Chapter 1 I De÷nitions of Public Diplomacy
4uoting as an example the National Communication Association (NCA)Øs 1999 Credo for Ethical Communication12 Õ which calls for, inter alia, truthfulness, accuracy, honesty and reason; acceptance of responsibility for the consequences of communication; and understanding of other communicators Õ Grif÷n adds to CraigØs list a further tradition, namely: viii. Ethical (interaction between people of character in just and bene÷cial ways). There is undoubtedly material of interest to be mined in all these traditions (as an obvious example, some trainers in public speaking employ AristotleØs Rhetoric as a basis for their teaching), but it remains a formidable body of work to explore. Grif÷n has however distilled from this multiplicity of theories what he describes as ten recurring principles: i. ii. iii. iv. v.
vi. vii. viii. ix. x.
Motivation: there is a social need for af÷liation, achievement and control; and a strong desire to reduce uncertainty and anxiety; Self-image: communication affects, and is affected by oneØs sense of identity, which is strongly shaped within the context of oneØs culture; Credibility: verbal and non-verbal messages are validated or discounted by othersØ perception of oneØs competence and character; Expectation: what one expects to hear and see will affect oneØs perception, interpretation and response during an interaction; Audience adaptation: by mindfully creating a person-centred message speci÷c to the situation, one increases the possibility of achieving oneØs communication goals (but too much adaptation may mean losing the authenticity of the message or the integrity of oneØs own beliefs); Social construction: persons in conversation co-construct their own social realities and are simultaneously shaped by the worlds they co-create; Shared meaning: communication is successful to the extent to which a common interpretation is shared of the signs used. Narrative: people respond favourably to stories and dramatic images with which they can identify; Conøict: Unjust communication stiøes needed conøict; healthy communication can make conøict productive; Dialogue: Transparent conversation often creates unanticipated outcomes arising from the partiesØ respect for disparate voices.13
Dainton and Zelley offer a somewhat different synthesis of thirteen important variables that inøuence the communication process: cohesion, connection and in-groups; context; expectations; face and self versus other orientation; individual qualities; interest and involvement; needs; power and control; relationship; rewards; rules; uncertainty and ambiguity; and values and beliefs. While they make the point that professional communicators should be guided by individual theories as relevant, they conclude with the following general insight: ÚIf we were to summarize the single biggest piece of advice culled from all the theories ... it would be that competent communicators are those who take a receiver orientation to communication; in pursuit of their own goals they consider what others need to hear (and how they might hear it) so that they might accomplish their goals.Û 14 12 The full text of the NCAØs credo, published in 1999, can be found at their website: http://www.natcom.org/uploadedFiles/AboutBNCA/LeadershipBandBGovernance/PublicBPolicyBPlatform/PDF-PolicyPlatform-NCABCredoBforBEthicalBCommunication.pdf (Retrieved August 2015). 13 Em Grif÷n, 2011. 14 Marianne Dainton and Elaine D. Zelley, 2011. 21