effect size in an r2 metric. Thus, for the set of three canonical functions, the r2 type effect size was .383, which indicated that the full model explained a substantial portion of about 38% of the variance shared between the parents’ process variables and reported self-efficacy for Hispanic mothers.

Table 4 shows the standardized canonical function coefficients for both functions 1 and 2 for Hispanic mothers.

The squared structure coefficients are also given as well as the communalities (h2) across the two functions for each variable.

Based on the communalities across the two functions for the criterion variables, 99% of the variance in the outcome variable of self-efficacy for nurturing could be reproduced by both functions together whereas 79% of the variance in self-efficacy for teaching and 24% of the variance in general self-efficacy could be reproduced by functions 1 and 2.

For the predictor variables, about 93% of the variance in family process variable of expressiveness and 92% process variable of conflict could be reproduced by both functions respectively. Only 21% in the process variable of cohesion could be reproduced by functions 1 and 2. The coefficients for Function 1 on self-efficacy for nurturing even though small, made noteworthy contributions to the synthetic criterion variable, which was supported by the squared structure coefficients of 78%. The process variable of conflict for Hispanic mothers was negatively related to both nurturing and teaching implying that presence of lower levels of conflict suggested the presence of higher maternal self-efficacy for teaching and nurturing. Hispanic mothers reported a higher commu-

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HIPPY Mothers’ Family Structure and Process on Their Parenting Efficacy

Table 4. Canonical Solution for Family Process Predicting Parental Self-Efficacy for Hispanic Mothers

Variable

Coef

Function 1 rs

rs2 (%)

Coef

Function 2 rs

rs2 (%)

h2 (%)

General PE

-.505

-.280

13

.692

.675

11

24

PE(Nurt)

-.383

-.778

78

.973

-.051

21

99

PE(Teach)

-.653

-.855

20

.992

.492

59

79

Rc2

29

Cohesion

.286

.433

18

.917

.178

3

21

Expressiveness

-.026

-.057

.32

-.664

-.966

93

93

Conflict

.912

.959

92

.039

-.084

.7

92

4

Note. Structure coefficients (rs) greater than |.45| are in bold. Communality coefficients (h2) greater than 45% are in bold. Coef = standardized canonical function coefficient; rs = structure coefficient; r 2= squared structure coefficient; h2 = communality coefficient.

nality coefficient for the self-efficacy variables for teaching and nurturing.

With respect to the association between structure variables and mothers reported self-efficacy variables for the Hispanic mothers, the analysis yielded two functions with squared canonical correlations Rc2 of .336, and .384 for each successive function. Collectively, the full model across all functions was statistically significant using the Wilk’s λ =.517 criterion, F (9,233) = 5.69, P<.001. The full model effect size in an r2 metric using 1-λ yielded .483. Which indicated that the full model explained a substantial portion of about 48% of the variance shared between the parents’ structure variables and reported self-efficacy for Hispanic mothers.

Functions 1-2, although tested separately, did not explain a statistical significance amount of shared variance between the variable set, F (4,194) =.861, p > .05. Given the Rc2 effects for Function 1 and altogether given the fact that Function 1 yielded a statistically significant amount of variance shared, it was considered noteworthy in this context with a significant amount (48%) of explained variance between the variable sets.

African American Mothers In comparison to participating Hispanic mothers, the number of participating African American mothers was relatively small, making up only 26% of the total sample size.

Therefore, optimal design software (Raudenbush & Liu, 2011) for multi-level was used to determine the number of subjects needed to capture a medium effect size. The power analysis showed that approximately 60 participants were required for this study to have a statistical power level of β = .80 and an alpha of p > .05. The sample size of n=36 for the African American mothers was estimated to show a statistical power level of β = .60. Initial analysis for the African American mothers showed a very low effect size and the entire model was not statistically significant for the African American mothers, therefore further analysis was not conducted.

Discussion and Implication One of the core values of FCS is to study the relationship between individuals, families, and communities and the environment in which they live. An understanding of how home visitors and parent educators achieve this goal has been the focus of this study. Home visiting and parent’s education programs such as HIPPY work to support families in providing early education and care to their children that will benefit children’s outcome and preparedness for school entry. With the associations identified between family structure, processes, and parental efficacy (Westheimer, 2003), educating mothers involved in HIPPY and other home visiting programs should not be limited to parenting skills which has always been the norm. Findings suggest that, home visiting programs should focus on supporting mothers with home management skills to benefit organization, and conflict management skills to support lower levels of conflict. When mothers are taught how to manage and minimize conflicts in their homes as part of the home visiting strategies, it can generally help to bolster overall parenting efficacy for mothers which will further help in the teaching and nurturing of their preschool youngsters. The findings of the study supports the importance of this relations stated above not only for the HIPPY program but also for other home visiting programs across the country.

Furthermore, findings of the study have shown the strong association between maternal variables of control and organization on task specific parenting efficacy for nurturing and teaching for mothers in the HIPPY program.

Family structure variables of organization and control were significantly associated with HIPPY mothers’ general sense of efficacy and self-efficacy for teaching and nurturing. This implies that mothers are likely to report higher parenting efficacy with respect to mastering confidence in teaching and nurturing their preschool children in settings where there are clear rules and family routines. This is something that home visiting programs can incorporate into their curriculum. Findings on the importance of family routines have been corroborated by a study by Glynn et al (2019).

Their study showed that a major factor that helps improve the mental health of children especially in times of distress is the existence of a predictable home environment. The study further stated that preschoolers’ depressive and ex-

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HIPPY Mothers’ Family Structure and Process on Their Parenting Efficacy

ternalizing symptoms were elevated in a family setting without any family routines. Their study concluded that, family routines strongly predicted better child mental health.

The study contributes to the importance of the outcome goals of not only HIPPY but other home visiting programs that are of interest to FCS professional. Some of these include the need to foster school readiness in preschool-aged children (Cuenca, 2003) through empowering the mother as the child’s first and most important educator (Le Mare, 2003). Findings bolsters the need to encourage mothers’ to engage in daily reading and parent-child activities across three major focus areas: (a) language development, (b) problem solving, and (c) perceptual discrimination (Westheimer, 2003). Although extensive literature has supported HIPPY’s impact on learning related parenting skills (Black & Powell, 2004; Jacobson, 2003; Middlemiss & McGuigan, 2005), this study adds to the literature by substantiating the association between the family variables examined and mothers’ reported parenting efficacy.

Furthermore, findings from the study showed how the family process variable of conflict was negatively related to maternal general parenting efficacy and parenting efficacy for teaching and nurturing. This suggests that lower levels of conflict in the home will most likely lead to reports of higher levels of parenting efficacy. Given that the mothers in this study were predominantly Hispanic, it is also possible that this association represents not only the importance of warmth and organization that may be related to lower levels of conflict, but rather reflect the value that the Hispanic culture places on peaceful relationships. In spite of the above, it is important that HIPPY and other home visiting programs incorporate conflict management in their parent educational curriculum as it has the potential of positively affecting the parenting efficacy of mothers.

Finally, extant literature has shown that parenting among Hispanic families is characterized by high parental demandingness (control) and low parental responsiveness (Marquis & Baker, 2014). The findings from the current study suggested that family structure marked by high levels of control, reported as representative of Hispanic families (Marquis & Baker, 2014) may be one important factor that is likely to contribute to parent’s self-report of high parenting efficacy and efficacy for teaching and nurturing their children. This is another important characteristic that home visitors can put into consideration when developing curriculum for a unique population as those represented in the current study. It should be noted, however that, since this study was just about establishing relationships between family structure and process variables, it would be wrong to suggest a causal relationship between the existence of clear family rules and routines and mothers feeling more efficacious in their parenting process or children doing very well from a mental health point of view. In addition, since this study focused on mothers, understanding mothers and fathers’ disciplinary roles in the family may be an important consideration in understanding how parents’ control is related to efficacy.

Conclusion In conclusion, the findings have shown: (a) there is a statistically significant relationship between family structure variables of control and organization and mothers’ self-report of their general efficacy and their task specific efficacy for teaching and nurturing in this group of mothers participating in the HIPPY program. That is, mothers are more likely to report a feeling of high general parental efficacy and efficacy as it relates to teaching and nurturing.

This suggests to HIPPY and other home visiting and parent’s education programs that, when there are established family routines and clearly outlined rules in the home on what each member of the family is supposed to do at every point in time, mothers tended to find themselves in a very good position to teach and nurture their children. Established family routines and rules has also been found to predict better child mental health (Glynn et al., 2021).

The inverse relationship between process variable of conflict and overall maternal efficacy and their task specific efficacy for teaching and nurturing was also phenomenal.

This may reflect the value that Hispanic families place on peaceful relationships at every time to avoid conflict within the family. Lower conflicts within the family may likely lead to mothers’ self-report of high general parenting efficacy and higher efficacy in teaching and nurturing. Thereby revealing an important parent-child characteristic trait that home visitors and parent educators can place much emphasis on.

The lack of studies looking at the association between family structure and process on mothers’ sense of competency makes this study very important. Home visitors, parent educators, FCS practitioners, and family researchers who provide educational services to parents will find the results and findings of this study relevant in their daily practice and activities. Findings have shown that HIPPY home visitors suggest supportive approaches focused on family dynamics or contextual issues, such as organization, control, expressiveness, and control, to potentially support mothers’ sense of efficacy.

