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RESEARCH METHODS 1 | 2022-2023 RM06 - British Architects and Builders in West Africa: Archives, Architecture, Empire Group 3 - West African Colonial Bungalow Liverpool Maritime Museum Archives Centre Francis Morton & Co., Ltd. Collection Group Members: Ulrica Chan Ho Ching Alkim Uzunonat Doga Esen Chi Zhang Cosmin George Dobrea

01 02 03 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to thank the Port Sunlight Unilever Archives and Liverpool Maritime Museum Archives Centre for providing us with the materials requested and allowing us to record and reproduce them.

We would also like to thank Dr. Ewan Harrison for all of his support and guidance offered throughout this project.

C O N T E N TS

04 05

INTRODUCTION Introduction to West Africa, Tropicalism and Colonialism

3

METHODOLOGY Methodology

4

CASE STUDY- BUNGALOW & ARCHIVES Mapping Of Bungalows in African Colonies Mapping Of African Dwelling Typologies Timeline Introduction to the Colonial Bungalow Introduction to Archives Francis Morton & Co. Catalogue of bungalows for export

5 6 7-8 9 10-11 12-13

ANALYSIS Bungalow Case study 1 - Afikpo Prefab. Bungalow Bungalow Case study 2 - Brick Built Bungalows Bungalow Case study 3 - UAC Unilever Bungalow Activities outside the bungalow Conclusion & Main bungalow features

14-15 16-17 18-22 23 24

BIBLIOGRAPHY Figure References and Bibliography

25

INTRODUCTION Exploring ‘tropical modernism’ and the ‘European’ bungalow in West Africa through archival research

The influence of colonialism in the development of ‘tropical architecture’ and the introduction of the bungalow to West Africa Bungalow It is a type of housing that derives its name from the word ‘bangla’ which means ‘a house in Bengal style’, emphasising its place of origin as Bengal. In the late 19th century the bungalow style spread throughout the world and in the context of West Africa its importance was considerable as it was “instrumental in transforming the economic, social, cultural and political life of Africa.”

(King, 1984"195)

Map contextualising the British Colonies in West Africa within the geographical distribution of the Tropical Zone highlighted in red and the main colonial trading routes of the Empire

Tropical Modernism The definition of tropical architecture relies on cultural and geographical criteria related to the region of the tropics. “The term ‘bungalow’ had become synonymous with tropical housing for Europeans in the colonies” (King, 1984:200) Tropical modernism was in part a way for colonial authorities to impose control through sanitation policies and the introduction of European architectural and cultural standards in the colonies. More often than not these were regarded as superior and more modern than the traditional.

The close links between the British port cities and the colonies of West Africa tied together by Imperial capitalism

Aims of the archival report: This report will identify and investigate a few main themes related to the history and development of the colonial bungalow in West Africa throughout the colonial period.

•

The history of ‘tropical architecture’, focusing on the bungalow imported from Europe to West Africa and its social, cultural, economical and political significance.

•

The change and development of cultural norms, living standards and domestic lifestyles in West Africa as a result of the process of colonisation.

•

Contextualising case studies of bungalows both stylistically and politically to the wider theme of colonialism in West Africa.

Fig 1. Traditional rural African dwelling in Kuntaour, Gambia (UAC Collection, Unilever Archives)

Fig 2. Modern postcolonial bungalows in Abidjan, Ivory Coast (UAC Collection, Unilever Archive)

The starting point and basis of this research project is the link between the cities of Britain and those in West Africa that played a role in the imposition of British colonial rule in Gambia, Sierra Leone, Ghana and Nigeria. British colonies in West Africa were “sources of raw materials and as providing new markets for her goods” (King, 1984, p. 10) As nations became more industrialised, British exports met an increasingly higher competition.

Within this regard, architecture played a significant role in both periods of colonial rule and decolonisation. The British colonial administration’s efforts of colonisation were driven partly because of the economical profit from the extraction of raw materials from Africa but also due to the opportunity to export British technologies and goods to ‘under-developed’ areas. The bungalow was seen as a technological device meant to protect Europeans living in Africa from disease and the environment.

Fig. 3 Elder Dempster Lines Poster advertising sailings from October to December 1926 between Britain and West Africa

METHODOLOGY

Postcolonial Theory Postcolonialism is focused on the historical analysis of countries that have been decolonized. It reveals the impact of the cultural, social and economic control strategies employed by colonisers.

Archival research and the colonial bungalow as a case study The research carried out in the archive report uses records found in the archives we visited as well as content from digital archives online as primary sources of information and combines the material with secondary sources such as relevant literature to contextualise the Bungalow case study to the key concepts outlined and theoretical background of colonialism.

Fig. 4

CASE STUDIES

Records of colonial bungalow in West Africa

PREFABRICATED BUNGALOW & BUILT BUNGALOW

In our documentation, the role of the bungalow as well as that of the archive will be interrogated in relation to colonialism and decolonisation. A comparison will be made between multiple case studies of bungalows from different time periods in terms of their design and social, cultural and political significance.

Focusing down on one architectural element, the bungalow was the main housing form for Europeans living in the West African colonies. It was distinguished by various features: • • •

Function (purpose built for the tropical environment) Construction (prefabricated & exported or simply built) Design and structure (early colonial period one storey bungalows & later colonial period bungalows that had multiple storeys, mixed-use and larger size to include various specialised rooms adapted from European living norms and standards.

THE ARCHIVE To conduct our research we visited two archives that held records of bungalows and corporations directly related to British colonialism in West Africa.

•

Unilever Archive in Port Sunlight, Liverpool

•

The Archives Centre at the Liverpool Maritime Museum (Francis Morton and Company Ltd. Catalogue)

CASE STUDIES

1. Prefabricated bungalow exported from England (Late nineteenth century)

Fig. 6

Fig. 5

2. Built bungalows adapted to West African environment with locally sourced materials (Early twentieth century)

3. Late colonial period built bungalows with modern design and technologies (1940s onwards)

For understanding the role of archives and the architectural history of colonialism in West Africa, we are going to use secondary source literature such as Anthony D. King’s historical book on bungalows in our analysis in order to examine the wider implications of the introduction of the bungalow to West Africa since the 1890s.

Furthermore, we are going to use a “scrapbook” approach to our documentation.

As such, this archive report will include our own architectural drawings, mapping, sketches and collages referenced from our findings in terms of physical archival records and digital collections.

Due to time and budget restrictions, we are limited to using material found in the archives and analysing literary sources to create our own depictions of West Africa.

Fig. 7

BRITISH

INTRODUCTION OF BUNGALOWS TO WEST AFRICA

PORTUGUESE

3

1940’s Conventional built colonial bungalow

2 Early 1900s European bungalow built

Fig. 8

INDEPENDENT

Fig. 9

GERMAN

in Sapele. One of the first brick and timber bungalows

Fig. 10

Late 19th century prefabricated wooden and iron bungalow sent out from Liverpool

1 King (1984) describes how “the idea of the bungalow seems to have reached West Africa by early 1890s.” These bungalows sent from England served as a prototype model for future bungalows which would be constructed following the expansion of railway and the introduction of housing and sanitation policies. These models were also adopted by Germans and French in their own colonies.

2 While early portable bungalows were not

properly adapted to the tropical lifestyle, knowledge from India and other tropical colonies started to bring changes to the design of the bungalow. The creation of capitalist economies and improvements in infrastructure and material harvesting led to the phasing out in the importation of bungalows and instead locally constructed bungalows became the norm in terms of tropical housing for colonisers.

3 Compared to the prefabricated bungalows

predominant in the late 19th century and early 20th century, this type of bungalow was built on site in Ghana using locally sourced materials.

This specific type of bungalow was used by the United Africa Company (UAC), a subsidiary trading company of Unilever to house its European employees in Ghana.

SPANISH

1

DWELLING TYPOLOGIES OF WEST AFRICA

Locating the various types of traditional African dwellings and the contrast between them and the bungalows built for European settlers GABLE ROOFED ( RECTANGULAR)

1

DOMICAL (BEEHIVE)

RECTANGLE WITH ROOF ROUNDED AND SLOPING AT THE ENDS

3

2

PYRAMIDAL CONE SQUARE

4

5

QUADRANGULAR

DOME OR FLAT ROOF ON A CLAY BOX 6

7

Fig 13 New timber bungalow type - Kintampo, Ghana (The National Archives, UK

Fig 11. Collage made from various photos from the Unilever Archives showing African dwelling styles over the colonial period.

