15. 16.
Htun and Weldon 2014; Hallward-Driemeier et al. 2013. Out of 140 countries with available data. This refers to countries that place restrictions on the jobs that women who are neither pregnant nor nursing can do (World Bank 2015c).
46. Staying in education can also constitute a rational but costly response to a lack of opportunities for quality employment (McGuinness 2006).
75. Colombo et al. 2011. 76. Johnson and Lo Sasso 2006. 77.
UN DESA 2013d.
47. This brief section cannot do justice to the full range of important policy issues related to gender equality and education. For further information on education and development, see the multiyear UNESCO Education for All: Global Monitoring Reports.
78. For example, the provision of childcare services to enable women to participate in employment guarantee schemes is discussed in Chapter 3.
20. ILO 2015c.
48. Malhotra et al. 2003.
21.
49. UNESCO 2012b; UN Women calculations using data from Barro and Lee 2014. Values on mean years of education may differ from those presented in Annex 2 due to differences in regional coverage.
81.
17.
Razavi and Staab 2010.
18.
UN DESA 2010.
19.
ILO 2013d. ILO 2014c.
22. Due to differences in the data, coverage and estimation methods, these figures, as presented in Annex 4, may differ slightly from those reported in ILO 2014c. 23. ILO 2014c. 24. Dolan and Sorby 2003. 25. Atkinson et al. 2011; UNDP 2013b. 26. UNRISD 2010a. 27. ILO 2014g; World Bank 2012. 28. Lustig et al. 2012. 29. Elborgh-Woytek et al. 2013. 30. Berg 2010. 31.
This compares to an increase from 34 per cent to 40 per cent for employed men (Gammage et al. 2014a).
32. Berg 2009. 33. The SIMPLES law is a simplified tax regime for mini and small enterprises. See Nes 2012. 34. IPEA 2009, as cited in Berg 2010. Bolsa Familia is a Brazilian conditional cash transfer programme introduced in 2003 as part of the Government’s Fome Zero (Zero Hunger) Programme. 35. The employment-to-population ratio (also called employment rate), expressed as the number of people working for pay or profit as a percentage of the working age population, is also often used as another labour market indicator. The LFPR, the unemployment rate and the employment-to-population ratio are important indicators of the extent to which opportunities are available or barriers exist for people to participate in the labour market. For further definitions and discussions of the merits of these indicators. See ILO 2010c. 36. ICLS 2013. For a summary of debates, see Card 2011. 37. For additional changes to statistics of work, employment and labour underutilization, see ILO 2013g.
79. UN Women 2014d. 80. See Chapter 6 of UN Women 2014d for a review of policy interventions to provide clean cook stoves.
50. ESF 2006; Elborgh-Woytek et al. 2013. 51.
Posel and Casale 2014a, b.
52. Ibid; Kolev and Sirven 2010.
For example, in Ghana, time spent on paid work increases when electricity supplies are provided to households and rural women’s time burden is reduced by the provision of reliable water supplies near their homes. Similarly, the expansion of electricity networks in rural South Africa was associated with an increase of women’s employment by 9.5 percentage points in five years while having no effect on men. See Costa et al. 2009; Dinkelman 2011.
53. Transition is defined as either entering into a stable job (i.e., with a contract of at least 12 months) or into (self-assessed) satisfactory temporary work or self-employment. ILO 2013d; Guarcello et al. 2005; Matsumoto and Elder 2010.
82. ILO 2000a, art. 4 and 6. The accompanying recommendation 191 (ILO 2000b), which is intended to provide additional (non-binding) guidance to countries, recommends a minimum of 18 weeks paid maternity leave.
54. Ñopo et al. 2011.
84. 28 per cent is the ‘effective coverage rate’ of paid maternity leave globally (ILO 2014h).
55. Posel and Casale 2014a, b. 56. Due to the absence of adequate panel data, the distributions of total lifetime income per cohort cannot be determined. The determination of average total lifetime income gaps thus has to resort to the construction of an indicator for ‘standard individuals’ rather than statistical averages based on distributions of lifetime incomes. Similar standardizing methodologies are used in situations where individual biographies are too complex or data do not allow for the establishment of statistical distributions and potential effects of transfer systems yet have to be demonstrated. See complete details in Cichon 2014.
83. Out of 185 countries surveyed (ILO 2014d).
85. ILO 2014h. 86. Ray et al. 2010. 87.
OECD 2011. There is a range of views on the optimal amount of maternity leave, but several commentators suggest six months is about the right level. See Gornick et al. 2009.
59. UNRISD 2010b. See Chapter 4 for further discussion.
88. ILO 2014d. There are currently no ILO standards on paternity or parental leave. The 2009 International Labour Conference Resolution on gender equality at the heart of decent work called for governments to develop, together with the social partners, adequate policies allowing for a better balance of work and family responsibilities for both women and men in order to allow a more equal sharing of these responsibilities. Such policies should include, among other things, paternity and/or parental leave with incentives to encourage men to take up such leave. See ILO 2009, paras. 6 and 42.
60. Elson 1999.
89. Haas and Rostgaard 2011.
61.
90. ILO 2014d. All 16 countries in Central Asia and all developed countries except Switzerland offer parental leave.
57.
See Annex 4.
58. Boll 2011. EUR 201,000, based on 5 April 2011 conversion rate.
In addition, voluntary work and unpaid apprenticeships are other forms of unpaid work.
62. European Commission et al. 2009. 63. ICLS 2013. 64. UN DESA 2010.
91.
In the region, seven countries have no paternity leave, nine grant between one and five days and three grant more than five days (Blofield and Martìnez Franzoni 2014).
38. UN Women calculations using data from ILO 2015c.
65. Budlender 2008. 66. Office National des Statistiques (Algeria) 2013.
92. Haas and Rostgaard 2011.
39. Kapsos et al. 2014; Kannan and Raveendran 2012; Raveendran 2014.
67. Unpaid care and domestic work is defined in the survey as ‘household maintenance’ and’ care of persons’ (see Pakistan Bureau of Statistics 2008). Note that the data for different countries are not strictly comparable since the definitions used in each survey vary.
93. Rudman and Mescher 2013.
40. Thévenon 2011; Plomien and Potoczna 2014. 41.
UN DESA 2013b.
42. Assuming a normal working life of 45 years from age 20 to age 65. This estimate uses the method of Bloom, Canning et al. 2009, adjusted for the decline in median fertility rates globally from 5.2 per cent to 2.4 per cent. 43. Elson 1999; Kabeer 2012. 44. Kabeer 2008; Kandiyoti 1988. 45. ILO 2015c.
68. Meena 2010. 69. UN Women 2014b. 70. Eurostat 2014. 71.
Esping-Andersen 1999; Thévenon 2011, 2013.
72. Thévenon 2013. 73. Dong et al. 2014. 74. Gammage and Kraft 2014.
94. Haas and Rostgaard 2011. 95. One study focused on Sweden, which has been at the forefront of policy innovation in this area, shows that father’s greater uptake of parental leave has not led them to take more time off to care for a sick child (Ekberg et al. 2005). A study on the United States, however, found that fathers who took two weeks off work after the birth of their child were more likely to be doing their share of childcare nine months later (Nepomnyaschy and Waldfogel 2007). The effect of parental and paternity leave on social norms surrounding unpaid care and domestic work is an issue meriting further research.