Limitations and Directions for Future Research The following are some of the limitations of the study.

First, this study only looked at the associations between mothers’ process and structure variables on their reported parenting efficacy without establishing any form of causality. With the analyses based in correlation, it would be very difficult to defiantly conclude from this study that, an increase in mothers’ process and structure variables can lead to an increase in mothers’ report of their overall parenting efficacy. The study showed a statistically significant association between mothers’ process and structure variables on their reported parenting efficacy, thereby concluding that, with an increase in mothers’ reported process and structure variables, mothers are likely to report an increase in their parenting efficacy variables without any direct cause for this relationship. Future study can look into whether an increase in parents reported parenting efficacy variables is as a result of either their process and structure variables.

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HIPPY Mothers’ Family Structure and Process on Their Parenting Efficacy

Secondly, this study did not investigate the acculturation levels of especially the Hispanic participants apart from the determination of the chosen language for the questionnaires. Hispanic families in the United States are made up of a heterogeneous group that includes people from about 20 countries in Southern and Central American (Martin et al., 2012). Coupled with this heterogeneity of Hispanic families is their diverse parenting styles. According to Martin et al. (2012), the parenting styles of the Hispanic community in the United States differ by their acculturation level.

For example, Keels (2009), reiterated that Hispanic English speakers provided more supportive parenting than Hispanic Spanish speakers. Cabrera et al (2006), showed that less acculturated Hispanic American mothers demonstrated less responsiveness to their infants in teaching task.

Finally, it should be noted that almost all the effect sizes for the African American mother’s subgroup were relatively small. Even though this may be because of the sample size of the African American participants, it is also important that, future studies look into other factors that may likely explain variance in parent’s self-report of their parenting self-efficacy such as demographic variables, and child characteristics. The addition of more variable in examining the relationships between African American parents’ process and structure variables on their parenting efficacy may likely impact the dynamic contributions to better explain the variance in their self-reported efficacy variables.

Submitted: February 21, 2024 EDT

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HIPPY Mothers’ Family Structure and Process on Their Parenting Efficacy

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McGregor, S. L. T. (n.d.). Consumer Power and Implied Responsibility in Influencing the Marketplace. Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences, 116(1).

Practice

Consumer Power and Implied Responsibility in Influencing the Marketplace Sue L. T. McGregor, Ph.D1

a

1 McGregor Consulting Group

Keywords: Consumerism, consumer power, consumer responsibility, consumer moral leadership, ethical and moral consumption, morality

Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences Vol. 116, Issue 1, 2024

Premise This paper shares a professional commentary on the immense scope of consumers’ power and attendant influence on and responsibility in the marketplace. It introduces family and consumer scientists (FCS) and home economists to the idea of consumers as moral leaders. Professional “commentaries are short, narrowly focused articles of contemporary interest and [are] more editorial in nature and cover an aspect of an issue that is relevant to the journal’s scope” (Biomedical Central [BMC], 2023, para. 2). Berterö (2016) explained that commentaries are considered scholarly contributions by which knowledgeable and experienced scholars advance a field by sharing in depth opinions that stimulate dialogue on a topic.

To launch this professional commentary, I assert that FCS and home economics have historically relied too heavily on the assumption that consumers must be empowered to be ethical and efficient managers of their own resources (with the recent imperative of sustainability). I maintain that the profession has not paid enough attention to consumers as leaders in the marketplace while in service to others and the Earth – responsibly exercising their power and influence. The profession has historically assumed that consumers serve the economy – their major contribution is to keep it strong, vibrant, and healthy. In actuality, the economy and markets are social institutions that exist to serve people not the other way around (McGregor, 2010, 2020). This commentary begins with facts that establish consumers’ power as marketplace agents as reflected in the Gross Domestic Product (GDP).

Consumer Power and Implied Responsibility The GDP deals with who is spending money in a nation’s economy to keep it going – namely consumers, businesses, and governments. Household spending is the amount people spend on goods and services in their consumer role to meet their everyday needs. These expenditures include but are not limited to food, clothing, housing, furnishings and appliances, energy, transportation, communication and en-

tertainment technology, health, and leisure (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development [OECD], 2022).

Consumer spending typically accounts for over twothirds (65%) of the GDP (OECD, 2022). The United States Federal Reserve Bank (2022) put consumer spending at 68% in 2022. Amaedo (2022) put it even higher, at 70%. Businesses spend 18%, and governments spend 17% of the GDP (The Global Economy, 2022) (see Figure 1). Most people, including myself, are very surprised when they first learn these facts. Who knew consumers had so much power and potential influence relative to the presumed power of governments and businesses?

In 2020, consumers spent $64 Trillion dollars worldwide (World Bank, 2020). That’s 12 zeros: $64,000,000,000,000.

With this spending power comes undeniable responsibility, whether desired or not, whether acknowledged or not (McGregor, 2010). Responsibility literally means “‘responseability’ – the ability to choose your response” (Covey, 1989, p. 71). When acting responsibly, people act independently and make decisions without being told to. Framing responsibility as an active stance (able to choose) instead of a passive stance (respond or react) opens the door for the FCS profession to consider moral consumption in conjunction with ethical consumption.

As a caveat, I am fully aware that FCS and home economists face a major challenge should they presume consumers have collective power that can be harnessed and leveraged. That challenge is the individualistic nature of a consumer society and culture (McGregor, 2010). Individualism is a tenet of the neoliberal ideology currently dominating marketplace discourse. The theory of individualism favours individuals’ freedom of action. It “places the value, autonomy and benefit of the individual over that of the group, society, or nation… [It] is the opposite of collectivism” (Rohmann, 1999, p. 196).

Social activity is thus presumed to comprise individual acts in a laissez-faire economy (minimal government) where individuals’ rights are protected and promoted relative to those of the collective. The success of capitalistic, neoliberal economies depends on individualism and followers (Rohmann, 1999). The profession’s lingering penchant

a IPHE, Professor Emerita (MSVU), Independent Scholar, Research, Policy Analyst and Educator

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Figure 1. Percentage Expenditure of Gross Domestic Product to uncritically perpetuate this worldview (see Brown, 1993) underpins this commentary.

Ethical versus Moral Consumption Any FCS and home economist pondering the notion of consumers’ power and attendant responsibilities will benefit from distinguishing between ethics and morals. Ethics refer to the goodness or badness of one’s behaviour. Morals refer to rightness or wrongness of one’s decisions (McGregor, 2010). In FCS professional practice, ethics are informed by a professional association’s code of conduct or code of ethics, and morals manifest in each FCS practitioner’s personal choices (Alexander & Holland, 2020; McGregor, 2022).

Similarly, in the marketplace, a person’s consumer-related actions and behaviour are judged to be good or bad relative to an external standard or expectation (i.e., community and societal values). Ethical consumption is thus imposed by and judged from the outside (Weinstein, 2011, 2018). Examples of ethical consumption include buying dolphin-free tuna, foods free of genetically modified organisms (GMOs), sweatshop-free clothing, fair-trade coffee and chocolate, cosmetic products free from animal testing, and conflict-free diamonds.

Moral consumption comes from within a person – morals are the principles that people draw on to guide and judge their decisions (right or wrong). Morality is always concerned with a judgement about harming others with one’s decision (Weinstein, 2011, 2018). Examples of morals are honesty, courage, respect, compassion and caring, fairness, no harm, loyalty, empathy, and integrity. People should be able to look at themselves in the mirror after

deciding how and what to consume and feel morally justified in the rightness of their decision (Admin, 2017).

Guideposts and Guidelines Through the power of a metaphor, I invite FCS and home economists to consider that ethics are guideposts established by society or the community for people to follow – like signposts along a road or at an intersection telling people where they will end up if they follow a particular sign – lots of chances to get lost. Morals are guidelines set by each person to guide their own decisions – like tying a rope between a house and a barn for use during a blizzard – follow the rope (principles), and you won’t make the wrong decision and get lost (Loggins, 2021). In short, ethical consumerism is a type of external consumer activism (Giesler & Veresiu, 2014) – choosing one’s behaviour at the guideposts. Moral consumerism is internal and concerns whether one’s purchase decisions are principled (Brinkmann, 2004) – following personally set guidelines to avoid decisions that can get one lost or turned around in a moral conundrum.

Followers and Leaders Within this line of thought, I further suggest that FCS and home economists should view ethical consumers as followers. They follow the guideposts – societal dictates of what is good or bad behaviour (as determined by others) for the environment, labourers, human rights, animal rights, women’s rights, children’s rights, other species, and so on.

Followers are important (McGregor, 2010, 2019) because those leading the charge for ethical consumption cannot succeed if others do not follow their lead by striving to meet the standards set for consumption that is judged to be good for everyone and everything.

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Table 1. Three Types of Morality Informing the Rightness of Moral Decisions Type of Morality

Major Concern and What Constitutes Rightness

Deontological – binding duty; the rightness of the act

intentions or motives behind one’s actions; people know they have a moral duty to cause no harm and act with that intention; the rightness of a decision is judged by whether the person followed the rules and did their duty (i.e., by what goes in inside their mind)

What kind of choices ought I make, using what rules?

