3 Environment Data on particulate matter are estimated average annual concen-
urban areas—but also reflects climatic, geographic, and economic
trations in residential areas away from air pollution “hotspots,” such
factors. Energy use has been growing rapidly in low- and middle-
as industrial districts and transport corridors. Data are estimates
income economies, but high-income economies still use more than
of annual ambient concentrations of particulate matter in cities of
four times as much energy per capita.
more than 100,000 people by the World Bank’s Agriculture and Environmental Services Department.
Total energy use refers to the use of primary energy before transformation to other end-use fuels (such as electricity and refined
Pollutant concentrations are sensitive to local conditions, and
petroleum products). It includes energy from combustible renew-
even monitoring sites in the same city may register different levels.
ables and waste—solid biomass and animal products, gas and liq-
Thus these data should be considered only a general indication of
uid from biomass, and industrial and municipal waste. Biomass is
air quality, and comparisons should be made with caution. They
any plant matter used directly as fuel or converted into fuel, heat,
allow for cross-country comparisons of the relative risk of particulate
or electricity. Data for combustible renewables and waste are often
matter pollution facing urban residents. Major sources of urban
based on small surveys or other incomplete information and thus
outdoor particulate matter pollution are traffic and industrial emis-
give only a broad impression of developments and are not strictly
sions, but nonanthropogenic sources such as dust storms may also
comparable across countries. The International Energy Agency (IEA)
be a substantial contributor for some cities. Country technology and
reports include country notes that explain some of these differences
pollution controls are important determinants of particulate matter.
(see Data sources). All forms of energy—primary energy and primary
Current WHO air quality guidelines are annual mean concentrations
electricity—are converted into oil equivalents. A notional thermal
of 20 micrograms per cubic meter for particulate matter less than
efficiency of 33 percent is assumed for converting nuclear electric-
10 microns in diameter.
ity into oil equivalents and 100 percent efficiency for converting hydroelectric power.
Carbon dioxide emissions Carbon dioxide emissions are the primary source of greenhouse
Electricity production
gases, which contribute to global warming, threatening human and
Use of energy is important in improving people’s standard of living.
natural habitats. Fossil fuel combustion and cement manufacturing
But electricity generation also can damage the environment. Whether
are the primary sources of anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions,
such damage occurs depends largely on how electricity is generated.
which the U.S. Department of Energy’s Carbon Dioxide Information
For example, burning coal releases twice as much carbon dioxide—a
Analysis Center (CDIAC) calculates using data from the United
major contributor to global warming—as does burning an equivalent
Nations Statistics Division’s World Energy Data Set and the U.S.
amount of natural gas. Nuclear energy does not generate carbon
Bureau of Mines’s Cement Manufacturing Data Set. Carbon dioxide
dioxide emissions, but it produces other dangerous waste products.
emissions, often calculated and reported as elemental carbon, were
The IEA compiles data and data on energy inputs used to gen-
converted to actual carbon dioxide mass by multiplying them by
erate electricity. Data for countries that are not members of the
3.667 (the ratio of the mass of carbon to that of carbon dioxide).
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
Although estimates of global carbon dioxide emissions are probably
are based on national energy data adjusted to conform to annual
accurate within 10 percent (as calculated from global average fuel
questionnaires completed by OECD member governments. In addi-
chemistry and use), country estimates may have larger error bounds.
tion, estimates are sometimes made to complete major aggregates
Trends estimated from a consistent time series tend to be more
from which key data are missing, and adjustments are made to
accurate than individual values. Each year the CDIAC recalculates
compensate for differences in definitions. The IEA makes these
the entire time series since 1949, incorporating recent findings and
estimates in consultation with national statistical offices, oil com-
corrections. Estimates exclude fuels supplied to ships and aircraft
panies, electric utilities, and national energy experts. It occasionally
in international transport because of the difficulty of apportioning
revises its time series to reflect political changes. For example, the
the fuels among benefiting countries.
IEA has constructed historical energy statistics for countries of the former Soviet Union. In addition, energy statistics for other countries
52
Energy use
have undergone continuous changes in coverage or methodology in
In developing economies growth in energy use is closely related to
recent years as more detailed energy accounts have become avail-
growth in the modern sectors—industry, motorized transport, and
able. Breaks in series are therefore unavoidable.
World Development Indicators 2014
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