69 World Bank 2012. 70 ILO 2013e. 71 Von Wachter 2014. See also Stephens
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(1997); Schmieder, von Wachter and Bender (2009); Eliason and Storrie (2009); and Morissette, Zhang and Frenette (2007). See Kaplan, Martinez and Robertson (2005) for the case of Mexico. Frankenberg, Duncan and Beege 1999; Smith and others 2002; McKenzie 2003. Burgard, Brand and House 2007; Sullivan and von Wachter 2009; Cutler and others 2002. Brand, Levy and Gallo 2008. For women, income disparity in old age depended particularly on age (younger cohorts do better), on education (having a higher level of educational attainment reduces the gender gap), and occupation and sector of employment when working (see Bardasi and Jenkins 2002). ILO 2012c. For category 3 categories the number of jobs fell, but the lowest quality jobs were lost first, resulting in improved overall job quality. For category 2 countries employment rates rose from 2007 but as a result of an increase in low-quality jobs. ILO 2012b. Heintz 2012. Bargain and Kwenda 2009; von Wachter 2014. Ono and Sullivan 2013; Keizer 2008. ILO 2013a. Arriagada 1994; Cerrutti 2000; Casale 2003. Bahçe and Memi 2013; Berik and Kongar 2013. Heath 2012. Stevens and Schaller 2011; Falkingham 2000. Mejia-Mantilla 2012; Falkingham 2000. World Bank 2012; Fischer 2013. World Bank 2012. Kuhn, Lavile and Zweimuller 2009. Human Development Report Office calculations based on Lutz and KC (2013). Barrientos 2006. Those who have contributed to a pension scheme during their working life will have some income and are less vulnerable than those who have had poorly paid, part-time, insecure or informal employment (Zaidi 2013). Kondkher, Knox-Vydmanov and Vilela 2013. Some studies indicate that regularly and by right delivered social pensions, even where relatively small, improve the socioeconomic conditions of older people, supporting their role as family members that actively participate in taking decisions (see Beales 2012). The positive effects of social pensions could be extended to other family members, especially children.
Children in families that include an older person in receipt of a social pension have been shown to benefit, in terms of nutrition and education, from the contribution of these relatively small payments to family income (see Duflo 2000). 97 Widowhood and the onset of disability are also important triggers that have an adverse impact on the financial well-being of older people (see Burkhauser, Holden and Feaster 1988; Burkhauser, Butler and Holden 1991; Emmerson and Muriel 2008; Holden, Burkhauser and Myers 1986; and McLaughlin and Jensen 2000). 98 UNFPA and HelpAge International 2012. 99 OECD 2011b. 100 ECLAC 2011. 101 WHO 2011b. 102 Masset and White 2004. 103 UNFPA and HelpAge International 2012. 104 Similarly, the World Health Organization (WHO 2007) found that particular groups of older women were more at risk of poverty in all countries, including those who are widowed, divorced or living with disabilities and those caring for grandchildren and children orphaned by AIDS. 105 The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF 2006) estimates that in East and Southern Africa 40–60 percent of orphaned and vulnerable children are cared for by their grandparents. Similarly, Beegle and others (2009) indicates that older people take care of as many as 81 percent of orphaned children. 106 Stewart, Brown and Mancini 2005. 107 DFID 2001. 108 Chambers 1989. 109 UN Enable 2013. 110 Around 1.5 million people (out of 10 million) became homeless and moved to camps after the earthquake. Because of the limited capacity of the state and public services to conduct reconstruction and protect the population, the vulnerability of the poorest households increased even further (with epidemics, inundations and the like), and their living conditions worsened (see Châtaigner 2014 and Herrera and others 2014). 111 Rentschler 2013. 112 The World Bank’s PovcalNet database provides estimates of income poverty based on surveys from 2000–2012 for 104 countries representing 5.4 billion people. The number of people living on less than $1.25 a day is 1.2 billion, or 22 percent of the population in these 104 countries. International poverty lines are also expressed in 2005 purchasing power parity terms. 113 The population considered near multidimensional poverty has