Axiom: The ends can never justify the means.

Teleological – end goal/purpose; the rightness of the outcome What kind of outcomes ought I seek?

Axiom: The ends justify the means.

Virtue – high moral standards; the rightness of the person What kind of person ought I be?

the consequences (outcomes) of one’s actions; the rightness of a decision is judged by its likely or actual outcome rather than what goes on inside a person’s mind; judgement of rightness is problematic when there are multiple possible outcomes; the best way to ensure teleological morality is through a life of virtue and high moral standards (virtue); choices are moral if they bring about a better state of affairs for others consistently act true to character (virtues) across situations while one’s character is being tested while minimizing vices; people of strong character will usually make the right decision; they also do not act for the wrong reason; rightness of the action depends on what goes on in a person’s mind

Axiom: What is the good life, and how do I go about living it, so I can experience wellbeing, happiness and flourish?

The crux of this professional commentary is my assertion that FCS and home economists should also frame consumers as moral leaders in the marketplace who adhere to their internal principles of rightness or wrongness – they look to their moral compass, which orients them in a direction that minimizes harm (whether physical, psychological, political, ecological, cultural, and so on) (McGregor, 2010, 2020). When depending on their moral compass, consumers would let their principles guide their decisions, so they can retain their consumption integrity. More than ethics and values, their moral compass “turns principles into visible actions, commitments, behavior [and] accountability” (Admin, 2017, para. 6).

I further maintain that leaders shine a light on the future – they have a vision of where they think people should go or how things should be done to get there. This is different from a mission, which is focused on the here and now (Covey, 1990). So, instead of narrowly focusing on meeting immediate needs and wants through consumption (mission), consumer moral leaders would expand their vision of their reasoning and decision process to include their inner moral compass. Framing consumers as moral leaders gives FCS an edge in the ongoing struggle to convince people to steward the Earth and care for themselves and each other when consuming.

For clarification, FCS would appreciate that, when acting from an unprincipled stance, (a) consumers would collect facts and information about the attributes of a product or service without understanding how ethics (standards of behaviour) and morals (principles guiding decisions) might come into play. (b) They would engage in routine consumption behaviours instead of self-reflection and self-inquiry about the meaning of consumption (behaviour) and consumerism (ideology). (c) And they would be uncritical of their consumption decisions (i.e., no concern for power differentials and attendant harm) (McGregor, 2022).

Challenges of Morality While asserting that consumer moral leadership is an imperative, I fully appreciate that morality (i.e., determining what constitutes right or wrong) is demanding, messy, mysterious, and almost always controversial (McGregor, 2010; Sinnott-Armstrong, 2019). FCS and home economists would be more effective in meeting this imperative if they appreciated that people can be concerned with one of three things when judging the morality (rightness or wrongness) of a decision: deontological (binding duty), teleological (consequences), and virtue (character). Table 1 provides a succinct overview of these three approaches with more detail at McGregor (2010, Chapter 1).

It is problematic that none of these three types of morality is foolproof (i.e., things can go wrong when using them), and each has its limitations for judging something as wrong instead of right. Nonetheless, all are viable options for making and judging consumer decisions (Hunt & Vitell, 2006). It is thus important that FCS and home economists can recognize them in use, or they could make erroneous judgements and fallacious counterarguments when engaging with and critiquing consumers’ collective moral decisions and ethical behaviour (McGregor, 2010).

As a personal example, as a youngster, I was taught to not harm others with my decisions and subsequent actions: "You can do anything you want as long as you can live with the consequences." When I got older, and learned about the oppressive and exploitive business model of a certain major retail chain, I decided never to shop there. That decision has held for 25 years (virtue morality). In addition to staying true to my character, my other intent is to cause no harm (deontological). That said, I have shopped at stores, which, unbeknownst to me at the time, had similar business models with the unintended consequence of me causing harm to others (teleological). If FCS and home economists

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viewed my consumer decisions only through the teleological lens of morality, they would judge my decisions as immoral when my intent was otherwise (i.e., both do my duty, and act true to my character).

Levinas’ (1969, 1981) moral philosophy brings a different perspective to this discussion of consumer power and attendant responsibility. He challenged the “system of rationaly [sic] justified percepts or norms capable of guiding human action and bebaviour” (Benaroyo, 2022, p. 329) (in effect, Table 1). Levinas posited instead that the fundamental ethical and moral layer of the responsible self is one’s preconscious experience of responsibility for the other (Benaroyo, 2022). Preconscious means below the level of immediate conscious awareness where unrepressed emotions can be accessed when needed (Peer, 2019). Levinas believed that “we do not choose responsibility. [Rather] responsibility arises as if elicited, before we begin to think about it, by the approach of the other person” (Bergo, 2019, Concluding remark section).

In effect, consumers would view themselves as responsible for others before knowing anything about their situation. Benaroyo (2022) described this as a “moral endeavour, based on peace for the other [that is informed by] the infinite demand of the ethical relation” (p. 329). Consumers would thus encounter responsibility when it “is revealed in the other’s face. The face of the other reminds us that the ethical meaning of an encounter is not totally contained within the limits of [our] consciousness” (Benaroyo, 2022, p. 330) (see also Wolin, 2022). Through a Levinas’ lens, one could argue that consumers experience their moral responsibility to others preconsciously rather than consciously and rationally.

For clarification, the conscious mind (i.e., visible tip of an iceberg) contains thoughts, feelings, and memories that people are aware of in any given moment. The preconscious mind (i.e., part of iceberg just below the surface) contains things that can readily be brought to mind when needed (akin to a “mental waiting room”) (Peer, 2019, para. 11).

The subconscious (unconscious) mind (i.e., very bottom of the iceberg) is a deep reservoir of thoughts, feelings, and memories outside one’s awareness (Peer, 2019). As a caveat, FCS practitioners might want to discredit the preconscious approach to consumer power and responsibility, as we live in a consumer society that subconsciously socializes people into consumerism, wherein certain emotions are repressed (i.e., not readily accessible), so consumption can be perpetuated.

FCS Practice Recommendation

students construct their own learning by sharing individual meanings with new learnings and knowledge co-constructed via peer cooperation).

In a time-tested model, Lewis (1932) offered four steps for scaffolding students’ attempts to engage with moral and philosophical issues (see Figure 2), which in this case means engage with consumer power and attendant responsibilities through an ethical and moral lens. With the help of FCS educators, students would learn how to challenge the status quo and philosophically and reflectively delve deeply into the tenets of a consumer society and its counterpart – a mindful, morally bound, other-focused consumer culture.

Conclusion To conclude this commentary, I propose that framing consumers as moral leaders as well as ethical followers paves the way for FCS and home economists to embrace the following premise comprising seven aspects of consumer moral leadership (in bold) (details at McGregor, 2020; quote is from her Figure 1: Drawing on moral intelligence, while exercising moral self-discipline, consumers would act from a position of moral integrity, with moral courage, as they engage with the marketplace. From a position of moral self-transcendence (a concern for others), after discerning the moral intensity of the consumer purchase situation, consumers would take morally responsible actions anticipating that others will recognize, accept, and be inspired by their moral authority and follow their lead.

Consumer moral leadership is a way for FCS and home economists to reframe and rethink how consumers can responsibly influence the marketplace – beyond consuming ethically. A moral framing entails a deep appreciation for the collective, inordinate power of consumers relative to businesses and governments. It requires holding clear conceptual distinctions between ethics and morals, and followers and leaders while concurrently acknowledging their interrelatedness. It involves viewing responsibility as the ability to choose a response instead of passively responding. It can also involve preconscious responsibility (i.e., no conscious choice to be responsible). Foremost, it necessitates a keen understanding of the different kinds of morality from which people can judge the rightness or wrongness of consumption-related decisions.

Submitted: November 30, 2022 EDT

Those interested in teaching FCS students about the power consumers hold in the marketplace, and attendant responsibilities viewed through ethical and moral frames, must clarify their own positioning about this phenomenon and then commit to learning how to bring philosophy, ethics and morality into their learning environment – how to get students to think about morality and philosophical questions and issues as they pertain to consumer power and responsibility. This would entail inquiry-based learning, a reflective pedagogy, and a constructivist curriculum (i.e.,

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Figure 2. How to Teach Morally Bound Consumer Issues (adapted from Lewis, 1932)

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CCBY-4.0). View this license’s legal deed at http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0 and legal code at http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/legalcode for more information.

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Admin. (2017, September 18). Leading with a moral compass. The Marshall Group Blog. http://www.mars hallgroup.com/leading-with-a-moral-compass/ Alexander, K. L., & Holland, A. K. (Eds.). (2020).

Teaching family and consumer sciences in the 21st century (3rd ed. e-book). Texas Tech University's Curriculum Center for Family and Consumer Sciences. https://scholars.ttu.edu/en/publications/tea ching-family-and-consumer-sciences-in-the-21st-ce ntury-3rd-edi Amaedo, K. (2022, January 18). Components of GDP explained. The Balance. https://www.thebalancemone y.com/components-of-gdp-explanation-formula-andchart-3306015 Benaroyo, L. (2022). The significance of Emmanuel Levinas’ ethics of responsibility for medical judgment. Medicine, Health Care, and Philosophy, 25(3), 327–332. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11019-022-1 0077-0 Bergo, B. (2019). Emmanuel Levinas. In E. N. Zalta & U. Nodelman (Eds.), Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/levinas/#ConcRem a Berterö, C. (2016). Guidelines for writing a commentary.

