285. This estimation is based on a threshold of 41.1 health workers per 10,000 populations that are necessary to provide quality services to all in need. ILO 2014a.
15.
Korpi and Palme 1998; Mkandawire 2005.
63. Baird et al. 2011; Freeland 2013.
16.
This part of the chapter only discusses transfers in cash. Social transfers can also be provided in kind through, for example, the distribution of goods such as food or the provision of services such as health care, which are discussed in the second part of the chapter.
64. Budlender and Woolard 2006.
69. ILO 2014e.
286. UNESCO 2014b. 287. See Chapter 4 for further discussion on macroeconomics, public expenditure and public sector employment.
17.
Sepulveda et al. 2012.
288. Budig and Misra 2010.
18.
Barrientos and Niño-Zarazúa 2010a; Hanlon et al. 2010.
19.
Benería and Floro 2006; Cook and Kabeer 2010.
289. UNESCO 2014a. 290. Ghosh 2012. 291. Htun and Weldon 2014. 292. Rubery and Grimshaw 2009. 293. Baden and Pionetti 2011; Agarwal 2014. 294. Kabeer 2003. 295. Vogt 2014. 296. Kainer 2006. 297. Cobble 2012.
20. Kabeer 2007. 21.
OECD 2011.
22. OECD 2014b. 23. Gornick and Jäntti 2014. 24. ECLAC 2006. 25. Children’s Institute 2011. 26. ISSA 2010.
298. Exceptions include Sharan Burrow, General Secretary of the International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC); Frances O’Grady, General Secretary of the Trade Unions Congress (TUC) in the United Kingdom; and Rosa Pavenelli, General Secretary of PSI.
27.
299. ILO and ICFTU 2002.
32. Although, it is difficult to unequivocally allocate household income to individual household members, some income streams, such as earnings and certain pensions, can reasonably be individually assigned.
300. Bouaffre and Sechi 2014. 301. Cobble 2012. 302. Ibid.
UN DESA 2013d.
28. Ibid. 29. Cook and Dong 2011. 30. Gornick and Jäntti 2014. 31. Ibid.
65. Baird et al. 2011. 66. Rocha and Soares 2009. 67. Cornwall 2014. 68. Sholkamy 2011. 70. ILO 2014h. 71.
Antonopoulos 2007.
72. Budlender 2009. 73. The Government of South Africa 2012. 74. Dasgupta and Sudarshan 2011. 75. Chopra 2009. 76. Sudarshan 2011; Pankaj and Tankha 2010; Narayanan 2008. 77. Nandi and Tavares 2014. 78. Golbert 2006. 79. The Government of South Africa 2009. 80. Budlender 2014c. 81. Razavi 2011. 82. Dasgupta and Sudarshan 2011. 83. Ibid. 84. Razavi et al. 2012. 85. Tcherneva and Wray 2007.
35. Daly 2014.
86. Use of temporary work opportunities at below market wages is not, however, a sustainable approach to delivering care services. Part II section 3 of this chapter discusses the provision of care services in more detail.
36. Ibid.
87. Hoddinott et al. 2013.
37.
88. Jones, Tafere et al. 2010; Holmes et al. 2011.
303. See, for example, Women in Informal Employment: Globalizing and Organizing (WIEGO), a global network that supports organizations of informal workers with a focus on the working poor, especially women (WIEGO 2015c).
33. UN Women 2014b.
304. Kabeer, Milward et al. 2013.
38. Dwyer and Bruce 1988.
89. Lavers 2014.
39. Fiszbein et al. 2009.
90. Berhane et al. 2013.
307. SEWA 2009.
40. Barrientos and Niño-Zarazúa 2010a; DFID UK 2011.
91. Ibid.
308. Chen 2015.
41.
309. ILO 2013c.
42. Bhatnagar et al. 2003.
93. Ibid.
310. Cornwall et al. 2013.
43. Molyneux 2008.
311. Seshu 2013.
44. Molyneux 2007.
305. Pollack 2013. 306. Tripp 2014.
34. DFID UK et al. 2009; UNICEF 2012.
WBG 2012.
DFID UK 2011; Jones et al. 2008.
45. Ibid.
CHAPTER 3 1.
Midgley 2009.
2.
UN General Assembly 2010.
3.
UN CESCR 2003.
4.
ILO and WHO 2009; ILO 2011c; ILO 2012c.
5.
Mackintosh and Tibandebage 2006; Nanda 2002.
6.
Cornia et al. 1987; UNICEF 1989; Ortiz and Cummins 2013; UN Women 2014b.
7.
Jolly et al. 2014.
8.
Houtzager 2005.
9.
UN General Assembly 2013a.
10.
Utting et al. 2012.
11.
ILO 2011c.
12. Ibid. 13.
See Chapters 1 and 2 for further discussion of progress towards gender equality in education.
14.
UNRISD 2010a; ILO 2010b; ILO 2011c; UN DESA 2013a; UNDP 2014b.
46. Baird et al. 2013. 47. Kabeer, Assaad et al. 2013; Soares et al. 2007. 48. Eyal and Woolard 2011. 49. Escobar Latapí and González de la Rocha 2009. 50. Gbedemah et al. 2010; OPM 2013. 51.
UNRISD 2010a.
52. Sepúlveda et al. 2012: 39; see also Budlender 2014a. 53. Adato 2000: vii. 54. Goldblatt 2005; Molyneux and Thomson 2011. 55. Sepúlveda et al. 2012: 46. 56. Goldblatt 2003, 2005; Lee-Gong 2010. 57. Adato and Roopnaraine 2004, cited in Bradshaw and Quiros 2008. 58. Molyneux 2014. 59. Molyneux 2007; Chant 2008b. 60. Sepúlveda et al 2012. 61.
Jones et al. 2011; Molyneux and Thomson 2011; Cookson 2014.
62. Budlender 2014a.
92. Jones, Tafere et al. 2010. 94. Unless indicated otherwise, ‘older people’ in this chapter refers to women and men above the age of 60. 95. UN DESA 2013d. 96. ILO 2014h. 97. Holzmann et al. 2009. 98. Arza 2014. 99. OECD 2011. 100. Falkingham and Vlachantoni 2012. 101. Arza 2014. 102. Ibid. According to ILO 2014h, 77 out of 178 countries have only contributory schemes, while another 77 combine contributory with non-contributory (means-tested or universal) schemes. 103. Some of the schemes to which men contribute predominantly, however, include some protection for their wives—if they outlive them—in the form of widows’ pensions. 104. Arza 2014. 105. Ibid. 106. Ibid. 107. Arenas de Mesa and Montecinos 1999; Fultz and Steinhilber 2003; Fultz 2006; Dion 2008; Müller 2010. 108. Arenas de Mesa 2010; Staab 2014.
311