Fig 12. Colonial Se cretar y’s bungalow Sierra Leone (The National Archives, UK)

llection, re ( UAC co o st f o p to on zy bungalow Fig 14. Swan es) rchiv Unilever A

COLONIAL PERIOD TIMELINE

/1800-1890s

/ Late 1890’s and early 1900’s

Urban improvement in Africa

Early Colonial Period

Introduction of the Indian bungalow to West Africa e bungalow had already been used in the tropical zone and its form would be developed as a ‘tool of Empire’ and exported globally to colonies in the tropics. / ree types of bungalow 1. Early prefabricated for export made out of wood and iron 2. Cement or brick bungalows built in the colonies and better adapted to the tropical environment 3. Late colonial bungalows with advanced tropical design features and modern ventilation technologies

Bungalow and Railway expansion in West Aica

/ 1930

Cement factory completed in West Aica

/ 1935

24 Bungalows and a Governor’s residence were completed by 1904 in what became knows as “Hill Station”, an European enclave in the hills near Freetown, Sierra Leone.

A mass import of asbestos cement was taking place which, by the late 1940’s, represented 80% of all of the cement used in Nigeria.

e design features of the European bungalows started to influence the traditional dwellings in West Africa.

Most residential developments now built out of brick with corrugated iron roofs to combat fire hazards since 1935.

All kinds of individual designs, though some being very close copies of European bungalows with rooms furnished in semi-European fashion and surrounded by lawns and flower gardens.

Bungalows were made out of wooden structure erected on concrete pillars using pre-fabricated components sent out from Britain. / 1898 Francis Morton Company was incorporated as a limited company and purchased by John omas Wood. Aer the 1900s, Francis Morton and Co., Ltd. would advertise fencing, railings, sheds, bungalows, roofs etc. in a series of catalogues for export om their iron works located in Liverpool

/ Early 1900s First pre-fabricated bungalows designed by Francis Morton and Co., Ltd. arrive in West Aica and other colonies around the world.

Use of cement in construction grew from 100000 tons in 1947 to eleven times that amount twenty years later by the late 1960 / Early 1930s United Aica Company (UAC) came under control of Unilever / Since 1920s Metropolitan firms established for European and Aican elite, developing the local furniture industry among other exports such as palm oil, coffee, cocoa, timber etc. Companies such as UAC needed to provide residences to their employees in the form of bungalows. / 1915 First cement factory in Aica completed by the British South Aica Company in South Aica.

Abandoning the traditional type of dwelling for square houses

LATE COLONIAL/POSTCOLONIAL PERIOD TIMELINE

/1940s

Economic and cultural influences

Plywood factories completed in Nigeria. Start of mass production of raw Sapele wood materials for use in local construction or export to Britain and other foreign countries for making furniture. / 1947 Large scale construction begun by the Ten Year Plan / 1945 e fih Pan-Aican Congress, held in Manchester. e decisions made at the conference played a significant role leading to independence of West Aican countries.

/ 1957

Independence of Ghana

Ghana was the first British colony in West Africa to gain independence in 1957, followed swily by Nigeria in 1960, Sierra Leone in 1961 and Gambia in 1965.

Right aer independence, Nkrumah, the first leader of Ghana, forged alliances with socialist and arab countries to stimulate Ghana’s independent national identity. / 1952 Government Reservations became the norm for Europeans living in urban areas. ey were exclusively European at first but during the 1950’s influx of Aicans of equal status resulted in extensions to the “high-class” reservations. / 1950’s e typical Aican dwelling typologies were replaced by ‘hybrid’ houses that embodied modern European methods of building and consisted of a mixture of burnt bricks, tiles and corrugated iron or flattened petrol tin roofs.

Ghanaian architects trained abroad and foreign Eastern European and West European architects were contracted to build industrial facilities and later on inastructural and huge projects such as the International Trade Fair Centre and residential districts.

/ Early 1960s

Breakdown of traditional ways of building

A survey of Yoruba building in rural Nigeria, asbestos and galvanized iron replacing natural materials and a pronounced shi from local to non-local models with many new “four-cornered” types of buildings.

/ 1960’s e Gambia, Sierra Leone, Ghana and Nigeria together had a population of over 50000 Europeans, which started to diminish following the establishment of independence om Britain.

/ 1970s

“Modern” Urban System and regulations

Native institutions were preserved under the overall authority of the colonial power. ese townships were areas outside of centres of African population, set aside by colonial administration and commerce corporations.

For reasons of health and sanitisation, policies were introduced limiting occupants to no more than 10 on any given plot.

Houses were to be of burnt brick, earth or concrete and with non-inflammable roofing; angle iron for ridge poles and raers was to be encouraged both to prevent fire hazards and decrease the cutting of trees. / 1968 onwards Change in family behaviour and “westernisation” due to the introduction of new house forms and construction regulations. “Traditional structures were undermined and gradually destroyed by the penetration of the capitalist mode of production” (King, 1984, p. 206). Lifestyle in post-colonial West Aica transformed om an agricultural, extended family society into a “westernised” urbanised and nuclear family society.

Bungalow in West Africa Different types of bungalow in West Aica

Introduction to Bungalow

Figure 17

Prefabricated Iron Bungalow

Figure 18

Cement/brick and timber Bungalow

Figure 19

Timber and Iron Bungalow on concrete pillars

Pre-fabricated Bungalow (1890s - Early 1900s) Fig. 15

e bungalow, both in name and form, originated in India.

Creation of Bangladesh, from the Hindi or Mahratti Bangla, the meaning of belonging to Bengal.

Fig. 20

Fig. 21

e first 24 bungalows shipped to West Africa were manufactured flat packed from England and assembled on site: Hill Station, Cline Town and Bo. Most of the bungalows were sent from England before factories completed in West Africa.

Hybridisation of Bungalows (Aer 1920s) British colonial administratiors had introduced residential reorganisation and new ideas of housing and hygiene in 1915.

Built bungalows directly in the colony instead of being prefabricated and shipped from England.

Abandoned the tranditioal type of dwelling in favour of square houses of more or less European design, built of brick and with corrugated iron roofs, being very close copies of European bungalows with rooms furnished in smei-European fashion and surrounded by a lawn and flower garden.

Fig. 22

e dwelling it came to describe was primarily European.

An indigenous mode of shelter was adopted and adapted for Europeans living in India.

Bungalows aer World War II

Fig. 23

Fig. 16

e indigenous “banggolo” of rural Bengal, 1860s Traditional skills and bamboo technology combined to produce the characteristic curvilinear roof line.

Influenced by western culture, bungalows were built with more consideration in terms of design elements for the tropical environment and better technology. Due to the breakdown of the compound, individualization of housing units became evident.

Fig. 24

Fig. 25

Fig. 27

Introduction to Archives

NOTES: 1. Short introduction of the company.

2. Devoted to Iron Buildings, Roofs, Bridges and Constructional Steel and Iron

FRANCIS MORTON & CO., LTD., IRON MERCHANTS

3. Work and illustrates selected executed ironwork provided by the company

Lorem Ipsum II. SALES CATALOGUES

I. NEWSCUTTING NOTES: 1. A wide range of ironworks had been done by Morton’s company in Britain and the British colonies.

2. ere were a different number of catalogues and other types of archival material showcasing their work spanning decades.

Fig. 28 Fig. 29

“A story acquires its coherence through the ability to cra links between the beginning and the end, A montage of fragments thus creates and illusion of totality and continuity.” (Mbembe, 2002:21) Fig. 26

e catalogues showed the scale of the company and the work they had done. e sale catalogs illustrated the development of the framework at that time and how their product could be applied globally. ey separated the work into different catalogs which had one specific catalog for iron bungalows for foreign climates, it showed that construction in foreign countries like West Africa was one of their majority business.

At that time, these catalogues were an important reference for the clients in the colonies and represented the commercial output of the company in terms of whole bungalow designs and iron components.

Introduction to Archives

NOTES: Photos of differnt types of bungalows taken throughout the 20th century.

II. Photos of Bungalows

UNILEVER ARCHIVE Port Sunlight, the historic home of Unilever in the UK

I. Drawings of Bungalows

III. Postcards

Fig. 33

Fig. 34

NOTES: More modern types of housing were shown on the postcards.

Most of them were sent in 1958, aer independence of Ghana.

Fig. 35

Fig. 30

IV. Equipment list for Bungalows

Fig. 36

Fig. 37

NOTES: Elevations, section and plan drwaings of bungalow:

“e activity of archiving touches a range of professional skills and expertise, … which artistic practice and historical conditions interpenetrate in any archival activity”(S. Hall, 2001:91)

Fig. 31

Multi-use: Typical type of bungalow for single man or Typical type of bungalow for family Fig. 40

NOTES: A list of equipment and furniture used in bungalows.