International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-Being, 11(1), 31390. https://doi.org/10.3402/ qhw.v11.31390 Biomedical Central. (2023). Commentaries. https://bmc medicine.biomedcentral.com/submission-guidelines/ preparing-your-manuscript/commentaries Brinkmann, J. (2004). Looking at consumer behavior in a moral perspective. Journal of Business Ethics, 51(2), 129–141. https://doi.org/10.1023/b:busi.000003360 7.45346.d2 Brown, M. M. (1993). Philosophical studies of home economics in the United States: Basic ideas by which home economists understand themselves (Vol. 3).

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Levinas, E. (1981). Otherwise than being or beyond essence. Martinus Nijhoff.

Lewis, J. (1932). How to teach philosophy. Philosophy, 7(28), 454–460. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0031819100 054462 Loggins, B. (2021, August 22). Morality vs. ethics: What's the difference? Verywell Mind Blog. https://www.very wellmind.com/morality-vs-ethics-what-s-the-differe nce-5195271 McGregor, S. L. T. (2010). Consumer moral leadership. De Gruyter Brill.

McGregor, S. L. T. (2019). Followership in family and consumer sciences. Journal of Family & Consumer Sciences, 111(1), 31–35. https://doi.org/10.14307/jfcs1 11.1.31 McGregor, S. L. T. (2020). Consumer moral leadership.

In Factis Pax: Journal of Peace Education and Social Justice, 14(2), 140–160. http://www.infactispax.org/w p-content/uploads/2015/06/V14.2-McGregor.pdf McGregor, S. L. T. (2022). Principle-based practice.

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Harmon, J. (2024). “Absolutely Hands On!”: Experiential Learning in Textile Science Curriculum. Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences, 116(1).

Practice

“Absolutely Hands On!”: Experiential Learning in Textile Science Curriculum Jennifer Harmon, Ph.D.1 1 University of Wyoming

Keywords: Textiles, Capstone Experiences, Capacity Building

Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences Vol. 116, Issue 1, 2024

Introduction “I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I understand.”

-Quoted in Vaillancourt, 2009, p. 272

University students have long understood the shortcomings of the traditional, lecture based classroom for instruction. As early as the 1950s, the ideal instructor was described as not teaching ideas but instead leading students to have ideas (Raptis, 1952). As universities shift towards mimicking business instead of educational models, providing students with state-of-the-art knowledge and meaningful capstone experiences is paramount for textiles and apparel educators within Family and Consumer Sciences (Carpenter & Fairhurst, 2005). These capstone experiences often utilize various learning-by-doing strategies such as active, problem-based and experiential learning. The interdisciplinary nature, breadth of topics and frequently evolving industries Family and Consumer Sciences courses engage with make it difficult for one approach to be appropriate in all circumstances. Further complicating the ability to offer such meaningful experiences are the structural changes to Universities themselves. In the current environment there is less support for small class sizes of less than 20 students, which are the most conducive to deep learning. As an individual instructor’s tipping point for being able to provide these academically meaningful assignments is approximately 40 students, enrollment beyond this point often necessitates the use of less meaningful but time saving assignments (Flaherty, 2020).

More generally, textiles is an underrepresented topic of inquiry in Family and Consumer Sciences. A recent analysis of research submitted to the Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences displayed only 10 mentions of the words textile/textiles or fabric/fabric(s) in the article titles (Newcomb-Hopfer & Lee, 2020). This indicates the need to add textile related content to the FCS body of knowledge. Further, a recent exploration detailed apparel and textile student successes with an experiential learning virtual study tour of New York City (Cho et al., 2021). This recent research lent guidance to the current investigation, aimed at capacity building through knowledge creation and acquisition for Family and Consumer Sciences students studying textile science. The capacity building was accomplished through a semester long project, utilizing experiential

learning to guide students through coloration and coloration evaluation of a novel textile material.

Literature Review The human brain maintains only seven different items and processes four ideas at one time, which leads to traditional lectures often exceeding the capacity of short term working memory (Wieman, 2007). However, this expository method in which the instructor defines the topic and directs the actions of students has been a popular approach in Textiles Laboratory courses (Farr et al., 2005). Although, to instill knowledge and the ability to apply course concepts, students need be actively engaged in creating their own understanding and in extending effortful study of the topic (Wieman, 2007). Experiential learning can provide such a structure as it “…is a hands-on form of learning that begins with a concrete experience, which also involves reflection on the process” (Association for Experiential Education, 2019). This type of learning is based on what John Dewey (1938) referred to as the “theory of experience” (Kolb & Kolb, 2005). Dewey (1938) argued that all experiences are not are equally educational and the effect of the experience is dependent on the quality. Therefore, it is incumbent upon the course professor to provide not only an enriching, but an enjoyable experience, which lays the foundation for future exploration (Dewey, 1938). The ideal experiential learning environment views learning as a process, involving relearning, conflict resolution, holistic world adaption and synergistic transactions, all of which result in knowledge creation (Kolb & Kolb, 2005).

Universities routinely offer a variety of high impact experiential learning activities to their students, such as internships, study abroad, undergraduate research, leadership in student organizations and service learning (Coker et al., 2017). Undergraduate research experience, in particular more and longer experiences, are positively associated with perceptions of increased employ-ability, graduate school admissions and grades (Craney et al., 2011; Fechheimer et al., 2010). The depth of an experiential learning activity uniquely aids students’ higher order thinking and subsequent cognitive gains (Coker et al., 2017). This pedagogical approach is clearly a successful one, as metaanalysis of fixed and random effects of experiential learning show positive improvement for student learning in compar-

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“Absolutely Hands On!”: Experiential Learning in Textile Science Curriculum

ison to control groups of traditional learners (Burch et al., 2014).

Likewise, students participating in experiential learning rank several aspects of knowledge and skill gain significantly higher than traditional classroom learning, including practical knowledge related to their major, ability to take initiative and ability to adapt to change (Lee, 2008).

Students also reveal enjoying this way of learning and seeing the broader applicability of what they learned from experiential learning activities (Blunsdon et al., 2003). Previous research also discovered a student’s positive experience with an experiential group project is positively related to confidence in skills acquired (Helm-Stevens & Griego, 2009). Further, a positive experience for a student can be predicted by a positive group experience (Helm-Stevens & Griego, 2009).

Given the benefits shown through previous research in a variety of disciplines and FCS courses specfically from using experiential learning, a semester long project-based, guided, experiential learning laboratory based curriculum was constructed. This curriculum assessed the learning outcomes and perceptions of textile science students. It was anticipated that the experiential learning exercises would lead to increased learning and more enjoyment of the course material.

The Project The Advanced Textiles, 4000 level course participating in this study focused mainly on color science, dyes and dyeing, in addition to colorfastness. The 10 students enrolled in the course had previously completed an introductory textile science course. In lecture sessions, scaffolding included the use of multimedia materials, in-class reflections, group discussion and video demonstrations of colorfastness tests.

The group project also included a contract to outline each member’s responsibilities, which had to be agreed upon and signed by each group member The experiential learning exercises were modeled on elements of the product development evaluation process, in which concepts were first discussed in the Advanced Textiles Science course. To gauge learning gains from the laboratory sessions, assessments were administered after discussion of dyeing and colorfastness tests in lecture and again after laboratory sessions and projects were complete.

The experiments for the student project were limited by the resources of the textiles laboratory, as well as the standards outlined by the professional testing organizations, ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) and AATCC (American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists).

The presence of these restrictions did limit to expression of student autonomy in the course in that they were offered a selected range of coloration choices for the project instead of freely choosing the coloration and evaluation components.

For the final project, students explored coloration options for bacterial cellulose through comparing and contrasting natural and synthetic, fiber reactive dyes, using dyeing instructions for cotton as a guide. Dyeing of bacterial cellulose had not previously been explored, making

the knowledge the students created during the investigation novel. Students completed a variety of exercises for the course final project, including material cleansing, material pre-treatment and material dyeing, in addition to artificial light exposure, crocking (rubbing), perspiration and laundering testing and performance evaluation. The 3 groups chose a single primary color to apply to their bacterial cellulose (BC). Student groups were given 5 dyeing laboratory exercises and 4 colorfastness laboratory exercises. Laboratory exercises contained questions related to the week’s topic for the students to answer, in addition to their colorfastness ratings for the evaluation sessions. These color performance ratings served as the data for their final project presentation comparing the natural and synthetic versions of their chosen color at the end of the semester.

Project Assessment Human subjects review of the project assessment stated the evaluation materials used in this research were exempt.

