income-based measures of inequality show a relatively narrow differential, fortified enclaves of wealth can be found in the midst of sprawling slums. Such conditions create the perfect storm of real and perceived uncertainty, insecurity and injustice that motivates individuals and groups to engage in violence.53 Although physical conditions are generally better in Northern African cities, the events of the Arab Spring revealed a powerful, simmering discontent among urban masses frustrated with limited opportunities; persistent socioeconomic vulnerability; and restricted voice in public affairs (see Box 1.5). For African cities to prosper and drive national development, they must be safe. Widespread insecurity is often cited as a key obstacle to investment in the region needed to expand secure employment opportunities and improve the quality of housing and infrastructure. If the situation is to improve, the political economy of urban underdevelopment must be reversed.
Managing Urban Environmental Vulnerabilities
Ensuring Sustainable Resource Flows
Food Security Agricultural productivity in many parts of Africa has been hard hit by economic recession. Conflict,66 drought67 and flooding68 have also contributed to burgeoning urban populations and the reduction of rural livelihoods. Land degradation69 is highly significant in 32 countries in Africa.70 There is a strong correlation between population density (where land is continuously cultivated) and soil erosion, which also causes river and dam siltation. Erosion, as well as chemical and physical damage, has degraded some 65 per cent of the continent’s farmlands,71 reducing urban food security. Urban dwellers in most of Africa presently rely predominantly on rural areas for food security72 rather than imported foodstuffs. While this might be self-evident, the implications are manifold. Secure water supply as well as transport are critical to sustainable rural agriculture and continued food supply. Appropriate infrastructure for supply and distribution linkages is essential, since even surplus crops are useless unless delivered in time to consumers. Urban and peri-urban agriculture, most noticeably small mixed crop-livestock ventures, is providing a much needed mechanism within the supply chain for urban dwellers. Reducing transport requirements and affording households the capacity to access fresh produce, closes some of the gaps where they are most needed. The conundrum is, however, that urban farmers tend to be higher income households than non-farmers. This appears to be a complex function of access to land (crop and livestock area); water resources; and markets (their neighbours or suburbs, leading to reduced or absent transport costs). Further, by producing for household consumption, families are able to reduce spending on foodstuffs from external sources, thereby improving their overall income.73 Water Security Ten of the world’s twelve most drought-vulnerable countries are in Africa.74 Water scarcity and drought presently affect millions of people in at least 25 African countries,75 and more than 13 million were affected in the Horn of Africa alone during the 2010/2011 drought.76 Settlement in areas adjacent to water is characteristically a fundamental feature
THE STATE OF AFRICAN CITIES 2014
The effects of global climate change on Africa are extremely varied, given the diversity of environments across this vast continent. The drier subtropical regions are projected to warm more than the moister tropics while northern and southern Africa will become much hotter and drier in summer, with increased drought risks.55 Average rainfall in Eastern Africa and parts of Central and Western Africa will increase (with added risks of increased vector borne diseases - malaria, dengue and Rift Valley fever).56 Droughts and resulting water quality declines will also lead to increased health and sanitation challenges.57 Increased storm flooding will fuel landslides and erosion with concomitant risks to life and livelihoods. Conflict over water resources is also likely to increase.58 Urban areas are often the localities most vulnerable to disasters, due to dense populations, accumulation of assets and variety of activities within comparatively small geographical areas. Given the critical political, social and economic roles of cities, these risk factors bear on urban localities and often become national in outreach when disasters occur. The secondary impacts - including damage to infrastructure, disruption of services, food scarcity and an increasing prevalence of vector and water-borne diseases - are likely to worsen the condition of the most vulnerable. Unguided urbanization, degradation of freshwater resources and failure of climate change adaptation strategies are among the most significant global environmental risks.59 At the local level, environmental risk needs to be understood as a coincidence of physical risk and human vulnerability. For Africa’s burgeoning cities and urban centres the nexus between the environmental crisis, the global economy, and the second urbanization wave60 exacerbates the exposure of poor urban populations to increased physical risk. Analysis of the political ecology of urban poverty in Africa may lead to a polarized and luxurious debate of whether, for example, solid
waste is a health hazard or a livelihood resource.61 However, it is known that responses to the conditions of urban poverty, through unplanned and informal mechanisms of accessing land, water, food and sanitation services, puts poor urban residents further at risk. There is a direct correlation between poverty and vulnerability to environmental risks.62 Low-income groups in African cities are relatively disenfranchised from decision-making, having the least resources at their disposal to meet lifestyle challenges, even less during times of change or disaster. The urban poor, especially women and the very young are shown to be most at risk from disease, pollution63 and disasters,64 which might all be exacerbated by climate change.65
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