It contains the detailed quantity used of the furniture in different rooms of the standard bungalow house.

Fig. 32

Fig. 39

UNILEVER has a huge United Africa Company collection of business records. It consists of a series of original documents, drawings, printed images, postcards and business records. Drawings of the bungalow and a furniture list were the most important archival materials we found at Unilever, as they allowed us to piece together the post-war time period of the bungalow.

A complete and organized story was presented by those precisely selected and situated records. e collection allowed us to interpret different types of materials and create a whole picture in the archive report that shows a brief but comprehensive history of the bungalow used by the UAC in West Africa.

Fig. 38

FRANCIS MORTON & CO., LTD., EARLY BUNGALOWS The history of Francis Morton & Co., Ltd., and its prefabricated bungalows shipped out of Liverpool The Hamilton Iron Works, shown to the right, was situated on the River Mersey in Liverpool and covered over 10 acres of land. It served as the main production facility for the Francis Morton & Co. Limited where they produced all the metal components necessary for the assembly of their various products, including bungalows.

Fig. 42 - Illustration created by us using reference from illustrations found in the Francis Morton Catalogueat the Maritime Museum Archive Centre.

Before, the firm occupied smaller premises in Bevington Bush and Marybone Liverpool, with offices in North John Street, Leeds and Manchester. Raw materials would be transported to the Iron Works by rail or boat and similarly the components or finished products would be shipped out to far away British colonies to be assembled there.

The bungalow model below was manufactured specifically for the climate of West Africa, containing four rooms as per plan annexed. (22ft wide by 33ft long, 9ft high, 33 tons, £282 cost) The building is framed in pitch pine timber, covered externally with galvanized corrugated iron.

The inside is lined and ceiled throughout with tongued and grooved boarding, the partitions between rooms being double-lined. The ceiling has in addition a layer of felt.

The flooring is timber and ventilation is provided through louvres in each gable, with communicating openings in each room ceiling. The wide projecting verandah carried by iron columns surrounds the house and affords welcome shade. The foundations consist of tree trunks standing three feet above ground, fitted with mushroom shaped iron caps, to exclude vermin, on the top of which the house is secured.

Illustrated below is a completed corrugated iron bungalow as supplied by the company for the Crown Agents for the colonies, Eastern Telegraph Company and others. The building is framed in pitch pine timber, covered externally with galvanized corrugated iron.

This specific type of bungalow is modest in size and form, as its interior only provides for a limited number of rooms and functions. It did, however, provide a pleasant environment to live in, as its deep verandah surrounded the rectangular plan of the bungalow and provided shade from the sun and a cool breeze throughout the hot day.

Fig. 41 - Illustration created by us using reference from illustrations found in the Francis Morton Catalogueat the Maritime Museum Archive Centre.

Fig. 43 - Illustration created by us using reference from illustrations found in the Francis Morton Catalogueat the Maritime Museum Archive Centre.

FRANCIS MORTON & CO., LTD., SUBSEQUENT BUNGALOWS

Fig. 44 - Illustration created by us using reference from illustrations found in the Francis Morton Catalogueat the Maritime Museum Archive Centre.

, ngalow in Koforidua Fig. 45 - Swanzy Bu ives) ch tion, Unilever Ar Ghana (UAC Collec

Fig.46 - Swanzy Kpon g store and bungalow in Ghana (UAC Collection, Un ilever Archives)

As shown in figures 45 and 46, these types of bungalow s were preferred in urban areas that saw increased economic activity as they could be simultaneously used as storage spaces for materials as well as temp orary accommodation for travelling merchants and employees of commerce companies. In rare cases, the two-storey bungalows were provided to wealthy officers and couples that would instead use the ground floor as an arcade for dining and living room.

In the illustration below, the dimensions of the build ing are 58ft long and 33ft wide by 24ft high to eaves and weighs 75 tons. The side verandah is 4 feet wide on each of the two sides and projects 7ft at the one end. Advertised as having weathered a fearful tornado in 1866 while nearly all surrounding buildings were destroyed.

A caption in the catalogue states that “many predicted that the upper story, next to the roof, would be unbearable, as hot as an oven . But through the day the upper rooms were found so cool and pleasant that the assembled company gladly remained to enjoy the comfort afforded.” Whe ther true or not, such advertising was effective since it addressed the main worr y about the bungalow during that period, specifically the comfort it provided in the tropical climate.

Colonial bungalows constantly evolved into bigger and sometimes more luxurious versions of their earlier self.

The illustrated bungalow above served as a mixed-use building typology where the ground floor was used as commercial space in the form of a store or company headquarters whereas the upper floor’s purpose was strictly residential for the European employees.

“With the office so near, one is always liable to calls, and this becomes very trying in a climate that has such an effect on the nerves as does that of the West Coast of Africa.” (King, 1984:212)

Fig. 47 - Illustration created by us using reference from illustrations found in the Francis Morton Catalogueat the Maritime Museum Archive Centre.

AFIKPO, NIGERIA: PREFABRICATED BUNGALOW CASE STUDY GROUND PLAN

Early type of prefabricated bungalow from the late 1890’s shipped from England to Nigeria to house Europeas living and working in the colony

This type of bungalow was among the most common ones imported from England. At the beginning, bungalows were assembled near the coastal areas using light materials such as iron and wood that could be transported from the ports to residential areas along the coast.

These prefabricated bungalows had plenty of problems, both implicit and explicit.

Firstly, one explicit reason why these bungalows were not suitable for inhabitation was the main type of material used in its construction: corrugated iron. “In the hard bright sunshine the bungalows look like an encampment of snow white tents” (Kingsley, 1976) Mary Kingsley, a traveller in the West African colonies during the late 19th century, points out that a major fault for the bungalows of the period was the over-heating caused by the use of corrugated iron as cladding for exterior walls and roofs.

BACK VERANDAH 105ft x 9ft ROOM ROOM 14ft x 14ft 14ft x 14ft

MESS ROOM 14ft x 28ft

ROOM ROOM 14ft x 14ft 14ft x 14ft

FRONT VERANDAH 105ft x 9ft

Secondly, an implicit consideration was the difference between the lifestyle of the Europeans and that of the natives. Notably, King (1984) states that“the bungalow was a form of shelter designed for a single person or nuclear family.” From a cultural perspective, the bungalow and its inhabitants were isolated socially and phisically from the colony. As a result, the purpose of the colonial dwelling was to isolate and detach the occupants from the harsh tropical climate and create segregation between them and the native population.

Comparison between local population and European settlers Whereas the African community lived collectively in villages with their extended families, the European colonists came from a society that lived in enlarged houses where different rooms served different purposes.

Therefore, the bungalow can be described from a social and political viewpoint as a result of historical, economic and cultural elements adapted to the tropical environment mainly through the use of verandahs and passive natural ventilation.

The colonial bungalow and its regionalism Provided that the bungalow “housed the representative of the colonial power” (King, 1984), the first types of bungalows had very little connection to the local economy or culture. Africans lived in dwellings with thick walls made out of earth and mud, each house being fused to the next.

It made sense in terms of the local climate and culture as it allowed the continuation of the collective society and solved tropical environmental problems such as heat penetrating into the home.

On the other hand, the bungalow and its materials were manufactured in Britain. The private activities of inhabitants such as eating, bathing and sleeping were only possible due to architectural design. The incorporation of the verandah, ridge ventilation and double roof achieved the necessary comfort of the occupiers.

The arrival of more European firms and increase in the exportation of materials such as rubber, timber, palm oil and other materials led to the improvement in urban developments as the bungalow model used to provide accommodation in every colony in the tropics for Europeans.

Ultimately, this led to an increasingly segregated society between Europeans and Africans.

ELEVATIONS AND SECTIONS OF PREFABRICATED BUNGALOW

troduction of in e th r fo n so a Political re ican colonies fr A st e W to w the bungalo

ws wooden bungalo r te la d an s w d most Iron bungalo the cheapest an e er w e p ty s at of this le to European ab ai av s se u o h otential comfortable drawbacks or p r ei th e it p es d the time, hazards.

Poor living conditions of early bungalows and their political necessity As King (1984) points out, ‘the criticism of the bungalow was concerned with its design and use of materials’.

Windows were either too small for ventilation and the materials used, such as corrugated iron, would lead to unbearable heat and stuffiness.

