96. ILO 2000a, article 6, says that cash benefits should be paid ‘at a level which ensures that the woman can maintain herself and her child in proper conditions of health and with a suitable standard of living’. Where cash benefits are based on previous earnings, they should be not less than two thirds of these. 97. ILO 2014d. Maternity payments fully replace previous earnings in one third of OECD countries. The United States is the only OECD country where the statutory right to 12 weeks of leave is unpaid (Hegewisch and Gornick 2011). 98. Haas and Rosgaard 2011. 99. Hegewisch and Gornick 2011.
138. Gender pay gaps refer to the difference between the average wages of women and men as a percentage of men’s wages. 139. Wage data, particularly in developing countries, should always be interpreted with caution. There are important methodological challenges related to the measurement of wages and the extent to which women’s and men’s wages differ. In addition, wage and income data are notoriously difficult and expensive to collect, as well as unreliable, particularly in developing countries where self-employment is the norm. See Blau and Kahn 2000; Petersen and Morgan 1995; Zveglich and van der Meulen 2004.
166. ACTU 2012. 167. European Commission 2013; Greszczuk 2015. 168. Male low pay rates calculated by UN Women using low pay and employment data from ILO 2015b. 169. Rubery and Grimshaw 2009. 170. Belser and Rani 2011. These estimates are based on simulations on the effects of extending the minimum wage to all workers in India, including those in informal employment, and assume perfect compliance. 171. ILO 2013i. 172. ILO 2014g.
104. Anker 1997; Anker et al. 2003; ILO 2013d.
140. Data for Colombia covers only main cities or metropolitan areas. In the case of the Philippines, the gender pay gap favours women, but women’s pay advantage has declined. In Uruguay, women’s real wages did not change while men’s real wages declined, resulting in a decline of the gender pay gap.
105. Globally, women are 40 per cent of those who are employed. ILO 2015c.
141. Campbell and Pearlman 2013; Antonczyk, DeLeire et al. 2010; Bernhardt et al. 1995.
106. UN Women calculations using data from US Bureau of Labour Statistics 2014.
142. Cortez 2001; Galiani and Sanguinetti 2003; Kijima 2006.
107. See Anker et al. 2003 for research on occupational segregation in the 1990s.
143. Christofides et al. 2013.
108. See Anker 1997; Bettio and Verashchagina 2009; Estevez-Abe 2006 for reviews.
144. OECD 2012b.
178. Dinkelman and Ranchhod 2012. Minimum wage increases are regularly determined by the South African Employment Conditions Commission based on a percentage increase over and above the Consumer Prices Index (CPI).
145. Christofides et al. 2013
179. ILO 2013i.
146. Ñopo et al. 2011.
180. Razavi and Staab 2010. See p. 409 for definitions of what paid care work includes.
100. ILO 2014d. 101. Melkas and Anker 1998. 102. World Bank 2011. 103. Ibid.; Ñopo et al. 2011.
109. Blau et al. 2013. 111. UNESCO 2012b, Fig 5.5.1; World Bank 2011, Table 3.1.
147. Gender wage gap calculated by UN Women as the difference between women’s and men’s wages as a percentage of men’s wages using data in Table 3.A and 3.B in Ñopo et al. 2011.
112. Miller et al. 2004; Tripney et al. 2013.
148. King-Dejardin and Bigotta 2009.
113. FRA 2014.
149. Gender wage gap calculated by UN Women as the difference between women’s and men’s wages as a percentage of men’s wages using data in Table 3.A and 3.B in Ñopo et al. 2011.
110. Ibid.
114. Hegewisch and O’Farrell 2014. 115. Agarwala 2013; Smith et al. 2004. 116. McLaughlin et al. 2012. 117. Agarwala 2013; Smith et al. 2004; Roever and Chen 2014. 118. ILO 2015c.
150. Atal et al. 2009, García-Aracil and Winter 2006. 151. Ñopo et al. 2011.
119. Anker 2001, Charles 2003.
152. Arulampalam et al. 2007; Blau and Kahn 2000; Kabeer 2012; Waldfogel 1998.
120. UN Women calculations using data from ILO 2015c; ILO and WIEGO 2013.
153. Out of 53 for which data were available. World Bank 2011.
121. Charles 2003; Charles and Grusky 2005.
154. Hegewisch and Hartmann 2014.
122. World Bank 2015c.
155. Harkness and Waldfogel 2003; Waldfogel 1998, as cited in Budig 2014.
123. UIS 2013. 124. ILO 2012a.
156. Budig 2014.
127. Todd 2012; Ñopo et al. 2007.
157. Gender wage gap calculated by UN Women as the difference between women’s and men’s wages as a percentage of men’s wages using data in Table 3.A and 3.B in Ñopo et al. 2011.
128. AWARD 2015.
158. Christofides et al. 2013.
129. Peeters 2007.
159. Antonczyk, Fitzenberger et al. 2010; Azam and Rospabé 2007; Card et al. 2003; Korpi et al. 2013; Blau and Khan 2003.
125. Staritz and Reis 2013. 126. UN Women 2014a.
130. Ibid. The Government’s action plan Gender Equality 2014 reiterates this 20 per cent target. See The Government of Norway 2012.
160. Austen et al. 2013.
131. Bettio and Verashchagina 2009.
161. UNISON 2013, 2014.
132. The Economist 2014a, b.
162. Gamwell 2013, UK Supreme Court 2012.
133. OECD 2015.
163. Davies 2014. GBP 1.1 billion, based on 11 April 2014 conversion rate.
134. Antecol and Cobb-Clark 2003. 135. UN Women 2012a. 136. ILO 2014b. 137. ITUC 2014.
173. ILO 2013i. 174. Ibid. 175. Ibid. 176. ILO 2013b. 177. UN Women calculations using data from Table 3.5 in Statistics South Africa 2013.
181. Budig and Misra 2010 182. Budig and England 2001; England and Folbre 2002; Razavi and Staab 2010. 183. Mulholland 2005. 184. Charles 2003; Estevez-Abe 2006 185. Folbre 2006. 186. Informal employment comprises all informal jobs that are carried out in formal sector enterprises, informal enterprises or households. The term ‘informal’ denotes jobs that are not covered in law or practice by labour laws or social security. Informal employment generally includes lack of protection in the event of nonpayment of wages, compulsory overtime or extra shifts, lay-offs without notice or compensation, unsafe working conditions and the absence of social benefits such as pensions, pay for sick leave and health insurance. Within informal employment, a distinction is generally made between ‘wage employment’ on the one hand and self-employment on the other. ‘Wage workers’, irrespective of whether they are formal or informal, usually hold an explicit or implicit employment contract that stipulates a basic hourly, daily, weekly or monthly remuneration in cash or in kind, irrespective of the revenue of the enterprise. The remuneration of self-employed workers, on the other hand, is directly tied to the earnings of their enterprise. See ILO and WIEGO 2013; ILO 1993. 187. UNIFEM (now part of UN Women) 2005.
164. Austen et al. 2013
188. UN Women calculations using data from ILO 2015c.
165. AUS $2 billion, based on 1 February 2012 conversion rate.
190. Townsend et al. 2013.
189. Kabeer, Assad et al. 2013.
309