The Effects of Colored Paper on Math Performance

By Nestle N. Butler Faculty Mentor: Dr. Mark Whatley, Department of Psychology

Article Abstract

In a student’s academic career, few subjects generate as much anxiety as math (e.g., Carey et al., 2019). This anxiety can result in emotional reactions, such as fear of failure, and behavioral reactions, such as procrastination (Onwuegbuzie, 2004). This study examined whether different colors of printing paper might facilitate better math performance in students and their perception of difficulty. Participants’ math performance was measured by the number of correctly answered questions on a test of mathematical ability. Participants, 20 males and 20 females, answered 10 moderately challenging math questions on either blue or yellow colored paper. Participants then rated the difficulty of the questions overall. Contrary to prediction, participants who took the test on blue paper scored higher than those who took the test on yellow paper, but the differences were not significant. In the blue paper condition, both males and females rated the tests less difficult than those in the yellow paper condition, but the differences were not significant.

The recent growth in the study of color choice for exams has led many researchers to examine the role that paper color has on performance. One result of this trend has been that red colored paper negatively affects performance (Sinclair, Soldat, & Mark, 1998). A great deal of research suggests that colored paper, such as cream or other pastel colors, should only be used for students with certain disabilities, like dyslexia (e.g., Gabrieli, 2009; Meyer & Bagwell, 2012). AL-Ayash, Kane, Smith, and Green (2016) found that changing the colors and hues of study spaces affected college students in many ways with variables including emotions, heart rate, and reading performance. Researchers first found that pale and vivid colors produced different effects, with the latter producing higher reading scores. Additionally, it was found that both red and yellow colored walls increased heart rate. Lastly, researchers saw that when compared to all colors, blue (and all of its shades) positively affected students’ emotions; both calmness and relaxation levels increased (AL-Ayash et al., 2016). Due to the observed impact of the color blue, several implications could be made. For example, because the color blue seems to be calming, anxiety levels should not be high at this time. If anxiety levels are not high, students and test takers, in general, should manage to concentrate better. Therefore, the calmer a person is, the better they are able to perform. With further research on specific colors and their physiological effects, the use of colored paper during assignments and exams may be the next step in ensuring maximum performance in all individuals. With certain tests becoming more difficult and stressful than others, this change in paper color would truly be worth considering, if not implementing. However, there has been a large debate regarding whether paper color has any impact on performance, and white paper continues to be the best option to use when administering tests and exams (Skinner, 2004). A study by Tal, Akers, and Hodge (2008) investigated the effects of both primary and pastel colors on student performance. Researchers wanted to determine if primary and pastel colored exams produced the same effect regarding performance. The first

group of participants were given exams on white or primary (i.e., red, yellow, green, or blue) colored paper. The second group’s exams were on either white or pastel (i.e., pink, light yellow, light green, or light blue) colored paper. Both exams contained the same content and number of multiple-choice questions. The results showed that performance was only affected in the group who tested with primary colored sheets of paper; exams using blue paper had the lowest scores and white paper resulted in the best outcomes. Additionally, pastel colors had no effect; therefore, researchers concluded that teachers can use any pastel color for exams without increasing or decreasing grades. Clary, Wandersee, and Elias (2007) also investigated the differences in performance between colored paper, specifically in pastel colors. While attempting to alleviate cheating with colorcoded tests, researchers also wanted to determine if colored paper would affect students’ scores. Participants received exams in pastel colors, either yellow, pink, blue, or green. Results showed that there were minimal differences in student scores as a function of paper color but the highest performance was achieved on both yellow and green paper, and worse on pink paper (Clary et al., 2007). Due to the small differences in student scores, Clary et al. concluded that colored paper can be used for tests without influencing student performance. An additional finding related to this topic was a study by Fordham and Hayes (2009) that investigated students’ quiz scores printed on four different pastel colors. Students were administered quizzes on either yellow, pink, green, or blue paper. The results showed that quizzes answered on white, yellow, and green colored paper produced the best scores, with yellow and green quizzes having very close scores. Quizzes printed on blue and pink paper scored lower than other quizzes, concluding that both pink and blue colored paper negatively affects overall performance (Fordham & Hayes, 2009). After reviewing these results, the researchers concluded that paper color does in fact have an influence on performance. Lastly, because each color influences performance on different levels, researchers also concluded that tests and quizzes should be printed only on white paper.