The student assessment covered main concepts in both dyeing and colorfastness, with 11 questions each. Dyeing questions included topics of scouring, mordants, fiber reactive dyes, and dyeing temperature. Topics for colorfastness questions included color loss, crocking, light exposure, perspiration exposure and laundering. The concepts measure consisted of 22 total questions, evenly split between dyeing and colorfastness concepts. The scoring of the questions was correct or incorrect, with each correct response earning a point. On the post-test survey, students were also asked several questions asking them to compare learning in the lecture versus laboratory environments through Likert scale (7 = strongly agree…1 = strongly disagree) and openended measures.

Student impressions were assessed through 7 point Likert scale and open-ended questions on the end of term survey. These questions included 5 items such as, “After performing the dyeing experiment, I better understand the dyeing process,” rated from strongly agree to strongly disagree. 3 open-ended items included questions such as “Did you understand dyeing and colorfastness better through laboratory sessions or lecture? Why?.” The assessment was administered after lectures were complete and once more once the experiential learning laboratory exercises were complete. All 10 students enrolled in the course completed these measures.

Student Response When asked whether they felt they had learned more from laboratory sessions or lectures, all 10 students reported they learned most topics better in the laboratory sessions. Specifically, one student observed “I learned more in lab because I am a hands on learner. I remember things better when I physically did them.” Another student elaborated that “I felt I understood more through the labs because I am a visual learner and actually seeing it made it more understandable.” In line with the perspectives offered by the students, 9 out of the 10 students increased their scores on the post-test, 4 students increased their scores

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over 30% and one student achieved the same score. The ranges on average scores increased from 36.36% - 81.82% to 72.73% - 90.91%, a significant movement upwards from a Wilcoxon Signed Rank test (exact p = .004).

All students likewise responded that they understood dyeing and colorfastness better in the laboratory sessions.

One student described that “Laboratory is easier to learn colorfastness and dye when you are doing it.” Another student elaborated “I felt better understanding through lab because I actually saw the difference.” Performance on the student assessment confirmed this for both dyeing and colorfastness topics. Average student score ranges on the dyeing concepts increased from 45.45% - 81.82% to 63.64% 90.91%, while on the colorfastness topic questions average student score ranges increased from 18.18% - 90.91% to 54.55% - 100%. This was a significant increase for both dyeing (exact p = .039) and colorfastness (exact p = .021) topics, indicating learning gains were not over-represented in one area.

When asked their content delivery preference, all 10 students reported preferring the concepts illustrated in the laboratory sessions. One student offered “I felt more confident about the dyeing and understanding it better when we did the hands on work.” Another student elaborated “…It is easier to learn and more pounded into your head when you have touch, visual and verbal learning (in the laboratory sessions).” On the Likert scale survey, students reported agreeing or strongly agreeing to almost every statement. Specifically, after completing the project and dyeing experiments, students reported better understanding of the dyeing process (M = 6.50), differences between natural and synthetic dyes (M = 6.70), what colorfastness is (M = 6.60), factors influencing colorfastness (M = 6.50) and considerations for each color used (M = 6.30). Though strongly positive towards the laboratory sessions over lectures, two students did note that they felt the laboratory session time period, 50 minutes, was too short.

would not have been feasible if the material was not already established in the author’s research program. Additionally, one hour of class preparation was necessary before each laboratory session and one to three hours of cleanup after each laboratory session. Particularly for the use of weld and cochineal natural dyes, which required both longer dyeing times and the application of a pre-treatment to the material for successful coloration with the dye. Further, the small sample size of participating junior and senior students, though necessary for the in depth laboratory experience, limits the interpretation of the student’s performance and preference. This small class size was key to the students’ success in meeting the learning objectives as the course was conducive to scaffolding. In a larger course, where frequent one-on-one interaction with the instructor is less feasible, this strategy may be less successful. Finally, this project required laboratory sessions in order for proper handling and disposal of the materials used. This type of project may not be feasible in other teaching environments, such as online or traditional classroom setups.

The presence of such constraints to the instructional strategy can be remedied in a number of ways to render this approach more tenable for the instructor. Having a course schedule as far in advance as possible allowed for an adequate amount of planning time and material preparation in this course. Additionally, teaching assistants provided help in setting up and taking down the laboratory exercises.

Undergraduate students who have an aptitude for the subject matter and have previously taken related courses may be interested in providing assistance in the future. Further, many college and universities offer support through assistantships to undergraduate students acting in this capacity.

Finally, having a longer class session than was afforded to this course may enable enough time for the students to set up and dismantle their own exercises.

Implications for the Classroom

Despite the observed constraints, students reported unanimously preferring learning dyeing and colorfastness topics in the laboratory sessions. The results of this study confirm the necessity of conducting more time-intensive projects in order to achieve deep learning outcomes for students. The more depth given to a course experience, the greater the higher order and cognitive thinking gains that result (Coker et al., 2017). In line with previous research, students in the course demonstrated concept mastery. Additionally, similar to Dewey’s contention and previous research, students displayed a strong preference for experiential learning, finding this type of learning more enjoyable.

In addition to capacity building which occurred through acquiring and using skills and knowledge for the textile science students in the course (Nickols et al., 2009), students created novel knowledge furthering sustainable resource development for textiles by exploring coloration options for an environmentally friendly textile, bacterial cellulose.

This experiential learning project further adds to the FCS body of knowledge for effective teaching strategies within textile science courses.

In both learning outcomes and student impressions, the success of this form of capacity building through knowledge creation and acquisition was striking. Except for one score which remained the same, students’ scores improved significantly. In comparing the concepts of dyeing and colorfastness in terms of the students’ pre and post-test scores, we see that students displayed significantly enhanced knowledge in each concept area. Further, students reported wide agreement in their preference for learning most of the course concepts in laboratory sessions. Some students reported thinking that the lecture sessions established a foundation for the learning acquired during the laboratory exercises. The experiential learning conducted in this class demonstrated that student knowledge of dyeing and colorfastness concepts can be dramatically enhanced by performing a product development framed experiment.

Though success was seen in this approach, several limitations should be noted. First, the novel material had to be developed a full semester before this experiment occurred.

As this process was complex and quite time consuming, this

Conclusion

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“Absolutely Hands On!”: Experiential Learning in Textile Science Curriculum

Submitted: February 21, 2024 EDT

Acknowledgment This project was possible with a University of Wyoming AES; NIFA grant.

Grant Number: DUNS Number- 069690956

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Carpenter, J. M., & Fairhurst, A. E. (2005). Delivering quality and value in the classroom: The use of problem-based learning in retail merchandising courses. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 23(4), 257–265. https://doi.org/10.1177/0887302x05023004 06 Cho, E., Smith, K. R., & Hubert, S. K. (2021). Delivering Experiential Learning Through Virtual Study Tour and Alternative Internship Options During a Pandemic. Journal of Family & Consumer Sciences, 113(2), 14–20. https://doi.org/10.14307/jfcs113.2.14 Coker, J. S., Heiser, E., Taylor, L., & Book, C. (2017).

Impacts of experiential learning depth and breadth on student outcomes. Journal of Experiential Education, 40(1), 5–23. https://doi.org/10.1177/10538 25916678265 Craney, C., McKay, T., Mazzeo, A., Morris, J., Prigodich, C., & de Groot, R. (2011). Cross discipline perceptions of the undergraduate research experience. Journal of Higher Education, 82(1), 92–113. https://doi.org/10.1353/jhe.2011.0000 Dewey, J. (1938). Education and Experience. Simon and Schuster.

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Ramsey, E. A., & Swafford, M. (2024). A Historical Review of FCS: Recommendations to Address Current Challenges. Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences.

Practice

A Historical Review of FCS: Recommendations to Address Current Challenges Elizabeth A. Ramsey, Ph.D., CFLE1, Melinda Swafford, Ph.D., Professor Emerita2 1 School of Human Ecology, Tennessee Technological University, 2 Tennessee Technological University

Keywords: History of FCS, FCS Education, Ellen Swallows Richards, Legislation, Recommendations for Change

Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences This article provides a historical review of the FCS profession beginning with the Progressive Era and founder Ellen Swallows Richards. The review includes a summary of significant historical events and legislation, that reveal how the FCS profession addressed the needs of individuals, families, and communities from inception to the present. From the review challenges as well as roots of challenges faced by the FCS are revealed.

Recommendations for the future to address the challenges are included as FCS professionals continue to improve quality of life for others.

Since the profession’s inception, Family and Consumer Sciences (FCS) professionals operate to address the needs of individuals, families, and communities. FCS education has been the vehicle to disseminate information to individuals through both cooperative extension and public school programs. However, the entire interdisciplinary FCS profession disperses information to learners on a variety of topics and settings to improve lives. Coppa & Wolff (2002) affirms that FCS learners can achieve quality of life in the roles and responsibilities of work, family, and community.

Throughout changes in society, the mission of the FCS profession has remained the same: to improve individual, family, and community life amid changing social, political, economic, and physical influences (AAFCS, 2018). The purpose of this paper is to highlight the involvement of the FCS profession with significant historical cultural events in the country. These historical cultural events were addressed

by FCS through research, innovation, as well as specific actions, such as legislation and the formation of programs. By reviewing the historical cultural issues from the viewpoint of political discourse and needs of individuals (SánchezMarcos, 2009), one can affirm how the FCS profession intervened and disseminated information that addressed skills and knowledge needed for successful living in a complex society. Additionally, by reviewing the history of FCS the onset of challenges may be revealed and provide opportunities to plan strategies to address the challenges (de Zwart, 2017; Nichols, 2017).

