ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ‡AB CDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDE FGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGH IJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZAOPQRSTUVW X Y Z *A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z *A BCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCD EFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFG H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U VS WT X YRZO * AKBE CS DEFGHI J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z *A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z *A B C D E F G H I J K L M NOPQRSTUVWXYZABC DEFGHIJKLMNO PQRSTUVWXYZABCDEA F GNHD IJKLMNOPQR S T U V W X Y Z ‡†A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z *A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C D E F G H I J K L M NSOTP Q TUVWX R RASNDS Y Z *†A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z *A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z ‡† A B CDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCD E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z *A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z ‡‡ A B C D E F G HIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJ KLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLM NOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNO P Q R S T U V W X Y ‡Z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z ‡A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z *A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U VWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVW XYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z*‡ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z ‡‡ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z ‡‡ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z *† A B C D EFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFG HIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJ K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z *‡ A O P Q R S T U V W XYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ *A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z ‡ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z *‡ A B CDEFGHIJKLMNOOPQRSTUVWXYZ‡AB
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ‡AB CDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDE FGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGH IJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZAOPQRSTUVW X Y Z *A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z *A BCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCD EFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFG HIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ*ABCDEFGHI J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z *A B C D E F G H I J K L M †N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z *A B C D E F G H I J K L M NOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNO PQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQR S T U V W X Y Z ‡†A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z *A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V WXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWX Y Z *†A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z *A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z ‡† A B CDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCD E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z *A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z ‡‡ A B C D E F G HIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJ KLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLM NOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNO P Q R S T U V W X Y ‡Z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z ‡A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z *A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U VWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVW XYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z*‡ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z ‡‡ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z ‡‡ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z *† A B C D EFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFG H I J K L M N O P Q R S T‡ U V W X Y Z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z *‡ A O P Q R S T U V W XYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ *A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z ‡ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z *‡ A B CDEFGHIJKLMNOOPQRSTUVWXYZ‡AB
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A TA N G L ED H I S TO RY OF HAIR A N D T Y PE *
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STROKES AND STRANDS explores the interconnections
of women’s hairstyles and typography throughout the centuries. Illustrating each period with historical paintings and letterforms, the exhibition provokes viewers to not only reflect about the changing fashions of the day but also the values of the era; it outlines the cultural and societal significance of type and hair design.
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ab a • • bc c e• d efg f g •h h i j ij k k l l •mm nn oo pp qq r rs s t t u vvww• •u • xx yy zz A A •B •B C C D DE EF F G •GH• IH H IJ K K L L M •M •N • N O O P P Q Q R S
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Painting Portrait of a Woman, Vincenzo Catena, 1520 Typeface Garamond, Claude Garamond, 1528
•high renaissance1495–1568
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the golden cut The High Renaissance was the height of humanism in art, printing, and science. The cultural movement of humanism subscribes to the idea “man is presented before God.” This idea is evident in the work of the masters and technicians of that time. Artists aspired to beauty and harmony over realism.
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golden locks
the king’s cutter
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glimpse in the mirror during the High Renaissance in Italy reveals a woman’s hairstyle that is no longer restricted by the binding headdresses that hid her hair and covered her ears like that of the Early Renaissance. Her reflection reveals seductive strands of golden blonde hair— parted in the center and covered by a less restricted headdress or decoratively assembled in braids using newly designed metal hairpins intertwining them with strands of pearls. The ideal Venetian blonde beauty was seen “to confer an air of femininity and refinement, even nobility” on a woman. Though natural beauty was desirable, women succumbed to bleaching their hair in the sun using elixirs made from white wine, herbs, and even horse urine. The desire to become blonde remains a traditional ideal of beauty.
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Q R S S• T TU • UV VW W X Y X Z Y Z
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he remaining sixteenth century secured prominent master artists in Rome like Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci. Equally important to the period, type designer and punch-cutter, Claude Garamond revealed his own masterpiece a refined Roman alphabet. Classified as Old Style typeface, his new design promoted legibility; Garamond, his namesake letterforms, is thinner, airier, and more delicate, like a strand of hair. Elements that set his type apart from his humanist counterparts are distinct in the lower-case “e” with its horizontal crossbar and more importantly the “color” of the composed text that is more spaced out and consistent allowing it to breathe. Christened, the “cutter of the king’s [type] characters,” he designed a refined and harmonious type that is timeless.
