Social Justice in an Open World: The Role of the United Nations
committed to the protection of "format" liberties-has not lost its relevance, as the official doctrine of the United Nations founded on the inseparability of the two "sets" of human rights (civil/political and economic/social/cultural) has yet to find general acceptance and to be translated into effective policies. Few political regimes seriously attempt to reach the poor and disenfranchised. Periodic opportunities to vote in presidential or parliamentary elections are often enough to maintain the veneer of democracy and generally allow political elites to reinforce their positions of power and influence; at times constituents are treated to alternate political views in the exercise of power. Such scenarios reflect very little actual political participation; good citizenship involves the exercise of other privileges, duties and responsibilities. During much of the last century, political parties and unions often served as vehicles for political participation and the expression of views on the organization of society; however, their role has weakened considerably over the past several decades. Many members of the national and international political and financial elite assert that it is important to reach a consensus on how societies should be organized and on which objectives they should pursue, and contend that resistance to such consensus could only be attributable to a lack of information, ignorance or obscurantism. The majority of established political parties seem to share this view, or to be unable to challenge it effectively; however, there are other organizations and movements that are questioning the wisdom of such an approach. The emergence of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and other civil society institutions as a collective political force represents a concrete manifestation of political participation on the part of responsible citizens. However, for these organizations to operate effectively as political entities, similar to political parties and unions in recent history, new forms of political representation must be developed that incorporate structures and processes conducive to the expression of views and concerns and meaningful political activity. At present, there are a number of factors discouraging or even preventing organized and effective political participation, including the weakening of the public sphere (whose primary function appears to be maintaining law and order), the increasing power and influence of the corporate sector, and the escalating violence in many areas of the world. With violence comes the overt or insidious militarization of societies; mobilization should not be confused with participation. The latter is an expression of an individual's informed free will. it implies choice and the use of critical thinking and judgment. It requires a peaceful environment and cannot be motivated by fear. A great many people in today's world have experienced the traumas of war, ethnic conflict, terrorism or torture, or the devastating effects of natural disasters. Like the HIVIAIDS epidemic, these phenomena are intrinsically nega-