191. Fontana and Paciello 2010. Other forms of non-agricultural employment—for example, in trade activities or small enterprise—constitute only a small fraction of total employment in rural areas 192. Data are not available for China – see ILO and WIEGO 2013. 193. de Schutter 2013. 194. UNIFEM (now part of UN Women) 2005. 195. Roever and Chen 2014.
207. ILO 2013a, c. 208. ILO 2013b. 209. Ibid. 210. Most of these workers come from Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Indonesia, Nepal, the Philippines and Sri Lanka. Al-Nashif 2012.
whether the land is under formal or informal tenure (including customary tenure and commons). 239. White and White 2012; Levien 2015. 240. Daley 2014. 241. Doss et al. 2011.
211. ILO 2013f. See, for example, ILO and CLMC 2014.
242. Walker 2003, as cited in Razavi 2009.
212. ILO 2011a.
244. Ali et al. 2011.
243. Lavers 2014.
197. Own-account work is a form of selfemployment in which workers work on their own account and do not employ anyone else. Not all non-standard employment in developed countries is informal and not all informal employment is non-standard. See ILO and WIEGO 2013.
213. Ratification is a formal commitment by a government to implement the Convention’s provisions and report periodically to the ILO on progress. The 17 countries that have so far ratified are: Argentina, Bolivia (Plurinational State of), Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Finland, Germany, Guyana, Ireland, Italy, Mauritius, Nicaragua, Paraguay, the Philippines, South Africa, Switzerland and Uruguay.
198. OECD 2014a.
214. ILO 2013h.
251. World Bank and IFPRI 2010.
199. Office for National Statistics (United Kingdom) 2014b; Pearson and Elson 2015.
215. Ibid.
252. Manfre et al. 2013.
200. UN Women calculations using wage data from Pearson and Elson 2015, p.16; median annual earnings from Office for National Statistics (United Kingdom) 2014a.
216. ILO 2010a.
253. Baden 2013a.
217. Ghosh 2015; India Sanitation Portal 2013.
254. Harriss-White 2000; Kabeer 2012; Levien 2015.
218. Sankaran et al. Undated.
255. Baden 2013b; Taylor and Pereznieto 2014.
219. Roever and Chen 2014.
256. Davies 2013; Baden 2013b.
220. WIEGO 2014a.
257. Baden 2014.
221. Ibid.
258. Ghosh 2013.
222. WIEGO 2015b.
259. Knowles 2012.
223. WIEGO 2015d.
260. Bureau of Applied Research in Anthropology 2013.
196. UNIFEM (now part of UN Women) 2005.
201. The concept of the ‘informal sector’ is not new, but definitions of informal employment have been developed more recently. See endnote 186 for definitions (ILO 2013e). 202. Comblon et al. 2014; Dong et al. 2014; Gammage and Kraft 2014; Gammage et al. 2014a, b; Raveendran 2014; Narsey 2014 a, b. Similar trends are reported by ILO data, which show a declining share of women and men in what is termed ‘vulnerable employment’ although absolute numbers in this category are still rising. And within this category, the number of unpaid contributing workers, about two thirds of whom are women, has increased in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia (ILO 2015c). 203. Comblon et al. 2014; Dong et al. 2014; Gammage and Kraft 2014; Gammage et al. 2014a, b; Raveendran 2014. 204. Said, Petrovich and Khalil 2014. 205. Brazil (2001, 2009): workers who do not have a signed a Carteira de Trabalho and do not receive medical benefits and pension contributions; Cameroon (2005, 2010) and Mali (2004, 2010): all contributing family workers, all independent workers in the informal sector and all employees without written contracts and who do not benefit from social protection; China (2002, 2010): own-account workers, unpaid contributing family workers, wage workers without labour contracts and casual workers; Ecuador (2000, 2010): workers who do not have a contract, an affiliation to social services or receive social insurance from their employer; Egypt (1998, 2012): workers who do not have a social security card and do not receive medical benefits and pension contributions; Ethiopia (2006, 2012): employees with no contract and/or work where social, legal or regulatory protection is lacking; India (1999–2000, 2011–2012): all casual workers, contributing family workers, those who are self-employed in the informal sector, as well as regular wage/salaried workers without any social security benefits provided by employers; Mexico (2000, 2010): those workers without a contract, and not receiving medical benefits or pension contributions. 206. ILO 2013b.
224. This section is adapted from a box prepared by Francie Lund (WIEGO) for this report. 225. In a number of countries, OHS is becoming integrated into primary health care (PHC). The focus on reproductive health services in PHC that developed over the last 50 years has made women- and family-friendly health services accessible to poorer women. Unless resources are ring-fenced for OHS services within PHC, however, the specifically worker-orientation of OHS could get lost. See Lund 2012. 226. Salvador in Brazil, Accra in Ghana, Pune and Ahmedabad in India, Lima in Peru and a variety of places in the United Republic of Tanzania. See WIEGO 2014b. 227. Roever and Chen 2014. 228. Ibid. 229. Ghosh 2013. 230. Guérin et al. 2009, cited in ibid. 231. Inclusive Cities Undated. 232. Ghosh 2013. 233. Globally 35 per cent of women are employed in agriculture, rising to more than 60 per cent in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, mostly in agricultural self-employment (see Figure 2.9). 234. UNRISD 2005; Abalu and Hassan 1998. 235. Levien 2015; Doss et al. 2014. 236. UN Women 2014d. 237. See, for example, FAO 2014 and The Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme, commitment to which was renewed at the African Union Heads of State Summit in June 2014 (CAADP 2014). 238. The terms ‘land grab’ and ‘land dispossession’ are often used synonymously to refer to instances in which governments make people leave their land involuntarily, including instances in which people are dispossessed of landed resources they own or use, irrespective of
245. Daley et al. 2010 246. Ali et al. 2011. 247. Ibid. 248. Whitehead and Tsikata 2003. 249. Razavi 2009. 250. Croppenstedt et al. 2013; Vargas Hill and Vigneri 2011.
261. Baden 2013b; King 2013. 262. Tiba 2011. 263. Chirwa et al. 2011, Fisher and Kandiwa 2014. 264. The pilot countries are Afghanistan, Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of the Congo, El Salvador, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guatemala, Honduras, Kenya, Liberia, Malawi, Mali, Mozambique, Nicaragua, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, South Sudan, Uganda, United Republic of Tanzania and Zambia. 265. WFP 2014. 266. UN Women 2014d. 267. De Schutter 2014. 268. Heintz 2013b. 269. Meinzen-Dick et al. 2011. 270. Rubery 2013. 271. In 2010, in OECD countries, women were on average 57 per cent of general government employees (which includes teachers and nurses that work at the subnational level) and just over 50 per cent of central government employees (OECD 2014c). 272. ILO 2015a. 273. UNDP 2014a. 274. See, for example, Palriwala and Neetha 2010. 275. OECD 2014c. 276. UNDP 2014a. 277. Ibid. 278. Ibid. 279. UN Security Council 2010. 280. ILO 2012d. 281. Casale 2011. 282. Brown and Budlender 2014. 283. Wills et al. 2009. 284. Ibid.