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Painting MarĂa Josefa de Lorena (detail), Anton Raphael Mengs, 1767 Typeface Baskerville, John Baskerville, 1754
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the british wave
sheepish strands
the enlightened englishman
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he A ge of Enlightenment revea led women’s hairstyles far removed from the natural beauty of the Renaissance. At t he beg inning of t he centur y, t he ideal enlightened woman wore sober and elegant hairstyles. Picture a woman’s hairstyle named for a sheep’s head, “tête a mouton.” Her hair is loosely pinned back with rows of twisted curls that frames her face and locks drape along her neck. If she is French, she applies white powder to her hair. The style is simple and soft but adorned w ith ornaments of ribbons, artificial flowers or “decorative pins styled together with a pompom (named after Madam de Pompadour, the famous mistress of Louis XV).” Though beauty was supposed to be “natural,” they augmented beauty with false hair pieces, padding, and powders. Even today, artificial beauty and ornamentation remains an integral part of hair culture.
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the enlightenment also known as the Age of Reason, was a movement that began in eighteenth century. The preeminent philosophers of the period rejected royalism and superstition and sought to change humanity using rational thinking. Immanuel Kant best expresses the ideology of the time in his essay ‘What is Enlightenment?’ when he pleads ‘dare to know.’
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† the enlightenment 1715–1780
he eighteenth century procured notable philosophers and scholars like Frances Bacon, Isaac Newton and Immanuel Kant. In 1754, British Enlightenment inventor, typographer, and printer, John Baskerville, mastered the first Transitional Serif typeface. Baskerville, his namesake letterforms, moved away from the typical Renaissance form. His design revealed soft fine letterforms with sharp serifs. More significantly, he increased the size of the x -height and the contrast between the thickest and thinnest strokes. Basker v ille improved the appearance of his new typeface by modifying his printing process—he created a blacker ink and design heated copper rollers to drink the ink faster. Though Basker v ille received complaints about his new design being hard to read, it is a proven success and is one of the most recognizable typefaces still used today.
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Painting Madam Élisabeth de France (detail), Adélaïde Labille-Guiard, 1787 Typeface Bodoni, Giambattista Bodoni, 1784
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large plumes, , a child of the Age of Reason, revived the spirit of classic antiquity in the arts with its basic principles of simplicity and symmetry. The period evoked a need for knowledge and understanding. It focused on clarity, logic and order and it revealed the existence of man as being flawed.
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eginning in the hairst yles reached extraordinary heights. Women dressed their
hair ver y high and decorated w ith a fantastic
wanted to express a rationality and seriousness
that was relevant to their time. In , the Italian
number a nd va riet y of orna ments. There was
typographer, Giambattista Bodoni designed a new
nothing rational about the hairstyle at the time.
rational Modern Serif. A true Neoclassicist, Bodoni
Imagine hair frizzed out and shaped horizontally
designed the typeface with the following criteria:
round or vertically raised high like an oval. After a
regularity, clarity, good taste and grace. Bodoni,
woman spent hours having her “hair cut, pomaded,
the typeface that bears his name, was composed
curled, frizzed, powdered and finally loaded with
of a small number of parts to ensure legibility. His
ornaments or large plumes” she kept the newly built
beautiful letterforms are precise and harmonious;
structure for several weeks and sometimes months.
the x-height is small, the brackets are delicate,
In order to sleep at night, she would remove all the
the extenders are ample and the forms expressive
ornaments but “the hair should not be combed…as
like a well-styled coiffure. His masterpiece was
this may cause violent headaches.” Preparing these
recognized by the Vatican and royalty and in
elaborate hairstyles involved a lot of time and skill
he was designated “typographer to the chamber”
and a good hairdresser. These remarkable high
by K ing Cha rles III of Spa in. The essence of
coiffures do not appear again until the twentieth
Bodoni’s letterforms has still not been replicated
century with the advent of the beehive.
successfully today.
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n the late sixteenth centur y, Neoclassicists
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PAINTING Princesse de Broglie (detail), Jean Auguste Dominique Ingre, 1851–53
TYPEFACE Clarendon, Robert Besley, 1875
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‡ INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 1790–1880
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smooth slab THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION, which began in Britain in the eighteenth century,
was a period when agricultural, rural societies became industrial and urban. The production of goods which was once relegated to the home was now relinquished to the factory floor, and carried out by multitudes of workers. The nature of work and society would be forever transformed.
COMBED OVER
MADE IN ENGLAND
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y the late eighteenth century, women’s hairstyles had undergone an almost
complete transformation. For the first time, a
ike the industrial revolution, a new Slab Serif was born in England. In 1845,
typographer Robert Besley of the Fann Street
woman was encouraged to wash her hair daily
Foundry in London designed Clarendon.
with “warm soft water to which occasionally a
Named after Clarendon Press in Oxford, it
portion of soap will be very proper addition.”
was created to function as a display face to
The period evokes an image of a woman with
“highlight sections of text, a role previously
black colored hair, combed flat on top, parted
ascribed to italics.” Besley crafted a more
in the center and drawn back to a chignon
refined typeface than its predecessors; it
(bun) worn high as the crown or lower. The
has strong squared serifs but with an added
smooth style covers her ears and is arranged
softness from the curved brackets and has a
with the intention of creating an oval shape.
low contrast, the difference in width between
Her chignons were typically adorned with
the thicker and thinner parts of the letterform.
the newly designed cache peigne (comb) as
These features are what made Clarendon ideal
well as flowers, pearls or jeweled ribbons.
for mass‒production but also contributed to
Though black color hair fell out of favor, the
it falling out of fashion.
cache peigne remains popular today.