20–33 percent of deprivations. This group can be called the ‘near poor’. The population considered near poor in a monetary sense has an equivalent income of more than $1.25 a day but less than $2.50 a day. 114 Socially and geographically disadvantaged people who are exposed to persistent inequality, including horizontal inequality (for example, inequality based on gender, age, race, ethnicity and disability), have been found to be particularly negatively affected by climate change and climate-related hazards (see IPCC 2014). 115 World Bank 2013b. 116 UN Global Pulse 2012. 117 Stiglitz and Kaldor 2013a. 118 Frazer and Marlier 2012. 119 Hallegatte and others 2010; Rentschler 2013. 120 Rentschler 2013. 121 Rentschler 2013. 122 This simply reflects that the poorest households are exposed to a larger number and a wider range of types of shocks or adverse events than wealthier households are (see Boyden 2009; Woodhead, Dornan and Murray 2013). 123 Krutikova 2010. 124 UNDP 2011a. 125 Countries ranked in the top quintile of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development’s Social Institutions and Gender Index, which measures underlying discrimination against women by capturing and quantifying discriminatory social institutions (see OECD 2010). 126 The study used a large dataset of 59 countries, covering 1.5 million births between 1975 and 2004 (Conceição, Mukherjee and Nayyar 2011; Baird, Friedman and Schady 2007). 127 Friedman and Schady 2009. 128 European Parliamentary Research Service 2013. 129 Ferris, Petz and Stark 2013. 130 Supported by Swayam Shikshan Prayog, a Mumbai-based nongovernmental organization, and the Covenant Centre for Development, a Tamil Nadu–based nongovernmental organization, the women visited 13 villages in Nagapattinam and Cuddalore, the two worst affected districts. They identified ways to promote the villages’ long-term housing and livelihood rehabilitation programmes and actively supported the population by talking with survivors, sharing stories and organizing meetings with women’s groups, youth groups and fisher cooperatives (see Gupta and Leung 2011). 131 UNDESA 2009. 132 In view of the diversity of indigenous peoples, the UN system has not adopted an official definition of the term ‘indigenous’. Instead it has developed
a modern understanding of the term based on such criteria as selfidentification as indigenous peoples; historical continuity with precolonial or presettler societies; strong links to territories and surrounding natural resources; distinct social, economic and political systems; distinct language, culture and beliefs; and resolve to maintain and reproduce ancestral environments and systems as distinctive peoples and communities. 133 Vinding and Kampbel 2007. 134 For example, during an August 2013 heat wave in the Hungarian town of Ozd, water supply was shut off in a large number of public water taps on which the Roma depend. This left thousands of them waiting to collect water from the public taps still working (see Dunai 2013). 135 Hughes and others 2012. 136 For example, wheelchair users may have no difficulty relating to general disaster risk reduction information. However, those same individuals may face severe barriers in safely protecting themselves during and evacuating after an earthquake. 137 Robinson, Scherrer and Gormally 2013. 138 Disability is also related to lower levels of education. Evidence shows a higher likelihood of experiencing a disability at lower levels of education. This is true for all regions, though to a varying degree (see KC and others 2014). 139 WHO 2011b. 140 Around a third of migration from developing countries is irregular migration (UNDP 2009b). 141 Female migrants accounted for 49.6 percent of international migrants in 2005 (UNFPA 2008). 142 UNFPA 2008. 143 UNDP 1994, p. 1. 144 Gasper and Gomez 2014. 145 WHO 2002. 146 Quite concretely, the cost to society of violence is sizeable. A 1992 study on the United States estimated the annual direct and indirect cost of gunshot wounds at $126 billion and of cutting or stab wounds at $51 billion (WHO 2002). In addition, a joint Inter-American Development Bank–United Nations Development Programme study found important costs of crime and violence as a percentage of GDP in five Latin American countries in 2010, ranging from 3 percent in Chile and Uruguay to over 10 percent in Honduras (see UNDP 2013b). 147 Gasper and Gomez 2014. 148 UNDP 2005, 2013b. 149 UNDP 2012b. 150 Stiglitz and Kaldor 2013a. 151 OECD 2011a. 152 Stewart 2010.
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