Social Justice in an Open World: The Role of the United Nations
intense focus on issues of violence and security in recent years, the international discourse has concentrated on the progress of democracy. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, a great many countries have shifted from dictatorial or authoritarian regimes to political systems or structures that incorporate at least some aspects of democracy, including the holding of elections. In and around the Russian Federation, in Latin America, in Africa, and to some extent in Asia, the practice of democracy-even in limited form-is now the rule rather than the exception. The remaining authoritarian and single-party regimes seem to be increasingly on the defensive, as the isolation and strict control of more informed citizens are allegedly more difficult to achieve and sustain. Political participation is presumably less hampered now than in the past by inequalities in social status, as privileges and opportunities for advancement are no longer reserved exclusively for those in the more elevated social classes, positions and professions, and the subservience and passivity of the masses, once resigned to their unalterable circumstances, are largely a thing of the past. In rigid, hierarchical social systems in which roles, duties and responsibilities are clearly defined, those in the lower and larger part of the pyramid must either accept or revolt against the status quo. During the time of Adam Smith and Voltaire this stratification was called social inequality and was considered the main obstacle to political and social progress. When money becomes the main determinant of social status and stratification, social mobility increases significantly, which theoretically makes political participationeasier as it is more directly linked to individual choice. In such circumstances, individuals and communities tend to become more aware of their rights and options; logically, they should have a better understanding of the legitimate and illegitimate use of power, of what constitutes an abuse of their human rights, and of how they can seek protection from and redress for such abuse. Opportunities for political participation have unquestionably increased on the whole, but for very many people around the globe involvement in the political process remains an impossibility. Oppressive political regimes, structures and institutions still exist in all parts of the world. In many countries, democratic principles and practices constitute a facade that does little to conceal authoritarian, plutocratic or, at best, elitist and technocratic political structures, institutions and processes. Those experiencing poverty or other forms of extreme hardship are engaged in a constant struggle for survival and do not have the time, energy or resources to participate in a res publica that is often distant and abstract, sometimes personalizedand revered, and sometimes hated, but rarely understandable or accessible-even for citizens that are economically and socially integrated. The old debate centring around the Marxist and liberal perspectives on societybetween those arguing for the primacy of "real" rights and freedoms and those