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CD PAINTING Study in Black and Green (detail), John White Alexander, 1906 TYPEFACE Akzidenz-Grotesk, H. Berthold Foundry, 1898
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THE EARLY MODERNISM movement began in the late nineteenth century.
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The period promoted the search for new forms of expression in art, politics, science and daily life. The new wave of modernity changed the way reality was perceived and portrayed. Modernist poet Ezra Pound’s expression “Make it new!” exemplified the movement’s approach toward the obsolete.
POMP UP THE VOLUME
THE SLANTED SERIF
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he early nineteenth century revealed a new trend in hairstyles for women. The modern
woman expressed herself by wearing the most
arly Modernism produced one of the most successful type foundries in the world for
most of the modern typographic era. Established
popular style of the time, the pompadour, named
in 1858 by German printer August Hermann
after the Marquise de Pompadour, infamously
Berthold, the renowned H. Berthold AG foundry
known as Louis XV’s mistress. She dressed
played a key role in the introduction of major
her hair by carefully shaping it into a high round
new typefaces. The most successful typeface
shape that curved away from her head. To achieve
produced by Berthold was a new Grotesque
the voluminous shape, hair was backcombed or
Sans Serif, Akzidenz-Grotesk. Designed in
supported by a wire frame or a matted pad. The
1898 for commercial use, the letterforms are
popularity of the new hairstyle ignited a new fad
simple and unadorned; the strokes are similar in
in hair dying. Beauty writers emphasized that
width and there are no flourishes. The modern
“dark hair should be worn smooth and flat while
typeface also uses an oblique rather than
lighter hair should be worn more loosely with
a true italic, in which the letters are slanted
soft waves and curls.” Modern versions of the
instead of using handwriting forms. Berthold’s
pompadour have since resurfaced in the early
design influenced many later faces and became
twenty-first century though the new style bears
commonly used in the International Design style
little resemblance of its predecessor except
by the mid-twentieth century.
for its volume.
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PAINTING Juliette de Saint Cyr (detail), Jean Dunand, 1925 TYPEFACE Futura, Paul Renner, 1927
ABCDEFGHIJKLM ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ*ABCDEFGHIJKL ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ*ABCDEFGHIJKLM MNOPQRSTUV MNOPQRSTUVWXYZ*ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQR NOPQRSTUVWXYZ*ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUV VWXYZAB WXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZAB STUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUV Zabcdef CDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZabcdef WXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUV ghijk ghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz†‡abcdefghijk WXYZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvw m lmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklm xyz†‡abcdefghijklmnopq nopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghij † MODERNIST ERA 1890 –1940 klmnopqrstuvwxyz* rstuvwxyzabcdefghi *abcdefghijklm jklmnopqrstuv nopqrstuv wxyza wxy b
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the geometric cut
BOB AND WAVE
SIMPLY SHAPES
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n the early part of the twentieth century, the most notable revolution in women’s hair occurred, with the introduction to the bob. This new short, easy-to-care for hairstyle help define “the new modern woman.” A new trend started and women responded to the liberating freedom. The scandalous Boy Bob was a cut performed by barbers rather than untrained hairdressers. A woman, who succumbed to the temptations of short hair, would have her hair cut straight the whole way around the head, the ends being “clubbed ” almost level with the bottom tops of the ears. She might accessorize with a bobby pin, named for holding the hairstyle in place. She may also apply the Marcel Wave to her new cut using the newly invented hot curling iron. The bob hairstyle “was a liberating reaction to a stodgier time, a cosmetic shift toward androgyny that help define an era.”
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THE MODERNIST ERA continued through the mid-twentieth century. Modernists rejected moral and religious principles of all systems of beliefs. The dissatisfaction with conventional morality led modern thinkers and artists to explore other alternatives, especially primitive cultures. Primitivism represented the “simplification of form” which eventually became one of the hallmarks of modernism.
ermany’s response to modernist ideas lead to typographical creations by type designers who revealed more simplified, geometric and standardized letterforms. In 1927, typographer and type designer, Paul Renner designed the new Geometric Sans Serif, Futura. The Bauer Foundry, a type foundry in Frankfurt, proposed that Renner modify his original design to tone down the certain letters and subsequently published and marketed the first version of the new typeface. Similar to the Bauhaus design style, the new alphabet is a based on geometric shapes especially the circle. It’s a perfect example of geometric simplicity with its “round characters drawn as near-perfect circles” and almost no stroke contrast. Futura is a classic sans serif that “captures the spirit of modernity” and has remained in daily usage.