Other important factors that may affect students’ performance include motivation, knowledge of material, and content being tested. However, paper color is an important mediator that may affect student performance. A study by Arthur, Cho, and Muñoz (2016) investigated whether exam color affected performance when tests were administered at different times and when the grade had little to no influence. Participants were given a test either at the very beginning of a course, where the score did not count toward their overall grade or a cumulative test at the end of the semester where the grade was a certain percentage of their overall grade. For both conditions, half of the exams were printed on either green or red. The results showed that taking exams at different time periods had no effect on performance (Arthur et al., 2016). Additionally, Arthur et al. concluded that, when testing on knowledge-based information, the color of paper has no effect on performance compared to testing on ability-based information, which fluctuated depending on paper color but was not significantly different. The purpose of this study was to examine further the relationship between paper color and how different colors affect performance, specifically in the subject of math and perceptions of difficulty. College students answered 10 math questions printed on either yellow or blue colored paper. After answering the questions, participants completed a questionnaire in which they rated the difficulty of the prior test questions. The purpose of my study was to examine whether color of paper would impact student performance on ability-based information. However, studies finding no differences included assessments that were more knowledge based. A main effect for the color of paper was predicted based on the findings of Clary et al. (2007), which found that tests printed on yellow-colored paper produced slightly higher scores than tests printed on blue paper. That is, I predicted that participants who took the test on yellow paper would get more answers correct than those who took the test on blue paper. Based on the findings of AL-Ayash et al. (2016) that the color blue increases calmness, I predicted that both males and females would rate tests less difficult when taken on blue paper compared to on yellow paper.

Method

Research Design

This experiment was based on a 2 x 2 between-subjects design with independent variables being paper color (blue or yellow) and participant sex (male or female). The participants’ number of correct answers on a math test and perception of test difficulty were the dependent variables.

Participants

The participants were 20 male and 20 female undergraduate students haphazardly selected from Valdosta State University. They received no compensation for their participation. Participants ranged in age from 18 to 34 (M = 20.75, SD = 2.76). The ethnic background of the sample was 17.5% White, 62.5% African American, 7.5% Hispanic, and 12.5% from other ethnic backgrounds. Male participants were randomly assigned to take a math test on blue paper (n = 10) or yellow paper (n = 10). Female participants were randomly assigned to take a math test on blue paper (n = 10) or yellow paper (n = 10).

Procedure

I approached a student and asked if he or she would participate in an experiment attempting to investigate the math performance skills of college students. All students who were approached were told that the study was for an experimental psychology class. If the student refused, then he or she was thanked and not bothered further. If the student agreed, then he or she was given a math test and a five-item scale. The participant was then asked to follow the instructions on the cover page. Each participant completed the experiment individually.

Instructions to participants. Each participant read the instructions typed on the front cover page of the booklet. The participants read about an attempt to examine the math performance skills of college students. They also read that they would be asked to answer 10 math questions and answer a five-item scale. Participants then read that their answers would be anonymous. The instructions also stated that the questions should be read carefully, and that no calculator was allowed.

Description of math questions. The second page of the booklet contained 10 math questions. All participants received the same set of questions. Questions were comprised of college level problems, including mathematical and statistical concepts ranging from correlations to the Pythagorean Theorem. An example is given below:

What is the square root of 64 multiplied by 10 minus 7? a) 88 b) 72 c) 65 d) 73

Manipulation of paper color. The independent variable, paper color, was manipulated by varying the color of the printed exam. The paper used was Xerox® Vitality Colors™ Multi-Use Printer Paper, Letter Size (8-1/2” x 11”), 20 pounds, in pastel yellow and blue.

