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policy experimentation is not research for research sake but rather the kind of work that is needed for policy breakthroughs.

• how to improve the technical performance of utilities—whether through private sector management, through corporatization, or through existing forms of state ownership in which ministerial power is exercised over utilities.

Survey evidence on utility managers and staff is needed to help design contracts with utility management and staff which improve their incentives and professional norms, building trust among staff and managers that each person is working to improve utility performance. Again, these kinds of surveys are not research for research sake, but what a variety of complex organizations, in the private and public sector across the world, regularly undertake and especially when they worry there is a management or performance problem.

• how to decentralize water management and allocation tasks to local governments in existing contexts of local political contestation. Survey evidence on the citizens who contest for leadership in local government, and the impact of communication campaigns on the quality of local leaders and the performance of local government, can yield policy breakthroughs on how to redraw the social contract, and build legitimacy of states for the difficult decisions of managing water scarcity.

Strengthening local political contestation using the critical sector of water in MENA can be potentially transformative, by shifting how the state functions not only in devising and implementing water policies, but more broadly. It has the potential of addressing the general problem of state institutions—changing the social contract to one where the state supports rather than supplants market-led growth, while performing its roles in addressing problems like water for the greater public good.

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Chapter 11: Digital Technology Adoption in the Middle East and North Africa: Trust and the Digital Paradox

by Christina A. Wood