Ellen Swallows Richards The Progressive Movement (1892-1921) was established to focus on problems caused by the Industrial Revolution through social and political reform (Weisen, 2023). One specific leader in the Progressive movement was Ellen Swallows Richards. Richards played a major role in the Progressive Era in U.S. history. Prior to the Progressive Movement, women did not have a voice, neither at home nor society–including no voting rights. Their role was to care for children and perform household chores. Ellen Swallow

Richards, however, challenged the status quo, breaking the proverbial glass ceiling long before it was even identified by becoming the first woman to attend Massachusetts Institute of Technology, MIT (Dyball & Carlsson, 2017).

Ellen Swallows Richards created the term oecolgy (ecology), a study of organisms interacting with each other and their surroundings (Swafford & Ramsey, 2023). She focused on sharing knowledge that was essential for a satisfying life and maintaining an environment that promoted human development (Dyball & Carlsson, 2017). Richards believed that the condition of the human environment determined the condition of the individual. By using her skills for scientific research, Richards worked to improve and educate others in pollution control, sewage treatment, improving water quality, air quality, food preparation, sanitation (Dyball & Carlsson, 2017). She also “believed that if women were empowered through education in science and technology, they could develop a more socially and ecologically responsible approach to economic growth” (Walsh, 2018, p. 1).

Richards began the New England Kitchen in 1890 where she offered education to families regarding nutritious, lowcost food (Walsh, 2018). Through her determination to apply chemistry to the home to improve sanitation and daily living, Richards recognized that women were accustomed to using chemical principles in their daily lives, including activities like making soap and bread. Her groundbreaking work eventually led to initial Purity Laws in America which would lead to the Food and Drug Act of 1906. (McNeill, 2018).

Lake Placid Meetings People gathered in 1899 at Lake Placid, New York, who shared interest in domestic sciences resulting in the merging of scientific research in environmental science and nutrition (Dyball & Carlsson, 2017; McNeill, 2018). The profession of Home Economics, a professional organization, and a research journal were also born out of these historical gatherings (Dyball & Carlsson, 2017). Since its inception, this people-centered profession, recognized environmental 39

A Historical Review of FCS: Recommendations to Address Current Challenges

Table 1. Summary of Legislation Specific to FCS Legislation

Date

Action

Morrill Land Grant Act of 1862

1862

Funded land purchases for university and colleges and made education available for all social classes. Established FCS as an academic field of study.

Smith Lever Act of 1914

1914

Establishment of cooperative extension programs through land grant universities providing education to rural areas in agriculture and home economics.

Smith Hughes Act of 1917

1917

Addressed the shortage of skilled workers by training teachers in higher education and funding vocational education of home economics in high schools.

Vocational Education Act of 1963

1963

Funding to expand high school home economics and vocational education. Led to the establishment of occupational programs. Later reauthorizations included individuals with exceptionalities and individuals at high risk (poverty).

Vocational Act of 1984 (referred to Carl D. Perkins/ Perkins I)

1984

The focus was on equal access to educational courses, occupational programs, and workbased learning. Required integration of IEP goal and academic integration into vocational courses.

Reauthorization of Carl D. Perkin act (Perkins II)

1990

Increased funding. Courses organized in sequence to better prepare students. Required standards and measured student acquired knowledge of standards.

Perkins III

1998

Updated definition of vocational education. Prepared students for postsecondary education.

Provided funding for Tech-Prep, classroom technology, vocational counselors/administrators, and teachers.

The Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education and Improvement Act (Perkins IV)

2006

Changed name to Career and Technical Education (CTE). Provided funding for academic integration into CTE courses. Established programs of study within16 career clusters and industry certification. Began articulation agreements, dual credit, and dual enrollment with post-secondary associate and/or baccalaureate institutions.

Strengthening Career and Technical Education for the 21st Century (Perkins V)

2018

Provided a common definition of a CTE concentration and special population. Provided flexibility for local needs assessments for program revision and development, funding of middle school programs, and expanded the definition of special populations.

Information taken from Association for Career and Technical Education (2019).

influence and their impact on quality of life for individuals, families, and communities (AAFCS, 2018).

Richards was the first president of the professional organization. Furthermore, members created course outlines, standards, bibliographies for the profession, and lobbied legislators for monies for the FCS profession to fund nutrition studies (McNeill, 2018). Through the combined efforts, legislation over the years impacted changes in FCS education resulting in the formation of higher education programs, public school programs, and the formation of cooperative extension (Dreilinger, 2021c). See Table 1 for a summary of legislation specific to FCS. As shown in Table 1, The Morrill Act, Smith Hughes Act, and Smith Lever Act pertain to the establishment of the interdisciplinary FCS profession. The Vocational Education Act of 1963 and 1984 are more specific to FCS education in public school and cooperative extension. These acts link program funding to promote inclusive education that meet the need of the country’s students with disabilities, English Language Learners, and other marginalized populations.

Legislation of the Perkins Act II and III focused on changing the image of vocational courses in public schools by utilizing a focus on career development, increased rigor in course content, and assessment of learner knowledge.

Perkins IV and V aligned course content to career clusters, promoting industry certifications and transitions to postsecondary education. These two legislative acts were detri-

mental to the image of the FCS education profession and courses, as many public schools removed the name FCS from career technical education programs or used the name human services to replace FCS (Dreilinger, 2021b; Duncan, 2018). This action made it difficult for others to recognize the transition of high school human services to post-secondary FCS programs. More details on the historical events and how FCS was involved are described in the following sections.

The Progressive Era To establish an academic field and to promote science to address environmental problems of the Gilded Age, the Morrill Act established land-grant colleges that were open to women. Knowing that women were working in the home as well as taking care of the farm, legislation established FCS as an academic field of study (Dyas, 2017). The new academic field promoted research and teaching of theoretical concepts, scientific modern techniques of food preparation, preservation, and sanitation. The academic focus included education on caregiving for those who were ill, along with the care of textiles and the home. The Second Morrill Act of 1890 granted money to historically black colleges as land grant universities to provide equal education for black students (Lawrence, 2022).

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A Historical Review of FCS: Recommendations to Address Current Challenges

Societal change resulted in a shortage of skilled labor.

With the continued economic growth during the Industrial Revolution, as well as problems with immigration, poverty, sanitation, and housing; families and communities needed education to thrive in daily life. Hence, The Smith Lever Act of 1914 and The Smith Hughes Act of 1917, provided federal funding to establish vocational education classes and cooperative extension programs to address job skills as well as safety and sanitation in the home. This legislation specifically identified the establishment of FCS courses in public high schools (ACTE, 2019). Higher education institutions were included in this legislation by the addition of funding to train pre-service teachers in institutions and train individuals in extension to meet the labor shortage.

The Great Depression and World Wars The Great Depression and the World Wars had a large impact on American families, thus resulting in the rising need of FCS professionals. FCS professionals advocated for government support of school lunch programs and in 1932.

Surplus food was used to feed hungry children in some schools. During this time FCS professionals served as nurses and dietitians, who continued to focus on educating impoverished families on nutrition and consumerism.

During WWII, women’s roles changed to that of a consumer as they began working outside the home. As a result, child health, human development, child day care, and parenting content were included in FCS research and curricula.

Families were taught how to incorporate vegetables in the daily diet through victory gardens, which are gardens planted throughout the periods of war, to increase food production and canning. (Division of Rare & Manuscript Collections, Cornell University, 2001a). The Bureau of Home Economics researched nutrition, food preparation, food preservation, clothing, textiles, and consumerism.

This research-based knowledge was published to improve life for troops and for families at home (USDA, 2023). In 1946, The National School Lunch Program was established (School Nutrition Association, 2023). These changes brought national attention to FCS education. Eleanor Roosevelt, who was a strong advocate for FCS in the newspaper column, My Day, also brought attention to the importance of FCS education. Mrs. Roosevelt saw the profession as an integral part of social reform for women rights (Division of Rare & Manuscript Collections, Cornell University, 2001b).

1950s and the Post War Era After WWII, veterans returned to work and the roles of women diverted the profession of home economics into society’s traditional conformist role of homemaker (Elias, 2010). Furthermore, “because they were by and large generalists who translated and applied information from many fields, home economists did not conform to the postwar ideal of academic social science” (Division of Rare & Manuscript Collections, Cornell University, 2001c, para. 3). This view reinforced patriarchal gender roles instead of liberating both women and men through a shared reform agenda to improve living conditions for all. Other feminized profes-

sions such as teaching, nursing, and social work, also struggled to establish a professional identity as well.

1960s Civil Rights and War on Poverty During this time FCS profession was still associated with gender stereotypes that led to a massive misunderstanding of the profession. However, the Civil Rights movement and the War on Poverty brought about legislation pertaining to social justice for marginalized populations including women, minorities, and individuals living in poverty. FCS grew as these societal needs were addressed. Additionally, the profession was redefining family dynamics and influencing government policies, such as creating the Federal Poverty Guidelines, supporting the creation of Head Start programs, providing training for Head Start personnel, and expanding school lunch programs (Elias, 2010). To improve the lives for individuals, families, and communities, the profession changed focus to include careers in business, healthcare, social services, and early childhood education.