However, the colonial authorities, especially the Governor of Nigeria, Sir Frederick Lugard, regarded the bungalows as essential in the expansion of British authority in Nigeria as railways opened up the way to thousands of miles of unexplored territory during the 20th century.

LONG SECTION

FRONT ELEVATION

SHORT SECTION

SIDE SECTION

BRICK COLONIAL BUNGALOWS CASE STUDY European Bungalows built locally in Nigeria - early 1900’s

Advancement in the design of the bungalow from prefabricated to built through trial and error To remedy the problems of the prefabricated bungalow various technologies from other colonies and even from England were integrated into the bungalows of West Africa. As plants and factories increased in number and the Europeans advanced inland, prefabricated bungalows were discarded in favour of built bungalows using locally harvested materials due to the increased costs of transport.

OFFICES

Drawn by us using references from the Colonial Office, West Africa, The Design of Bungalows for Government officials in West Africa, 1909.

Fig. 48 - New type of built bungalow with enclosed verandah - Tarkwa, Ghana (UAC Collection, Unilever Archives)

Initially, technologies from England were implemented into the bungalow, such as roof ventilators developed by English engineers.

According to King (1984), they “proved to be disastrous in the tropical climate.” During tropical storms the rain would be swept by the wind into the ventilators, flooding the interior rooms.

New materials from Britain were tried to replace the infamous corrugated iron roof.

Glazed tiles, felt, canvas among others either arrived broken, rotted or cracked or got torn up by storms. In the end the standard roofing for bungalows was reverted to imported corrugated iron whilst the structure and interiors were to be made using locally harvested timber and bricks.

Brick Bungalow in Warri, Nigeria

Brick Bungalow in Sapele, Nigeria

These types of houses were much better designed than the other. They are made out of brick but of very light construction. They provide comfortable quarters but the cost of building these were about £ 750. Had the cost been around £500 instead, it would have been very satisfactory for the housing requirements of the British in the colonies of West Africa.

Shown in the plans above, this is one of the first types of permanent brick bungalow dwellings in Nigeria, constructed in the early 1900’s. The side verandahs have been added to provide sunlight protection to areas of the house. This was due to the ends of the house being without protection from the unbearable tropical sun.

As stated by King (1984), ‘the scale of accommodation varied according to social rank and region’. This type of bungalow was likely intended for junior married officers as it contained one single bedroom and two baths, with other specialised rooms located in a separate building.

The verandahs are of the correct open type but the rooms remain too small, hence making the rooms larger and reducing the size of the verandahs proportionately would have been better for the wellbeing of people living inside.

ELEVATIONS OF BRICK COLONIAL BUNGALOWS European Bungalows built locally in Nigeria - early 1900’s

Top Drawing: Brick Bungalow Elevation Sapele, Nigeria 1900’s Bungalows were raised off the ground in an effort to ensure less humidity, more natural ventilation, less dust and reduce the risk of insects invading the house.

Moreover, verandahs were enlarged to at least 8 feet, in some cases even more if the price could be afforded, to increase the breeze and provide better shade. According to King (1984:212), in West Africa “the paramount need was to keep cool.”

Therefore, spatial elements such as the verandah became more spacious and lofty and extended all around the house.

Fig. 49 - Bungalow with ext. water tanks, timber framing and iron roof - Accra, Ghana (The National Archives, UK)

This figure, together with the figure below, represent the two archetypal designs of the early 20th century built bungalow. In countries like Nigeria it was more beneficial to have raised bungalows due to the swampy terrain, whereas in Ghana the flat terrain allowed for bungalows to be built on concrete ground foundations.

Drawn by us using references from the Colonial Office, West Africa, The Design of Bungalows for Government officials in West Africa, 1909.

Bottom Drawing: Brick Bungalow Elevation Warri, Nigeria 1900’s The disadvantage of this bungalow was that fact that it was not raised from the ground, making it unsuitable for sloped terrain and damp environments. Already being expensive, this type was found unappealing compared to the psychological and environmental advantages of having the added height of the bungalow on piers.

The size of the bungalow was an important indicator of status in the colonies.

Fig. 50 - New type “A” built bungalow made from bricks. (The National Archives, UK)

“The most essential part of the bungalow was the verandah.” (King, 1984:213) The verandah was fundamental to the bungalow both environmentally and socially. Not only did it function as a social space where the occupants could eat, sleep or relax, but it also kept the sun from heating the walls and ensuring the ‘perflation of the breezes’. In some cases the bungalows became extremely expensive to build due to the span of the roof being so great as a result of the extension of the verandah enveloping all sides of the bungalow. For instance, King (1984) mentions the Governor of Lagos pointing out that a bungalow with a 12 feet wide verandah and a 15 feet room would require a roof span of 39 feet just for the sake of one room.

COLONIAL BUNGALOW OF THE UAC - UNILEVER ARCHIVES Late colonial period bungalow of the UAC Unilever subsidiary in Ghana - built in the 1940s

“The most essential part of the bungalow was the verandah.” (King, 1984:213) The verandah was fundamental to the bungalow both environmentally and socially. Not only did it function as a social space where the occupants could eat, sleep or relax, but it also kept the sun from heating the walls and ensuring the ‘perflation of the breezes’.

In some cases the bungalows became extremely expensive to build due to the span of the roof being so great as a result of the extension of the verandah enveloping all sides of the bungalow. For instance, King (1984) mentions the Governor of Lagos pointing out that a bungalow with a 12 feet wide verandah and a 15 feet room would require a roof span of 39 feet just for the sake of one room.

Similarly to previous bungalow designs, the dining hall or living room remained the central, most spatious space within the bungalow, as it can be seen on the plan to the right.

Overall, this design sacrificed the back verandah in order to incorporate storage rooms and bathrooms into the bungalow, which were often built separately in another structure. To compensate for this, the roof was extended in order to provide more shade and cut costs.

SPATIAL LAYOUT DESIGN OF THE UAC BUNGALOW

Late colonial period bungalow of the UAC Unilever subsidiary in Ghana - built in the 1940s This model of the colonial bungalow was used by company members of the UAC. Most typically, it consisted of a low, one storey, spacious building, internally divided into separate living, dining, and bedrooms, each with an attached rooms for storage and bathing. The exploded axonometric drawing clearly shows the boundary lines between the internal spaces.

Most importantly, all of the rooms go through the bungalow from the front to the back, ensuring ventilation by allowing the air to breeze through uninterrupted. Bathrooms located towards the corners of verandahs did not interfere with air circulation, a design principle taken from previous bungalow designs in India.

SHORT SECTION

LONG ELEVATION

SHORT ELEVATION

THE BUNGALOW STRUCTURE

Showcasing the standard structure of the post-war colonial bungalow and the materials used

Fig. 51 Timber sawing in Kintampo, Gold Coast (The National Archives, UK)

CORRUGATED IRON

Roofing material External cladding (prefab. bungalows)

TIMBER

Main structure Secondary structure

Fig. 52 Plywood factory in Sapele, Nigeria after independence (UAC Collection at Unilever Port Sunlight Archives)

As the importation of materials halted due to either shortage in the case of war or due to the unsustainable costs of transport, the colonial authorities sought to create factories in order to source the local materials for use in the construction of bungalows among many other things such as furniture that could be exported back to Europe or America.

As shown in figure 51, places like Sapele in Nigeria became principal locations in terms of production of African timber materials. Moreover, it reveals a return to the process of prefabrication in construction (Figure 52) as tropical timber was used for quick and flexible building locally in the rapidly growing towns in the post independence period.

GLASS, TIMBER Windows Doorways

CONCRETE Walls Foundations

STUDY OF INTERIOR - THE DINING AND LIVING ROOM The utilization of spaces in the colonial bungalow and its furniture

The division of the bungalow into separate rooms encouraged the purchasing of domestic consumer goods and furniture to fill them. The UAC extracted raw materials such as palm oil and timber, but also exported finished goods such as cars, building materials, and refrigerators. The UAC also sold British products in its department stores across Ghana, Nigeria, and Sierra Leone.