Dependent measures. After answering the math questions, participants were then asked to specify how difficult they believed the questions were. Difficulty was rated on a 5-point scale from 1 (not at all) to 5 (very much). The questionnaire also contained demographic questions (i.e., age, sex, and ethnicity).

Debriefing. Upon completion of the experiment, the participants were told more about the purpose of the study and allowed to ask questions. Also, participants were instructed on how to obtain the results of the study.

Results

Ratings of Math Performance

A 2 (paper color) x 2 (participant sex) analysis of variance (ANOVA) was calculated on participants’ ratings of math performance (see Figure 1). There was no significant main effect for paper color, F(1, 36) = 1.44, p = .239 (ƞp 2 = .04). However, the pattern of means showed those completing the test on blue paper scored higher than those completing the test on yellow paper. There was no significant main effect for participant sex, F(1, 36) = 1.44, p = .239 (ƞp 2 = .04). There was no significant interaction for Paper Color x Participant Sex, F(1, 36) = 0.01, p = .927 (ƞp 2 < .01).

Ratings of Difficulty Level

A 2 x 2 ANOVA was calculated on participants’ ratings of test difficulty. There was no significant main effect for paper color, F(1, 36) = 2.02, p = .164 (ƞp 2 = .05). There was a significant main effect for participant sex, F(1, 36) = 6.54, p = .015 (ƞp 2 = .15). In general, males rated the questions less difficult (M = 2.65, SD = 0.99) than females (M = 3.55, SD = 1.23). There was no significant interaction for Paper Color x Participant Sex, F(1, 36) = .32, p = .573 (ƞp 2 = .00). The means and standard deviations are presented in Table 1.

Discussion

The results from the present study did not support the prediction that participants who took the test on yellow paper would get more answers correct than those who took it on blue paper. In general, the pattern of means was in the predicted direction with students completing the test on blue paper answering more questions correct compared to those completing the test on yellow paper, although these differences were not significant. These results are consistent with research finding that no specific color is better at facilitating student performance compared to others (e.g., Meyer & Bagwell, 2012). These results are inconsistent with a study in the literature, which reported that tests on yellow paper scored much higher than those who tested on blue paper (e.g., Fordham & Hayes, 2009). The results did not support the prediction that both males and females would rate the tests less difficult when answering questions on blue paper compared to yellow paper. Although the prediction was not supported, the pattern of means was in the predicted direction with participants rating the tests as being less difficult when printed on blue paper compared to yellow paper. These results are consistent with those found in literature that conclude blue as being a color that positively effects mood, leading one to interpret things as less stressful and difficult (ALAyash et al., 2016; see also Gabrieli, 2009; Meyer & Bagwell, 2012). The results of this study are inconsistent with past research indicating that blue does not evoke feelings of calmness, the color pink does, therefore assignments on blue paper should not be seen as the least difficult even in regard to the color yellow (Weller & Livingston, 1988). Although paper color has been thought to increase overall student performance, the present results reveal that printing tests on colored paper is not the most effective method to achieve this. In contrast, many studies do suggest that teachers and other educators can utilize different colors of paper for reasons other than performance levels. For example, researchers supported

