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enterprise development/learning centers and natural resource management activities. The project experimented with innovative methods, such as the Rapid Response Initiative approach, to improve local governance (World Bank 2007a). The 2000–07 District Capacity Building Project (DISCAP), supported by the Canadian International Development Agency, focused on streamlining the institutional relationships among water supply–related institutions at the local and regional levels and on developing a system for operation and maintenance, revenue collection, and governance related to water and sanitation. DISCAP pioneered gender mainstreaming strategies in the local government system, including the establishment of gender desk officers and gender support networks in the three northern regions. Other development partners have also been active in supporting local governance. GTZ developed methods for poverty profiling, mapping, and pro-poor planning that were incorporated into the planning guidelines of the National Planning Commission for the 2006–10 medium-term development plans of the districts (GTZ 2007). DANIDA supports four pillars under its Support to Decentralisation Reform project: policy and institutional arrangements, a district development facility, capacity building and human resources development, and partnerships and participation for accountability.
Ethiopia Research Findings on Decentralization, Gender, and Rural Service Provision In their comprehensive review of the literature on decentralization in Ethiopia, Gebre-Egziabher and Berhanu (2007) find that culture and religion contribute to women’s social marginalization and limited access to resources, services, and political power. Historically, Ethiopian culture has put a strong emphasis on hierarchy and upward accountability. This was reflected in the unitary state and tightly centralized governance of both the imperial and the Derg eras. Some 85 percent of Ethiopians practice culturally conservative interpretations of Orthodox Christianity and Sunni Islam that reinforce these mores. Social norms discourage women from participating in public forums; according to GebreEgziabher and Berhanu (2007), decentralized governance since 1994 has not appreciably improved this situation. The establishment of women’s affairs agencies in all levels of government and the election of women to office within the structures of governance has not challenged systemic gender bias. No systematic study has been conducted of how decentralization affects women’s access to services or their involvement in decision-making or governance structures. Studies of agricultural extension in Ethiopia note the country’s top-down approach to service provision. Agents are required to meet quotas for enrolling farmers in technology packages and are evaluated on the extent to which they meet those quotas. Extension also works through “model” or “progressive” farmers, who tend to be better off and male. Communication is mostly one way, 84
GENDER AND GOVERNANCE IN RURAL SERVICES