Below, a list of standard equipment found in bungalows from the Unilever Archives in Port Sunlight

LOUNGE

KITCHEN EQUIPMENT

1.armchairs 2.settee 3.drinks tables 4.occasional table 5.bookcase (if not built in) 6.card table 7.wireless stand 8.standard lamp 9.table lamp 10.carpet 11.desk/bureau

16.frying pan - large - small 17.kettle 18.kitchen spoons 19.wooden spoons 20.kitchen forks 21.kitchen axe 22.kitchen knife - large - small

DINING ROOM 12.table & extension 13.dining chairs (set of 6) 14.sideboard/carving table 15.wall mirror

Fig. 53 - Collage of various furniture

23.scrubbing brushes 24.sweeping broom 25.cobweb broom 26.floor polisher 27.dusters 28.glass cloths 29.dust pan and brush

30.bread board and bread knife 31.pastry board 32.mincing machine 33.refrigerator 34.electric cooker 35.pressure cooker 36.chopping board 37.sieve 38.egg whisk 39.tin opener 40.grater

41.roasting tin - large - small 42.pyrex(set of 6) 43.large enamel basin 44.assorted pudding bowls 45.pie dishes (set of 3) 46.egg poacher 47.cannisters (set of 6) 48.flour dredger 49.rolling pin 50.pint measure 51.pastry cutter 52.potato peeler 53.potato masher 54.cake tins 55.patty tins 56.bread bin 57.colander 58.fruit squeezer 59.jelly mould (set of 3)

STUDY OF INTERIOR - VERANDAH AND THE BEDROOM The utilization of spaces in the colonial bungalow and its furniture

BATHROOM

MAIN BEDROOM

8.Bathroom cabinet with mirror 9.Stool with cork top 10.Towel rail or towel horse 11.Bath 12.Sanitary brush & holder

1.Pair of 3’6’’ beds with spring mattresses and 2 pillows each 2.Bed side tables 3.Chest of drawers 4.Long mirror on stand 5.Bedroom chairs 6.Carpet 7.Wardrobe

Sectional perspective of a bungalow showing the furniture composition of the bedroom and bathroom

Bungalow verandah

Bungalow bedroom and bathroom

Sketch plan highlighting the relationship between individual rooms in the layout of the post-war colonial type bungalow

A verandah, forming an integral part of the structure or, alternatively, attached to the outside walls, surrounds part or all of the building.

Other than its obvious climatic function the main social purpose of the verandah was one of relaxation. As shown in the figure below and the drawing to its left, the verandah was used for reading and writing; here guests were received and children were allowed to play. Significantly, it was absent from the traditional African dwellings and was later used as a model in the postcolonial period and integrated as an permanent feature of housing in the tropics.

Due to a concern regarding coolness, this type of bungalow had as little furniture as possible placed inside the sleeping room. A bed and a wardrobe were the only necessities due to the inclusion of adjacent rooms such as store, bathroom and dressing in the design.By now, most room heights were at least 11 feet, giving ample room for implementation of other tropical features from India. One such feature was the punkah, shown in the figure below, which were ceiling fans pulled by strings or with the help of electricity later on to create a gentle breeze inside.

Drawing showing the experience of relaxation on the verandah of the bungalow

Fig. 54 - Interior of the bungalow verandah - Accra, Ghana (The National Archives, UK)

Fig. 55 - Interior of a dining room in a bungalow with a punkah attached to the ceiling.

ACTIVITIES OUTSIDE THE BUNGALOW Ikoyi has been designed with huge, open bungalows for white Europeans, considerably smaller rooms for Nigerian domestic employees, as well as spacious gardens.

Numerous additional British-controlled West African territories are comparable (Livsey, 2022). The illustration on the right depicts gardening in the large gardens of these bungalows.

The image on the right shows the detail of Ikoyi's 1955 plan.

The majority of colonial officials and Western merchants who resided there worked in offices near the racecourse and marina (Livsey, 2022).

The drawing below shows the transportation of goods by cart to the storage on the ground floor inside the mixed-use bungalow.

Fig. 56 - Detail of a 1955 plan of Ikoyi. (National Archives of Ibadan, as given in Livsey, 2022:183)

Ikoyi was also meant to be a gendered environment. The huge percentage of colonial administrators were men. In the 1920s and 1930s, many brought their families to Nigeria (Livsey, 2022). The drawing below illustrates children from visiting families playing around the bungalow.

CONCLUSION

Fragments of the colonial bungalow’s history

Main features of the colonial bungalow and their significance during the colonial and postcolonial periods in West Africa Verandah

The verandah remains the most essential part of the bungalow not only in West Africa but everywhere else in the tropics. This feature was so popular that it was adapted even in bungalows built in Britain or America.

Doors and windows

Doors and windows underwent changes too with the passage of time. During the late 19th century, the first models of bungalows had much smaller windows and single doors with no ventilation built in. By the 1950s it was common for the bungalow to have double doors that were taller, wider and had built in windows and ventilation holes.

Timber/Iron structure

The structure of the bungalow was light during the first decades after it was introduced to West Africa. It mainly consisted of imported timber or iron and later on was replaced by cement and bricks after factories and plants were constructed in West Africa and supply was met.

Iron and/or timber roofing

This archive report has connected different bungalow typologies and their respective time periods to the wider context of colonial power relations in West Africa and tropical architectural design development.

By using a scrap book approach and using case studies that showed the merits and constraints of the three most common types of bungalows found the West African colonies, we have maintained the feeling of archival research throughout the report.

We have achieved our main objectives of exploring the three main themes set out in the introduction. We have investigated and analysed the historical development of the bungalow through the use of historical artefacts found in our visits to various archives and reinforced our arguments by using secondary literary sources. Through literature, we also contextualised the bungalow to the tropics geographically and climatically and have linked the development process of the bungalow to the overarching theme of colonialism. This has allowed us to link the cultural and social influence of the bungalow on the growing segregation between Europeans and indigenous African people in West Africa.

As seen in the photographs below, the role of the bungalow in the development of colonial urban environments is clear. Through different forms developed throughout the decades, the bungalow has always maintained the main principles of “ventilation, comfort, privacy, status, servants’ quarters, specialised room space and family needs” (King, 1984, p. 214) which would govern colonial housing design during and especially long after the conclusion of colonial rule.

Corrugated iron remained the main roofing material used in West Africa well after the British colonies gained their independence. Timber was sporadically used when imports of iron halted, especially during the Second World War, but they posed a fire hazard.

Fig. 57 - Miners’ dwellings following traditional forms during colonial rule. (King, A., 1984, p.238, Figure 127)

Fig. 58 - New bungalow type homes provide the transition to the urban economy.

(King, A., 1984, p.238, Figure 128)

BIBLIOGRAPHY Kingsley, M. H. et al. (1976) Travels in West Africa. London: Folio Society.

Livsey, T. (2022). State, Urban Space, Race: Late Colonialism and Segregation at the Ikoyi Reservation in Lagos, Nigeria. The Journal of African History, 63(2), pp.178–196. doi:10.1017/s0021853722000494.

Achebe, N. (no date) 8: Colonial Rule in West Africa, History Textbook. Available at: https://wasscehistorytextbook.com/8colonial-rule-in-west-africa/ (Accessed: November 21, 2022).

Glover, W. J. (2004) ‘“A Feeling of Absence from Old England:” The Colonial Bungalow’, Home Cultures, 1(1), pp. 61–82. doi: 10.2752/174063104778053617 Guilloux, T. (2008) ‘The Maison “Tropique”’, Fabrications, 18(2), pp. 6–25. doi: 10.1080/10331867.2008.10539632 Iain, J. (2022) British colonial architecture, Transnational Architecture Group. Available at: https://transnationalarchitecture. group/category/british-colonial-architecture/ (Accessed: November 21, 2022).

King, A. D. (1984) ‘The bungalow : the production of a global culture’, London ; Boston : Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Marrone, P. (2013) Chambers, RT, Etica e Politica. doi: 10.1093/acprof Uduku, O. (2006) ‘Modernist architecture and “the tropical” in West Africa: The tropical architecture movement in West Africa, 1948-1970’, Habitat International, 30(3), pp. 396–411. doi: 10.1016/j.habitatint.2004.11.001 Mbembe, A. (2002) ‘The Power of the Archive and its Limits’ In Hamilton, C., Harris, V., Michèle Pickover, Reid, G., Saleh, R. and Taylor, J. Refiguring the Archive. Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 20-27.

Wigley, M. (2005) ‘Unleashing the Archive.’ Future Anterior: Journal of Historic Preservation, History, Theory, and Criticism, 2(2), pp. 10–15.

Home, R. and King, A.D. (2016). Urbanism and Master Planning. Architecture and Urbanism in the British Empire, pp.51–85. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198713326.003.0003.

Hall, S. (2001) “Constituting an Archive,” Third Text, 54(54), pp. 89–92. DOI: 10.1080/09528820108576903

FIGURES All the sketches, drawings and collages not mentioned in the figures section are done by us.