The Vocational Education Act of 1963 supported vocational educational programs to ensure that underserved populations (racially marginalized individuals, those in poverty, and women) would have equal access to educational courses, occupational programs of study, and workbased learning (ACTE, 2019). The establishment of occupational programs in FCS prepared students for entry-level positions in specific occupations, such as food service and childcare (currently known as culinary/hospitality, fashion/ textiles, and early childhood education and careers).

1970s a Push for Equality Major educational changes occurred in the 1970s. The Education Amendment Act of 1974 promoted career education (Factors Impacting Family & Consumer Sciences, 2022).

Landmark legislation mandated that public education serve individuals with disabilities through the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 2022). However, stereotyping of the profession, brought on a scorn from feminist of the time. Title IX was another landmark legislation, and it was implemented to prevent discrimination based on gender in educational settings (History, 2022). This promoted gender equality in educational programs. FCS profession continued to rise to the challenges of society with changes in curricula, that focused on consumerism and business. Furthermore, FCS endorsed equal pay legislation and implemented women studies in higher educational programs (Dreilinger, 2021a).

1980s and Social Justice The Vocational Act of 1984 (referred to as Carl D. Perkins/Perkins Act I) was created to address social justice in education to underserved populations of people living in poverty, English Language Learners (ELLs), and individuals with disabilities. It was also designed to eliminate gender bias in certain courses and careers (ACTE, 2019).

To support IDEA, Perkins I required collaboration between vocational education and special education services. Ad-

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A Historical Review of FCS: Recommendations to Address Current Challenges

ditionally, it provided vocational rehabilitation services to ensure that public education supported the student’s Individualized Education Program (IEP). This resulted in student IEP goals and academic integration that was incorporated into vocational education courses. In 1983 the U.S. Department of Education report, A Nation At Risk, reported a need for increased rigor in education courses to prepare all students to meet the demands for a globally prepared workforce (Reagan Foundation, 1983). This put more emphasis on math, language arts, and sciences rather than emphasis on vocational courses.

1990s and Professional Changes FCS was still impacted by the negative stereotype image and continued to be a misunderstood profession. In 1990, a shortage of FCS teachers was identified resulting in FCS courses and programs being eliminated in public education and higher education programs (Bailey et al., 1993; Bull et al., 2000). In 1994, the profession changed the name from Home Economics to Family and Consumer Sciences, to better reflect the profession’s work with the current needs of society (AAFCS, 2018). However, in many instances the name change only added to the confusion about the profession as some thought home economics had been deleted.

Perkins II legislation resulted in FCS courses organized into a sequence to better prepare learners for paid employment that did not require postsecondary education or unpaid employment. It also legislated that courses have standards and learner assessment of the standards. McGregor (2019) reveals that FCS standards contribute to the notion that FCS is more than technical skills for cooking and sewing.

In 1998, the reauthorization of Perkins II to Perkins III updated the definition of vocational education and prepared students for postsecondary education. Additional funding through Tech-Prep was provided (ACTE, 2019) for technology in the classroom and vocational counselors/administrators. It also provided professional development for teachers.

2000s and Core Concepts The early 2000s brought about a specialization of careers in the FCS profession. Research by Bull, et al., (2000) indicated that current curricula must include content in consumerism, physical and mental wellness, family and community, and care of the environment. Human development, family science, apparel and textiles, food science and dietetics, consumer economics, and interior design were the new names of programs of the profession. (Encyclopedia.com, 2018).

The FCS body of knowledge (BOK) was developed as a “complete set of agreed-to concepts, terms, principles and activities that make up a professional domain” (Nickols et al., 2009, p. 107). The core concepts of BOK include basic human needs, individual well-being, family strengths, and community vitality. FCS professionals incorporate knowledge of life span development and ecological theory when implementing the five BOK cross-cutting cross themes of

capacity building, global interdependence, resource development and sustainability, appropriate use of technology, and wellness (Nickols et al., 2009; Poirier et al., 2017).

A Nation At Risk led to No Child Left Behind which contributed to a decline in career technical education (CTE) courses. CTE courses were not mentioned in No Child Left Behind and funding was used for other courses, while CTE courses were not funded. Furthermore, increased graduation requirements left little room for students to select CTE courses as electives (Chadd & Drage, 2006). This resulted in high school students having little exposure to FCS courses. In response to this, Perkins IV of 2006, The Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education and Improvement Act which changed the name of vocational education to career and technical education. The focus was to prepare students for career readiness by linking with postsecondary institutions with articulation agreements to provide dual credit or dual enrollment opportunities for students. Additionally, this legislation required academic integration into CTE courses, a strong focus on industry certification and/or postsecondary associate or baccalaureate degree, a continued focus on gender equity in education/careers, and improved rigor in course standards (ACTE, 2019). Sixteen career clusters were established, each with programs of study.

FCS was not one of the 16 career clusters (ACTE, 2019).

Duncan (2018) reported many states removed the name FCS from the program of studies and replacing it with the term Human Services. This lack of identification made it difficult to make the transition from secondary FCS courses to postsecondary FCS major.

In 2015, Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) continued the effort to prepare all students for postsecondary education and careers. Emphasis was placed on supporting disadvantaged populations, high quality preschool programs and local innovations (United States Department of Education, 2023). Perkins V, Strengthening Career and Technical Education for the 21st Century, provided states with a common definition of a CTE concentration, expanded the definition of special populations, and provided more flexibility with stakeholders to use data from a local needs assessment to make decisions for programs (Swafford & Ramsey, 2023). Funding was also provided to expand middle school programs to include career development courses (ACTE, 2019). However, emphasis was still placed on the programs of study within the 16 career clusters, which did not include the name of FCS profession but rather Human Services.

Impact of the Historical Review Viewing FCS through the Nation’s socio historical context defines events that are important to the evolution of the profession, identifies misconceptions, and current challenges that exist. An example of historical culture or societal issues is the “Matilda effect”, the under-recognition of the contribution of women in science (Swafford & Ramsey, 2023) The “Matilda effect”, originally coined by Rossiter (1982) has occurred throughout history as the work of women scientist has been either completely left out, dropped, ignored, or denied in historical records, while male scientists were credited with inventions and discov-

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eries by the scientific community. Research by Renwick & Bauer Edstrom (2022) revealed that FCS has often been discredited by others. Additionally, McGregor (2019b) included the FCS profession from a lay person emerges from personal experiences, misrepresentations, and stereotypes.

This was further supported by recognizing the contributions of Ellen Swallows Richards, who championed sanitization, water quality, and safe food handling through her knowledge in chemistry. Yet, her contributions and labs were suppressed and only applied within the home setting (Dyball & Carlsson, 2017). “One could argue that FCS still suffers the same fate today– held at an arm’s length when applying knowledge” (Ramsey & Swafford, 2023, p. 236).

FCS Challenges: Perception and Shortage of Professionals This review confirmed that the FCS profession evolved to address the societal needs of the Nation as scholars of nutrition and dietetics, food safety, food preparation, consumerism, merchandising, retail, textiles, and design. The knowledge base of FCS, when implemented, may prevent child, family, wellness, and economic societal issues and build resilience (Ramsey et al., 2023). Yet, the FCS profession faces challenges of an inaccurate perception and a shortage of professionals (Bull et al., 2000). There are calls for the return of the profession, while on the other hand, some question if the profession exists (Dreilinger, 2021b; Dyas, 2017; Renwick & Bauer Edstrom, 2022).

The profession of FCS is a collection of integrated disciplines (Renwick & Bauer Edstrom, 2022); yet, some individuals focus only on a few disciplines of the profession, rather than view the profession. “It goes against people’s intuitive senses to ask them to accept that FCS is anything more than technical skills for cooking and sewing” (McGregor, 2019a, p. 28). Furthermore, Renwick et al. (2022) states that the interdisciplinary nature of FCS made it easier for higher education institutions to dismantle and place the components in other areas besides FCS. Because of this dismantling of FCS programs, many individuals outside the profession never realize the important contributions made over time and continue to make (Ramsey & Swafford, 2023).

Could societies perception of FCS have led to a shortage of educators, contributed to programs closing in higher education and resulted in programs closing in public schools?

McGregor (2019a) states to change the existing perception of FCS, we must convince society that the perception is incorrect, inadequate, even harmful if perpetuated. To address the challenges of perception and shortage of professionals, it is imperative to advocate, lobby, and market FCS. See Table 2. Recommendations to Address FCS Challenges.

As shown in Table 2, brief statements of recommendations to address the current challenges of perception and shortage of professionals are included. Both challenges may be addressed by implementing advocacy, marketing, and avoiding social narrowing.

Advocacy To advocate means to influence a position or concept within a political, economic, or social institution. Ellen Swallows Richards was a true advocate whose contribution had a lasting impact, not only in the field of FCS but also for the advancement of women and education. Early advocates from Lake Placid meeting were active with legislators to inform them of problems of society and how the FCS profession could provide solutions to those problems. It is time that we do the same and advocate for a seat at the table.

