109. Arenas de Mesa and Montecinos 1999.
158. Ravindran 2012; Quick et al. 2014.
110. Arza 2014.
159. WHO 2010b.
111. Fajnzylber 2013.
160. The paucity of sex-disaggregated data on the outcomes of these reforms makes it is difficult to arrive at definitive conclusions about their impact on women and girls (Allotey and Verghis 2014).
112. Ewig and Kay 2011. 113. Arza 2014. 114. Rofman et al. 2008. 115. Although this has been changing in highincome countries, differences remain in many countries. 116. Arza 2014. 117. Vlachantoni 2008. 118. Arza 2014. 119. Ibid. Measured as a rate of previous earnings, with between 3 and 15 years of career interruption. 120. Balcerzak-Paradowska et al. 2003; Staab 2012. 121. Fultz 2011. 122. Tobias and Omondi 2014; HelpAge International 2014b. 123. HelpAge International 2014a. 124. HelpAge International 2014c. 125. Arza 2014. 126. ILO 2010b. 127. Fraser 1987. 128. Education is discussed separately in Chapters 1 and 2. 129. ‘In kind services’ are valued at production costs. 130. Verbist et al. 2012. 131. van Houweling et al. 2012, cited in Fontana and Elson 2014. 132. Devoto et al. 2012, cited in Fontana and Elson 2014. 133. See Annex 5. 134. Ibid. 135. ILO 2014h. 136. See, for example DHS 2011, 2013 and 2014a, b. 137. WHO 2015b. 138. Snyder et al. 2014. 139. Kentikelenis et al. 2014. 140. WHO 2015a.
185. Mutuelles represent a small fraction of total health spending, which remains dependent on international aid (53 per cent in 2012) and outof-pocket payments (21 per cent in 2012). WHO 2014b. 186. Farmer et al. 2013. 187. WHO et al. 2014.
161. WHO 2010a.
188. Ibid.
162. Claeson et al. 2000.
189. Farmer et al. 2013; Chambers and Booth 2012.
163. Ravindran 2012. Globally, an estimated 21.6 million unsafe abortions took place in 2008, mostly in developing countries, resulting in 47,000 deaths or about 13 per cent of all maternal deaths in that year (WHO 2011).
190. McIntyre et al. 2013; Oxfam International 2013.
164. The discussion of US health-care reform is based on a background paper by Albelda and Salas Coronado (2013) commissioned for this report.
194. WHO 2010a.
165. Planned Parenthood 2014.
191. Ravindran 2012. 192. Sen and Olstin 2007. 193. ICF International 2015. 195. Zhu et al. 2014. 196. Khan 2014. 197. Bowser and Hill 2010.
166. Medicare provides health insurance coverage for persons over age 65 and those with some disabilities. Medicaid pays for health-care services for low- and moderateincome children and very low-income adults. It is jointly financed by the state and federal governments and administered by the states (and in some cases local governments). In 2010, women were 62 per cent of those using both Medicare and Medicaid.
198. Garcia-Moreno 2002; WHO 2010a.
167. Liptak 2014.
206. UN General Assembly 2013b.
168. Only 31 states cover the costs of family planning services for low-income women through Medicaid, with 17 including ‘medically necessary’ abortion. Since the mid-1970s, however, states have been precluded from using federal Medicaid money on abortions except in cases of rape, incest or when the woman’s life is in danger.
207. Daly 2001; Gornick and Meyers 2008; Razavi 2007; Williams 2010.
169. The Civil Servant Medical Benefit Scheme (CSMBS) and the Compulsory Social Security Scheme (SSS) for private sector employees combine to cover 22 per cent of the population (Sakunphanit and Suwanrada 2011). 170. Sakunphanit and Suwanrada 2011. 171. Ravindran 2012.
199. Ashford and Feldman-Jacobs 2010. 200. Das and Dasgupta 2013. 201. Muna 2014; UNFPA and SPC 2010. 202. Ewig 2006. 203. UNFPA 2014b. 204. UN General Assembly 1990, articles 7, 18. 205. Knijn and Kremer 1997.
208. Bedford 2010. 209. Morris 2001; Williams 2004, 2010. 210. Parker and Clarke 2002. 211. Kröger 2009. 212. Fine and Glendinning 2005. 213. Kittay 2011: 49. 214. UNRISD 2010b. 215. There are few data available on care services for the frail elderly or people with disabilities, 216. OECD 2014b. 217. OECD 2011. 218. Daly 2014.
144. George 2003.
172. The initial co-payment of 30 Baht (US$ 0.70) was abolished in 2006, but reintroduced in 2012. A series of groups are exempt from these payments, including the poor, the elderly and children below 12 years of age (Allotey and Verghis 2014).
145. Sen and Östlin 2007; WHO 2010a.
173. Averill and Marriott 2013.
221. Lopreite and Macdonald 2013; Blofield and Martìnez Franzoni 2014; Staab and Gerhard 2011.
146. UN DESA 2013c.
174. Gruber et al. 2012; Hanvoravongchai 2013.
222. Daly 2014; Blofield and Martìnez Franzoni 2014.
147. WHO 2010b.
175. Towse et al. 2004.
148. Due to women’s many responsibilities, limited access to means of transport and social norms in some cultures that discourage their presence in public spaces.
176. Allotey and Verghis 2014.
223. Day-care services for mothers in formal employment are provided through the social security system.
141. Hogan 2014. 142. IRC 2014. 143. UNIFEM (now part of UN Women) 2008.
149. Pandey et al. 2013; Målqvist et al. 2013. 150. Bowser and Hill 2010. 151. ILO 2014h; WHO 2010b. 152. UNRISD 2010a. 153. ILO 2014h. 154. WHO 2009. 155. WHO 2010a. 156. Xu et al. 2009. 157. Johnson et al. 2012.
177. Soors et al. 2010. 178. Ravindran 2012. 179. Averill and Marriott 2013. 180. Gajate-Garrido and Owusua 2013. 181. Ghana Statistical Service 2011. 182. 200 Rwandan francs ($0.36) at the primary care level and 10 per cent of the cost at the level of district hospitals (Lu et al. 2012).
219. Fleckenstein and Lee 2014; Morgan 2013. 220. See Annex 2 for 2012 pre-primary enrolment data.
224. Araujo et al. 2013. 225. Staab and Gerhard 2011. 226. Staab 2014, based on household survey data. 227. Abe 2010. 228. ILO 2014h. 229. OECD 2011. 230. HelpAge Korea 2014.
183. Farmer et al. 2013.
231. ILO 2014h.
184. National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda and ORC Macro 2006; National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda et al. 2012.
232. Mayston et al. 2014. 233. Prince et al. 2012. 234. Aguirre 2012.