Fig. 1 - Traditional rural African dwelling in Kuntaour, Gambia (GB1752.UAC/2). The United Africa Company Ltd Collection.

Unilever Archives, Port Sunlight.

Fig. 2 - Modern postcolonial bungalows in Abidjan, Ivory Coast (GB1752.UAC/2). The United Africa Company Ltd Collection.

Unilever Archives, Port Sunlight.

Fig. 3 - Larsson, B. (1926). Passengers Outward Express Service for Sierra Leone Liberia Ivory Coast Gold Coast and Nigeria from Liverpool, October-December 1926. Elder Dempster Lines. [Online image from Private Collection] [Accessed 10 Jan. 2023] http:// www.timetableimages.com/maritime/images/edl26a.jpg Fig. 4 - African dwellings in Abidjan, Ivory Coast Postcard (GB1752.UAC/2). The United Africa Company Ltd Collection. Unilever Archives, Port Sunlight.

Fig. 5 - Section drawing A-A of colonial bungalow in Ghana (GB1752.UAC/2). The United Africa Company Ltd Collection. Unilever Archives, Port Sunlight.

Fig. 6 - Africa Desirability Map (n.d.) [Online image] [Accessed 10 Jan. 2023] https://www.britishempire.co.uk/images4/ africadesirabilitymaplarge.jpg Fig. 7 - Corrugated Iron Bungalow for foreign climates (B/FM MMM.1965.193). Francis Morton & Co., Ltd., Iron Merchants Collection, The Maritime Museum Archives Centre, Liverpool.

Fig. 8 - Elevation drawing of colonial bungalow in Ghana (GB1752.UAC/2). The United Africa Company Ltd Collection. Unilever Archives, Port Sunlight.

Fig. 9 - Colonial Office, West Africa. (1909). ‘The bungalow transferred: official colonial housing in West Africa, 1906’ in King, A. D. (1984) ‘The bungalow : the production of a global culture’, London ; Boston : Routledge & Kegan Paul. p. 211, Fig. 6.7.

Fig. 10 - Colonial Office, West Africa. (1909). ‘Afikpo type bungalow, Nigeria’ in Home, R. and King, A.D. (2016). Urbanism and Master Planning. Architecture and Urbanism in the British Empire, pp.51–85. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198713326.003.0003. p. 71, Fig. 2.7.

Fig. 11 - Own collage made from archive collection photos (GB1752.UAC/2). The United Africa Company Ltd Collection. Unilever Archives, Port Sunlight.

Fig. 12 - Colonial Secretary’s bungalow - Sierra Leone (CO 879/93/3) Design of bungalows for government officials Catalogue, The National Archives, Kew. Fig. 13 - New timber bungalow type - Kintampo, Ghana (CO 879/93/3) Design of bungalows for government officials Catalogue, The National Archives, Kew. Fig. 14 - Swanzy bungalow on top of store (GB1752.UAC/2). The United Africa Company Ltd Collection. Unilever Archives, Port Sunlight.

Fig. 15 - Briggs, R.A. (1891) Bungalow at Bellagio. Imprerial image transferred. in King, A. D. (1984) ‘The bungalow : the production of a global culture’, London ; Boston : Routledge & Kegan Paul. p. 211, Fig. 3.4.

Fig. 16 - Bourne, S. (1860) Indigenous ‘banggolo’ of rural Bengal in King, A. D. (1984) ‘The bungalow : the production of a global culture’, London ; Boston : Routledge & Kegan Paul. p. 46, Fig. 3.

Fig. 17 - Millers Bungalow in Akuse, Ghana (GB1752.UAC/2). The United Africa Company Ltd Collection. Unilever Archives, Port Sunlight.

Fig. 18 - Swanzy Kpong Store and Bungalow in Ghana (GB1752.UAC/2). The United Africa Company Ltd Collection. Unilever Archives, Port Sunlight.

Fig. 19 - Mr. Grey’s Bungalow (GB1752.UAC/2). The United Africa Company Ltd Collection. Unilever Archives, Port Sunlight.

Fig. 20 - Chief Justice’s bungalow built in 1904 (1904) [Online image] [Accessed 15 Jan. 2023) https://pjhap.wordpress.com/tag/hill-station/ Fig. 21 - Hill Station bungalows [Online Image] [Accessed 15 Jan. 2023) https://www.britishempire.co.uk/article/hillstation.htm Fig. 22 - Ross, P. (n.d.) Marampa Iron Ore Works and Maintenance workshops in the 1950s [Online Image] [Accessed 15 Jan. 2023] https://www.britishempire.co.uk/ article/whitemansgrave.htm Fig. 23 - Two storey timber bungalow in West Africa (GB1752.UAC/2). The United Africa Company Ltd Collection. Unilever Archives, Port Sunlight.

Fig. 24 - Plan drawing of colonial bungalow in Ghana (GB1752.UAC/2). The United Africa Company Ltd Collection. Unilever Archives, Port Sunlight.

Fig. 25 - Beach Bungalow - Pram Pram, Ghana (GB1752.UAC/2). The United Africa Company Ltd Collection. Unilever Archives, Port Sunlight.

Fig. 26 - Newscuttings (3/1-6) (B/FM MMM.1965.193). Francis Morton & Co., Ltd., Iron Merchants Collection, The Maritime Museum Archives Centre, Liverpool.

Fig. 27 - Sales catalogue, Ironworks illustration (B/FM MMM.1965.193). Francis Morton & Co., Ltd., Iron Merchants Collection, The Maritime Museum Archives Centre, Liverpool.

Fig. 28 - Sales catalogue, drawing No. 1 BA (B/FM MMM.1965.193). Francis Morton & Co., Ltd., Iron Merchants Collection, The Maritime Museum Archives Centre, Liverpool.

Fig. 29 - Sales catalogue introduction page (B/FM MMM.1965.193). Francis Morton & Co., Ltd., Iron Merchants Collection, The Maritime Museum Archives Centre, Liverpool.

Fig. 30 - Side Elevation of Colonial Bungalow, Ghana (GB1752.UAC/2). The United Africa Company Ltd Collection. Unilever Archives, Port Sunlight.

Fig. 31 - Front Elevation of Colonial Bungalow, Ghana (GB1752.UAC/2). The United Africa Company Ltd Collection. Unilever Archives, Port Sunlight.

Fig. 32 - Plan drawings of Colonial Bungalow, Ghana (GB1752.UAC/2). The United Africa Company Ltd Collection. Unilever Archives, Port Sunlight.

Fig. 33 - Photo of Swanzy bungalow - Koforidua ,Ghana (GB1752.UAC/2). The United Africa Company Ltd Collection. Unilever Archives, Port Sunlight.

Fig. 34 - Photo of bungalow before clearance of bushes (GB1752.UAC/2). The United Africa Company Ltd Collection. Unilever Archives, Port Sunlight.

Fig. 35 - Photo of Swanzy Kpong Store and Bungalow in Ghana (GB1752.UAC/2). The United Africa Company Ltd Collection. Unilever Archives, Port Sunlight.

Fig. 36 - Postcard of portugues type house, Gambia (1958) (GB1752.UAC/2). The United Africa Company Ltd Collection. Unilever Archives, Port Sunlight.

Fig. 37 - Postcard of modern African dwellings, Ivory Coast (1958) (GB1752.UAC/2). The United Africa Company Ltd Collection. Unilever Archives, Port Sunlight.

Fig. 38 - Postcard of African Quarters, Ivory Coast (1958) (GB1752.UAC/2). The United Africa Company Ltd Collection. Unilever Archives, Port Sunlight.

Fig. 39 - Equipment list I for bungalow (GB1752.UAC/2). The United Africa Company Ltd Collection. Unilever Archives, Port Sunlight.

Fig. 40 - Equipment list II for bungalow (GB1752.UAC/2). The United Africa Company Ltd Collection. Unilever Archives, Port Sunlight.

Fig. 41 - Prefabricated bungalow drawing based on bungalow illustrations from Francis Morton Catalogue (B/FM MMM.1965.193). Francis Morton & Co., Ltd., Iron Merchants Collection, The Maritime Museum Archives Centre, Liverpool.

Fig. 42 - Iron Works drawing based on bungalow illustrations from Francis Morton Catalogue (B/FM MMM.1965.193). Francis Morton & Co., Ltd., Iron Merchants Collection, The Maritime Museum Archives Centre, Liverpool.

Fig. 43 - Prefabricated bungalow drawing based on bungalow illustrations from Francis Morton Catalogue (B/FM MMM.1965.193). Francis Morton & Co., Ltd., Iron Merchants Collection, The Maritime Museum Archives Centre, Liverpool.