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PAINTING
Lawdy Mama (detail), Barkley L. Henricks, 1969
TYPEFACE Helvetica, Max Miedinger, 1957
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the radical type
POWERFUL POUF
THE NEUTRAL SWISS
T
W
he most remarkable fashion trend that transpired in the twentieth century was the breaking down of formality. This was most apparent in the sixties, which brought about a renewed sense of identity for women. During this time, women relaxed and allowed their hair to be more natural. For African-American women personal style was defined by the Black is Beautiful movement which inspired the Afro hairstyle. Visualize hair that projects a soft kinky pattern and extends outward from the shape of the head, resulting in a dome-like hairstyle easily molded and sculpted; volume was achieved by backcombing or teasing the hair. The Afro was a powerful political symbol that reflected black pride. However, after it was adopted into the mainstream, it lost its radical, political edge and decreased in popularity. Like all trends, the Afro has emerged once again bringing with it the familiarity of freedom and natural beauty.
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† POST-WAR ERA 1945 –1979
hile the rest of world recuperated from the war, Switzerland maintained it ’s controversial self-imposed neutrality. In 1957, typeface designer Max Miedinger with Eduard Hoffman developed a Neo-Grotesque Sans Serif at the Hass Type Foundry of Munchenstein, Swit zerland. Originally called Neue Haas Grotesk, it was created as an attempt to improve Akzidenz-Grotesk. The new design was a “neutral typeface that had clarity with no intrinsic meaning in its form, and could be used on a wide variety of signage.” The new homogenized alphabet offers a low stroke weight contrast, a larger x-height, and horizontal terminal cuts. In 1959, D. Stempel AG in Germany was asked to produce a version of the typeface that would work with their Linotype systems; they changed the name of the new typeface to Helvetica, Latin for “Swiss” to make it more marketable. Helvetica is arguably one the most popular typefaces still used today.
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IMAGE CREDITS FRONT COVER Madam Élisabeth de France by Adélaïde Labille-Guiard, 1787 (detail), The Metropolitan Museum of Art. HIGH RENAISSANCE Portrait of a Woman by Vincenzo Catena, 1520, El Paso Museum of Art. Accessed via Wikimedia Commons. AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT María Josefa de Lorena by Anton Raphael Mengs, 1767 (detail), Museo Nacional Del Prado. Accessed via Wikimedia Commons. NEOCLASSICAL ERA Madam Élisabeth de France by Adélaïde Labille-Guiard, 1787 (detail), The Metropolitan Museum of Art. INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
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Princesse de Broglie, Jean Auguste Dominique Ingre, 1851—53 (detail), The Metropolitan Museum of Art. EARLY MODERNISM Study in Black and Green by John White Alexander, 1906 (detail), The Metropolitan Museum of Art. MODERNIST ERA Juliette de Saint Cyr by Jean Dunand, 1925 (detail), The Metropolitan Museum of Art. POST-WAR ERA Lawdy Mama by Barkley L. Henricks, 1969 (detail), Blanton Museum of Art.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY Corson, Richard. Fashions in Hair: The First Five Thousand Years. London: Peter Owen Limited, 1965. Cooper, Wendy. Hair. New York: Stein and Day Publishers, 1971.
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de Courtais, Georgine. Women’s Headdress and Hairstyles. Essex: The Anchor Press Limited, 1973. Fonte, Moderata. The Merits of Women: Wherein Is Revealed Their Nobility and Their Superiority to Men. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2018. Jolly, Penny Howell. Hair: Untangling a Social History. The Frances Young Tang Teaching Museum and Art Gallery at Skidmore College, 2004. Jubert, Roxane. Typography and Graphic Design: From Antiquity to the Present. Paris: Fammarion, 2006.
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Seddon, Tony. The Evolution of Type. New York: Firefly Books Ltd., 2015. Severn, Bill. The Long and Short of It: Five Thousand Years of Fun and Fury Over Hair. New York: David McKay Company, Inc., 1971.
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STROKES AND STRANDS is researched, written, and designed by Yvonne Eder for Typography II, a course in the Integrated Design master of arts program at the University of Baltimore, fall 2018.
The book is digitally printed by Indigo Ink Digital Printing in Columbia, Maryland.
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DESIGN MUSEUM