color-coding exams when attempting to decrease cheating and the “looking of eyes” in students during an exam, but only if using pastel colors (Clary et al., 2007; Tal et al., 2008). One plausible explanation for these findings is that when given exams on different sheets of colored paper, students perceive cheating to be easily detected, causing their “roving eyes” to wander less often than when taking exams on white paper (Clary et al., 2007). The effects of paper color on performance may be useful for students or individuals in general who struggle with performing assignments or tests on white paper. For example, students with specific disabilities or impairments, for example, dyslexia, struggle with the glare of white paper that can decrease the ability to perform as well as intended (Meyer & Bagwell, 2012). Currently, cream is the only color of paper found to not influence student performance among dyslexics (Meyer & Bagwell, 2012). With additional research, more colors and hues can be found to address this problem and increase academic performance in these individuals. A limitation for my study may be centered around the sample size used and its specifics. For example, if my sample consisted of only students who were in grade school, it is plausible that the outcome might be different. Additionally, if this study included all students who live in Valdosta as well as the college students included in the sample, results would more than likely vary drastically. Results might have also turned out differently if my sample included more students on campus. Due to time constraints and availability, my sample size was relatively small. Having such a small sample size led to a lack of experimental power, which made it even more difficult to find significant differences between conditions. Because college students made up the entire sample, one could raise the question that the influence of age and/or generational differences had a powerful impact on the results. This is plausible due to the fact that many college students are taking similar math courses and are approximately at the same skill level. Thus, it may be that the effects of the color of paper on student performance only

emerges over exams longer than the 10 questions used in this study. Additionally, because entry-level math questions were used, the color of paper may only influence performance on more challenging material. For all of these reasons, caution should be used while interpreting these findings. Future research may want to examine more precisely the type of information being tested when printing exams or quizzes on colored paper. For example, some studies only look at knowledge-based information tested at the end of the year instead of exploring prior information learned or ability-based knowledge (Arthur et al., 2016). Additionally, the type of exam given should also be more closely investigated. Not only should researchers assess paper color differences on final exams, but also with quizzes, as well as daily assignments or assessments. With the growing search for enhancing student performance, understanding the effects of color-coding exams may soon be extremely helpful. In the midst of a society that learns more and more each day, researching and discovering the capabilities of altering how exams are printed and perceived is essential. Educators must fully take into account the variety of differences within individuals and populations when studying such a topic. The debate on whether paper color influences student performance is far from being resolved and further research in this area is warranted. Further investigations are needed to delve deeper to examine all possible outcomes of this method of improving student performance.

References

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Arthur, W., Cho, I., & Muñoz, G. (2016). Red vs. green: Does the exam booklet color matter in higher education summative evaluations? Not likely. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 23(5), 1596.

Carey, E., Devine, A., Hill, F., Dowker, A., McLellan, R., & Szucs, D. (2019). Understanding mathematics anxiety: Investigating the experiences of UK primary and secondary school students. Centre for Neuroscience in Education, https://doi.org/10.17863/CAM.37744

Clary, R., Wandersee, J., & Elias, J. S. (2007). Research and teaching: Does the color-coding of examination versions affect college science students’ test performance? Countering claims of bias. Journal of College Science Teaching, 37(1), 40–47.

Fordham, D. R., & Hayes, D. C. (2009). Worth repeating: Paper color may have an effect on student performance. Issues in Accounting Education, 24(2), 187–194, https://doi. org/10.2308/iace.2009.24.2.187

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Meyer, M. J., & Bagwell, J. (2012). The non-impact of paper color on exam performance. Issues in Accounting Education, 27(3), 691–706, https://doi.org/10.2308/iace50142

Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2004). Academic procrastination and statistics anxiety. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 29(1), 3–19, https://doi. org/10.1080/0260293042000160384

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Weller, L., & Livingston, R. (1988). Effect of color of questionnaire on emotional responses. Journal of General Psychology, 115(4), 433, https://doi.org/10.108 0/00221309.1988.9710580

Table 1

Participants Mean Ratings of Difficulty Level as a Function of

Paper Color and Participant Sex

Participant sex

Male

n

M

SD

Female

n

M

SD Paper color

Blue Yellow

10

2.50

0.97

10

3.20

1.23 10

2.80

1.03

10

3.90

1.20

Figure 1

Participants’ Mean Ratings of Math Performance as a

Function of Paper Color and Participant Sex

Blue

Yellow