Fig. 44 - Prefabricated bungalow drawing based on bungalow illustrations from Francis Morton Catalogue (B/FM MMM.1965.193). Francis Morton & Co., Ltd., Iron Merchants Collection, The Maritime Museum Archives Centre, Liverpool.

Fig. 45 - Swanzy Bungalow in Koforidua, Ghana (GB1752.UAC/2). The United Africa Company Ltd Collection. Unilever Archives, Port Sunlight.

Fig. 46 - Swanzy Kpong Store and Bungalow in Ghana (GB1752.UAC/2). The United Africa Company Ltd Collection. Unilever Archives, Port Sunlight.

Fig. 47 - Prefabricated bungalow drawing based on bungalow illustrations from Francis Morton Catalogue (B/FM MMM.1965.193). Francis Morton & Co., Ltd., Iron Merchants Collection, The Maritime Museum Archives Centre, Liverpool.

Fig. 48 - New type of built bungalow with enclosed verandah - Tarkwa, Ghana (GB1752.UAC/2). The United Africa Company Ltd Collection. Unilever Archives, Port Sunlight.

Fig. 49 - Bungalow with external water tanks, timber framing and iron roof - Accra, Ghana (CO 879/93/3) Design of bungalows for government officials Catalogue, The National Archives, Kew. Fig. 50 - New type “A” built bungalow made from bricks. (CO 879/93/3) Design of bungalows for government officials Catalogue, The National Archives, Kew. Fig. 51 - Timber sawing in Kintampo, Gold Coast (CO 879/93/3) Design of bungalows for government officials Catalogue, The National Archives, Kew. Fig. 52 - Plywood factory in Sapele, Nigeria after independence (GB1752.UAC/2). The United Africa Company Ltd Collection. Unilever Archives, Port Sunlight.

Fig. 53 - Collage made from different pictures of furniture pasted on top of own digital perspective section drawing of UAC colonial bungalow seen at Unilever Archives Fig. 54 - Interior of the bungalow verandah - Accra, Ghana (CO 879/93/3) Design of bungalows for government officials Catalogue, The National Archives, Kew. Fig. 55 - Interior of a dining room in a bungalow with a punkah attached to the ceiling. [Online Image] [Accessed 10 Jan. 2023] https://www.amusingplanet. com/2019/09/punkah-hand-operated-ceiling-fans-of.html Fig. 56 - Plan of Ikoyi. Livsey, T. (2022) “State, Urban Space, Race: Late Colonialism and Segregation at the Ikoyi Reservation in Lagos, Nigeria,” The Journal of African History. Cambridge University Press, 63(2), pp. 178–196. doi: 10.1017/S0021853722000494.

Fig. 57 -Miners’ dwellings following traditional forms during colonial rule. In King, A. D. (1984) ‘The bungalow : the production of a global culture’, London ; Boston : Routledge & Kegan Paul. p. 238, Fig. 127.

Fig. 58 - New bungalow type homes provide the transition to the urban economy. In King, A. D. (1984) ‘The bungalow : the production of a global culture’, London ; Boston : Routledge & Kegan Paul. p. 238, Fig. 128.

APPENDIX

Individually Authored Reflective Texts Self Reflection – Dobrea Cosmin George The archive report has challenged me to not only expand my field of knowledge in from an architectural point of view but also in terms of historical and cultural comprehension. My reason for choosing this group in particular is because of my interest in postcolonial theory and tropical architecture. What intrigues me is not only the architecture by itself, but the charged cultural and historical context that ties architecture and people to specific moments in time and specific locations. Therefore, from the very beginning I was fascinated to learn about similar concepts applied to a separate and unique geographical region that I had never explored before. Perhaps, the most challenging part of this assessment has been the research itself, as I have never attempted to do archival research before and so this has been a unique learning experience.

As I was part of group three researching the bungalow for export in the British colonies of West Africa during the colonial period, I had the opportunity to visit Archives Centre at the Maritime Museum in Liverpool. The collection of archive material we examined was donated to the centre by Mr. Cox of St. Helier and it contained various types of records of the Francis Morton and Company Ltd, Iron Merchants, active from 1766 up until 1992 according to the Maritime Museum records. During this visit I learned the most about the process of archival research and the regulations that come with it. As we stepped into the archive, we were handed the material we previously requested before coming physically to the archive and we were made aware of the procedures. The documents were stored in separate, special rooms to which only staff were permitted access and we had to sign off each individual piece of material that was part of the collection, giving our full details. The most important was the process of handling the documents themselves. We were instructed in the use of gloves and book cradles when handling rare documents that were prone to damage due to their age.

According to Achille Mbembe (2002), throughout the process of archival research “we are presented with pieces of time to be assembled, fragments of life to be placed in order, one after the other, in an attempt to formulate a story that acquires its coherence through the ability to craft links between the beginning and the end. A montage of fragments thus creates an illusion of totality and continuity.” Much like the process of designing architecture, the archive itself is a result of a composition that has been woven together by time and a common purpose. Whereas Mark Wigley (2005) argues that “the act of archiving really happens when the archive emerges through the voice of a particular individual or character.”

The archive itself is not only a physical place where material is stored to be protected for the future, instead it is a tool used to circulate information which can be controlled in terms of what and how much it reveals. Similarly, when I visited the archive and saw the material they brought to us I saw a collection of fragile memories woven together by almost forgotten links. Browsing through the archive, I couldn’t recognise most of the material as it was because it represented fragments that needed more contextual information to be fully understood.

With this in mind, learning about colonialism and decolonisation in West Africa through literature workshops has made me appreciate archival research even more as I was able to analyse and link the material I saw in the archive with historical events, cultures and places in the real world. In Lukasz Stanek’s (2020) book about architecture in global socialism, I was surprised to learn about the contribution of Eastern European architects from socialist countries during the Cold War in the development of modern tropical architecture projects post-independence Ghana. Learning about what kind of actors have shaped Ghana’s built environment after independence and the impact it still has today has given me much more context about how interconnected architecture is with political, economical and cultural narratives. As a result of this, the archival report that we have created as a group reflects on these types of narratives as well during the colonial period and links them together with our main research topic, the colonial bungalow.

Overall, working on this research project has been both rewarding and challenging at the same time. On one hand, we were challenged to create a comprehensive piece of research with the limited material that the archives we visited were able to provide for us. Furthermore, we had to make the most out of the scarce resources in terms of secondary sources and literature due to the very specific focus of the research topic on the colonial bungalow in West Africa. On the other hand, doing research in a unique way such as an archival report was more beneficial in the end because me and my group had to think critically about what type of information we included in the report and couldn’t rely on similar research done by others. I am sure that having the knowledge of how to use an archive and the skill of archival research will be beneficial to me in my future projects, especially as I will potentially put these skills into practice whilst developing my dissertation which also focuses on tropical architecture and a former British colony, namely Singapore.

Bibliography: Stanek, L. (2020) Architecture in global socialism: eastern europe, west africa, and the middle east in the cold war. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Mbembe, A. (2002) ‘The Power of the Archive and its Limits’ In Hamilton, C., Harris, V., Michèle Pickover, Reid, G., Saleh, R. and Taylor, J. Refiguring the Archive. Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 20-27.

Wigley, M. (2005) ‘Unleashing the Archive.’ Future Anterior: Journal of Historic Preservation, History, Theory, and Criticism, 2(2), pp. 10–15.

Self Reflection – Zhang Chi Archives were a very strange place for me before, and it might take me a long time to think about the differences between archives and libraries. However, the biggest help of the whole studio for me this time may be that it makes me realize the importance of archives, not only for learning architectural design, but also for how we perceive the society. It’s important to recognize the country and the world.

As part of the third group, I visited the Francis Morton catalogue in the archive of the Liverpool Maritime Museum.

Looking for information on the colonial era bungalow. What was most impressive was the variety of materials kept in the archives, including postcards, newspapers, advertisements, planning atlas, classified forms, photographic film and even handwritten records (although none of us could read them). Compared with the scarce materials in the Internet and library, these materials are very rich and can even restore part of the scene at that time.

Through the integration of materials, we restored three cases of bungalows and analyzed their structure, materials, use space and interior furnishings. From text to image, from two-dimensional to three-dimensional reduction analysis, different materials supported each other and gradually let us see a complete architectural appearance, which is actually a very magical thing.