Plan and implement public service announcements with public television, radio, press, and social media to promote a FCS stance on current socio-cultural issues. This would promote the FCS mission and professional goals to the public. To obtain funding, FCS professionals should launch awareness campaigns to promote FCS in society as an agent of change. Collaborate with state school board members to make FCS content in middle schools and high schools a required course and graduation requirement.

Current FCS professionals should join and be active in professional organizations of American Association of Family and Consumer Sciences, AAFCS, Leading, Engaging, Advocating, Developing Family and Consumer Sciences Education (LEADFCS Education), and Association of Career Technical Education, ACTE. Professionals in FCS should use their collective voices to change the existing perception of FCS profession (Ramsey & Swafford, 2023).

Advocacy is still effective as Duncan’s (2018) research included an editor’s note that the bill Strengthening Career and Technical Education for the 21st Century Act specifically mentions family and consumer sciences as a local use of funds. Research states that FCS professionals locally and in higher education advocate. Members share “with policymakers how family and consumer sciences have specialized expertise in human development and family relationships, in concert with housing and health management and wellness” (Miller, 2018, p. 71).

Marketing Promote STEAM in the FCS profession which incorporates valuable real-world experiences to education (McGregor, 2019b). Use local newspaper or school newspaper show others how FCS educators and chemistry, drama, humanities, or math educators team teaching with academic integration. This promotes FCS to other students in school, while dispelling the message that FCS is more than cooking and sewing. Capitalize on the current ecological movement of Global Warming as the environment was the passion of Ellen Swallows Richards and those of the Progressive Movement to incorporate history to FCS. In higher education network with faculty across campus for research, writing grants, and other projects to make the FCS content and body of knowledge known. Participate in guest speaking at university Women Centers. This may help dispel the myth of FCS preparing learners for a career only in homemaking. Consider conducting a presentation at a women’s studies class or speaking at university Women

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Table 2. Recommendations to Address FCS Challenges of Shortage of Professionals and Perception Challenges Recommendation

Actions

Advocacy

Write letters.

Develop media campaigns.

Compose white papers.

Meet with legislators.

Join/ participate in FCS professional organizations.

Establish an FCS Day on the Hill.

Lobby for FCS courses as high school graduation requirement.

Higher education- include FCS course as general education requirement.

Avoid Social Narrowing

Collaborate with others outside the profession on grants and research.

Incorporate academic integration in course content.

Co-present with colleagues outside the profession.

Get outside of your comfort zone and share the discipline of FCS.

Marketing

Participate in public service announcement.

Publicize FCS events in newspapers and brochures.

Keep websites and public information current and correct.

Capitalize on STEAM in FCS. Develop post graduate degree in FCS education.

Develop online programs in FCS. Implement middle school programs Publicize FCS degrees.

Center on FCS early leaders as feminist of their time may dispel the perception of FCS (Dreilinger, 2021b).

To address the teacher shortage, each FCS university program should continue to develop post baccalaureate degrees and programs to obtain FCS licensure. Online programs would address the needs across the nation. Master’s level degree with 18 hours in a specific major is required in accreditation programs (Higher Learning Commission, 2020). Currently 19 states are providing learners with tuition free at community colleges and career technical programs (Bisht, 2021). Collaborate with community colleges and career and technical programs to ensure that articulation agreements result in an efficient transfer to B.S. programs of study. Additionally, this would provide for instructors to teach FCS content related courses at the community college level and serve as adjunct professors, lecturers, instructors on the university level. It is important that website information in recruiting FCS professionals be current and accurate.

Avoid Social Narrowing FCS professionals need to recognize the importance of moving away from social narrowing (the tendency to stay within one’s group) and connect with individuals that advocate for FCS potential (Ramsey & Swafford, 2023). FCS professionals do well with writing and presenting content on challenges of public perception and shortage of professionals. However, most of this is accomplished in professional journals and at professional conferences. This is an example of social narrowing and “preaching to the choir.”

To avoid this meet with state and national legislators to let them know we still exist. Contact state legislators to have “FCS Day on the Hill”– make appointments to visit with policymakers, let them know which bills you support and how FCS supports families. Invite legislators to state and national professional meetings. FCS professionals know their content is preventative and restorative in na-

ture; other departments and programs need to know that as well. During collaboration with policymakers and other professionals, demonstrate respect and instill the value of the FCS professional knowledge (McGregor, 2019).

Conclusion This article reviewed history, legislation, and programs that began with Ellen Swallows Richards and the Lake Placid Conference. Richards was considered a feminist of her time, yet the later modern feminist turned their backs on the profession. Those that attended the Lake Placid Conference can be considered “politically savvy” (Dreilinger, 2021c, p. 381). As a result, legislation established the profession as an academic career, acknowledging the importance the environment has on developing humans and relationships, along with nutrition and life skills. By meeting legislative requirements, FCS has been considered an “inclusive and universal” (McGregor, 2022, p. 13) profession that resulted in a focus on career readiness, social justice for marginalized populations, and improved course content and assessment.

From the beginning, socio-cultural views of FCS have perpetuated the misconception of FCS. Perkins IV and V have impacted FCS education negatively because when public schools close FCS programs, it decreases the number of students that seek to enter FCS programs in higher education. Furthermore, this negatively influences society to live well in a nurturing, productive and healthy environment. For example, FCS professionals are needed now more than ever as the nation is experiencing a surge in mental and physical health outcomes due to the ACEs crisis.

Collectively, FCS professionals need to take steps to ensure the profession is vibrant, continuing, and ongoing by avoiding social narrowing and going beyond the profession in advocacy, networking, and marketing. From the review of Richard’s work, advancing the science of the profession and placing emphasis on STEAM is important, as “societal fac-

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A Historical Review of FCS: Recommendations to Address Current Challenges

tors such as sustainability, global consumption, health and social justice are aligning around the profession” (Paite & Oton, 2016, p. 28). FCS professionals need to passionately advocate for a profession and break the negative percep-

tion, so that FCS professionals can continue to improve the lives of individuals, families, and communities.

Submitted: February 21, 2024 EDT

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Reflections

Connecting to the Global Cutting Edge Gwendolyn Hustvedt, Ph.D.1

a

1 School of Family & Consumer Sciences, Texas State University, San Marcos

Keywords: Global, Cutting Edge, IFHE, World Home Economics Day, Education 3.0, Industry 4.0

Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences Vol. 116, Issue 1, 2024

One of my greatest pleasures during my tenure as president of the International Federation for Home Economics (IFHE) has been promoting World Home Economics Day (WHED) held on March 21st annually since 1982. WHED is an opportunity each year to connect with something larger and to connect in a way I might not have considered previously. Sometimes the theme is one where I have expertise and other times, it is a chance to listen and think about how I might take something new on board. It is intended as a PR event for our field globally and we know that FCS could always use more good PR. Drawing on ideas presented by colleagues in other parts of the world showcases that we are not alone in our goals for our students and the community.

The WHED theme for 2024 is Home Economics 3.0: A Critical Update and while the theme title leaves out FCS, the goal of demonstrating how FCS is using Education 3.0 to educate for Industry 4.0 is valuable. Looking across the definition of Education 3.0 and considering the vision of Industry 4.0, we can see how FCS is already participating in cutting edge technology. Education 3.0 focuses on the shift from teacher-centered, rote instruction assessed through testing in dedicated school spaces to lifelong, learner-centered interdisciplinary experiences that happen outside of schools. Based on this definition, I believe that we can argue that FCS has been teaching in Education 3.0 for years, and so it just remains to ensure that we also emphasize the global, collaborative portion of our discipline that has always been technology-driven and is excited to dive into the advanced technologies. If Industry 1.0 was steam, 2.0 was electricity and 3.0 was computing, then Industry 4.0 is characterized by the integration of digital technologies, artificial intelligence, internet of things and automation across manufacturing and service industries. The impact of Industry 4.0 on Education 3.0 will include a demand for new skills, personalized learning with flexibility, the imperative

for lifelong learning to adapt to changing technology, such as AI assistants, smart homes, health monitoring, virtual working or shopping, personalized mini-ecosystems and of course, robotics. However, it will also require the global and collaborative orientation, the focus on interdisciplinary education based in the real-world and require workers who are prepared to handle the complex ethical considerations created by yet unimagined changes.

Both Industry 4.0 and Education 3.0 will have positive impacts on homes and families, including improved worklife balance, continuous learning, and enhanced communication across the networks that families create and many now require. The rise of ‘digital nomads’ and ‘work-from home’ can provide families with new choices for relocation and mobility to improve their quality of life and an increase in the global connections that benefit some families. On the downside, Industry 4.0 and Education 3.0 will drive new changes in values and increased screen time, something already impacting family relationships, and the economic shifts will have losers, not just winners. Unaddressed digital access disparities will become even more important to resolve as education continues to emphasize digital transformation. Finally, the safety and ethical concerns related to advanced technologies will require consideration and participation of FCS professionals.

I will be looking for opportunities to frame my work with fashion and sustainability studies in light of the theme for the year, capturing in photos and quotes how my introduction of advanced technologies is preparing them for the careers of the future in Industry 4.0. On March 21st, I will share what I have gathered and I invite you to join me.

Submitted: March 04, 2024 EDT, Accepted: March 04, 2024 EDT

a President (2020-2024) of the International Federation for Home Economics

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