Not only can archives give us an understanding of a building, ‘building themselves can be understood as archives’ (Wigley, 2005). The city is like a huge archive, each building contains the information when it was built. For the study of the building itself, through the use of technical materials, space, decorative furniture, geographical location, architectural style and so on, the building becomes a miniature of an era. The words that are destroyed and forgotten by us will not erase the existence of a building. The existence of itself is hold great power.

As for architectural design, every architect will collect records and keep his or her own work files. At the same time, there is no architectural design that does not rely on past experience and is not influenced by past buildings (Wigley, 2005). We study the architecture in the archives, understand different design backgrounds, analyze the reasons for the design, where the inspiration of these designs comes from, and what they want to express and show, so that we can truly learn the experience of our predecessors and apply it to our own design. Although I cannot do without looking for cases in my study, I also felt the impact of archives on design so deeply for the first time.

With a deeper understanding and reading, I also have a different understanding of the archives. Michel Foucault, the famous post-structuralist thinker, put forward some views that overturned my initial understanding. He believes that archives are more like a “system of statements”, which stipulates what we can and cannot say, because the establishment of archives is closely related to political power, and what we can see may only be a small part of what really happened (Harrison, 2022). As a researcher, we will pay more attention to the gaps in events, the silences and the untold stories from these archives, those that may be hidden, written in short memos, fragments of discourse to find lost events (Harrison, 2022). These traces preserve the historical past of the nation, and are evidence beyond the words themselves.

‘Archiving is a kind of interment, laying something in a coffin, if not to rest, then at least to consign elements of that life which could not be destroyed purely and simply.’ (Mbembe, 2002). It is still a little difficult to fully understand these things, but I can feel the contradictions and missions carried by the archives, which makes me look at the archives more objectively.

In the future study, rather than learning the design method, I will pay attention to what is the reason behind this design method and what precedent archives it is influenced by. At the same time, this course has made me more interested in history, and the relationship between architecture and politics, business and climate is also very rich. To do architectural design, it is necessary to be able to analyze problems in multiple ways. The study experience of archives enables me to learn to think and understand problems more comprehensively in my future study.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Wigley, M., 2005. Unleashing the Archive. Future Anterior: Journal of Historic Preservation, History, Theory, and Criticism, 2(2), pp.10-15.

Harrison, E., 2022. Archive Theory Workshop Preparatory Remarks, Workshop lecture Mbembe, A., 2002. The Power of the Archive and its Limits. In Refiguring the archive (pp. 19-27). Springer, Dordrecht.

Self Reflection- Doga Esen I was part of Group 3, which was assigned to research colonial era bungalows for export from the Francis Morton catalogue in the archive of the Liverpool Maritime Museum. Mr. B. Brett offered the Francis Morton collection to The Archives Centre as a donation from Mr. Cox of St. Helier, Jersey, Channel Islands (National Museums Liverpool, 2008).

John Morton founded a Chandler’s company in Liverpool’s Cable Street in 1766. In 1847, the company was known as the “Galvanised Iron Merchants,” and was managed by Francis and Henry Morton (National Museums Liverpool, 2008).

I chose the Maritime Museum for my self-reflection because it was where I had learnt the most about archival processes, which were vital to me as I had never visited an archive before. During my time there I learnt different procedures that must be followed, from contacting the employees there, to identifying which catalogue groups we needed.

When we visited the archive, it was different from my experience at the University Library, because we were expected to adhere to higher security standards - which meant we had to leave our personal effects and bags outside the reading room.

When we entered the room, the staff handed out the requested documents. These were normally stored in dry, temperature controlled rooms; because of the age and rarity of the documents, with only staff members being permitted access.

An important part of the archival process was handing the documents themselves. I was shown proper treatment methods, such as, the use of ‘book snakes’ and gloves – to limit damage and wear to the documents. When searching for a specific document, I learnt that instead of filing by the name of the document, I should instead find the reference code – because this was how the Maritime Museums archived their collection.

Photography during the visit was heavily controlled, with the staff not permitting it for every examined document. In our case, they made a special exception as we were university students – but this may not always be the case. Therefore, this could be an issue for future visits while I am studying or working, to prepare for it I will sketch the useful information and take notes.

It is clear that a thorough understanding of how to use an archive will be an essential skill as I move forward as an Architect. I will be able to put these skills into practice during research for my thesis, where I will be required to extract useful photographs and information from archived sources.

BIBLIOGRAPHY National Museums Liverpool (2008) Francis Morton and Company Ltd, Iron Merchants, records. Available at: https:// www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/artifact/francis-morton-and-company-ltd-iron-merchants-records (Accessed: January 2, 2023).

Self Reflection – Ulrica Chan Ho Ching “S/he restores it to life precisely in order better to silence it by transforming it from autonomous words into a prop on which s/he can lean in order to speak and write beyond an original text. ” (The Power of the Archive and its Limits, Achille Mbembe) While visiting Unilever and the Francis Morton archives, I felt like reading a long story of a specific event or person but also just tiny fragments in history. People selected and restored everything precisely to build up the story that wants the future to know and remember it. I think the activity of “archives” is interesting because it creates a continuity of history and a timeless story for the people. Also, archives are accumulated, and we are part of the archives as well sometimes. When people in the future see the archived documents, they see the archived in the 1900s and they may also the archived analysis we created, their thought of both of our archives would be part of their archives, and everything will hand down to the next and next generation.

We act as a reader and also a storyteller. It is normal that we do not like the book we read sometimes. For the Unilever Archives, everything is well organized and some of them are already digitalized which shows Unilever put a lot afford into preserving archives. But all the content they showed was selected by the company, one of the archives that impressed me deeply is the illustration of a black worker in an advertisement showing the diversity of ethnicity of their company. “Why are they so the emphasis on black people if every ethnicity is equal in your company” It was the first question that popped up in my mind and I took a look at postcards and storybooks after reading the advertisement. Unfortunately, there were not many photos with both people in bland and whites taken together. Would it be another format of racism? It is no doubt that Unilever’s archives are well restored and everything they showed only had a positive effect on their company.

I understand everyone only want to show their best to the world but for me, archives should consist of everything both positive and negative because a complete and wonderful story it should write with good and bad things.

I want to share the concept of “final death” from one of my favourite movies, Coco.

“He’s been forgotten. When there’s no one left in the living world who remembers you, you disappear from this world.

We call it the Final Death” the time of a thing stops, we can call it death because there will not be any changes again and it stops. But when it has been forgotten, no one is left to remember and the story can not be continued, it leads to the final death. Like archives, if no one preserved it well, and no one left to know, it caused the death of history.

Self Reflection- Alkim Uzunonat Since I studied in Turkey before my last academic year, what I knew about England and its history was limited to the lessons I saw there and the resources I could access. I am fortunate that I had the chance to take this course of Evan when I first came to England.

Our archive trip to the University of Manchester and Liverpool archives helped me learn about the working principle of the archive that I knew was wrong and needed to learn. I saw what archivists do in the archive and how detailed and attentive they are to the archive sources they protect. The fact that the visitors inquired about what they wanted to see in advance showed how much care their work required. We listened to the antiquity of the maps we examined during the archive tour of the University of Manchester and how they were created and prepared. Although I had never thought about this subject before, I saw why the documents were worth researching and archiving. In addition to the attractiveness of the maps, the drawings of that time inscribed around them were just as breathtaking.

I chose West African bungalows as my research subject. We continued this research with group work of five people. At the same time, I would like to say that the perspective and research methods of my groupmates have increased my command of the subject. The fact that we could all catch different points on the subject further enriched our research and created a rich discussion environment during the research process.

Thanks to the articles we read from class to class made me understand better what the culture, politics, people’s perspectives on life, lifestyles and the imbalance between genders could cause. One of the articles I read was Lukasz Stanek’s Architecture in Global Socialism: Eastern Europe, West Africa, and the Middle East in the Cold War. Accordingly, people from many nationalities worked in the design of the buildings built and the design process in West Africa. This made me think that west African architecture contains pieces from the architectural history of the whole world.

Reading an average of 2 articles from lecture to lecture and discussing them in classes helped me better understand the articles I had read and realize the points I had overlooked and thought about. In one, we discussed Saidiya Hartman’s article “A Journey Along the Atlantic Slave,”. In our lessons up to that time, we generally talked about West African architecture and its socio-political history. Until I read and discussed this article, I realized that I had not thought about the environment in such detail then. This contributed to my understanding of the conditions of that time, the environment in which it was lived, the way people thought at that time, and why they felt that way. While researching about a certain period, although it is necessary to visit and examine the relevant archive, I also think how effective it is to read articles about that period, which may seem relevant or irrelevant, but tell about that period in order to understand the conditions of that period.